Budapest University of Technology and Economics

Department of Energy Engineering

Temporary laboratory note for practical

temperature measurements

This temporary laboratory note has been made for international students participating
in the English course of Measurement at Energy and Environment Protection at the
Budapest University of Technology and Economics to give them background
knowledge in the field of temperature measurement and control. This material is
based on the OMEGA Temperature Measurement Handbook & Encyclopedia.

Compiled by
Axel Groniewsky

Budapest, 2008

PRACTICAL TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENTS

A theoretical summary

INTRODUCTION
Have you ever wondered what a common liquid in-glass thermometer measures? Is it really
temperature or something else? Not too many people would immediately guess that the figure
the user reads off from a liquid in-glass thermometer is not the current temperature but the
linear expansion rate of the operating liquid.
We cannot build a temperature divider. If we want to measure the temperature we must rely
upon temperatures caused by physical phenomena which are easily observed and consistent in
nature. The International Practical Temperature Scale (IPTS) is based on such phenomena.
Revised in 1968, it consists of eleven reference temperatures.
Since we have only these fixed temperatures to use as a reference, we must use instruments to
interpolate between them. But accurately interpolating between these temperatures can require
some unusual transducers, many of which are too complicated or expensive to use in a
practical situation. In the industrial world there are four widely distributed thermometers in
use: thermocouples, resistance-temperature detector's (RTD's), thermistors, and integrated
circuit sensors (Listed in Table 1). The aim of this laboratory exercise is to get familiar with
thermocouple and RTD.

Disadvantages

Advantages

Measuring
principles

Thermocouple
voltagetemperature
Self-powered
Simple
Rugged
Inexpensive
Wide variety
Wide temperature
range

RTD
resistancetemperature

Thermistor
resistancetemperature

I.C. Sensor
voltage or currenttemperature

Most stable
Most accurate
More linear than
thermocouple

High output
Fast
Two-wire ohms
measurement

Most linear
Highest output
Inexpensive

Expensive
Non-linear
T<200C
Current source
Limited temperature
Power supply required
required
range
Slow
Fragile
Small R
Self-heating
Current source
Low absolute
Limited
required
resistance
configurations
Self-heating
Self-heating
Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of the most common temperature transducers [1]
Non-linear
Low voltage
Reference required
Least stable
Least sensitive

THERMOCOUPLE

In 1821 Thomas Johann Seebeck found that a circuit made from two dissimilar metals, with
junctions at different temperatures would deflect a compass magnet. Seebeck initially
believed this was due to magnetism induced by the temperature difference. However, it was
quickly realized that it is an electrical current that is induced, which by Ampere's law deflects
the magnet
DEFINITION
When two wires composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is
heated, there is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. This effect is
known as the PeltierSeebeck effect or thermoelectric effect (See in Figure 1)
METAL A
HEATED
JUNCTION
METAL B
Figure 1: The Seebeck effect

If this circuit is broken at the centre, the net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a
function of the junction temperature and the composition of the two metals. (See in Figure 2)
METAL A
+

eAB

HEATED
JUNCTION
METAL B
Figure 2: The Seebeck voltage (eAB)

All dissimilar metals exhibit this effect. The most common combinations of two metals are
listed in the table below, along with their important characteristics. (Listed in Table 2)

 /DOUBLE

METAL

FOOT

TYPE

SEEBECK
COEFFICIENT

C
STANDARD
WIRE
ERROR

NBS SPECIFIED
MATERIAL
RANGE

20AWG

S
( V / C )

T
(C)

