Underwater Inspection Manual

Central Railway
Underwater Bridge Inspection

Manual
February 2006
Central Railway
Underwater Bridge
Inspection Manual
February 2006
Ref
Date
Prepared by
Checked by
Approved by
5721063-07_L012_Ver01_UWI_manual.doc
2006-03-10
LTP
BL
BL
Rambll Denmark A/S

Bredevej 2
DK-2830 Virum
Denmark
Phone +45 4598 6000
www.ramboll.com
Statement of copyright and liability

Copyright
Copyright 2006 Ramboll and its sub consultants. All rights reserved. This publication
must not be copied, reproduced, translated into any other language, in any way, manually or otherwise, or exhibited in its entire form or partly without the expressed written
consent of Ramboll Denmark A/S, Bredevej 2, 2830 Virum, Denmark.
Liability
Ramboll Denmark and its sub consultants assume no warranty with regard to accuracy,
completeness, or usefulness of the information contained in this publication, and specifically no liability with regard to the product described in the publication, or to the use,
or usefulness of the product for specific purposes.
Table of contents
1.
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
Introduction
General
Reasons for performing Underwater Bridge Inspection
Levels of underwater bridge inspection
Non Destructive Testing
Personnel and equipment
Applications NDT-methods
1-1
1-1
1-2
1-3
1-3
1-4
1-4
2.
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.2
2.3
Level I Inspection overview

Primary Planning
Requisition
Information retrieval
Check of equipment
Making appointments
Safety considerations
Execution of level I inspection
Reporting
2-1
2-1
2-1
2-1
2-2
2-2
2-2
2-2
2-3
3.
3.1
3.2
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.3
Level II Inspection overview

Primary Planning
Execution of level II inspection
Piles
Piers and abutments (solid components)
Reporting
3-1
3-1
3-1
3-1
3-2
3-2
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
Level III Inspection - overview

Primary Planning
Detailed planning of Non Destructive Tests
Execution of the inspection and tests
Assessment of damage cause and extent
General considerations regarding future maintenance activities
Reporting
4-1
4-1
4-2
4-2
4-2
4-2
4-3
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Planning of level III inspections including NDT-measurements

Visual inspection
Areas requiring investigation
Homogeneous areas
Evaluation of test results
5-1
5-1
5-1
5-2
5-2
6.
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
Types of damage
General structural damage
Damage due to water
Damage on concrete structures
Damage on steel structures
Damage at masonry structures
Damage at wooden structures
6-1
6-1
6-1
6-1
6-1
6-2
6-2
6.7
6.7.1
6.7.2
Registration of damage
Concrete structures
Steel structures
7.
7.1
7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.2.5
7.2.6
7.3
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
7.3.4
7.3.5
7.3.6
7.3.7
7.3.8
7.3.9
7.3.10
7.3.11
7.3.12
7.3.13
7.4
7.4.1
7.5
7.5.1
7.5.2
7.5.3
7.6
7.6.1
7.6.2
7.6.3
7.7
7.7.1
7.7.2
7.7.3
7.7.4
7.7.5
7.7.6
7.8
7.9
Damage mechanisms
General
Structural Deficiencies
I. Structural cracks (load induced cracks) in concrete members
II. Excessive/unintended deflections and movements
III. Fracture/crushing
IV. Structural Problems, Steel Components
Structural Cracks in Concrete Members
Structural Cracks, Examples
Non-Structural Cracks in Concrete
Shrinkage cracks (due to drying)
Thermal Cracks (due to hydration)
Cracks due to plastic shrinkage
Cracks due to plastic settlement
Initiation of Corrosion
Carbonation
Chlorides
Carbonation and Chlorides
Propagation of Corrosion
Corrosion products and corrosion rate
Local/general corrosion
Pier column
Wing walls / retaining walls
Alkali-aggregate Reactions
Crack Pattern
Chemical Attack of Concrete and Masonry
Acid Attack
Sulphate Attack
Seawater Attack
Erosion / Scour
Aggradation / degradation
General scour
Local scour
Corrosion of steel structures
Electrochemical corrosion
Chink Corrosion
Galvanic Corrosion
Stress Corrosion
Corrosion and Fatigue
Atmospheric Corrosion
Ageing of Steel
Erosion of masonry structures
8.
8.1
8.2
NDT-methods
General
Visual inspection
6-2
6-2
6-2
7-1
7-1
7-1
7-1
7-1
7-2
7-2
7-2
7-3
7-5
7-5
7-6
7-6
7-8
7-10
7-11
7-13
7-17
7-18
7-19
7-21
7-22
7-23
7-24
7-25
7-27
7-28
7-29
7-31
7-32
7-32
7-33
7-33
7-34
7-34
7-38
7-38
7-38
7-38
7-39
7-40
7-41
8-1
8-1
8-2
II
8.3
8.3.1
8.3.2
8.3.3
8.3.4
8.3.5
8.3.6
8.3.7
8.3.8
8.3.9
8.3.10
8.4
8.5
8.5.1
8.5.2
8.5.3
8.6
8.7
8.8
8.9
8.10
8.10.1
8.10.2
8.10.3
8.10.4
8.10.5
8.10.6
8.11
8.12
8.13
8.14
Ultrasonic testing of steel structures

Definition of ultrasound
Through transmission technique
The pulse echo technique
Definitions and general terms
Refraction and reflection of ultrasonic waves
Probes
Examination of rolled, cast and forged objects
Examination of welds
Determination of defect size
References
Ultrasonic Testing of Concrete Structures
Ultrasonic thickness gauge
Introduction
Thickness measurements of steel plates
Special equipment
Covermeter Measurements
Schmidt hammer
Coring equipment
Chloride content
Evaluation of concrete cores
Macro analysis on cores and plane sections
Crack detection on impregnated plane sections
Micro analysis on thin sections
Air void analyse on plane section
Moisture analysis
Residual Reactivity Test
Crack measuring gauge
Impulse Response equipment
Impact-Echo equipment
Half-cell potential Measurements
9.
9.1
9.2
9.2.1
9.2.2
9.2.3
9.2.4
9.2.5
9.2.6
9.2.7
9.2.8
Economic analysis
General
Present Value Method
Repair Strategies
Service Life
Time Frame
Time of Repair
Residual Value
Discount Rate
Sensitivity Analysis
Optimum solution
10.
10.1
10.2
10.2.1
10.2.2
10.2.3
Reporting of Level I Inspection

General
Text Section
Cover Page
Front Page
Method and Extent of Investigation
8-1
8-1
8-1
8-2
8-5
8-7
8-9
8-16
8-24
8-31
8-37
8-40
8-42
8-42
8-43
8-45
8-47
8-48
8-49
8-50
8-52
8-52
8-54
8-55
8-57
8-57
8-58
8-59
8-60
8-62
8-65
9-1
9-1
9-2
9-3
9-4
9-5
9-5
9-6
9-6
9-6
9-6
10-1
10-1
10-1
10-1
10-1
10-2
III
10.2.4
10.2.5
10.2.6
10.2.7
10.3
10.3.1
10.3.2
10.3.3
10.3.4
Background Material
Registrations
Evaluation of registrations
Appendices
A: Background Material
B: Selected Drawings
C: Sketches and Registrations
D: Photos and Video Recordings
10-2
10-2
10-2
10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
10-5
11.
11.1
11.2
11.2.1
11.2.2
11.2.3
11.2.4
11.2.5
11.2.6
11.2.7
11.3
11.3.1
11.3.2
11.3.3
11.3.4
Reporting of Level II Inspection

General
Text Section
Cover Page
Front Page
Background Material
Registrations
Appendices
11-1
11-1
11-1
11-1
11-1
11-2
11-2
11-2
11-2
11-2
11-2
11-2
11-2
11-2
11-2
12.
12.1
12.2
12.2.1
12.2.2
12.2.3
12.2.4
12.2.5
12.2.6
12.2.7
12.2.8
12.3
12.3.1
12.3.2
12.3.3
12.3.4
12.3.5
12.3.6
12.3.7
Reporting of Level III Inspection

General
Text Section
Cover Page
Front Page
Summary
Motivation of the level III inspection
Background Material
Registrations
General Considerations Regarding Future Maintenance Activities
Appendices
C: Visual Inspection
E: NDT-method No. 1
F - ?: NDT-method No. 2 - ?
G.. Other
12-1
12-1
12-1
12-1
12-1
12-2
12-2
12-2
12-2
12-2
12-3
12-3
12-3
12-3
12-3
12-3
12-3
12-4
12-4
13.
References
13-1
IV
Appendices
A:
B:
C:
D:
E:
Handout of slides from classroom training in UWI-methods

A1:
Introduction to the Classroom Training in NDT- and UWI
A2:
General Introduction to Deterioration Mechanism
A3:
General Introduction to Systematic Operation and Maintenance
A4:
Introduction to Underwater Inspection
A5:
Levels of Underwater Inspection
A6:
Practical Considerations on Underwater Work
A7:
Underwater Repair Methods
A8:
Case The Kalvebod Bridge
A9:
Case Power Plant: Asnaes
A10:
Case The Great Belt Bridge
A11:
Ultrasonic Testing Concrete
A12:
Ultrasonic Testing - Steel
A13:
Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge
A14:
Covermeter
A15:
Schmidt Hammer
A16:
Coring Equipment
A17:
Chloride Content
A18:
Evaluation of Concrete Cores (from NDT-course)
A19:
Crack Measuring Gauge (from NDT-course)
A20:
Impulse Response (sMASH) (from NDT-course)
A21:
Impact-Echo (from NDT-course)
A22:
Half Cell Potential Measurements (from NDT-course)
Underwater Inspection of Bridges, Federal Highway Administration,
(FHWA-DP-80-1)
Template for Level I Inspection Report
Template for Level II Inspection Report
Template for Level III Inspection Report
1.
1.1
Introduction
General
The present manual is addressed to Central Railway and covers the subjects of Underwater Inspection (UWI) including selected methods of Non Destructive Testing
(NDT). The manual has been prepared as part of a pilot project in the area of Underwater Inspections of railway bridges on Central Railway. The manual describes
the basic issues regarding planning, execution and reporting of underwater bridge
inspections including selected NDT-investigations for Level III inspections. The manual is primarily based on the Federal Highway Administration report: Underwater
Inspection of Bridges, FHWA-DP-80-1, 1989, [1]. This report is enclosed to the
manual as Appendix B.
The purpose of this manual is to give guidelines for carrying out and reporting underwater bridge inspections including the use of selected NDT-methods and to describe some of the most common damage mechanisms. The issues of carrying out
underwater inspections in general are described in Appendix A4-A7 and Appendix B.
This manual describes issues regarding level I, level II and level III inspections. Both
the level I and level II inspections are purely visual inspections, while the level III
inspection may include Non Destructive Testing such as coring, ultrasonic testing etc.
Selected types of damage and damage mechanisms are also described in this manual as an extensive knowledge of the possible damage mechanisms and signs of
damage are very important for selecting the right NDT-method to apply in each individual case when performing Level III inspections. Selected NDT-methods to be used
on concrete, steel and masonry bridges are described in the manual.
For each of the NDT-methods included in the pilot project descriptions are given with
regards to the following subjects:
Theory Technical Method Description
Applications and Limitations
Test Planning and Execution of Field Tests
Interpretation and Reporting of Results
As appendices to this manual the handouts of the presentations from the classroom
training are enclosed. All the above mentioned subjects are described in the handouts for each of the NDT-methods.
Chapters on reporting of Level I, Level II and Level III inspections are also included
as well as a chapter of economic analysis using the present value method.
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Enclosed to this manual are handouts of presentations regarding underwater bridge

inspections used for the classroom training during the pilot project.
1.2
Reasons for performing Underwater Bridge Inspection

A majority of major railway bridges are built over waterways, and most bridge failures occur because of underwater problems. Thus, underwater bridge inspections are
essential to maintain the safety of the bridges. If underwater inspections are not
performed regularly serious damage can occur and develop without being detected
before it is too late.
The underwater inspection must comprise all structural components under water, the
riverbed and possible river bed protection around them. The interval between routine
inspections should never exceed 5 years, and in many cases it must be shorter. The
interval depends on several factors such as:
The condition of the riverbed (hard rock / sand / mud), the amount and speed of
water flow in general and at high flood.
Possible prop wash (turbulence caused by the propellers of passing ships) that
can cause erosion/scour and a sandblasting effect on piers.
The aggressiveness of the water (steel structures or reinforced concrete structures in salt water call for attention).
The condition and sturdiness of the structures.
Besides the regular underwater inspections unscheduled inspections have to be carried out in case of e.g.:
After unusual floods.
After vessel impact (unless it is obvious that no damage has occurred).
Build-up of debris at piers and abutments (horizontal forces on the structures and
scour because of reduced cross section of the river).
Unusual prop wash from vessels.
In case of settlements or other evidence of scour.
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Figure 1-1: Settlements of a bridge in Honduras caused by flooding after the hurricane Mitch.
1.3
Levels of underwater bridge inspection

Typically three levels of underwater bridge inspections are carried out these are
described in more detail in sections 1-3:
1.4
Level I:
Purely visual inspection supplemented by water depth soundings. This

inspection is often characterized as a swim by inspection.
Level II:
Detailed visual inspection that includes cleaning of selected areas for

closer inspection.
Level III: Detailed investigation of specific components using Non Destructive

Testing (NDT).
Non Destructive Testing

When a component of the substructure of the bridge needs extensive repair or if a
visual inspection has revealed damage for which the cause or extent can not be determined, Non Destructive Testing (NDT) can be carried out as part of a detailed
underwater inspection (Level III inspection).
The field of NDT is a very broad, interdisciplinary field that plays a critical role in assuring that structural components and systems perform their function in a reliable
and cost effective fashion. NDT technicians and engineers define and implement
tests that locate and characterize material conditions and flaws that might otherwise
lead to damage and eventually cause trains to derail. These tests are performed in a
manner that does not affect the future usefulness of the object or material. In other
words, NDT allows parts and materials to be inspected and measured without dam-
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aging them or with only little damage compared to the knowledge gained by the
test.
The purpose of performing inspections using NDT-methods is to determine:
the type of damage
the extent of damage
the cause of damage
the expected development in time of damage
The information from the NDT-investigations provides the basis for decisions concerning the selection of the optimum repair strategy.
1.5
Personnel and equipment

Performing underwater inspections involves making evaluations and taking decisions
on-site, based on knowledge and experience. Compared to inspections carried out
above water very often only one inspector/diver sees the damage. The diver must
have contact to a team leader above water. The team leader must be an experienced
engineer and must be able to guide the diver during the inspection. Preferable the
diver carries a video camera which makes it possible for the team leader to see a
real-time image of the substructure on a screen.
1.6
Applications NDT-methods
The manual covers descriptions of the NDT-methods mentioned in Table 1-1.
NDT-method
Used for structures made of:
Steel
Ultrasonic Testing
Concrete and steel
Covermeter
Concrete
Schmidt Hammer
Concrete and masonry
Chloride Content
Concrete
Coring Equipment
Evaluation of Concrete Cores
Concrete
Crack Measuring Gauge
Impulse Response Equipment
Concrete
Impact-Echo Equipment
Half-Cell Potential
Concrete
Table 1-1: Test methods.
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2.
Level I Inspection overview

A level I inspection is usually carried out as a routine inspection to ensure continuity
of the full length of all underwater components and to report major damage. Typically, the inspection includes 100% of the underwater structural components.
The level I inspection activities comprise:
Primary planning.
Execution of inspection.
Reporting.
2.1
Primary Planning
2.1.1
Requisition
In the requisition of the level I inspection some information is required which the
inspector needs in order to make a proper planning. 'As built drawings', previous
reporting and the inventory report should be enclosed with the requisition. Also existing information regarding water depths, tidal range, currents, pollution etc. is required in the planning phase.
Before execution of the inspection, the owner of the bridge and the company carrying out the inspection should agree on a time schedule and a budget.
2.1.2
Information retrieval
The major part of the primary planning consists of retrieving information on the
bridge in question. This information includes:
All relevant previous reports concerning the bridge (including inventory).
"As built" drawings number and design of piers, piles, etc.
Information on major events during maintenance.
The planning phase should also include a site visit to evaluate the local conditions
such as:
Critical areas of the structure.
Wave actions.
Water temperature range.
Atmospheric temperature range.
Water depths.
Tidal range.
Water visibility the need for a clear water box should be identified.
Pollution / sewage in the water.

