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Reservoir Modelling and Fluid Substitution

In the case when there are possible DHIs present on the seismic data, a
forward modelling exercise shouldbe seriously considered (Figure 6.45). But even
in other situations, the modelling helps to get a better understanding of the dataset
(e.g. Guilbot et al. 1996, Balz et al. 1999, Veeken and Da Silva 2004, Hart and
Chen 2004, Veeken, in press). Certain assumptions are made about reservoir
parameters like:
Porosity.
Permeability.
Pore contents.
Geometry.
The initial reservoir-hostrock model is generally based on well log
response (e.g. Vp, Vs, and bulk density RHOB). The model is convolved with a
seismic wavelet and a synthetic seismic section is generated. This synthetic
section is compared with the original seismic line and similarities and/or
discrepancies detected. If there is well control available, then it is possible to
estimate the wavelet more correctly and compute a better synthetic and modelled
trace. Fluid substitution is done to get a feel of the sensitivity of the seismic
response for the presence of gas or brine in the pores of the reservoir rocks
(Figures 6.46 and 6.47). The Gassmann method is often chosen but it will give
erroneous results when wrong cut-off values for the logs are used (Skelt 2004).
The basic difference in response between a brine, gas and oil filled reservoir is
shown in Figure 6.48. For computing petro-acoustic fluid substitution models it is
necessary to make reliable estimates for the Vs, Vp and density . The Vp/Vs ratio
contains information of the lithology of the rocks (cf Tatham 1982). It also tells
something about the fluid contents. It is related to the porosity of the rocks. Vp
and Vs decrease with increasing porosity, whereby Vp decreases twice as fast as
the Vs (Assefa et al. 2003). It can also tell something about the permeability of the
rocks. Tsuneyama et al. (2003) have demonstrated a relationship with the
permeability and also the rock frame of carbonate rocks.
Some of the basic rock physical aspects that are important for seismic
interpretation are described by Gregory (1977), as well as by Batzle and Wang
(1992). Physical properties are needed for the description of:
The reservoir sequence.
The top and base seal.
Fluid characteristics of the rocks.
Perturbations of the petrophysical properties can be performed with small
incremental steps (e.g. Geolog6TM Loglan utility; Figure 6.49). The reservoir
scenario data is then exported to seismic modelling packages, like OsirisTM or
Easy TraceTM, to generate a synthetic seismic response. An interval of interest is
selected on the log data in the well and this data will serve as starting point for the
perturbations.

Estimation of rock physical parameters


Several methods exist for estimating the petrophysical characteristics of
the rocks (cf Schoen 2004). Unfortunately it is necessary to quote here some more
formulas. The fluid density is computed from the well logs:
fluid = waterSwater +oilSoil +gasSgas, (6.35)
Swater + Soil + Sgas =1. (6.36) S stands for saturation.
The bulk density (RHOB) of the reservoir rock is given by: RHOB = fluid
+matrix(1). (6.37) is the porosity and matrix is the density of the rock
forming constituents. The density of the fluids (fluid) may vary a lot from 0.2 to
1.1 g/cm3. The actual rock density is much more stable, and ranges mostly
between 2.42.7 g/cm3 for clastic reservoirs. The change from gas to brine in
silici-clastic reservoirs with a 30 percent porosity will result in an increase in
density by 0.27 g/cm3. When changing from oil to brine a difference of 0.1 g/cm3
is expected (Helle and Bhatt 2002). The sonic transit time for a pore fill mixture is
given by:
Tfluid =TwaterSwater+ToilSoil+TgasSgas. (6.38)
Replacing the Twater = 189, Toil = 238 and Tgas = 625 microseconds per
feet will give the following travel time for the bulk rock volume:
Tbulk =Tfluid+Tmatrix(1). (6.39)
Tmatrix is the transit time for the rock material and it varies between 5675 s/ft
(Brigaud et al. 1992). When using again the 30% porosity, the change from gas
into brine will lead to a 130 s/ft difference in transit time. And it is only 15 s/ft
for heavy oil being replaced by brine.
Brine and hydrocarbons have a considerable difference in resistivity, with
the brine being the better conductor (1 m for brine and 100 m for oil). The
resistivity of a clean sandstone is directly related to the porefill and water
saturation. Archie (1942) gives the following equation:
Rt = FRw Sw n or Sw = 1 _ Rw Rt. (6.40)
F is the Formation Factor:
F=a
m. (6.41)
The a is a constant between 0.61.5. In the North Sea case described by Helle and
Bhatt (2002) it is taken as 0.6. The cementation exponent m (between 1.3 and 3)
and saturation exponent n are other regional dependent constants, that are close
to two. Archies Law assumes that m = 2 and a = 1. This empirical relation is
valid for non-shale deposits. A more general formula can be adopted that takes
into account: cementation, tortuosity, granular shape and size:

Rt = aRw mSw n . (6.42)


Other formulas have been proposed for sandstones with a clay fraction. The one
below is given by Schlumberger (1989):
1 Rt = aSw 2 +Sw, (6.43) whereby a is the sand term that depends on the
amount of sand particles, its porosity, resistivity of its pore contents. The is here
the shale term that is related to the amount of clay and its resistivity. A distinction
can be made between Free water (wf) and bounded mineral water (wb) that is
attached to the clay mineral particle surface (CEC cat ion exchange index). A dual
water approximation can be written as follows:
Rt = (a/tm Snwt) RwbRwfSwt/SwtRwb+Swb(RwtRwb).

(6.44)

t is the total porosity. Rwf is taken from clean nonshale water-bearing interval on
the log (= reservoir). The Rwb is taken from the pure shale interval. The Swb is
related to the shale volume and read directly from the matrix reading logs. Poupon
et al. (1971) propose the following formula to calculate the effective water
saturation in shaley sediments:
1 Rt = _ Vshale(1Vshale/2) Rshale + _ me aRw __ Swe n. (6.45)
Vshale stands for the volume of shale in the sediments. The shale has three basic
forms: layered, nodular and dispersed. All three forms can occur at the same time
in one and the same geologic formation. The Vshale is normally determined by a
cut-off value on the gamma ray or from the density and neutron logs. e is the
effective porosity in the reservoir, excluding the shale porosity. It is calculated
from the density log, grain density measurements of the matrix and the fluid
density. Rshale is the resistivity in the shale and Rwe is the effective resistivity in
the brine filled reservoir.

Estimation of elastic parameters


A quick refresher of some rock physical parameters that are important in
the seismic and rock modelling (Figure 6.50): Youngs modulus: E = strain/stress
(Hookes law), Lames constants: = stress/strain (rigidity modulus, under simple
shear), = k 2/3 (fluid incompressibility), Bulk modulus: k = stress/strain
(under hydrostatic pressure, 3D), Poissons ratio: = transverse
strain/longitudinal strain (under uni-axial stress). The Poisson s ratio depends
on the Vp and Vs.
Vp = _ k +4/3 , (6.46)
Vs = _ , (6.47)
= 0.5(Vs/Vp)2 1 (Vs/Vp)2 , (6.48)
Vp/Vs = _ 1 0.5 . (6.49)

These formulas are correct for non-permeable media, when no transfer of fluids
occurs in the pores. Raymer et al. (1980) describe an empirical relation between
the Vp and the porosity of the rock:
Vp = (1)2Vma +Vfl. (6.50)
This model has been confirmed by numerous studies and therefore the formula
has a predictive value (Latimer 2004). The P-wave velocity depends on the speed
in the mineral matrix, the fluid phase and the total fractional porosity. Several
petrophysical estimations can be done on the elastic parameters:
a). Reuss kmatrix estimation
For Shale Volumes > 0.4, the Reuss estimation can be used for the computation of
the bulk modulus of the matrix from the logs:
kma = __ fi/kmi _1 , (6.51)
ma = __ fi/mi _1 , (6.52)
whereby fi is the percentage or fraction of the rock building solid components (i).
b). Hills formulas for kmatrix and matrix
If the Shale Volume < 0.4, then the formulas of Hill are to be used:
kma =0.5__ fikmi + _(fi/kmi)1 _ , (6.53)
ma =0.5__ fimi + _(fi/mi)1 _. (6.54)
Shale Volume is measured at a zero porosity value and therefore the Shale
Volume log needs to be corrected to the zero porosity value. The following
equation should be adhered to:
1 = %porosity +%Shale Volume + _ (% other constituents). (6.55)
The total pore space added to the mineralogical framework should add to 1, when
the percentages are expressed by fractions.
c). Wyllies formula for Rhomatrix estimation
Wyllies formula can be utilised to estimate the matrix density:
ma = _ Fimi. (6.56)
F is fraction of each mineral component.

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