B*

Platinum6% Rhodium

Platinum30% Rhodium

0.2

600

4.4-8.6

4.4-8.6

Nickel- 10%
Chromium

Constantan

0.71

58.5

1.7-4.4

1.7-4.4

Iron

Constantan

0.36

50.2

1.1-2.9

1.1-2.9

Nickel- 10%
Chromium

Nickel

0.59

39.4

1.1-2.9

1.1-2.9

Nicrosil

Nisil

39

600

Nicrosil

Nisil

26.2

N
(AWG14)
N
(AWG28)
R*
S*
T

Platinum-13%
Rhodium
Platinum-10%
Rhodium
Copper

Platinum

0.19

11.5

600

1.4-3.8

1.4-3.8

Platinum

0.19

10.3

600

1.4-3.8

1.4-3.8

Constantan

0.30

38

0.8-2.9

0.8-2.9

COMMENTS

exhibits a double-valued ambiguity,

useless below 50C, no reference
junction compensation required
standard wire errors are not specified
below 0C, ideally suited for low
temperature measurements, high
Seebeck coefficient
inexpensive,
poor
conformance
characteristics,
high
Seebeck
coefficient,
suitable
for
high
temperature
For general purposes, suitable for
high
temperature,
oxidizing
environment
relatively new type as a superior
replacement for K Type, same
properties but more stable
precision, high temperature
precision,
high
temperature,
extremely stable
standard wire errors are published
below 0C, suitable at very low
temperatures
Suitable for very high temperature
use, brittle, not ANSI recognized

TungstenTungsten19.5
600
5% Rhenium
26% Rhenium
*
- Noble Metal Thermocouples (with high stability)
Table 2: The most common combinations of two metals, along with their important characteristics [1], [21]
C

For small changes in temperature the Seebeck voltage is linearly proportional to temperature:

eAB = T
Where (the Seebeck coefficient) is the constant of proportionality.
MEASURING THERMOCOUPLE VOLTAGE
The Seebeck voltage cannot be measured directly because the thermocouple must be
connected to a voltmeter, and the voltmeter leads themselves create a new thermoelectric
circuit as it shown in Figure 3.

Cu

Cu

+
-

Cu

VOLTMETER

Figure 3: Measuring junction voltage with a DVM

v1 voltage cannot be measured directly because by connecting the voltmeter in an attempt to

measure the output of Junction J1, the voltmeter creates two more metallic junctions: J2 and
J3.as shown in Figure 4.

Cu
+
-

V1

J1

Cu

Cu

V2

J2
Figure 4: To Figure 3 equivalent circuit

Since J3 is a copper-to-copper junction, it creates no thermal Electromotive Force (EMF)

(v3 = 0) but J2 is a copper-to-constantan junction which will add an EMF (v2) in opposition to
v1. The resultant voltmeter reading v will be proportional to the temperature difference
between J1 and J2. This means that the temperature at J1 cannot be found before the
temperature of J2
THE REFERENCE JUNCTION
One way to determine the temperature of J2 is to physically put the junction into an ice bath,
forcing its temperature to be 0C and establishing J2 as the reference junction. Since both

voltmeter terminal junctions are now copper-copper, they create no thermal EMF and the
reading v on the voltmeter is proportional to the temperature difference between J1 and J2.
(See Figure 5):

Cu
Cu
+
+

Cu

V2

J1

V1

J2

ICE BATH
T=0C
Figure 5: External reference junction

Now the voltmeter reading is:

v = (v1 v2 ) (t J 1 t J 2 )
If we specify TJ1 in degrees Celsius:
TJ 1 (C ) + 273.15 = t J 1
Then v becomes:
v = v1 v2 = [(TJ 1 + 273.15) (TJ 2 + 273.15)] = (TJ 1 TJ 2 ) = (TJ 1 0)
v = TJ 1

This protracted derivation has been used to emphasize that the ice bath junction output (v2) is
not zero volts. It is a function of absolute temperature.
By adding the voltage of the ice point reference junction the reading of v has been referenced
to 0C. This method is very accurate because the ice point temperature can be precisely
controlled. The ice point is used by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) as the
fundamental, reference point for their thermocouple tables, so with help of the NBS tables it
can be converted directly from voltage v to Temperature TJ1.
The copper-constantan thermocouple (Figure 5) is a unique example because the copper wire
is the same metal as the voltmeter terminals. Using a different wire, such as iron-constantan
(Type J) thermocouple, the iron wire increases the number of dissimilar metal junctions in the
circuit, as both voltmeter terminals become Cu-Fe thermocouple junctions. If both front panel
terminals are not at the same temperature, there will be an error. For a more precise
measurement the copper voltmeter leads should be extended so that the copper-to-iron
junctions are made on an isothermal block (Figure 6).