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Estimation of currents (for instance time the flow of a branch in the water to estimate the current condition).
Susceptibility of streambed materials to scour.
Amount of biofouling growth on the bridge component(s).
Seasonal flooding / (ice).
Based on the abovementioned parameters an estimation of the expected possible
working time per day is made.
2.1.3
Check of equipment
Does the visibility require a clear water box.

What specific equipment is needed for the diver see Appendix B, Chapter IV,
Section 2-3.
2.1.4
Making appointments
With the Bridge Engineer.
With other authorities e.g. the local maritime authority.
About accommodations for inspection personnel (diver inspections usually take

several days).
2.1.5
2.2
Safety considerations
During the planning it is important to consider the safety factors regarding the diving
see Appendix B, Chapter II, Section 2 and Chapter V, Section 1.
Execution of level I inspection

Typically, the level I inspection is carried out on the entire substructure. The level I
inspection should be carried out by an experienced diver guided by an experienced
team leader. The result of the level I inspection is a condition rating of all the bridge
components included in the inspection. See section 10.2.6 for more details regarding
condition rating.
The level I inspection is a visual, tactile inspection using large sweeping motions of
the hands where visibility is limited. If needed, a clear water box is used. During the
inspection the continuity of the full length of all members should be confirmed. Major
damage or deterioration due to over-stress or severe deterioration (spalling) or corrosion should be detected and reported. Undermining or exposure of normally buried
elements should be detected and reported.
The level I inspection is carried out in predefined patterns see Figure 2-1 and
Figure 2-2 and Appendix B Chapter 5, Section 2.
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Figure 2-1: Inspection of a pile bent in a spiral motion.
Figure 2-2: Example of inspection pattern for inspection of a pier or abutment.
2.3
Reporting
The report of a level I inspection is carried out using standard forms for conditions
rating as shown in Appendix C. The standard forms should be supplemented with
specific description, sketches and photos of any significant damage.
The report of a level I inspection comprises the following sections:
Method and extent of investigation.
Background material.
Registrations.
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Evaluation of registrations (condition rating of the underwater bridge components).
Need for further inspections (level II or III) if relevant.
In an extended version of the level I inspection a section of General considerations

regarding future maintenance activities Should be added to the report as well.
The inspection report will include those relevant of the following appendices:
Background materials (inventory and previous inspection reports).
Selected drawings (relevant extracts from 'as built' drawings).
Sketches.
Photos and video recordings.
The level I inspection should be supplemented by scour investigation and water

depth soundings. In this case sketches of the scour are enclosed in the appendix of
sketches. Sounding plans and sections are to be enclosed as a separate appendix to
the report.
The content of each section in the level I inspection report is described in more detail
in chapter 10.
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3.
Level II Inspection overview

A level II inspection is usually carried out as a routine inspection to report damage
hidden by marine growth on the surface. Typically, the inspection includes visual
inspection of specified bands of 10% of the area of underwater structural components.
The level II inspection activities comprise:
3.1
Primary planning.
Execution of inspection.
Reporting.
Primary Planning
The primary planning of the special inspection is similar to the one described for the
level I inspection see section 2.1.
3.2
Execution of level II inspection

Typically the level II inspection is carried out in specified bands of approximately
10% of underwater components. The level II inspection should be carried out by an
experienced diver guided by an experienced team leader. The result of the level II
inspection is a registration of damage in the selected areas. The damage should be
measured and the extent and severity of the damage should be documented.
The level II inspection is a detailed inspection requiring parts of the structure to be
cleaned of marine growth. The cleaning of the substructure components is performed
in three different water depths. The thoroughness of cleaning should be governed by
what is necessary to identify and register the condition of the underlying material. A
clear water box and water jet cleaning equipment should be used if necessary.
During the inspection damage or deterioration (spalling, corrosion, cracks, etc.) or
corrosion should be detected and measured, and the extent and severity of the damage should be documented and reported.
In the following, guidelines for areas to be cleaned for closer inspection are given.
3.2.1
Piles
For piles three bands with the height of approximately 25 cm covering of the perimeter are to be cleaned. The three bands are to be located in the splash zone (low
waterline), the mudline (bottom of river) respectively midway between low waterline
and mudline. When selecting the areas for cleaning you should concentrate on damaged and suspicious areas, but you should also include apparently undamaged areas.
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Figure 3-1: Cross sections of piles. of the perimeter is to be cleaned as part of a

level II inspection.
3.2.2
3.3
Piers and abutments (solid components)

For solid components such as piers and abutments three areas of approximately 30
cm x 30 cm are to be cleaned on each face of the component. The three areas shall
normally be located in the splash zone (low waterline), the mudline (bottom of river)
respectively at construction joints or other structural details. If no joints exist the
area could be placed midway between the low waterline and mudline. When selecting
the areas for cleaning you should concentrate on damaged and suspicious areas, but
you should also include apparently undamaged areas.
Reporting
The report of a level II inspection is done by using standard damage descriptions
supplemented by sketches and photos.
If damage or deterioration is observed, a level III inspection may be required if the
cause or extent of damage cannot be determined by the visual inspection. Usually a
level I inspection is carried on at the same time of the level II inspection and the
results from the inspections can be reported together. Thus, the report of a level II
inspection could comprise the following sections see also section 2.3:
Method and extent of investigation.
Background material.
Registrations.
Evaluation of registrations (condition rating of the underwater bridge components).
In an extended version of the level II inspection a section of General considerations

regarding future maintenance activities could be added to the report as well.
Background materials (inventory and previous inspection reports).
Sketches (sketches showing the areas that has been cleaned and inspected by a
level II inspection must be included).
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The content of each section in the level II inspection report is described in more detail in chapter 11.
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4.
Level III Inspection - overview

A level III inspection is carried out to determine in detail the type, extent and cause
of damage. Furthermore, the level III inspection should evaluate the future development of damage. In this way, the level III inspection forms the necessary basis for
the detailed assessment of the damage and the preparation of the rehabilitation design.
A level III inspection is a highly detailed inspection of critical components or components where extensive repair or possible replacement is contemplated. During the
level III inspection hidden or interior damage must be detected, loss of cross sectional area must be detected and the material homogeneity must be evaluated.
The level III inspection includes extensive cleaning, detailed measurements and selected Non Destructive Tests (NDT).
The level III inspection activities comprise:
Primary planning.
Detailed planning of tests.
Execution of tests.
Assessment of damage cause and extent based on the test results.
Evaluation of future damage development.
Setting up of relevant repair strategy.
Reporting.
The level III inspection may be supplemented with an economic analysis of one or
more strategies (incl. selection of the optimum strategy).
4.1
Primary Planning
Most of the primary planning of the level III inspection is similar to the one described
for the level I inspection see section 2.1.
Besides the issues of the primary planning mentioned in section 2.1 it has to be considered what kind of tests must be done on each bridge component, and which NDTequipment must be used? As part of the planning you must check that the equipment (and necessary consumables) is present and is functioning.
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4.2
Detailed planning of Non Destructive Tests

The planning of which tests to perform on the bridge is based on a preliminary hypothesis regarding the type, cause and extent of damage.
The planning consists of selecting the appropriate test methods and deciding on
which parts of the bridge/the bridge component to apply the tests. The number of
tests carried out must be sufficient to confirm or reject the hypothesis, and to determine the type and extent of necessary repair works.
See also chapter 5 for a more detailed description of planning inspections including
NDT-methods.
4.3
Execution of the inspection and tests

During the level III inspection extensive cleaning of the surface is necessary. A water
jet cleaning equipment should be used if necessary. For the locations selected for the
level III inspection a visual inspection is performed. For this purpose a clear water
box is used as necessary.
The tests are carried out according to the test plan and following the 'directions for
use' of the test equipment. See also chapter 8 for more detailed description of the
most relevant NDT-methods.
It is important to follow the test plan and not to draw premature conclusions from
the first test results obtained.
4.4
Assessment of damage cause and extent

If the test methods have been thoroughly selected and applied, the results should
give a reliable picture of the condition of the bridge component as well as of the
cause and extent of each damage type.
However, it is not possible to set up a set of rules that give an unambiguous answer
as to the type of damage. For this reason it is essential that the assessment (as well
as the planning of tests) is carried out by experienced engineers with a thorough
knowledge of the relevant damage mechanisms and test methods. This experienced
engineer could be the team leader guiding the diver.
4.5

Based on the test results general considerations regarding future maintenance activities are described. The need for major rehabilitation jobs and further inspections is
described but no detailed economic analyse is made.
The level III inspection could be supplemented with an economic analysis to help
choosing the optimum repair strategy. For this purpose the 'Present Value Method'
could be used.
The postponement of a repair work may lead to increased repair and maintenance
costs as the amount of damage will increase.
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In order to compare costs that occur at different times, all amounts are discounted
back to the same year (compensating for interest and inflation). The sum of the discounted values of the costs of a strategy is the present value of the strategy. The
strategy with the smallest present value is the most profitable and is the optimum
strategy for the rehabilitation.
The principle of the economic analysis is described in more detail in chapter 9.
4.6
Reporting
In order to facilitate comparison of level III inspection reports, and in order not to
forget important aspects of the inspection, the reporting is made using a fixed table
of contents:
Summary
Motivation of (reason for) the level III inspection
Background documents (list of the background material that has been available
for the inspection)
Registrations (extent and location of tests, and a summary of the results)
Evaluation of registrations (what do the registrations indicate regarding cause

and extent of damage, including the risk of further deterioration)
General considerations regarding future maintenance activities (such as: further

investigations, repair works, doing nothing).
Background materials (inventory and level I (or II) inspection reports).
Visual inspection.
Sketches (sketches showing the areas that has been cleaned and inspected by a
level II inspection must be included).
NDT-method no 1.
NDT-method no 2.
The content of each section in the level III inspection report is described in more
detail in chapter 12.
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5.
Planning of level III inspections including NDTmeasurements

To create a proper background for the planning and specification of repair and rehabilitation works, the following information is required from level III inspection:
Identification and evaluation of the condition in the damaged areas.
Identification and evaluation of the total damaged area.
Assessment of the cause of the damage.
Evaluation of future damage development - development rate of existing damage

and risk of future damage in apparently undamaged areas.
To fulfil these requirements, a certain minimum number of tests must be carried out.
The tests are planned using all available information from the as-built drawings, previous underwater inspections of the bridge, underwater inspections of similar bridges
and the knowledge and experience of the persons performing the underwater inspection. On this basis a hypothesis concerning the cause of damage, the total damaged
area and the condition of the damaged area may be formulated. The hypothesis
serves as a basis for the selection of the type and number of measurements to be
performed - including the type and number of NDT-measurements.
A checklist of available standard tests and optional tests will facilitate the planning of
the inspection.
Every single test method might be supplemented with other test methods to confirm
and complete the results of the measurements.
5.1
Visual inspection
A detailed visual underwater inspection of the cleaned areas is always carried out as
the first activity. On paper sketches the cracks (length, width, direction) are marked
as well as areas with spalling, rust stains, disintegration and other relevant observations. The result of the underwater visual inspection is part of the basis for determining the NDT-methods to be used, and the extent of the tests.
If possible, the test plan should be discussed with the rehabilitation engineer before
carrying out the underwater inspection.
5.2
Areas requiring investigation

The determination of areas requiring investigation depends on:
The extent of visible damage (first impression of the condition).
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The size of the component.
The hypothesis for the damage mechanism.
As a rule-of-thumb:
In determining the areas requiring investigation, just as much attention should

be paid to the areas without visible signs of deterioration as to areas with visible
signs (especially in case of corrosion).
Evaluation of the condition in areas with no visible signs of deterioration is more

difficult, but very important, when estimating the remaining service life of the
bridge and the optimum repair strategy.
5.3
Homogeneous areas
On the basis of the visual underwater inspection (level I and II inspections) and prior
knowledge the substructure may be divided into homogeneous areas. A homogenous
area is defined as an area where the present level of deterioration and parameters
affecting the deterioration of the substructure exhibits only a random variation.
Consider for example a bridge pier in saline water. The chloride surface concentration will be large in the tidal and splash zones. The chloride surface concentration will
decrease with increasing distance from the mean water level. In this case it makes
no sense to compare results from different piers if the tests are not performed at the
same distance from the mean water level. To overcome this problem the piers may
be divided into homogenous areas. Tests originating from the same homogenous
area may be treated as coming from the same population e.g. in conjunction with a
statistical analysis.
The division of the structure into homogenous areas also depends on the material
parameters. If for example two different concrete compositions have been used for
two piers in saline water results of chloride measurements from these two different
structures cannot be treated as a whole even though the measurements have been
performed at the same distance from the mean water level.
5.4
Evaluation of test results

When all planned tests are completed, the visual registrations and test results must
be evaluated to see if they form a sufficient basis for concluding the type, cause,
extent, and possible development of the damage. Otherwise, supplementary tests
must be selected and performed.
If the test results do not confirm the hypothesis regarding the cause of damage, the
hypothesis must be revised. It may be necessary to perform supplementary tests to
confirm the revised hypothesis.
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6.
Types of damage
This section includes a short description of the different types of damage observed
for the different causes of damage and for the different types of materials. The
bridge owner is advised to compile and update a database of the most typical damage observed at the level I and II inspections. The content of this database will depend on the type of substructure, the climate, the tidal variation, etc.
6.1
General structural damage
6.2
Damage due to water
6.3
Scour
Ponding of water
Deposition
Debris and vegetation
Difference in level
Erosion
Material loss/disintegration
Silting at culvert
Inadequate size
Damage on concrete structures
6.4
Permanent deformations (deflections/displacement)

Tilt/settlement
Abnormal vibration (too slender structures/insufficient supports)
Water leakage
Loss of friction
Cracks
Spalling
Corrosion of reinforcement
Wear and abrasion
Material deterioration
Impact damage
Fracture
Weathering
Honeycombing
Damage on steel structures
Corrosion
Cracks
Loose connections (loose bolts)
Unintended eccentricities
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6.5
Damage at masonry structures
6.6
Deteriorated stones
Deteriorated joints
Cracks
Unintended eccentricities
Overloading
Moisture movement
Thermal movement
Impact damage
Fracture
Damage at wooden structures
6.7
Impact damage
Fracture
Fungous growth
Rot
Noxious animals or insect pests
Registration of damage
When inspecting the inspectors should pay particular attention to the following components:
6.7.1
6.7.2
Concrete structures
The influence of cracks on the carrying capacity may be harmless at the time of
inspection but some cracks may initiate corrosion that later may be critical. Fine
cracks in reinforced structures may be harmless unless the structure is exposed
to very aggressive environment, e.g. positioned in the splash zone of saline water. Fine cracks in pre-stressed structures are more critical.
Common reinforced concrete structures will not fail without an early warning
such as coarse cracks and visible deflections.
Pre-stressed concrete structures are much more sensitive to damage; corrosion

of cables or failure of anchorage may lead to sudden failure of a structure.
Steel structures
If a welding in high-stress areas of steel structures is not executed correctly,

fatigue cracks may occur at the edge of the welding. A close inspection is necessary to find such cracks. If the inspector detects more cracks at the same type of
weld particular attention should be paid to extend the random samples to cover
larger samples of components with the same positions.
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Connections in steel structures exposed to repetitive loads may fail in fatigue

without any other warning than very fine cracks. Therefore, potentially dangerous details of steel structures should be pinpointed in advance of the inspection
in order to give these details a closer inspection.
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7.
7.1
Damage mechanisms
General
This chapter contains a description of the most commonly occurring damage mechanisms encountered.
The intention is that the description should be sufficient as a guideline to recognise
the damage when it occurs on a bridge, and to evaluate how significant it is.
However, the descriptions in this relatively short manual cannot be exhaustive, and
it is essential that investigations are carried out by experienced engineers with a
thorough knowledge of bridges and damage mechanisms, and a good amount of
common sense.
7.2
Structural deficiencies may be a danger to the structural safety. Therefore, identifying such problems is very important.
Structural deficiencies can be divided into the following four types, which can be distinguished by their appearance:
7.2.1
I. Structural cracks (load induced cracks) in concrete members

Structural cracks can be recognised as cracks with well defined orientation and with
specific crack patterns related to each type of internal forces (bending, shear).
Structural cracks might be a sign of a structural deficiency.
For reinforced concrete (RC) structures, cracks in most cases are not serious. RC is
allowed to crack. The crack width and spacing will indicate whether there is something wrong or not, taking the specific type of load and type of reinforcement into
consideration. Coarse cracks are an indication of over-load and/or under-design.
7.2.2
II. Excessive/unintended deflections and movements

Examples:
Settling of foundation (possible causes: poor soil condition, scour).
Horizontal movements of retaining walls and wing walls (possible causes: low
stiffness, creep, compaction of back fill, soil condition, under-design).
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7.2.3
III. Fracture/crushing
Examples:
Local crushing at supports/bearings (possible causes: honeycombs, wrong positioning of bearings and/or reinforcement, overload, inadequate initial load bearing capacity).
7.2.4
Columns (possible causes: impact during flooding).
IV. Structural Problems, Steel Components

Examples:
Fatigue cracks at welded connections.
Brittleness due to ageing and cold brittleness.
Buckling of compression members.
Eccentricities in welded connections.
In the following sections, selected examples from the four groups of structural deficiencies are shown.
7.2.5
Structural Cracks in Concrete Members

Types of Structural Cracks
From a structural point of view, it is important to distinguish structural cracks from
the non-structural cracks caused by concrete shrinkage etc.
Pure Tension
All cracking in concrete members is caused by tensile stresses (concrete has a low
tensile strength, but high compressive strength). Therefore it is obvious to consider
pure tension as the basic case.
In a reinforced prismatic concrete beam subjected to pure tension, cracks formed

will cross the whole cross section.
An increase/jump in the steel stress will suddenly arise at the crack, when the cracks
are formed. This affects the bond between the concrete and the bar in a certain zone
(slip distance l0) around the cracked section, so that no shear stresses can be transferred, see Figure 7-1.
Between the cracks, the steel stresses will be lower due to the effect of the surrounding uncracked concrete (this is called tension stiffening).
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Figure 7-1: Tension crack / bond slip.
The crack width has its minimum at the rebar and increases with the distance from
the bar, see Figure 7-1 and Figure 7-2.
This variation is one of the reasons for the statistical scattering of measured crack
widths, which for an example is greater for slabs with larger rebar spacing than for
beams with close rebar spacing.
Figure 7-2: Variation in crack width.
7.2.6
Structural Cracks, Examples

In the following pages, some further examples are shown.
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Columns and Piers

Eccentricities between piles in pile bents - out of plane - may introduce considerable
bending moments and under extreme circumstances lead to collapse.
Figure 7-3: Eccentricity in pile bent.

Compression failure in a column will have the same appearance as a compression
failure in a test cylinder in the laboratory.
Figure 7-4: Compression failure.
Figure 7-5: Cap beam.
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Pier Caps, Cap Beams
Figure 7-6: Pier cap.
7.3
Non-Structural Cracks in Concrete

These cracks are divided into four groups:
7.3.1
Shrinkage cracks (due to drying) (see below)
Thermal cracks (due to hydration) (see page 7-6)
Cracks due to plastic shrinkage (see page 7-6)
Cracks due to plastic settlement (see page 7-8)
Shrinkage cracks (due to drying)

The appearance and development of shrinkage cracks depend on the geometry, the
size of the member and possible restraints. The crack orientation is normally well
defined and depends on the geometric conditions (e.g. restraints caused by other
parts of the structure). Drying shrinkage cracks pass through the whole cross section.
Normally, these cracks are harmless from a structural point of view. But they may be
harmful with regard to durability.
Some examples are shown below.
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Figure 7-7: Geometric conditions.
Figure 7-8: Shrinkage cracks, abutments.
7.3.2
Thermal Cracks (due to hydration)

The appearance of thermal cracks caused by thermal stresses due to temperature
differences in the hardening concrete is very similar to the appearance of ordinary
shrinkage cracks (geometric conditions).
However, different from ordinary shrinkage cracks and structural cracks, thermal
cracks are young cracks (developed in the young concrete). This means that the
cracks will follow the surface of the coarse aggregates and stones, and not go
through them.
7.3.3
Cracks due to plastic shrinkage

Plastic shrinkage cracks are caused by rapid drying of the concrete surface (low humidity, wind, high temperature) in its plastic state (e.g. caused by improper curing).
Similarly to the temperature cracks, the cracks will follow the surface of the stones,
not go through them.
The cracks are normally wide and shallow and may form a definite pattern. In cases
of a wide surface (concrete wearing course or similar), a state of hydrostatic tension
will arise (no shear stresses). If there is no crack "guidance", the crack will be
formed "at random" and the appearance will be a net crack pattern, in most cases
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with hexagonal meshes. Typical crack patterns caused by plastic shrinkage are
shown in Figure 7-9-Figure 7-11.
Plastic shrinkage cracks are normally harmless from a structural point of view (although wide cracks may influence the load carrying capacity and the behaviour under service load), but may be harmful to durability.
Figure 7-9: Parallel at random.
Figure 7-10: Skewed at random.
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Figure 7-11: Hexagonal mesh.
7.3.4
Cracks due to plastic settlement

Normally, these cracks are due to a high concrete slump when cast.
The appearance and position of these cracks is normally above the reinforcement at
the surface, refer Figure 7-12, or at changes in the cross section, refer Figure
7-13. Plastic settlements are also seen in slabs with voids.
Normally, the cracks are harmless from a structural point of view, but may be very
harmful with regard to durability. This is because the bars are not sufficiently protected against environmental effects (the cracks often reach the bars).
Figure 7-12: Plastic settlement at rebars.

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Figure 7-13: Plastic settlement in slab with voids and slab/girder.
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7.3.5
Initiation of Corrosion
In the highly alkaline environment in concrete (pH-value close to 13) the anodic
steel surface becomes coated with a very thin grey passive layer of ferric oxide. The
ferric oxide is stable over a wide range of potentials and so acts as a protective coating. Thus, reinforcement is protected against corrosion when embedded in a concrete
of a good quality and with a sufficient cover.
But, the protection against corrosion is not everlasting. The surroundings will always
affect the concrete and finally lead to a breakdown of the passive layer. The breakdown of the passive layer may be caused by free chlorides at the reinforcement or
by carbonation of the concrete cover. These mechanisms are described in the following sections. However, corrosion depends on moisture content and the availability of
oxygen and therefore of the rate at which oxygen diffuses through the concrete.
The period during which the passive layer breaks down is normally called the period
of initiation.
The duration of the initiation period depends on:
The thickness of the concrete cover; the thinner the cover, the shorter is the
period of initiation.
The quality of the concrete cover (primarily water/cement ratio dependent); i.e.
the initiation period decreases when the concrete quality gets poorer (the water/cement ratio increases). In special cases (honeycombs, "cold joints", too
small cover), poor workmanship can lead to corrosion immediately after casting.
The aggressiveness of the environment, the temperature and the humidity.
The kind of mechanism causing deterioration. Chloride penetration is by far the

most aggressive mechanism, leading to a much shorter initiation period than the
mechanism of carbonation (chloride ions facilitate the corrosion process).
During the period of initiation there is no actual corrosion going on. The protection of
the reinforcement is being broken down with no visible signs of deterioration, neither
on the surface of the concrete nor on the reinforcement.
Therefore:
The risk of future corrosion damage can only be assessed by performing special investigations.
Four steps of corrosion of steel in concrete may be defined as:
1.
The passive state.
2.
Pitting corrosion.
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3.
General corrosion.
4.
Active low potential corrosion.
These relate to corrosion as an electrochemical process which requires a potential

difference between two connected electrodes in an electrolyte. In concrete the electrodes may be neighbouring points on the same reinforcing bar, or separate bars or
groups of bars which have a potential difference between them.
7.3.6
Carbonation
Carbonation is caused by the carbon dioxide (CO2) in the air. The CO2 reacts with the
calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2, in the cement paste eventually leading to a critical decrease of the alkalinity. The pH-value decreases to less than 9, which normally is
insufficient to protect the reinforcement against corrosion.
The reaction in which calcium hydroxide is converted to calcium carbonate is as follows:
Ca(OH)2 + H2CO3 CaCO3 + 2H2O
3CaO2SiO23H2O + 3CO2 3CaCO32SiO23H2O
These reactions consist of the following elementary steps:
1. The diffusion of atmospheric CO2 in the gaseous phase of the concrete pores.
2. The dissolution of solid Ca(OH)2 from cement gel into the pore water and the
diffusion of dissolved Ca(OH)2 from regions of highly alkalinity to those of low.
3. The reaction of dissolved CO2 with dissolved Ca(OH)2 in the pore water.
4. The reaction of dissolved CO2 with CSH.
The effective diffusivity, De, CO2, of CO2 in concrete is given by the following empirical expression:
De ,CO2
RH
= 2.1 10 p1
100
2.2
Where p is the porosity of the hardened cement paste and RH is the ambient relative
humidity.
The speed of the reaction will depend on the rate of removal of water formed. In
other words, carbonation depends on a drying atmosphere and are impeded in the
presence of water. On the other hand dry CO2 does not react with dry Ca(OH)2 so
the presence of moisture is essential to the carbonation process. The optimum moisture content for carbonation is intermediate between 40 and 70 % relative humidity.
An increase in temperature with 10 oC will approximately double the speed of the
reaction. Carbonation of concrete results in increased strength and reduced permeability, possible because water released by carbonation aids the process of hydration
and CaCO3 reduces the voids within the cement paste.
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The carbonation depth in concrete, x in mm, is given by the following empirical

equation:
x= K T
where
x = carbonation depth
K = constant
T = time
When x is measured in mm and T in years, the value of the constant K can be estimated as the following in air at 50 % relative humidity:
K = 72
0.126 , where fc is the concrete strength in MPa.
f
If the relative humidity in the pores of the concrete is different from 50%, K must be
multiplied by a factor < 1, dependent of the humidity. See Figure 7-14.
Figure 7-14: Depth of carbonation in relation to humidity.

Example:
Compressive strength: 20 MN/m2
Age of structure:
25 years
Relative humidity: 65 % RH
K = 72
- 0.126 = 7.03
20
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K must be multiplied by 0.95 (Figure 7-14, RH = 65%). An estimate of the carbonation depth will be:
x = 0.95 x 7.03 25 33 (mm)

If the actual carbonation depth and the concrete cover are measured on site, a prediction of the time until initiation of corrosion can be made:
x= K T
K=x / T
c= K T1
2
2
2
c T
c
=T
T1= = c
K x
x
where:
x
c
K
T
T1
=
=
=
=
=
the actual depth of carbonation (mm, measured on site)

cover (mm)
constant
age of the concrete (years)
period of initiation (years)
Example:
Carbonation depth, measured:
Concrete cover, measured:
Age of the concrete:
x = 25 (mm)
c = 35 (mm)
T = 20 (years)
Initiation of corrosion is estimated to begin when the structure is T1 years old:

2
35
T 1 = 20 39(years)
25
7.3.7
Chlorides
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Chloride induced reinforcement corrosion is in many areas considered the main durability problem for reinforced concrete structures. The amount of chloride necessary
to initiate reinforcement corrosion (the critical chloride concentration or the threshold
value) depends, among others, on the composition of the concrete and the moisture
content of the concrete, see Figure 7-15.
Figure 7-15: Critical chloride content as a function of relative humidity.

Chlorides in the concrete may originate from various sources:
the mix water,
the aggregates,
admixtures
curing water,
surrounding soil (from which chlorides are washed out in wet periods),
de-icing salt (in cold areas),
in coastal areas from the seawater (reaching the concrete directly or air-borne in
windy periods).
In general, most of the chlorides contained in fresh concrete ("initial chlorides", i.e.
chlorides from mix water, aggregates and some from the curing water) will be
chemically bonded during the hardening of the concrete.
Bonded chlorides are not regarded as harmful while remaining bonded, as they are
not breaking down the passive layer on the steel.
Threshold Value
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The threshold value is the chloride value where the chloride concentration is so large
that corrosion occurs in the solution can be approximated as follows:
C Cl
= 0.61
C OH
Where CCl and COH is the concentrations of hydroxide and chloride ions in equivalents
per litre, respectively.
The hydroxide concentration can be calculated as follows:
C OH
c ( Na ) c (K )
+
23
39 100
=
P
Where c is the cement content (kg/m3), (Na), (K) is the weight share Na and K respectively in cement, and P is the porosity of the concrete in % by volume.
Normally, there are strict requirements to the maximum chloride content of fresh
concrete. Further more sufficient protective properties of the cover (denseness and
cover thickness) should be selected considering the environmental exposure. If the
desired protective properties of the cover cannot be obtained, additional protective
means need to be applied.
Diffusion of chlorides into concrete
Ingress of chlorides may take place by:
Capillary suction or permeation of water containing chloride.

Diffusion of chloride ions in the pore liquid.
Based on Ficks 2nd law diffusion of chlorides into concrete can roughly be described
by the following two equations:
x = Kx T
(1)
C x = C s (C s C i ) erf
2 D T
Where:
x
=
Kx
=
T
=
Cx
=
Cs
=
=
Ci
Erf
=
D
=
(2)
depth below concrete surface (mm)

constant
age of concrete (years)
chloride content at depth x
chloride content at the concrete surface
initial chloride content
Error function
diffusion coefficient (mm2)
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The chloride diffusion coefficient of ordinary Portland cement concrete (w/c > 0.4) in
a Danish environment may be obtained form the following equation:
[mm2/year]
D = 2000 (w/c 0.35)
The Error function takes the following values.

x
erf(x)
erf(x)
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0
0.122
0.223
0.329
0.428
0.521
0.604
0.678
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
2.0
2.4
0.742
0.797
0.843
0.910
0.952
0.976
0.995
0.999
Based on measurements of the chloride profiles in the concrete, the different parameters can be calculated giving a prediction of the time until corrosion occurs.
The calculations will be similar to the calculations regarding carbonation.
A typical chloride content profile looks as follows:
Figure 7-16: Chloride content profile.

In this example, the initial chloride content has been approximately 0.02 %.
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A prediction of the service life depends on the knowledge of a critical chloride level.
Each structure is supposed to have its own critical limits, because the limit is dependent on various factors such as humidity and concrete quality.
As a preliminary assumption, 0.05 % of dry concrete weight can be used as the critical limit in normal concrete. For piers in seawater a value of 0.10 % of dry concrete
in normally used.
7.3.8
Carbonation and Chlorides

For concrete with a high initial content of chlorides, the chemically bonded chlorides
in front of the carbonation front will be freed.
Since carbonated concrete provides almost no resistance against chloride penetration, the chlorides will be break through the carbonation front (diffusion).
Therefore, the chloride content will increase constantly behind the carbonation front
when the carbonation front is moving into the concrete, leading to corrosion when
the critical limit of chloride content is reached at the reinforcement.
A typical chloride content profile in a concrete with a carbonation depth of approximately 30 mm is as follows:
Figure 7-17: Chloride content profile with carbonation.

If this mechanism takes place together with alternating wetting and drying in a chloride contaminated environment, the corrosion process can run very fast (e.g. in tidal
waters).
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A simple method for evaluating the chloride penetration from outside is, in this
case, to ignore the carbonated concrete layer. The thickness of the carbonated layer
can be calculated from the previous mentioned equations.
7.3.9
Propagation of Corrosion
When the chloride content at the reinforcement level reaches the critical limit or the
carbonation front reaches the reinforcement, the passive layer is broken down and
the corrosion process starts.
A corrosion process is an electrochemical process, where a current runs between
corroding areas (the anodes, where the passive layer has been broken down) and
non-corroding areas (the cathodes, where the passive layer is complete).
The current runs due to the theoretical fact of the behaviour of metals in liquids and
concrete, see Figure 7-18. If two metals with different electrochemical potential are
electrically connected, corrosion is likely to take place on the metal with the lowest
potential.
Therefore, the risk of corrosion can be evaluated by measuring the potentials (HCPmeasurements, see Chapter 8.14).
Figure 7-18: The electrochemical series.