J3
Cu Cu

Fe

J1

Cu

VOLTMETER

Fe
Cu
J4

ISOTHERMAL
BLOCK

JREF

Figure 6: Removing junctions from DVM terminals

The isothermal block is an electrical insulator but a good heat conductor and it serves to hold
J3 and J4 at the same temperature. The absolute block temperature is unimportant because the
two Cu-Fe junctions act in opposition. The equation is still
v = (TJ 1 TREF )
REFERENCE CIRCUIT
If the ice bath is replaced with another isothermal block and the extra Fe wire in the negative
lead is eliminated by combining the Cu-Fe junction (J4) and the Fe-C junction (JREF) the two
isothermal blocks can be joined to each other as shown in Figure 7.

Cu

Fe

J1

J3

Cu

Fe
J4

JREF

ISOTHERMAL
BLOCK
Figure 7: Joining the isothermal blocks

If the new block is at reference temperature (TREF) and the output voltage (v) has not been
changed it can be shown again that

V = (T1 TREF ) .

The extra junction can be eliminated by using the principle of intermediate metals. This
empirical rule states that a third metal (in this case, iron) inserted between the two dissimilar
metals of a thermocouple junction will have no effect on the output voltage as long as the two
junctions formed by the additional metal are at the same temperature. (See Figure 8)
Metal A

Metal B

Metal B

Metal C

Metal C

ISOTHERMAL
BLOCK
Figure 8 Principle of intermediate metals

With the use of this principle the iron (Fe) wire in the negative lead can be eliminated as
shown in Figure 9.

Fe

Cu

v
-

J3

Cu

J1
C

J4
TREF
Figure 9: Eliminating the reference junction

In this circuit (shown in Figure 9 ) the v = (T1 TREF ) equation is still valid. Junctions J3 and
J4 now become the reference junctions and therefore the temperature of the isothermal block
(TREF) can be measured directly with a Thermistor or an RTD and that information can be
used to compute the unknown temperature (TJ1).
To synthesize an ice-point reference either hardware compensation has to be used which is
fast but restricted to one thermocouple type per card or software compensation which requires
more computer manipulation time but is versatile and accepts any thermocouple.
VOLTAGE-TO-TEMPERATURE CONVERSION
The temperature-voltage relationship of a thermocouple is not linear therefore the conversion
between voltage and temperature is not simple either. There are two ways to perform the
temperature-to-voltage conversion.
Method A
This technique uses a power series polynomial. The thermoelectric voltage is calculated from
the equation below:

E = a0 + a1T + a2T 2 + a3T 3 + ... + anT n

Where:
E is the thermoelectric voltage in microvolts;
an is the type-dependent polynomial coefficients;
T is the temperature in C;
n is the order of polynomial (the number of terms in the polynomial).
The National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) has tables of polynomial
coefficients for each type of thermocouple. In these tables the coefficients, order, valid
temperature ranges for each list of coefficients, and error range are shortlisted. Some types of
thermocouples require more than one table of coefficients to cover the entire temperature
operating range.
Two techniques can be used to convert thermocouple reference junction temperatures into
millivolts. Generally it can be said that the power series method is more accurate and has
fewer errors than linear approximation, on the other hand linear approximation is faster. In
some cases even the power series method might cause major errors. In this case the gravity of
the errors can be reduced by increasing the number of terms (or their order). Figure 11
includes coefficient tables that convert temperature values to the appropriate thermoelectric
voltages using lower order polynomials