When the passive layer breaks down locally, the area changes its place in the electrochemical series becoming more negative. This creates a potential difference,
which generates the corrosion current.
Where the passive layer is broken, the following "anodic reaction" takes place.
Anodic reaction:
Fe -> Fe++ + 2e-
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If water and oxygen is present at the steel surface, the "cathodic reaction" takes
place.
Cathodic reaction:
O2 + 2H2O + 4e- -> 4OH-
The anode and the cathode may be far apart, as long as there is an electric connection between them.
The anodic process produces electrons, and the cathodic process consumes electrons. If there is an electric (through the reinforcement) and electrolytic (through the
moist concrete) connection between the anode and cathode, an electric current will
flow.
The corrosion process is illustrated in Figure 7-19.
Figure 7-19: The corrosion process.

7.3.10
Corrosion products and corrosion rate

The Fe++ reacts with oxygen, OH- and water, forming corrosion products. The type of
corrosion products produced primarily depends upon the available amount of oxygen
and water.
If there is little available oxygen, the first products will be white Fe(OH)2.
These white products may be transformed into black FeO and water. This type of
corrosion product is typical for local, chloride initiated corrosion.
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If oxygen is added to FeO, black Fe3O4 may be formed. Fe3O4 is not expansive, so
there are not necessarily any exterior signs of corrosion.
If water and oxygen become available to the white Fe(OH)2, the products turn via a
green intermediate stage into brown Fe(OH)3.
If additional water is available, expansive yellow/red/brown Fe(OH)3,nH2O (rust) is
formed.
If oxygen is plentiful, the expansive yellow/red/brown Fe(OH)3,nH2O (rust) is formed
without any intermediate stages. This type of corrosion product is typical of carbonation initiated corrosion in porous concrete.
The development of the corrosion attack and the velocity of the process primarily
depend upon:
The temperature.
The ratio between corroding and non-corroding areas.
The moisture content.
As for most chemical reactions the corrosion rate increases with increasing temperature.
If the area of the anode is small compared to the area of the cathode (Aa/Ac << 1)
the corrosion rate will be high, because the corrosion takes place in a small area
(local corrosion).
The process of local corrosion normally leads to corrosion products, which are black,
non expansive and liquid-like. This means that local corrosion cannot be expected to
give visible signs of corrosion on the surface. Local corrosion is hidden corrosion
where serious attacks can be developed without visible signs, increasing the risk of
unexpected collapse.
In case of chloride attack, the chloride ions facilitate the formation of Fe++, thus
increasing the corrosion rate. As chloride initiated corrosion normally starts as local
corrosion, a considerable reduction of cross section of a steel bar may take place
within a short time and without visible signs on the concrete surface.
A ratio between anode area and cathode area, Aa/Ac approx. 1, gives what is called
general corrosion. This type of corrosion leads to the well-known yellow/red/
brown corrosion product, which quickly gives rise to visible signs of corrosion
(spalling of the concrete, cracks, rust stains).
The corrosion rate depends on the moisture content and the electrolytic contact between anode and cathode. The RH % below refers to the moisture content in the
pores of the concrete at the anode area (the electric resistance at the anode is decisive for the corrosion current, and the resistance drops with increasing moisture con-
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tent. In outdoor concrete there will normally be sufficient water for the cathode
process). The moisture content in the concrete in average over a year can be different from the RH % in the air, especially in case of the presence of chlorides in the
concrete.
At RH % less than 80, the corrosion rate is negligible. Normally the corrosion rate
drops at RH above 95% and reaches 0 at RH = 100%. See. But if there is electric
contact to areas with less moisture content, a cathode may be formed in this area
and the corrosion rate will increase.
Figure 7-20: Corrosion rate in relation to humidity.
This may be the case when a column is partly submerged in saturated soil. Corrosion
may take place at an anode area below ground (RH=100%), because the cathode
process takes place above ground at a lower humidity.
The two types of corrosion can normally be located at different places in the structure.
7.3.11
Local/general corrosion
Local Corrosion (giving no visible signs on the surface) is typically located:
at restrained cross-sections (max. negative bending moment), e.g. brackets and

cantilever decks,
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at construction joints and cracks in concrete with high content of chloride and
moisture,
in concrete with a high initial content of chloride.
General Corrosion (giving visible signs at the surface) is typically located:
in concrete of poor quality, especially in the cover concrete;
in concrete with insufficient thickness of the cover;
in concrete, where alternating wetting and drying takes place, such as horizontal
surfaces (especially soffits) and vertical surfaces above sea- or ground level.
In practice, most structures (except structures submerged in water or saturated soil)

will be exposed to both wetting and drying.
In the early phase, corrosion will normally develop as local corrosion. In the later
phase, general corrosion follows with evident signs of corrosion at the surface. In
structures with corrosion caused by chlorides, the corrosion (i.e. the reduction of
cross section) will normally be critical in the later phase.
Two typical cases of corrosion (column and wing wall) are described in the following.
Figure 7-21: Example 1, pier column.
7.3.12
Pier column
1)
Areas with the risk of local corrosion especially in constantly wet and chloride
contaminated concrete. In concrete exposed to alternating wetting and drying,
the corrosion product will expand causing cracks and spalling of the cover.
2)
General corrosion, mainly caused by carbonation. The corrosion will develop

slowly, but visible damage will appear at an early stage.
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3)
Areas at risk of local corrosion. The lack of oxygen does not prevent corrosion
as the cathodic process will take place at the steel areas above ground level.
The corrosion rate can be very high.
In general, most of the chlorides contained in fresh concrete ("initial chlorides", i.e.
chlorides from mix water, aggregates and some from the curing water) will be
chemically bonded during the hardening of the concrete.
Bonded chlorides are not regarded as harmful whilst remaining bonded, as they are
not breaking down the passive layer on the steel.
Diffusion of chlorides into concrete can roughly be described by the following two
equations:
x= K x T
(1)
C x = C s - ( C s - C i ) erf 0.5 x / TD
(2)
Figure 7-22: Example 2, Wing walls.
7.3.13
Wing walls / retaining walls

Wing walls may suffer from several types of corrosion attack:
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1)
At ground level and below, the conditions are similar to those of a column.
2)
At the top, there is a risk of very high chloride content originating from surface
water running from the overpassing road and the slopes (through chloride
contaminated soil) to the top and the upper part of the back side of the wall.
Due to alternating wetting and drying, visible signs of corrosion of the reinforcement are seen as vertical splitting at the top. This splitting causes easier
access to water, which increases the rate of the corrosion process, etc.
3)
On the backside of the wall, there may be a constantly high moisture and chloride content level. Even if there is a lack of oxygen, severe corrosion may occur. (The situation is similar to that of a column footing).
4)
At the front of the wall, the chloride content may be very high, because saline
water penetrating from the back side evaporates, leaving chlorides in the concrete.
5)
At all surfaces exposed to the air, carbonation initiated general corrosion may
occur.
Note
Any investigation of corrosion problems on out-door concrete structures has to include an evaluation of:
The actual corrosion level and -activity
The future risk of corrosion
Both in areas with evident corrosion and in areas without visible signs of corrosion
(especially in areas where corrosion normally is expected to take place), the investigation should be carried out as described in Chapter 5.2.
7.4
Alkali-aggregate Reactions
In humid concrete, alkalis from the cement (or from the surroundings) may react
with siliceous aggregate.
The process may briefly be described as follows:
Alkali ions (Na+ and K+) from cement, mix water or from the surroundings (on
bridges, typically seawater or de-icing chemicals) lead to an increase of the concentration of OH- in the water in the pores of the concrete. OH- dissolves amorphous
silicon (SiO2) which may be present e.g. in flint aggregate, producing a gel.
This gel absorbs possible water from the surroundings and expands. Under certain
circumstances the expansion pressure leads to cracks in the concrete, forming a
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crack pattern on the concrete surface. If the reactions take place in coarse aggregate
near the concrete surface, the result may be 'pop-outs'. See Figure 7-23.
7.4.1
Crack Pattern
In general, concrete attacked by alkali silica reactions (or some other deterioration
processes) will expand and crack in 'the easiest way'. This means that:
The coarsest cracks will form parallel to the section with the weakest reinforcement.
Weaknesses in the design of the reinforcement will be disclosed. E.g. very coarse
cracks may appear if a cross section is not (or very weakly) reinforced.
Normally, a system of internal cracks parallel to the concrete surface is formed.

This kind of cracks may be detected by drilling out cores, or by more sophisticated techniques, such as the 'Impact-Echo' method (see Chapter 8 regarding
test methods).
The interaction between internal tension stresses from the alkali-aggregate reactions and from the load induced forces reveals the path of the internal forces
in the structure: The cracks will follow the direction of the internal stresses, particularly clear at concentrated loads. See Error! Reference source not found..
The conclusion on the above damage pattern is that serious carrying capacity problems may occur if the design of the reinforcement is insufficient. (E.g. un-reinforced
sections or too small overlap at splices). If the reinforcement design is good (closed
stirrups, sufficient overlaps, U-stirrups at beam ends, transverse reinforcement at
anchorage zones etc.) alkali-aggregate reactions do not reduce the carrying capacity
considerably.
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Figure 7-23: Alkali silica reactions.

The gel may form drops emerging from the cracks. The gel is soluble in water, therefore on outdoor structures it is washed away by rain. But on indoor structures it
may be seen.
Alkali-aggregate reactions can only take place if the concrete contains alkalis, calcium hydroxide, silica and water see Figure 7-24. It has to be noted that even if
the concrete does not contain enough alkalis the reactions may take place anyway if
alkalis are supplied from the surroundings.
Reactive Silica (e.g. SiO2H2O)
Ca(OH)2
AAR
Water (H2O)
Alkali (Na+, K+)
Figure 7-24: Illustration of the necessary components for alkali-aggregate reactions.

To prevent damage, one or more of the four components must be shut out or limited
to an acceptable level. On existing structures with alkali-aggregate problems, the
only practicable way is to keep water away from the concrete, either by putting up a
shield, or by applying a surface protection (waterproofing, but permitting diffusion of
vaporised water).
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It is not possible to establish exact threshold values, but the following may serve as
a guide regarding the humidity: If the relative humidity in the pores of the concrete
is about 80-95% RH, the gel is solid, and the expansion pressure may cause cracks
and pop outs. If the humidity is higher, the gel is liquid. It will fill pores and cracks
and it may penetrate to the surface, but it will not cause serious damage. If the humidity is lower than about 80%, the reactions are not expected to take place.
On new structures (and on rehabilitation works on existing structures), alkaliaggregate reactions must be prevented by using aggregate which does not react
with alkalis, and/or using cement with a low alkali content and at the same time protect the structure from alkalis from external sources.
If no knowledge is available regarding the reactivity of the aggregates, it must be
determined by tests.
It is very important in preventing alkali-aggregate reactions that a great effort is
made to avoid initial cracks in the concrete (see Chapter 7.3).
The alkali-aggregate reactions may take place for a considerable time (years) before
visible signs of damage occur. In time, the internal stresses have grown to a magnitude that causes expansion and cracking of the concrete. The cracking and expansion go on for some time (years) after which they die out typically caused by lack
of alkalis or reactive material. To evaluate the risk of future development of damage
due to alkali silica reactions a residual reactivity test can be performed see section 8.10.
The deterioration rate may rise considerably if frost/thaw action takes place at the
same time, because freezing water creates internal stresses in the cracks initiated by
the alkali silica reactions.
The only reliable way to identify alkali-aggregate reactions with certainty is by
means of specific microscope techniques in the laboratory (microscope inspection of
thin slices of a drilled out concrete core) see section 8.10.
7.5
Chemical Attack of Concrete and Masonry

Water containing sulphates attacks the concrete or masonry chemically. Further
more dissolved carbon dioxide in the rain water will attack masonry chemically.
Both the ground water and the surface water may contain sulphates. The mix water
may contain sulphates too, if not checked for.
Seawater contains sulphates, and sewage water may contain sulphates too.
Further, sulphates may contaminate the aggregates.
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7.5.1
Acid Attack
Pollutant gases are increasing drastically in the atmosphere. These air contaminants
are usually found in gas form (SO3, HNO3, HCl, O3 and organic acids), in particle
form (H2SO4, NH4SO4, (NH4)2SO4) or dissolved in water as droplets (CH+, NH4+,
HSO3-, SO42-, NO2-, NO3-). They are fairly reactive and may cause degradation on
concrete and masonry. Measurements in Gothenburg in Sweden have shown that
pH-value varied between 3.0 4.5.
Degradation of concrete may occur as the result of the dissolution of the cement
hydration products causing a more porous weaker matrix as a result of internal expansion associated with gypsum formation and its subsequent reactions.
Pure water can dissolve the calcium products (calcium hydroxide) in concrete. Theoretically the hydrolysis of cement paste can continue until most of the calcium hydroxide has been leached away. This exposes other cementitious constituents to
chemical decomposition. The process leaves behind silica and alumina gels with little
or no strength.
The hydrated calcium silicate, which is alkaline, is neutralised by contact with hydrochloric acid water:
2HCl + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + 2H2O
Calcium chloride made by the reaction of hydrated calcium silicate and hydrochloric
acid is very soluble to water. All acids attack concrete, and the cement paste is degraded generally as in the example with hydrochloric acid:
2HX + Ca(OH)2 CaX2 + 2H2O
where X is the acid residue.
Exposure to NOX, while also lowering pH, results in the formation of calcium nitrate
hydrates. The calcium nitrate hydrates volumes significantly exceed those of the
solid reactants; however, these nitrates are highly soluble and readily leached. As a
consequence, the principal durability issue in this regard is the development of a
more porous matrix, in turn, more susceptible to other forms of attack.
Nitric acid will react with the calcium hydroxide and form calcium nitrate:
Ca(OH)2 + 2HNO3 + 2H2O Ca(NO3)24H2O
Exposure to SO2, either alone or in combination with elevated levels of CO2, is likely
to lead to severe disruption. pH is lowered and the formation of gypsum results in
expansion in cement. In addition the subsequent reactions of gypsum with the hydration products of cement result in additional expansion.
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Sulphuric acid will attack calcium hydroxide with the formation of gypsum
Ca(OH)2 + H2SO4 CaSO42H2O
Water containing free CO2 attacks concrete and produces Ca(HCO3)2 which is very
soluble. Without considerations of stoichiometry the following may be described:
H2O + CO2 + Ca(OH)2 Ca(HCO3)2
Or attack on carbonated calcium hydroxide
H2O + CO2 + CaCO3 Ca(HCO3)2
Acid
Reactant
Product
Volume change (%)
Carbonic
Ca(OH)2
CaCO3
11
Sulphuric
(OH)2
CaSO42H2O
123
Nitric
Ca(OH)2
Ca(NO3)24H2O
274
Table 7-1: The changes in the volumes of the solid phases associated with the attack of calcium hydroxide and calcium silicate hydrate by nitric, sulphuric or carbonic
acid.
Rainwater contains dissolved carbon dioxide forming a very mild acid which dissolves
calcium carbonate by producing soluble bicarbonate. Lime mortars will eventually be
destroyed by percolating rainwater because calcium carbonate is their main binding
agent.
7.5.2
Sulphate Attack
Water containing sulphates attacks the concrete in different ways. When sulphate
ions come in contact with the hydration products, a chemical reaction starts. In most
cases, this reaction results in volume expansion.
1. High concentrations of sulphate ions (SO4- -):
SO4- - + Ca(OH)2 + 2H2O ->
CaSO42H2O (gypsum) + 2OH- + volume expansion
2. Lower SO4- - concentrations:
Calcium Aluminate Hydrate + CaSO42H2O ->
3CaOAl2O3CaSO432H2O (ettringite) + volume expansion
3. Most serious: Magnesium and Ammonium Sulphate:
MgSO4 reacts with CaO3Al2O3's hydrate products
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and
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 ->
CaSO4 + Mg(OH)2 + volume expansion
In case 1 and 2, hydrated calcium silicates will be transformed into gypsum and ettringite, which means that the concrete will lose its strength. Further, the cement
paste will expand, which causes cracking and disintegration of the concrete surface
(scaling).
Risk of Sulphate Attack
The risk of sulphate attack depends on the following parameters:
The content of sulphate in the surroundings (seawater, ground water, sewage,

soil). The aggressiveness of water and soil can be divided into three groups:
o
Moderate: water with less than 300 mg SO3/l or soil with less than 0.2 %
SO3.
Aggressive: water with 300 - 1000 mg SO3/l or soil with 0.2 - 0.5 % SO3.
Very aggressive: water with more than 1000 mg SO3 or soil with more
than 0.5 % SO3.
The moisture content of the concrete. The reaction needs the presence of water.
The type of cement. Especially the C3A content of the cement.
Sulphate contaminated aggregates.
The permeability and/or the ability of capillary suction (e.g. from the buried part
of a column to the free part).
The sulphate concentration will constantly increase in the evaporation zone leading to a rapid deterioration. Capillary suction may also lead to a general sulphate
attack on the concrete in the whole cross section.
Possible surface protection of the concrete.
A special case of both sulphate attack and corrosion is seen on partly submerged
structures, especially structures with large dimensions.
Partly submerged structures normally have the biggest problems in the splash zone.
However, if the cover below sea level disintegrates due to sulphate attack, one big
anode is formed under the sea level. The cathode will be the part above sea level.
In structures with large dimensions, a large amount of current flows, leading to severe corrosion attack on the submerged part.
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In masonry sulphate attacks are the most common problem and is due to the reaction between sulphate ions in water solution and the tricalcium aluminate (C3A)
phase in mortars to form calcium sulphoaluminate or ettringite.
The commoner sulphates are the sodium, potassium and magnesium salts, which are
all freely soluble, and calcium sulphate, which is less soluble but will leach in persistently wet conditions.
The sulphates may be present in groundwater and can effect masonry below the
waterproofing and masonry in contact with the ground such as retaining walls,
bridges and tunnels. Sulphates are also present in some types of clay bricks and will
be transported to the mortar in wet conditions.
Sulphates do not attack pure lime mortars as there is no calcium aluminate present
but may have some effect on hydraulic lime mortars.
7.5.3
Seawater Attack
Concretes exposed to marine environment may deteriorate as a result of the combined effects of chemical action of sea water constituents on cement hydration products, alkali silica expansion, crystallisation of salts in concrete, corrosion of embedded steel and physical erosion due to wave action and floating objects.
Direct chemical attack comes from the magnesium salts in seawater. The concentrations may be low but they are sufficient to produce calcium chloride, gypsum (both
soluble) and ettringite.
In the following the action of magnesium and calcium salts are given.
Action of sulphate:
MgSO4 + Ca(OH)2 CaSO4 + Mg(OH)2
Where calcium sulphate can be soluble or solid and may act in a secondary reaction
and produce ettringite:
CaSO4 + C3A + 32H2O C3A3CaSO432H2O
Action of chloride, MgCl2:
MgCl2 + Ca(OH)2 CaCl2 + Mg(OH)2
The action of calcium chloride can result in producing chloroaluminate, ettringite and
thaumasite with large expansions as result:
Chloroaluminate:
CaCl2 + C3A + 10H2O
C3ACaCl210H2O
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Ettringite:
+ SO3
C3A3CaSO432H2O
Thaumasite:
+ CO2 + SiO2
CaCO3CaSO4CaSiO315H2O
Interestingly, in spite of the high sulphate content of seawater, and even with high
C3A Portland cement and large amounts of ettringite from sulphate attack, little expansion is usually present. The deterioration is usually characterised by erosion or
loss of solid constituents form the mass. It has been suggested that the ettringite
expansion is suppressed in environments where OH- ions have essential been replaced by Cl- ions.
Concrete between the tide marks, subjected to alternating wetting and drying, is
severely attacked, while permanently immersed concrete is attacked less. The actual
progress of attack by seawater varies, and is slowed down by the blocking of the
pores in the concrete through deposition of magnesium hydroxide. In warmer environments the attack is more rapid.
7.6
Erosion / Scour
Scour is the erosive action of running water, excavating and carrying away material
from the bed and banks of waterways.
Scour is one of the most frequent causes of bridge failures, mainly because it may
develop to a very large extent within a short time.
If the level of the riverbed has changed significantly in general or around
piers/abutments there is always reason to carry out closer investigations. Note
that there may very well be problems, even if the erosion has not reached the level
of the underside of the foundation. In many cases the load carrying capacity of a
direct foundation is dependent on the pressure (the weight) from the surrounding
soil. And particularly pile foundation depends on the surrounding soil.
Scour problems may be divided into three groups:
7.6.1
General scour
Local scour
Aggradation and degradation are long term changes in the level of the riverbed.
Aggradation is deposition of material, elevating the riverbed, while degradation is the
lowering of the bed caused by erosion.
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Aggradation reduces the cross section of the waterway. This will cause the surface of
the water to rise, and during a flood, the superstructure may be affected by streaming water and debris, causing unintended horizontal forces to the bridge.
Degradation may lead to undermining of the foundation, eventually leading to failure
of piers / abutments and thus of the whole bridge.
7.6.2
General scour
General scour is characterised by the removal (erosion) of material from the whole
width of the waterway. Generally, it is caused by increased water speed. There is no
strict distinction between general scour and degradation, but in general, degradation
is a slow erosion of material over a long period of time (years), while general scour
may take place over a shorter period.
General scour often occurs because of a contraction of the flow of water. It may be a
result of the construction of the bridge, as piers, abutments and embankment slopes
reduce the cross section of the waterway channel. However, it may also be caused
by obstructions or other changes in the waterway, upstream or downstream.
Another possible cause of general scour is mining in the riverbed, i.e. excavation of
sand and gravel.
7.6.3
Local scour
Local scour is scour that only affects a minor part of the width of the waterway. Generally, it occurs where obstructions (natural or artificial) change the flow of water,
creating accelerations and vortex systems.
The occurrence of local scour very much depends on the design of the obstructions
to the water flow (Piers, abutments).
If a scour protection only covers part of the riverbed, local scour may occur at the
edges of the protection. Particularly if the protection is of a solid type like concrete or
asphalt. Open, flexible types of protection (wire mattresses, riprap) are less vulnerable to local scour.
Scour is prevented by:
Minimising the reduction of the waterway cross section caused by the bridge.
Not making regulations of the stream (upstream or downstream) that cause increasing water speed at the bridge.
Giving structures in the stream (piers and abutments, scour protection) designs
that minimise the formation of vortexes.
Protecting riverbed and slopes.

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7.7
Preventing mining (excavation of sand and gravel) from the riverbed.
Corrosion of steel structures

In this part the mechanical corrosion such as abrasion, cavitations, erosion, etc. and
chemical corrosion such as gas corrosion is not described.
This part will describe the type of corrosion that takes place when moisture is a part
of the corrosion process.
7.7.1
If a metal is exposed to water or a solution of water a certain part of the metal is
dissolved by metal ions leaving the surface and making the solution positive while
the electron stays in the metal and makes it negative:
Me Me++ + 2eAs the process increases, the metal negativity increase, and it is more and more
difficult for the positive ions to leave the metal surface and dissolve. At the end the
process stops and a equilibrium is achieved. In this condition of equilibrium ions are
send from the metal into the solution and back again into the metal as:
Me++ + 2e- Me
The potential difference between metal and solution when the same amount of metal
atoms is dissolved and ions precipitated per time unit is called the equilibrium potential. The metals mutual inclination to reaction is described in electrochemical series,
see Table 7-2.
The metals ability to corrosion in a practical situation depends on the metals ability
to create dense oxide layers and of the solution they are exposed against. To give an
overview of the corrosion tendencies in a specific environment galvanic series is sat
up. In Table 7-2 metal exposed to seawater are put in a galvanic series.
The potential difference between two metals in a series shows how dangerous it is to
connect the metal to each other. The metal with the lowest potential will corrode.
The metal will stop dissolve when equilibrium is reached. However if the electron is
removed from the metal gradually the dissolution of the metal will continue and the
metal corrodes. The recipient of the electron is called an acceptor or calls it an oxidation or depolarisation.
The normal electron acceptor is oxygen that causes the formation of hydroxyl ions.
In acid solutions is H+ acceptor. Seldom more cathodic metal acts as electron acceptor.
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Oxygen acts as electron acceptor by creation of hydroxyl ions with the free electron
and water. The formed OH- reacts with the free Me++ and will create rust products.
For instance if we look at corrosion of iron in water:
The iron reacts with the following process:
Fe Fe++ + 2e- (anode process)
From the atmosphere the water uptake oxygen and together with the free electron is
created hydroxyl ions:
2H2O + O2 + 4e- 4OH- (cathode process)
Fe++ from the anode process and OH- from the cathode process creates Fe(OH)2.
This product is not stabile in oxidise atmosphere; it is oxidised further to the readbrown Fe(OH)3 which is able to uptake water and create rust Fe(OH)3nH2O. It is the
last created product that result in the typical read-brown colour of the rust.
Iron is stable as long as the air relative humidity is below 65 %. Over 65 % will the
water film, which is on the surface, be so thick that it is able to act as an electrolyte.
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Water Drop
Steel
Figure 7-25: As example on the rust creation we will look on a water drop on a steel
surface. The water drop will result in visible rust after a few hours. The rust will be
formed ring shaped around blank steel. This due to the following:
The water drop will dissolve oxygen for the atmosphere, however in the marginal
zone where the water layer is thin the oxygen reach the steel very fast and act as an
electron acceptor according to the cathode process. Inhomogeneities in the steel
surface result in a certain area to be come anode and dissolve Fe++ while the remaining e- runs though the steel and leaves it near the marginal zone where it is up
taken by the acceptor. The circuit is working and the steel corrodes anodic in the
centre and a rust ring of iron hydroxide is created around the anode area. The rust
ring will grow to a rust hillock that will cover the blank anode. Be aware that oxygen
is necessary for the process to continue but no corrosion takes place where the oxygen is supplied.
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Electrochemical series
Galvanic series
Metals in sea water
Anodic
Thermodynamic series
Metal/Cation
Normal potential in
volt at 25 C
against hydrogen
electrode
Metal
Potential in volt
at 20-25 C
against hydrogen
electrode
Mg/Mg++
-2,34
Magnesium
-1,4
Al/Al
-1,67
Zinc
-0,8
Zn/Zn++
-0,76
Al alloys
-0,8 -0,5
Cr/Cr++
-0,74
Cadmium
-0,5
Fe/Fe++
-0,44
Steel, cast iron
-0,5 -0,4
Cd/Cd++
-0,40
Stainless steel, active
-0,3 -0,1
-0,25
Copper
-0,1
Sn/Sn++
-0,14
Tin
-0,1
Pb/Pb++
-0,13
Lead
0,0
H/H+
0,00
H/H+
0,00
++
Ni/Ni
++
Cu/Cu++
+0,34
Ni-Al-Bronze
0,0
+0,52
Stainless steel, passive
-0,1 +0,3
Ag/Ag+
+0,80
Silver
+0,1
Pt/Pt++
+1,12
Platinum
+0,4
Au/Au+
+1,68
Graphite
+0,4 +0,5
Cathodic
Cu/Cu
Table 7-2:
Electrochemical and galvanic series.
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7.7.2
Chink Corrosion
A normal situation for electrochemical corrosion is where oxygen concentration cells
create cathode areas on free steel surfaces while the corresponding anode areas with
the dangerous corrosion is hidden in pores, cracks and connections. The attack is
often called chink corrosion or crack corrosion.
Water
Figure 7-26: The principle in chink corrosion is as follows:

Two plates overlap each other, and there is water in the overlaps (in the chink). The
free water surface uptake oxygen and the metal surfaces in the marginal zones become cathodes. In the chink the oxygen have difficulties to penetrate and the metal
surfaces become anodes and is corroded. This corrosion is not visible from the outside and dangerous.
7.7.3
Galvanic Corrosion
If two different metals are in electrical contact in a moist environment galvanic corrosion is created. The more anodic metal releases ions and is corroded.
An important factor in evaluation of the danger of this type corrosion is the ratio between anode and cathode area. If the anode area is small compared to the cathode
area the current density over the anode will be large and the corrosion will be severe. The galvanic series is shown in Table 7-2.
7.7.4
Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion occurs in corrosive environment when the steel is exposed to tension stresses. Often the attacks are not visible and thereby very dangerous.
The stresses may be introduced when the steel melt is solidified, or due to cold deformation of the steel, or due to outer static forces.
The corrosion takes place where the stresses and thereby the energy level is highest.
7.7.5

If the steel is exposed to alternating stresses there are a risk of fatigue fracture of
the steel. This risk is increased when corrosion occurs together with the alternating
stresses.
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7.7.6
Atmospheric Corrosion
Atmospheric corrosion is corrosion on un-protected steel surfaces exposed to the
atmosphere. The air humidity is normally always higher than 65 % relative humidity
that is the limit for adsorption of connected water film and thereby electrochemical
corrosion.
The water films is only a few molecule layers thick, however when there are small
amounts of different salts on the surface, the water film becomes a powerful electrolyte. Some salts, for instance calcium hydroxide is very hygroscope and creates a
water film already at 30 % relative humidity. Different factors influence the risk and
velocity of the corrosion:
Temperature
The corrosion velocity is doubled for every 10 oC increase in temperature.
Air pollution
Both NaCl and other salts from the sea and the content of the SO2 play an important role. The sulphur dioxide originates the volcanic activity and from burning of fossils fuels like coal and oil. The sulphur dioxide creates H2SO3 which is
oxidized to sulphur acid (H2SO4) which increases the corrosion velocity.
In industrial environments the creation of soot is high. The soot contains sulphur
and carbon and due to the hygroscopic properties the soot will be changed to
sulphur acid. Between carbon and steel the sulphur acid is a strong electrolyte
and a powerful corrosion cell is created.
In marine environments the large amount of salts in the air may cause stronger
corrosion than in the inner parts of the country. The salts originate from the sea
where fog and moisture is airborn.
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Corrosion
class
The aggressiveness of
the environment
In-door environment
None
Rooms with relative humidity

lower than 60 %, dehumidified rooms
Insignificant
Non heated well ventilated

rooms without condense,
steel buildings with natural
ventilation
Out-door environment
Heated rooms with relative

humidity more than 60 %
without condense
2
Medium
Changing exposure of moisture with brief condense
Non polluted land atmosphere and similar

environment with low
sulphate acid-base and
chloride pollution
Large
Alternating humidity, severe

condense
Polluted atmosphere,
sulphate and other pollution from industry occurs
Chemical exposure
Not polluted marine atmosphere

4
Very large
Constant moist
Chemical exposure
Polluted marine atmosphere
Submerged
Chemical exposure
In water and in earth
Table 7-3: Corrosion classes defined in Denmark.
7.8
Ageing of Steel
Impact on steel at very low temperatures may result in fracture without any large
deformations as seen at normal temperatures. The brittle fracture form may also be
seen on very old steels at normal temperatures. This phenomenon is called brittle
fracture due to ageing of the steel.
Steels ability to uptake dynamic loading is measured in Charpy s impact-notch sensitivity measuring test. The tendency to brittle fracture is evaluated by carrying out
Charpy tests over a specified temperature interval. The ability is characterised by the
transition temperature. It normally vary from 85 oC for the best steel types to +55
o
C for the poorest steel types. However it should be mentioned that the transition
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temperature is not similar to the lowest operation temperature of a structure constructed with the said steel. The operation temperature depends on the loading,
thickness of the members and the notch sensitivity in the structural connections.
The steel may be aged and hereby the transition temperature is changed. This is due
to dissolved nitrogen in the steel immediately after the rolling which is precipitated
after some time as very small nitride crystals that make the steel brittle. The change
in the transition temperature is approximately 15 oC for the best steels and 80 oC for
the poorest steels. Steel with a low transition temperature have normally lesser tendency to ageing.
Impact ductility according to Charpy-V test
Brittle
Transition
Ductile
Ageing
Transition temperature
Figure 7-27: Example on evaluation of a steels ability to brittle fracture. At normal

temperatures the steel is ductile. Around 0 oC the impact ductility drops to very low
values. This property is described by the transition temperature which may be defined as the temperature where the impact ductility is reduced by 27 Nm.
7.9
Erosion of masonry structures