Figure 10: Voltage to temperature conversion with the method of power series and linear approximation [20]

Method B
This method of conversion uses an equation that represents a linear approximation of the
temperature versus thermoelectric voltage function over a limited temperature range (0C50C):
y = m x +b

Where:
m is a constant which represents the slope of the temperature versus thermoelectric voltage
line;
b is the offset voltage.
All thermocouple types listed by NIST have an offset voltage equal to zero therefore term b
can be dropped. The temperature range selected for the linear approximation must represent

the operating extremes of the reference junction. The accuracy of the voltage approximation is
increased by physically limiting the reference junction temperature range by housing it in a
temperature-controlled chamber (zone box).
Voltage-to-Temperature Conversion
The first operation in converting the measured thermoelectric voltage (V) to an equivalent
temperature value is the algebraic addition of the voltage measured at the reference junction
terminals and the calculated reference junction voltage. The sum represents an approximation
of the thermoelectric voltage generated at the temperature-sensing junction (J1 in Figure 9).
The calculated thermoelectric voltage generated at J1 is converted into an equivalent
temperature value using a power series polynomial along with type-dependent coefficient
tables. The power series polynomial takes the form:
T = a0 + a1 E1 + a2 E 2 + a3 E3 ... + an En

Where:
E = thermoelectric voltage (microvolts)
an = type-dependent polynomial coefficients
T = temperature (C)
n = order of polynomial
NIST publishes three tables for each thermocouple type containing coefficients representing
quadratic- (second order), cubic- (third order), or quartic (fourth order) forms. Voltage-totemperature conversion accuracy can be increased by using higher order coefficient tables, but
at the cost of longer processing time to perform the calculations. Accuracy can be further
enhanced by selecting tables representing the narrowest temperature range for the specific
measurement application.

BASIC STRUCTURE OF THERMOCOUPLES

Figure 11 shows the parts of a thermocouple integrated in a measuring circuit.

Figure 11: Measuring circuit [22]

Where:
1. Sensing
2. Positive and negative wires
10

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Connecting points
Extension wires
Cold junction
Measuring line
Additional resistance
Signal input processor

When using thermocouples in practice there are three important properties to be considered to
avoid large errors: wire size, location of the thermocouple and the length of the thermocouple
probe.
Selecting the wire size used in the thermocouple sensor depends upon application. Generally,
when longer life is required for higher temperatures, larger size wires should be chosen. When
sensitivity is the prime concern, smaller sizes should be used.
Since the heat conduction from the hot junction of the thermocouple must be minimized, the
thermocouple probe must last long enough. Unless there is sufficient immersion, readings will
be low. It is suggested that the thermocouple be immersed for a minimum distance equivalent
to four times the size of the outside diameter of a protection tube or well.
Thermocouples should always have a definite temperature relationship to the work load.
Usually, the thermocouple should be located between the work load and the heat source and
off approximately 1/3 of the distance between the work load and the heat source.

THERMOCOUPLE MOUNTING
There are four common ways in which thermocouples are mounted within a stainless steel or
Inconel sheath and electrically insulated with mineral oxides (See in Figure 12). Each method
has its advantages and disadvantages.

Figure 12: Thermocouple Sheath Options [21]

Sealed and Isolated from Sheath: Good, relatively trouble-free arrangement. The principal
reason for not using this arrangement for all applications is its sluggish response time - the
typical time constant is 75 seconds.
Sealed and Grounded to Sheath: Can cause ground loops and other noise injection, but
provides a reasonable time constant (40 seconds) and a sealed enclosure.

11

Exposed Bead: Faster response time constant (typically 15 seconds), but lacks mechanical and
chemical protection, and electrical isolation from material being measured. The porous
insulating mineral oxides must be sealed.
Exposed Fast Response: Fastest response time constant, typically 2 seconds but with fine
gauge of junction wire the time constant can be 10-100ms. In addition to problems of the
exposed bead type, the protruding and light construction makes the thermocouple more prone
to physical damage.