Erosion of masonry structures is mainly caused by particles in flowing water and
wind, frost attacks salt crystallization and plant root action
Frost
Frost is the principal eroding agent of masonry exposed to normal exterior conditions. Its effect is due to the stresses created by the expansion of water on freezing
in the pore system of materials and thus only occurs in water-saturated or nearsaturated conditions in porous materials. Typical effects are the spalling of small areas of the mortar to form a layer of detrius at the foot of the wall or just general
softening and erosion of the mortar indistinguishable from chemical erosion.
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Salt crystallization damage

Salt crystallization damage is a analogous process to frost attack and is due to expansive crystallization of hydrated salts in the pore structure. Salt crystallization
damage often occurs in warm conditions where the rapid drying of water is causing
the salts to crystallize out below the surface.
Abrasion
Abrasion by particles in wind and water mostly acts together with other processes.
The appearance will normally be of loss of surface and change of colour and texture.
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8.
NDT-methods
8.1
General
The philosophy of a level III inspection is to combine a superior visual assessment of
a substructure (the level I or II inspection) with appropriate test methods to obtain
sufficient information on the condition of the substructure. Location and selection of
representative samples are important for giving accurate conclusions for the entire
structural component considered. The extent of tests must be sufficient for determining the right repair strategy, and for giving a good estimate of the total area requiring repair.
The personnel in charge of the level III underwater bridge inspection including NDTmethods should be experienced and competent in three ways. They should be
knowledgeable on the subjects stated below:
How to carry out the available methods of testing in practice, including how to
operate the equipment.
How to select the right type of test method and the right test locations for different types of damage.
How to interpret the results of the measurements.
The diver performing the test must be knowledgeable on the subject stated below
besides the standard diving conditions see Appendix B, Chapter VIII, Section 3:
How to carry out the available methods of testing in practice, including how to
operate the equipment.
The test methods can be divided into three categories:
The non-destructive survey methods, which are suitable for mapping damage on
large areas of the structure.
The detailed non-destructive and destructive sampling and measurements on

small areas.
The laboratory analysis, which when applied on the samples, provides very detailed and precise information about a specific location.
Normally, the combination of all three categories leads to very reliable conclusions
on mechanisms of deterioration (deterioration types), causes and the extent of dam-
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age. However in most cases, the two first categories of test are satisfactory to conclude upon.
Recording of registrations must refer to a unique numbering system for the substructure. The numbering system must be indicated on a sketch (normally a plan view).
One way to select a numbering system is to use the compass directions, e.g. pier
N1, E1 etc. A clear notation for each face of the piers should be used as well. The
road or railway destinations in the two directions should appear from the plan.
8.2
Visual inspection
The visual inspection (level I and level II inspections) involves using a divers eyes to
look for defects. During the inspection the diver should have contact to the person in
charge of the inspection (above water) by auditable underwater communication
equipment or preferable by underwater video camera and auditable underwater
communication equipment.
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8.3
Ultrasonic testing of steel structures

In the following sections the general principles of ultrasonic testing is described.
When using the equipment for ultrasonic testing of underwater structures one has to
be aware of the following issues:
8.3.1
The transducers and cables must be waterproof.
Couplant gel will often not be necessary.
Water filled cracks will not be detected.
Definition of ultrasound
Mechanical vibrations of different kinds can travel through solids due to their elastic
properties. A good example is a spring, which is tightened at one end. The other end
is able to expand up and down. If it makes enough oscillations per second, you will
be able to hear a sound. This is due to the fact that the air also starts vibrating as
compression waves. The human ear can hear these compression waves, if the frequency is higher than the lowest audible range, which is about 12 oscillations/sec.
The faster the spring oscillates the higher the sound. Over a certain number of oscillations, we are not able to hear anything. We have then reached the upper audible
level, which is about 20.000 oscillations per second.
Sound waves with a higher frequency are called ultrasound waves.
After changing to the use of ultrasound the method became useful in a greater scale.
Ultrasonic waves gives due to their higher frequency and smaller wave length a
much better possibility of finding defects and determine their size and their position.
The vibrations are normally generated by the use of a piezoelectric crystal, which can
be excited by an electrical pulse. See section 8.3.6 for more information about
transducers.
We are going through the two most common test methods, the through transmission
technique and the pulse echo technique.
8.3.2
Through transmission technique

When using this technique you have a transmitter on one side and a receiver on the
other side of the object to be tested. The transmitter sends out ultrasonic waves
either as continuous oscillations or as short pulses, each consisting of a few oscillations. In the last case the pulses are send out with an interval, which is long compared to the duration of the pulse itself. The wave travels through the object and is
then received by the receiver. The signal from the receiver shows the sound energy,
which has travelled from the transmitter to the receiver. If the sound beam hits a
discontinuity in the object, the received sound energy will be less. The signal from
the receiver will then be smaller. This signal can be registered and used in different
ways. For example the signal can automatically activate an alarm, if the sound beam
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FORCE Technology 2006
hits a defect over a certain size, by which the received sound energy goes down under an equivalent fixed level.
The signal can also be registered with ordinary ultrasonic equipment, which contains
an oscilloscope. It is seen as vertical reflections of the signal on the screen at a distance to the right of the deflection on the left side of the screen. This reflection to
the left is called the initial pulse.
The ultrasonic equipment's way of working will be discussed later. If there is a defect
between the transmitter and the receiver, it will prevent a larger or smaller part of
the sound beam from reaching the receiver, which will weaken the signal. This is
seen on the screen as a smaller deflection as seen on Figure 8-1.
A
B
Figure 8-1: Principles of through transmission technique.

8.3.3
The pulse echo technique

This is the most common used technique.
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The principle in this technique is almost the same as used in an echo sounder. A
transmitter sends out a short pulse consisting of a few oscillations into the object to
be tested.
The sound wave travels through the object with a constant speed, the sound velocity, which is always the same in the same material, regardless of the frequency. If
the object is without defects, the pulse continues until it hits the back wall of the
object, from where it is reflected like light beam from a mirror. The pulse then travels back through the object - still with the same velocity - and is received by a receiver. As the pulse travels with a constant speed, the time the sound pulse has
travelled from the transmitter till it returns is equivalent to twice the thickness of the
object. After a while a new pulse is send out, which travels exactly like the first one.
In order to measure the very short time from sending out one pulse till it is received
again, the ultrasonic equipment is provided with an oscilloscope or a digital display.
An electron beam makes a bright spot to travel horizontally across the screen with a
constant velocity from left to right. The movement begins at the same time as the
pulse is send out from the crystal. The initial pulse gives a vertical deflection on the
left side of the screen.
After that the bright spot continues to the right with a speed that can vary from
about
1
200
to 5 times the velocity of sound in steel. See Figure 8-2.
A
B
F
Figure 8-2:
F
F
Principles of pulse echo technique.
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If you adjust the velocity of the bright spot on the screen, to be the same as the
sound velocity in the test piece, it will travel to the right on the screen with the same
speed as the pulse travels inside the object. When it returns to the receiver, the
bright spot has travelled a distance, which is twice the thickness of the test piece.
The moment the pulse hits the receiver, it sends an electrical signal to the ultrasonic
equipment. On the screen it is seen as a brief, vertical reflection of the bright spot.
This is called a bottom echo. The distance on the screen between the initial pulse
and the bottom echo is in this case twice the thickness of object.
Changing the speed of the bright spot on the screen, the distance between the initial
pulse and the bottom echo can be adjusted. You can change it in such a way that the
thickness of the steel object between approximately 2 mm and 10 m can be read off
on the screen.
If the sound wave hits a reflecting surface during its way through the object for example a crack, a part of the sound will reflect back and will be seen as a vertical reflection before the bottom echo. This deflection is called the defect echo. By its position on the screen you can determine the distance from the surface of object quite
accurate, see Figure 8-2. The height and shape of the flaw echoes might give you
some information about the size and type of the defect.
The sending out of a pulse and the movement on the screen is repeated many times
a second. The single instant pictures appear on the screen as constantly shining
lines, which only moves when the probe is moved across the surface of the object.
However, there is a distance between the pulses, which allows the first to die out
before a new pulse is send out. In most ultrasonic equipment it means that a pulse
can move backwards and forwards in a 10 m long steel bar, before a new pulse is
send out.
Figure 8-3 and Figure 8-4 show some common ultrasonic equipment.
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8.3.4
Figure 8-3:
USM 35 and EPOCH IV.
Figure 8-4:
USK 7 D.
Definitions and general terms

Sound beams are mechanical vibrations of every single particle within an object. If
you imagine the object split up into many small particles, which are mutual connected with elastic power, you will generate a wave motion by getting one or several
particles out of balance for example by giving them a shock. Because of the elastic
power the neighbour particles will after a while get out of balance too. The shock will
spread in the object as a wave motion.
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It is characteristic for a wave motion that a transport of energy is taking place, but it
does not result in a transport of substance. Each particle oscillates with larger or
smaller oscillation around their equilibrium, but keeps their position in relation to the
other particles. It can be shown that the oscillations are sinus oscillations.
Wave motions can appear in many different shapes. In the following we will mention
some important definitions and general terms concerning ultrasonic oscillations and
the most important types of oscillations.
Frequency (number of oscillations)
The frequency is the number of oscillations per second.
One oscillation is a movement from a mean position to a maximum through a mean
position to a maximum and back to a mean position again.
The term for a cycle is Hertz or c/s.
And the time used for one oscillation is called a period.
In ultrasonic testing frequencies between 1-6 MHz (megahertz, mega = million) is

often used. For example is the time for one single oscillation at 1 MHz equivalent to
1
1.000.000
sec.
The sound direction is the direction of the wave propagation. It does not have to
merge with the direction of the particle movement. The particles can move in the
direction of propagation or at right angles to the direction of propagation.
Wavelength
The wavelength is the distance measured in the sound direction from one particle to
the next particle in the same mode.
The wavelength is inversely proportional to the frequency that is to high frequencies
you will have small wavelengths and conversely.
The sound velocity
If you call the wavelength and frequency f this equation applies for a wave motion
f x = V = constant
The constant is the velocity of sound in the material and not of the single particle
itself. It tells you how many wavelengths, that is how long a distance, the wave
propagates per second.
The velocity is a quality of the object and for a certain object, the velocity of sound is
constant for all frequencies and wavelengths.
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Types of oscillations
Sound can propagate under various forms:
Longitudinal waves
Longitudinal waves are characterised by the fact that the particle motion is in the
direction of propagation of the sound
Longitudinal waves can propagate in solids as well as in gases and liquids. The audible sound is for example longitudinal waves in air.
Transverse waves
Transverse waves are characterised by the fact that the particle motion is at right
angles to the direction of propagation.
The elastic forces, which make the particles oscillate, are displacement forces. These
forces are not found in liquids and gases, so transverse waves can only be transmitted in solids.
Pure longitudinal- or transverse waves can only be generated inside an object if the
extent is great compared to the wavelength.
8.3.5
Refraction and reflection of ultrasonic waves

Refraction
If a sound beam hits an interface between two different materials in an oblique direction, a part of the wave will be refracted in the surface and continue into the
other material in a diverging direction. Another part of the incident wave will be reflected from the interface. This refraction and reflection happens due to the laws of
optics for the lights refraction and reflection. See Figure 8-5.
V1
Material 1
Material 2
V2
Figure 8-5:
Sound wave passing through an interface.

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Reflection at right angles

If a sound beam hits an interface at right angles a part of the sound will travel
through the interface and continue in the same direction, but with another velocity.
No refraction happens in this case of course.
The other part of the sound will be reflected back from the interface at a right angle.
At the interface between steel and air the reflections coefficient is almost -1 that
means that the incident sound wave is completely reflected and that there is no
sound wave transmitted into the air.
By ultrasonic testing of materials for internal defects the reflected signal will always
come from an interface of this type. Most discontinuities in a material will have an
interface towards the part without a defect, which has the character of an air gap.
Such an interface is a great reflector at air cracks with a thickness down to
1
10.000
mm.
Reflection at an oblique angle of incidence
If a sound wave hits an interface with an angle of incidence i, a part of the wave
will be reflected with the angle of reflection r, as already illustrated in Figure 8-5.
As for a light beam reflecting in a mirror the same rule applies that the angle of incidence and the angle of reflection are equal, that is i = r. Besides this similarity between the laws of light and those of sound waves, there is an important difference
due to the fact that sound beams in solids can be either transverse or longitudinal
and change from one form to the other under certain conditions.
Longitudinal wave
Transversal wave
Longitudinal wave
rT
rL
i
Material 1(solid)
Material 2 e.g. air
Figure 8-6:
Reflection of a longitudinal wave at an interface.
When a longitudinal wave in a solid material hits a plane interface with an angle of
incidence i, a part of the beam will be reflected as a longitudinal wave with an an-
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gle of reflection equal to i. Furthermore a part of the beam will change into a
transverse wave, which is reflected with a smaller angle of reflection (Ut) due to the
smaller velocity for transverse waves (Figure 8-6).
Steel is one of the most common used materials in construction and therefore the
material most often tested with ultrasound.
Below the condition at an interface between steel and air is further discussed. As
mentioned earlier such an interface will reflect a sound beam completely which
means that it is totally reflected.
Longitudinal waves in steel propagate with the velocity VL 5900 m/sec. and transverse waves with the velocity VT 3230 m/sec.
Decibel
On most equipment you have a control, with which you can regulate the gain. This
control is divided and adjusted in decibel (dB). In this way it is possible to measure
and compare the height of different echoes. Such measurements are necessary when
comparing defects, testing for absorption and estimating the size of defects.
8.3.6
Probes
Normal probes
A normal probe generates longitudinal waves, which leaves the probe at a right angle to its contact surface. If the probe is in contact with a specimen, the sound wave
penetrate into it. It travels in straight lines, with a certain beam spread. See Figure
8-7.
Figure 8-7:
Normal probes.
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Construction
A normal probe is constructed as shown in
Figure 8-8 below.
Figure 8-8:
Normal probe.
The crystal must be damped in order to quickly stop the oscillations after it has been
excited, either by an electrical pulse or by a reflected sound wave. In this way the
initial pulse and the echoes on the screen of the equipment are prevented from being
too wide
Dual probe (TR-probes)
The near resolution can be increased considerably by using a probe with two separate crystals one for transmission and one for receiving. Figure 8-9 shows the inside
of a TR- probe.
Transmitter
Receiver
Transmitter
Receiver
Perspex
Figure 8-9:
TR-probes.
The piezoelectric crystal is glued to perspex blocks, which works as a delay line for
the sound. The crystals are placed in a slight angle to the surface of the object, and
turned against one another. Due to that you can detect defects right under the surface. Unfortunately this construction may give spurious echoes from surface waves.
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This can be avoided using a probe where the crystals are parallel to the surface of
the object. In return you have a minor sensitivity for defects right under the surface.
Beyond these common types you have special probes developed for specific tasks
e.g. waterproof types and heat resistant types.
Choice of probe
Normal probes differ from one another as regards to the type of crystal, its diameter
and frequency. When choosing a probe you have to evaluate the influence of these
variables to the quality of the probe.
Below is summarised what to consider when choosing a probe.
Choosing a higher frequency gives you:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The possibility of detecting smaller defects.

Less sensitivity, shorter penetration into the material.
A longer near field.
Smaller angle of divergence.
A better resolution.
Choosing a crystal with a bigger diameter gives you:

1. A better sensitivity, longer penetration into the material.
2. A longer near field.
3. A smaller angle of divergence.
Choosing a crystal of another material you can obtain another combination of sensitivity and resolution.
Angle probes
Angle probes are normally manufactured with frequencies between 2 and 5 MHz and
the angles 35, 45, 60, 70 and 80 for testing in steel. Other frequencies and
angles are available. The angles are always stated in proportion to the normal. See
Figure 8-10.
The probe index is marked on the side of the probe with a line.
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Figure 8-10:
Angle probes.
Construction
An angle probe is constructed as shown on Figure 8-11 below.
Lead
Damping
Connector
Perspex wedge
Crystal
Figure 8-11:
Angle probe.
Between the piezoelectric crystal and the exit point a wedge-shaped middle piece is
placed. When the probe is brought into contact with an object, the longitudinal
waves, generated from the crystal, will travel at an oblique angle to the interface
between the wedge and the object. Here they will be refracted and continue into the
object with a different angle.
If the wedge angle is small, a part of the longitudinal waves in the wedge will continue into the object as longitudinal waves and a part as transverse waves. These
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two wave types will penetrate into the object in different directions, which means
that it will be difficult to decide, where possible echoes comes from.
Due to that the wedge is fabricated with an angle, which is larger than the 1. critical
angle. The longitudinal waves are totally reflected inside the wedge. The final result
is a refracted transverse wave in the specimen.
The shape of the wedge results in quite a lot of spurious echoes on the screen, because a part of the sound beam being reflected at the interface and inside the wedge
will be reflected back and forth and finally hit the crystal.
As shown on Figure 8-11 you can provide the wedge with a crystal backing for absorption of the reflected sound beams inside the wedge. Another solution is to provide the wedge with different saw cuts in order to make the reflected sound beams
not hit the crystal.
If you place an angle probe on a plate the sound wave will travel between the two
surfaces as shown in the Figure 8-12.
Figure 8-12:
Sound beam from an angle probe.
The distance between the place, where the ultrasonic wave enters the plate and the
point where it hits the top again is called the skip distance P.
If you place a probe on other materials than steel with another sound velocity, the
angle will change. Therefore the above mentioned factors can only be used when
testing steel.
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Table 8-1 shows how the angle () changes from testing steel to aluminium, copper
and cast iron.
Steel
Aluminium
Copper
Cast iron
35
33
23.6
23
45
42,4
29.7
28
60
55.5
37.3
35
70
63.4
41
39
80
69.6
43.4
41
Table 8-1:
Angles in different materials.
Field of application
Angle probes are normally used for testing welds and for testing of parent material in
pipes.
Welds are tested for internal weld defects e.g. slag inclusions, porosity, cracks, lack
of sidewall fusion and lack of penetration. Pipes are tested for material defects and
for transverse and longitudinal cracks
Common angle probes can be used on hot surfaces with a temperature up to 70-80
C. You should also be aware of the fact that the refracted angle may change, due to
the sound velocity in the probe and in the object changes with temperature. The
sensitivity of the probe will decrease with temperature, because the attenuation in
the probe will increase.
Check of probes
A probe is characterised by a series of qualities, which is of importance for its function. Before you start using a complete new probe or when you have used a probe a
while, it might be of interest to check that it fulfils the specifications, which are listed
by the manufacturer.
It can be necessary to check the following qualities:
Frequency - sensitivity - resolution - the width of the initial pulse - the width of the
flaw echo and the shape of the sound field. For angle probes you must check the
probe index and the direction of sound.
Most probes have a wear plate called the sole between the crystal and the object in
order to avoid wear of the crystal. When checking the probe you should inspect and
maybe have the sole replaced.
Coupling media
At the interface between steel and air or between air and another solid material or
liquid, you will have an almost 100% reflection of the sound. In practice it is not
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possible to produce a direct contact without air gap between the probe and the object under test, so you will have to place a coupling media between the probe and
the object.
As coupling media are used oil, grease, water, glycerine or wallpaper paste. Oil or
grease is normally used when testing machine elements.
By continues testing of welded seams, you will of financially reasons often use water
as coupling.
Angle probes can be provided with special water coupling so the water comes out in
the middle of the contact surface.
Wallpaper paste is rather thick and therefore ideal when testing on sloping or vertical
surfaces. After finishing the examination you can easily remove it with cold water.
Using water as a coupling in frosty weather can be difficult because it freezes. Adding spirit is an easy and cheap solution. Better, but more expensive is the use of
glycerine, which at the same time spares the hands of the user.
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8.3.7
Examination of rolled, cast and forged objects

Lamination examination of rolled plates and profiles
Lamination examination is carried out with a normal probe or a TR-probe.
If you place a normal probe on a plate with no defects you get a row of echoes,
where the mutual distance corresponds to the thickness of the plate. (Figure 8-13a).
If there is lamination present (Figure 8-13b) the pulse is reflected from the lamination and the distance between the echoes is reduced corresponding to this. The size
of the lamination can be estimated by moving the probe along the edge of the lamination. Normally a lamination is extensive slag inclusions in the middle of a plate,
but sometimes it consists of small slag inclusions, which can be either in the same
depth or distributed in the entire thickness of the plate. From this type of defect you
still have echoes corresponding to the normal thickness of the plate, but between
those you see small echoes from the slag inclusions (Figure 8-13c).
Figure 8-13:
Lamination examination of plates.
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Laminated plate material is rather common. It is very dangerous to use such plates
in welded constructions in places, where pull occurs at right angles to the surface of
the plate. Before welding a fitting onto a plate or a profile, you should carry out a
lamination examination to make sure that the material is not laminated. Figure
8-14 shows what can happen if a fitting is welded on to a laminated plate.
Figure 8-14:
Fitting welded onto plate with lamination.
The laminations arise when inclusions and hollowness from the chill mould are imperfect rolled. A plate will therefore mostly contain laminations in the areas shown
on Figure 8-15.
Figure 8-15:
Areas where lamination often occurs in plates.

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Testing a plate can be done manually with a plate tester as shown on Figure 8-16
or in an automatic ultrasonic testing installation, where the plate is moved past a
row of probes for example 40-80 probes according to the width of the plate. Each
probe scans the plate along a line and the results are registered on a paper slip.
Figure 8-16:
Plate tester with mounted ultrasonic equipment.
The results can be stored in a computer with the specifications from the client as
regards for dimensions and allowable content of laminations and slag inclusions. The
computer then cuts out the plate and distributes these according to order. This system often causes that clients who do not specify permissible content of laminations
and slag inclusions may have screened out plates, which may contain defects.
Testing of rolled profiles for laminations in body or flanges is done in the same way
as for lamination testing of plates.
Another situation where it is important to check for lamination is e.g. where 2 plates
are welded together.
If a lamination is present in the area where you would scan with angle probes the
sound beam will do as shown in Figure 8-17.
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Figure 8-17:
Sound beam reflecting from lamination.
The lamination testing of plates are normally carried out with a nominal frequency of
2 or 4 MHz. Plate thicknesses down to about 5 mm can be tested quite accurate. For
testing thinner plates you must use a higher frequency or TR-probes.
When using a TR-probe you normally look for defect echoes showing up before 1st
bottom echo. You must also be aware that the maximum sensitivity from TR-probes
can be in different depths depending on the angle between the transmitting and receiving crystal. The relationship between defect and bottom echo will vary with this
angle and is different compared to a normal probe.
The permissibly extent of lamination in a plate varies of course with application. If
the plate is to be used to transmit great tractive forces at right angle to the surface,
you must ask for complete lamination free material. For other purposes you may
tolerate smaller areas with lamination.
In order to carry out a lamination examination you need an agreement between the
parties involved. This agreement concerns the extent of examination, the size of
defects and the number of defects according to a normative reference.
Examination of castings
In the production of casting defects like cracks, porosity, and big gas bubbles,
shrinkage and sand inclusions may occur.
Ultrasonic examination of such defects can be done in most cases depending on the
following conditions:
The penetrating power of material structures
Certain materials like steel and aluminium are easy to penetrate for ultrasonic oscillations. Others are more difficult or impossible to penetrate for example grey iron,
bronze and stainless steel. The attenuation of the sound beam is due to the reflection from graphite flakes in cast iron, and from segregation's in grain boundaries in
the other materials. SG-iron is easy to penetrate for ultrasonic oscillation because
the graphite flakes is found in the shape of small balls.
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For some materials the penetration power varies with the cooling rate the material
has been exposed to after the casting. By quick cooling you get a fine-grained structure with small segregation in the grain boundaries and with a good penetration for
ultra sound.
The penetration power of a specimen depends on frequency of the sound wave.
Sometimes you get sufficient penetration power to carry out the examination by
choosing a low frequency e.g. 0.5 MHz. At the same time the lower limit is raised for
the size of the defect, which can be detected.
The reflection ability of defect surfaces
In castings you can find defects with so uneven surfaces that all of the sound is reflected away, which means you do not get a flaw echo. See Figure 8-18.
Figure 8-18:
Casting with irregular casting defect.
Such defects can only be found using the through transmission technique with a
separated transmitter and receiver probe. As long as the receiver detects pulses
from the transmitter the subject is accepted. If the receiver detects nothing, there
must be a defect in the intervening material.
Examination of rivet joints
In rivet joints on steam boilers you can have stress corrosion or caustic breaking
cracks in the plates. The cracks start from the rivet holes and propagate from one
rivet to another (Figure 8-19).
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Figure 8-19: Examination of rivet joints for cracks in plates and rivets.
The cracks can be found with angle probes as shown in Figure 8-19. Cracks with
the same character can arise in the rivet shank itself. They can be found with a normal probe from the end of the rivet.
Spurious echoes
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Besides the direct and expected form echoes e.g. echoes from a back wall, an edge
in a plate, a welding cap or a recess and defect echoes from internal defects in the
object, you can have other echoes as well - the so called spurious echoes. These
echoes arise when the sound beam can be reflected in more different ways inside the
object, making the pulses return to the probe in different sound paths. These sound
paths normally have different length and the pulses do not return at the same time,
which means that equipment registers several echoes after one another. A delay in
time of a longitudinal wave can also be due to the fact, that it has been transformed
into a transverse wave on a part of the sound path, where it has travelled at the
smaller velocity of the transverse wave.
If the sound beam is spread out more than expected or if the subject has another
form than expected, it can also give unexpected echoes on the screen.
Below some common occurring spurious echoes are mentioned.
Examination of long objects with a normal probe

A normal probe is placed on the top or the edge of a long object, which is narrow,
compared to the sound beam. A part of the scattered sound beam will be reflected
from the sides and travel in paths, which are longer than the direct sound path. This
is seen as a row of successive echoes, as shown in Figure 8-20.
When reflecting against the side, the longitudinal wave is split up. A part continues
as a transverse wave, which again is transformed into longitudinal waves after a
later reflection.
Finally the sound beam returns to the probe as a longitudinal wave and you can see
an echo on the screen. Figure 8-20 shows some of the possible sound paths in a long
object. Sound wave 1 gives 1st bottom echo. No. 2 gives 1st spurious echo after a
single reflection of the longitudinal wave on the side. No. 3 gives 2nd spurious echo
after a transformation into a transverse wave on a part of the sound path. No. 4
gives the 3rd spurious echo after repeated reflections of the transverse wave.
All spurious echoes shows up after the 1st bottom echo - and will not interfere with
the examination, if the object has the same cross section over the whole length. If
you on the other hand have recesses or shrinked on bushing, the spurious echoes
will be able to cover possible echoes from defects in more distant areas of the object.
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L = logitudinal waves
L = longitudinal waves
T = transversal waves
T = transversal waves
Figure 8-20:
Spurious echoes after the bottom echo when examining long ob-
jects.
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8.3.8
Application and purpose
The extensive use of ultrasound for examination of welds is due to the fact that it is
one of the most reliable and cheapest ways of getting information about the quality
of a weld. The method has also shown that it is suitable for automation and it is used
for continuous control of welding plants, where large amounts of identical welds are
produced under factory-like circumstances.
For examination of manual welds the ultrasound method is suitable as well. In this
case manual examination is more common and will be described in the following and
which still is a model for the more simplified automatic examination.
When examining a weld it is all about getting a detailed and accurate picture of the
existing defects, in order to record their position and size in a report, which is independent of the used equipment and the team using the equipment. The report
should give the client a satisfactory foundation in order to make his decision on the
quality of the weld.
The ability of a defect to reflect
Because the method is build on the ability of the defects in the weld to reflect the
used sound waves, we will first go through the welding defects common in practice,
seen from this point. The defects can be split into planar defects, meaning defects
which are very small in one direction, but has a certain size in the two other directions as e.g. cracks, lack of penetration and lack of side wall fusion see Figure 8-21,
and volumetric defects such as defects, which has a certain extension on all 3 sides
as e.g. slag lines, slags in lack of penetration, gas porosity and slag inclusions, see
Figure 8-22.
Figure 8-21:
A + B:
C:
D:
E:
Planar defects.
Longitudinal, oblique. E.g. lack of sidewall fusion cracks

Longitudinal, right angle to the surface. E.g. lack of penetration and cracks
Longitudinal, parallel to surface. E.g. thin layer of slags
Transverse, right angle to the surface. E.g. transverse cracks
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The planar defects will reflect the sound waves well, if the extension in both directions across the beam direction is larger than about a wavelength. The reflection
will then happen according to the laws of the optics and a necessary condition for the
defect to be found is the sound beam being either directly or via a close by surface
reflected back to the probe.
The volumetric defects will reflect sound beams more or less scattered. The best
reflections you will get, is from a defect with an almost plane/level surface, which is
at right angles to the wave. That is found on e.g. slag lines and lack of penetration
(Figure 8-22F + G). Less good reflections you get from wormholes, even though
they are lengthy in the direction of the weld (Figure 8-22 H). The worst reflection is
from porosity and scattered slag inclusion (Figure 8-22 J + K).
Figure 8-22:
F:
G:
H:
J:
K:
Volumetric defects.
Slag lines
Lack of penetration
Wormhole
Porosity
Slaginclusions
Examination technique
Because of the above mentioned possible location and orientation of welding defects
the method of testing must be carried out in such a way that as many defects as
possible are found. In a lot of cases where you know the welding method, you can
exclude some defects and simplify the method of testing. For instance is testing for
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transverse flaws not necessary in welding in plain carbon steel with low yield point,
as transverse flaws are very rare.
Butt welds in thinner plates
For this you should use an angle probe placed on the surface of the plate besides the
welding as shown on Figure 8-23. The sound beam travels obliquely into the plate
and is reflected alternately from the lower and higher surface of the plate, so the
beam describes a zigzag path in the plate. An important condition for this method to
work correctly is that the plate is free of lamination, which can reflect the beam, before it reaches the opposite side.
Pos. 2
Figure 8-23:
Pos. 1
Examination of a butt weld with an angle probe.
An effective test for the previous mentioned types of defects needs the following
movements of the probe (Figure 8-23).
Figure 8-24:
Scanning directions of angle probe when examining a butt
weld.
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Calibrating the range and measuring the beam angle is done in the easiest way by
using an IIW-block. You find it in two types, type 1 for angle probes of almost all
common sizes and type 2 for miniature angle probes.
The shape of these calibration blocks are shown in Figure 8-25 + Figure 8-26.
Figure 8-25:
Calibration block 1
Figure 8-26:
Calibration block 2.
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Using a normal probe on the 91 mm distance does the calibration of the range on
type 1, see Figure 8-25. This distance for a longitudinal wave corresponds to a transverse wave having travelled 50 mm sound path. The successive bottom echoes from
the 91 mm distance are used to calibrate the range.
The normal probe is replaced with the actual angle probe. It is directed towards the
100 mm arc, see Figure 8-27 and the maximum echo is found. The probe index point
will be on a level with the mark showing the centre of the arc. The probe index is
marked on the side of the probe. The echo from the 100 mm arc is displaced with
the delay or zero control, until it is placed on 100 mm on the actual range.
Figure 8-27:
Determination of probe index.
Maximising the echo from the 25 mm or 50 mm arc does the calibration of the range
on type 2.
Using the 25 mm arc the first echo is placed on 25 mm with the delay or zero control
and the second echo is placed on 100 mm with the material velocity control, and the
probe in an unchanged position on the block. By using the 50 mm arc the first echo
is placed on 50 mm with the delay control and the second echo is placed on 125 mm
with the material velocity control (Figure 8-27).
Measuring the beam angle is done by directing the sound beam towards the cylindrical drilled hole in the block as shown in Figure 8-28 and find the position of the
probe, where maximum echo is obtained.
On the grade scale, which is engraved on the side of the block, you can read the
beam angle on a level with the earlier marked probe index.
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Figure 8-28:
Determination of beam angle.
The sensitivity calibration is partly done by adjusting the pulser which - depending of
the type of equipment, - can be regulated stepwise in up to 5 different values - or
partly by adjusting the gain of the receiver in dB steps.
Which sensitivity you choose, depend on how big defects are allowed in the welding.
This information you must have and you should have a specification made by the
constructor for the specific welding, which indicates the maximum allowed defects
and how many minor defects is allowed pr. m weld and what types of defects you
can tolerate.
These tolerances can be found in national and international standards and codes or
in specific procedures.
In practice you manage by using a sensitivity calibration corresponding to that of a
well defined, artificial defect like a cylindrical drilled hole parallel to the contact surface and in the same distance as the actual defects, gives an echo of a certain size.
(Figure 8-29).
It is mandatory that the test block is made of a type of steel, which has the same
attenuation as the test piece and that the surface is similar to the test piece as well.
Figure 8-29:
Calibration of sensitivity on a side drilled hole parallel to the sur-
face.
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The test is done with this calibration, so that all defect indications equal to or bigger
than the indication from the drilled hole is noted in the report. It must be noticed
that if a defect lays in a considerable other distance (sound path) from the probe
than the drilled hole, you must adjust the sensitivity again on another drilled hole in
the same distance as the defect. On basis of the above mentioned calibrations and
measurements of the used equipment the location of defect and the marking can be
done.
Moving the probe in the previous mentioned ways tests the welding and the screen is
monitored all the time. All indications, above the fixed maximum, are noted and in
each case you must decide, if it is reflections from excess weld metal, undercut,
backing or other outer limitations. If this is not the case the position of the defect in
the horizontal direction from the probe and in depth is calculated. If a defect is big
compared to the cross section of the sound beam, the limitations of the defect shall
be laid down.
When calculating the horizontal distance and a vertical depth you use different
remedies.
a) You can mathematically calculate the horizontal and the vertical projection of the
read off sound path (s) see Figure 8-30, because the horizontal projection a is
a = s x sin
Figure 8-30:
Locating a defect by calculating horizontal distance "a" and verti-
cal depth "d" according to the read off sound path.