12

THERMOCOUPLE CALIBRATION
The aim of the measurement: to accomplish a temperature versus voltage calibration curve of
a thermocouple.
Steps of measurement: The Cold Junction has to be put into the ice bath while the hot junction
(measuring junction) has to be put into the electronic thermostat. At each setting point one has
to wait until the temperature sets in (delay time). If the temperature is stable the voltage can
be read from the display of the voltage divider.
The temperature range of the measurement is from 0 to 100C and it is has to be done within
5 or 10C divisions.
The result of the measurement has to be notified in a table

t [C]

10

15

20

25

U[mV]

Analysis of the results of the measurement and accomplishment of the calibration curve
1. The calibration curve has to be defined/figured
2. The measuring errors have to be rated
3. The function of the calibration curve has to be calculated with Ordinary Least
Squares (OLS)
4. The result has to be compared to the data of a thermocouple catalog
The determination of the time constant at cooling and heating
1. The junction has to be replaced from the ice bath to the 100C thermostat.
2. The heating curve and the heating curve related time constant have to be
defined.
3. The process has to be done the way round to define the cooling curve and the
cooling curve related time constant.

13

THE RTD
DEFFINITION
Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs) rely on the predictable and repeatable phenomena
of the electrical resistance of metals changing with temperature. This discovery has been
made by Sir Humphrey Davy the same year that Seebeck discovered the thermoelectric effect.

.
o C
The most common metals used for temperature sensing are platinum, nickel, copper and
molybdenum (Listed in * - average temperature coefficient over the 0 to 100C temperature range
Table 3). While the resistance - temperature characteristics of certain semiconductor and
ceramic materials are used for temperature sensing, such sensors are generally not classified
as RTDs.

The temperature coefficient for all pure metals is of the same order - 0.003 to 0.007

Metal
Copper

Cu

Molybdenum

Mo

Nickel

Ni

Nickel - Iron

NiFe

Temperature
Range
-200C to
260C
-200C to
200C
-80C to
260C
-200C to
200C

Comments

0.00427

Low cost

0.00300
0.00385

Lower cost alternative to platinum in the lower temperature

ranges

0.00672

Low cost, limited temperature range

0.00518

Low cost

Primary element in all high-accuracy resistance thermometers,

long-term stability in air, PRTD used as an interpolation
-240C to
Platinum
Pt
standard from the oxygen point (-182.96C) to the antimony
660C
point (630.74C), precise. Extends temperature range to
1000C
* - average temperature coefficient over the 0 to 100C temperature range
Table 3: Types of RTDs [21]
0.00385
0.00392
0.00377

RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS
The common values of resistance for a platinum RTD range from 10 ohms for the bird-cage
model to several thousand ohms for the film RTD. The single most common value is 100
ohms at 0C. The DIN 43760 standard temperature coefficient of platinum wire is
= 0.00385. For a 100 ohm wire this corresponds to + 0.385 ohms/C at 0C. This value for
is actually the average slope from 0C to 100C. Most chemically pure platinum wires
used in platinum resistance standards have an of + 0.00392 ohms/(ohmC).
Both the slope and the absolute value are small numbers. The measurement wires leading to
the sensor may be several ohms or even tens of ohms. Small lead impedance can contribute a
significant error to the temperature measurement (See in Figure 13).

14

LEAD RESISTANCE

RTD

LEAD RESISTANCE
Figure 13: Effect of lead resistance

Ten ohm lead impedance implies an 10/0.385 26C error in the measurement. Even the
temperature coefficient of the lead wire can cause a measurable error. The classical method of
avoiding this problem has been the use of a Wheatstone bridge (See in Figure 14).

DVM

+
-

RTD

Figure 14: Wheatstone bridge

The bridge output voltage is an indirect indication of the RTD resistance. The bridge requires
four connection wires, an external source, and three resistors that have a zero temperature
coefficient. To avoid subjecting the three bridge-completion resistors to the same temperature
as the RTD, the RTD is separated from the bridge by a pair of extension wires (See in Figure
15):

+
-

DVM
RTD

Figure 15: Wheatstone bridge with a pair of extended wires

These extension wires recreate the same problem: The impedance of the extension wires
affects the temperature reading. This effect can be minimized by using a three-wire bridge
configuration as shown in Figure 16.

15

DVM

RTD

C
Figure 16: Three-wire bridge

If wires A and B are perfectly matched in length, their impedance effects will even out
because each is in an opposite leg of the bridge. The third wire, C, acts as a sense lead and
carries no current. The Wheatstone bridge shown in Figure 16 creates a non-linear
relationship between resistance change and bridge output voltage change. This compounds the
already non-linear temperature-resistance characteristic of the RTD by requiring an additional
equation to convert bridge output voltage to equivalent RTD impedance.
4-Wire Ohms - The technique of using a current source along with a remotely sensed digital
voltmeter alleviates many problems associated with the bridge (See in Figure 17).
+
I

DVM

RTD
0

Figure 17: Four-wire ohms measurement

The output voltage read by the DVM is directly proportional to RTD resistance, therefore
only one conversion equation is necessary. The three bridge-completion resistors are replaced
by one reference resistor. The digital voltmeter measures only the voltage dropped across the
RTD and is insensitive to the length of the lead wires.
The one disadvantage of using 4-wire ohms is that compared to the 3-wire bridge one extra
extension wire is needed but the accuracy of the temperature measurement is increased.

3-WIRE BRIDGE MEASUREMENT ERRORS

R1

R3
DVM

+
R2

RTD=Rg

If Vs and V0 are known, Rg can be found and then it can be solved for temperature. The
unbalanced voltage V0 of a bridge built with R1 = R2 is:

16

R3
1
) VS
R3 + R g
2
If Rg = R3, V0 = 0 and the bridge is balanced. This can be done manually, or it can be solved
for Rg in terms of V0:
V0 = VS (

V 2V0

Rg = R3 s
Vs + 2V0
This expression assumes that the lead resistance is zero. If Rg is located to some distance from
the bridge in a 3-wire configuration, the lead resistance RL will appear in series with both Rg
and R3 as shown in Figure 18.
R3

R1

RL
DVM

V3/2
R2

Rg

RL
Figure 18: Three-wire bridge measurement errors

Again it can be solved for Rg:

V 2V0
4V0
RL

Rg = R3 s
Vs + 2V0
Vs + 2V0
The error term will be small if V0 is small, i.e., the bridge is close to balance. This circuit
works well with devices like strain gauges, which change resistance value by only a few
percent, but an RTD changes resistance dramatically with temperature.
If the measuring of RL is not possible or the bridge cannot be balanced, the basic 3-wire
technique is not an accurate method for measuring absolute temperature with an RTD. A
better approach is to use a 4-wire technique.

RESISTANCE TO TEMPERATURE CONVERSION

The RTD is a more linear device than the thermocouple, but it still requires curve-fitting. The
Callendar-Van Dusen equation has been used for years to approximate the RTD curve:11. 13
3
T
T
T
T

RT = R0 + R0 [T
1
1

100 100
100 100

Where:
RT is the resistance at Temperature T
R0 is the resistance at T = 0C
is the temperature coefficient at T = 0C (typically + 0.00392 / /C)
is 1.49 (typical value for .00392 platinum)

17

=0

T>0; = 0.11 (typical) T<0;

The exact values for coefficients , , and are determined by testing the RTD at four
temperatures and solving the resultant equations. This familiar equation was replaced in 1968
by a 20th order polynomial.
In order to provide a more accurate curve fit the plot of this equation shows the RTD to be a
more linear device than the thermocouple:

PRACTICAL PRECAUTIONS
The same practical precautions that apply to thermocouples also apply to RTD's, i.e., shields
and twisted-pair wires, proper sheathing, large extension wire, guarded integrating and DVM
should be used, stress and steep gradients should be avoided, good documentation should be
kept. In addition, the following precautions should be observed.
RTDs are manufactured in two ways: using wire or film. Wire RTDs are a stretched coil of
fine wire placed in a ceramic tube that supports and protects the wire. The wire may be
bonded to the ceramic using a glaze. The wire types are generally more accurate, due to
tighter control over metal purity and less strain related errors. They are also more expensive.
Film RTDs consist of a thin metal film that is silk-screened or vacuum spluttered onto a
ceramic or glassy substrate. A laser trimmer then trims the RTD to its correct resistance value.
They are also available in small sizes and they are more robust (See in Figure 19).

Figure 19: Wire and RTD Construction

Unlike the thermocouple, the RTD is not self-powered. A current must be passed through the
device to provide a voltage that can be measured. The current causes Joule (I2R) heating
within the RTD, changing its temperature. This self-heating appears as a measurement error.
Consequently, attention must be paid to the magnitude of the measurement current supplied
by the ohm meter. A typical value for self-heating error is 0.5C per milliwatt in free air.
Obviously, an RTD immersed in a thermally conductive medium will distribute its Joule heat
to the medium and the error due to self-heating will be smaller. The same RTD that rises 1C
per milliwatt in free air will rise only 0.1C per milliwatt in air which is flowing at the rate of
one meter per second.
The minimum ohms measurement current and the largest RTD (which still gives a good
response time) have to be used to reduce self-heating errors. Obviously, there are
compromises to be considered.
Thermal shunting is the act of altering the measurement temperature by inserting a
measurement transducer. Thermal shunting is more a problem with RTD's than with
thermocouples, as the physical bulk of an RTD is greater than that of a thermocouple. Small

18

RTDs have: fast response time, low thermal shunting and high self-healing error; large RTDs
on the other hand have slow response time, poor thermal shunting and low self-healing error.
The platinum-to-copper connection that is made when the RTD is measured can cause a
thermal offset voltage. The offset-compensated ohms technique can be used to eliminate this
effect. (Thermal EMF)

19

RTD CALIBRATION
The aim of the measurement: To accomplish a temperature versus resistance calibration curve
of an RTD.
Steps of the measurement: The measuring junction has to be put into the electronic
thermostat. At each setting point one has to wait until the temperature sets in (delay time). If
the temperature is stable the voltage can be read from the display of the voltage divider.
The temperature range of the measurement is from 0 to 100C and it is has to be done within
5 or 10C divisions.

The result of the measurement has to be notified in a table

t [C]

10

15

20

25

U[mV]

Analysis of the results of the measurement and accomplishment of the calibration curve
5. The calibration curve has to be defined
6. The measuring errors have to be rated
7. The function of the calibration curve has to be calculated with Ordinary Least
Squares (OLS)
8. The result has to be compared to the data of an RTD catalog
The determination of the time constant by cooling and heating
4. The junction has to be replaced from the ice bath to the 100C thermostat.
5. The heating curve and the heating curve related time constant have to be
defined.
6. The process has to be done the way round to define the cooling curve and the
cooling curve related time constant.

20

BIBLIOGRAPHY
1
2
3
4
5

6
7
8
9

10

11

12
13
14
15

16

17

18
19
20

The Omega Temperature Measurement Handbook and Encyclopedia, 1992.

Charles Herzfeld, F.G. Brickwedde: Temperature Its Measurement and Control
in Science and Industry, Vol. 3, Part 1, Reinhold, New York, 1962.
3Robert P. Benedict: Fundamentals of Temperature, Pressure and Flow
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