and the vertical projection (d) is
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d = s x cos
8.3.9
Determination of defect size

Introduction
Ultrasonic examination of welds and materials normally involves that the found defects are estimated partly to make sure where the place of reflection is and partly to
get information about the size and type of the defect.
Determination of the size of large defects
In the cases, where the extension of the defect in one or in both directions, measured at right angles to the sound beam, is large compared to the sound beam, you
estimate the size by an acoustic scanning, determining the boundaries of the area,
from where you have the defect indicated.
To get precise information from where to where the defect runs, you use the socalled half value boundaries or 6 dB-drop method as the positions of the probe,
where the echo height has just reduced to half the normal height from a place on the
defect. The limits are determined by displacing the probe either laterally parallel to
the weld direction in order to determine the length (Figure 8-31), or forward and
beckwards at right angles to the weld direction to determine the extension of the
depth.
Figure 8-31:
The length is measured between the half value limits (6 dB-drop).
The accuracy of the defect size based on the half values can be rather good, but
sometimes you get large deviations from the actual sizes.
Decisive for that is both the surface of the defect and the characteristca of the
soundbeam. The method has the advantage of being quick and gives in many cases
adequate accurate and unambiguous results
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Determination of the width of defects is not always necessary, but can be used to
identify the places of reflection close the opposite surface. It is determined by measuring the horizontal distance to the defect from both sides of the weld. As shown in
Figure 8-32 an incomplete penetration will show a relatively wide defect, a crack or a
lack of penetration a quit narrow defect, and large excess penetration as a defect
with a negative width.
Positive defect width
a1
a2
Defect width
a1
a1
a2
Negative defect width
a2
Figure 8-32: A: Incomplete penetration gives great defect width

B: Lack of penetration and cracks in the root give a small width
C: Excess penetration gives negative defect width
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Determination of the size of small defects

When a reflective surface becomes small compared to the cross section of the sound
beam, you will not be able to limit it by moving the sound beam. On the other hand
the amount of reflected energy and with that the echo height will give information
about the size of the defect.
There is however a number of factors, which plays a role, so it is not possible to give
a simple connection between the size of a defect and the echo height you get on the
screen. Factors having an influence on the size of the flaw echo are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Pulse energy
Amplification
Coupling between probe and object
Type of defect, shape of defect (plane, spherical etc. )
The reflecting surface (roughness)
Orientation of defects in relation to the direction of sound
The position of the defect in the sound field, the distance between defect and
probe
The acoustic properties of the object.
One of the most important factors is the type and shape of the defect, which makes
the ability of reflection vary a lot from defect to defect. Also the orientation of the
defect in relation to the direction of sound is of great importance for the size of the
echo.
The significance of the position of the defect in the sound field.
Near field and far field
The size of an echo from a small reflector will generally decrease with increasing
distance from the probe. It will happen in a regular way at larger distances, but if
the defect gets closer to the probe, you will see large variations in echo height for
small changes of distances. That is due to interference, which can occur in the socalled near field (Figure 8-33).
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Figure 8-33:
Schlieren image of sound field, showing near field and far field.
Comparison with artificial defects

As seen from the previous situation, it can be rather complicated to determine the
size of a defect only on basis of the echo of the defect. It is therefore reasonable to
try to simplify the methods to determine the size of small defects. In practice it has
been proved very suitable to use a comparison of the actual indications of defects
with the indications, you can get from artificial defects of known size.
Such defects can be worked out with a well-defined shape e.g. as a cylindrical drilled
hole, flat-bottomed cylindrical holes or right-angled grooves. They must be placed in
reference blocks with such dimensions that the same distance from the probe can be
reached as the actual defect distance in the test piece. An example of such a reference block with cylindrical drilled holes is shown in Figure 8-34. It is also important,
that the reference block is of a material, which attenuates the sound just as much as
the actual material and that the surface is of the same nature, so the same degree of
coupling is reached.
Figure 8-34: Reference block with cylindrical bored holes for comparing echo sizes.
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Such artificial defects are used to calibrate the echo height to a certain height. With
unchanged calibration you carry out the examination and all indications, which
reaches a certain level are noted.
The method of comparison is normally satisfactory for approval control, because you
rarely will have difficulties concerning characteristics, sizes and surfaces of the reference blocks.
One must not forget that such artificial defects normally will represent optimum conditions of reflections and you will in the principle from such a comparison only be
able to find the smallest value of defects.
DGS diagram
If reference blocks with artificial defects cannot be produced or if it appears to be
awkward to use a large number of different reference blocks, you can use the DGS
diagram.
(D = distance, G = gain, S = size)
Such a diagram valid for 4 MHz angle probes of the type Krautkrmer MWB70 - 4 is
shown in Figure 8-35. Here you can read the size of a reflecting surface on basis of
the sound pressure in the reflected sound beam in relation to the distance of sound,
which means the distance between the reflector and the probe index on the probe.
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Figure 8-35:
DGS diagram for a 4 MHz angle probe.
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8.3.10
References
Journals:
Non Destructive Testing.

Applied Materials Research.
The British Journal of Non-Destructive Testing.
Magnafacts.
Materials Evaluation.
Ultrasonics.
INFO, NDT.
Materials Research and Standards.
Das Echo.
Materialprfung.
Technische berwachung.
Schweissen + Schneiden.
Books:
L. Filipozynski and others "Ultrasonic Methods of Testing Materials". Butterworths. England. 1966.
B. Banks and others "Ultrasonic Flaw Detection in Metals. Theory and Practice". Lliffe Books Ltd. London. 1962.
Benson Carlin. "Ultrasonics". McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc. 1949.
J. F. Hinsley. "Non-Destructive Testing". MacDonald & Evans Ltd. London.
1959.
W. J. McGonnagle. "Non-Destructive Testing". McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc. London. 1961.
J. Blitz. "Fundamentals of Ultrasonics". Butterworths. England. 1963.
Non-Destructive Testing Handbook. Vol. I-II. The Ronald Press Co. 1959.
Non-Destructive Testing, Programmed Instruction Handbooks, General Dynamics.
Krautkrmer. "Werkstoffprfung mit Ultraschall". 2. edition. Springer-Verlag.
1966.
Vaupel. Bild-Atlas fr die zerstrungsfreie Materialprfung. I-II-III.
J. Matauscheck. "Einfhrung in die Ultraschalltechnik". VEB Verlag Technik.
Berlin. 1957.
E. A. W. Mller. "Handbuch der zerstrungsfreien Materialprfung". R. Oldenburg. 1963.
Ludwig Bergmann. Der Ultraschall. S. Hirzel Verlag, Stuttgart. 1954.
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Norms and directions:
Stahl-Eisen Lieferbedingungen 072-69. (1. edition December 1969): Ultraschallgeprftes Grobblech.

Schweissen + Schneiden, Heft 6/66. Rudolf Trumpfheller, Technischer berwachungs-Verein, Essen a. V.: Abnahmeprfungen an Schweissnhten
nach dem Ultraschallprfverfahren.
Deutsche Industrie Normen:
DIN 54119. Vornorm Zerststrungsfreie Prfung; Ultraschallprfung, Begriffe.

DIN 54120. Vornorm Zerstrungsfreie Werkstoffprfung; Kontrol1krper 1
und seine Verwendung zur Justierung u. Kontrolle von UltraschallImpulsecho-Gerten.
DIN 54122. Entwurf Zerstrungsfreie Werkstoffprfung; Kontrol1krper 2
und seine Verwendung zur Justierung u. Kontrolle von Ultraschall Impulsecho-Gerten.
ASTM Standards:
A 435-67. Standard Method and Specification for Longitudinal-Wave Ultrasonic Inspection of Steel Plates for Pressure Vessels.
E 317, Part 31. Evaluating performance characteristics of pulseecho ultrasonic testing systems. Rec. practice for.
E 127, Part 31. Fabricating and checking aluminium alloy ultrasonic standard
reference blocks. Rec. practice for.
E 214, Part 31. Immersed ultrasonic testing by the reflection method using
pulsed longitudinal waves. Rec. practice for.
A 578, Part 4. Longitudinal wave ultrasonic testing and inspection of plain
and clad steel plates for special applications. Spec. for.
A 435, Part 4. Longitudinal wave ultrasonic inspection of steel plates for
pressure vessels.
E 164, Part 31. Ultrasonic contact inspection of weldments.
A 503, Part 4. Ultrasonic examination of large forged crankshafts. Rec. practice for.
E 273, Part 31. Ultrasonic inspection of longitudinal and spiral welds of
welded pipe and tubing.
E 213, Part 31. Ultrasonic inspection of metal pipe and tubing for longitudinal discontinuities.
A 531, Part 4. Ultrasonic inspection of turbine-generator steel retaining
rings. Rec. practice for.
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A 577, Part 4. Ultrasonic, shear wave inspection of steel plates. Spec. for.
A 388, Part 4. Ultrasonic testing and inspection of heavy steel forgings. Rec.
practices for.
A 418, Part 4. Ultrasonic testing and inspection of turbine and generator
steel rotor forgings.
E 114, Part 31. Ultrasonic testing by the reflection method, using pulsed
longitudinal waves induced by direct contact. Rec. practice for.
E 113, Part 31. Ultrasonic testing by the resonance method. Rec. practice
for.
British Standards:
BS 2704. Specification for calibration blocks and recommendations for their

use in ultrasonic flaw detection.
BS 3683. Glossary of terms used in non-destructive testing.
BS 3923. Methods for ultrasonic examination of welds.
BS 4331. Methods for assessing the performance characteristics of ultrasonic flaw detection equipment.
Ultrasonic standards:
DS/EN 12062
DS/EN 1712
DS/EN 1713
DS/EN 1714
DS/EN 10160
DS/EN 10308
DS/EN 583-2
DS/ENV 583-6
DS/EN 12680-1
DS/EN 12680-2
DS/EN 12680-3
DS/EN 14127
ASME V Art. 4
Art. 5
VIII Art. 9-3
ADM HP 5/3
General rules for metallic materials

UT of welded joints. Acceptance levels
UT examination. Characterization of
indications in welds
UT of welded joints (technique)
UT of steel flat product (lamination)
UT of steel bars
Sensitivity and range setting
TOFD-technique (sizing of defects)
Steel castings for general purposes
Steel castings for highly stressed components
Spheroidal graphite cast iron castings
Ultrasonic thickness measurement
UT for inservice inspection
UT methods for materials and fabrication
UT examination of welds
Zerstrungsfreie Prfung der Schweisverbindungen
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8.4
Ultrasonic Testing of Concrete Structures

The ultrasonic testing of concrete structures is usually used to evaluate the general
concrete quality, strength and the homogeneity of the concrete. The method is also
used to identify internal flaws and cracks in the concrete structure. However, when
using this test method for underwater structures one must be aware that water filled
cracks will not be detected while water filled voids are poorly detected. Furthermore
the water saturation reduces the measured velocities through the concrete. The
transducers and cables for the equipment must be waterproof for underwater use.
The basic principles of ultrasonic measurements are described in detail in section
8.3. In this section the specific issues regarding ultrasonic testing of concrete structures is described.
By using two transducers the transit time of a sound wave through a concrete structure with a know thickness can be measured see Figure 8-36.
Figure 8-36:
Measurement of the speed of sound through a concrete structure.
The speed of sound is correlated to the stiffness of the concrete and thereby also to
the strength and the general quality of the concrete.
The sound velocity of in reinforcement is approximately 1.2-1.9 times the velocity in
concrete and thus presence of reinforcement will influence the results. To minimise
the influence of the reinforcement the transducers must be placed in between the
reinforcement mesh.
The presence of cracks gives a longer transmission time as the sound wave must
travel a longer way to get around the crack see Figure 8-37.
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Figure 8-37: Illustrations of the influence of cracks and reinforcement on the measurements.
When performing the measurements of the underwater structure is it of great importance to establish a good surface contact between the transducer and the concrete.
Other practical considerations are described in section appendix A11.
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8.5

This method can be used for steel structures. For underwater use a waterproof probe
is used for the ultrasonic thickness gauge.
8.5.1
Introduction
An ultrasonic equipment is suitable for measuring thicknesses and it can be done just
with one side accessible and if the material can generate ultrasonic waves. For uneven or corroded surfaces, it may be necessary to grind the surface at the test positions to make proper contact. Possible rust on the opposite surface does not disturb
the reflections. If steel plates are laminated, the measured thickness will only be the
depth of the first layer.
Bringing a normal probe in contact with the object does the measurement. The distance between two successive bottom echoes on the screen indicates the thickness.
If the range is calibrated using a calibration block with a known thickness you can
read off the thickness of the specimen on the screen.
To achieve the best possible accuracy when measuring you not only read the distance between two successive bottom echoes, but the distance between 0 and the
last readable bottom echo. The last echo shall preferably be placed to the right on
the screen, in order to get the best accuracy, when reading the screen. This means
that the scale must have a good linearity, also to the very right of the screen. Then
you count the number of echoes you see and divide the reading with that number.
The thickness of the object can be measured with 1-2% accuracy.
On new digital equipments one or two gates are used where the measurement is
done at the intersection between the echo and the gate.
If the measurements are used in order to determine the thickness of a number of
components the results are reported in terms of the mean and standard deviation.
Relevant percentiles may also be reported. Such statistical analysis is only possible if
the measurements are independent and if the measurements form a homogenous
population (if a single measurement is performed at each of a number of identical
components).
The major advantages of the method are that it is easy to use and that it produces
instantaneous results.
Normally, a relatively large number of measurements are performed. The measurements may be used to map the thickness of the considered component. The results
may be reported in the form of a surface graph.
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8.5.2
Thickness measurements of steel plates

The thickness of a steel plate can be measured with a normal probe or a TR-probe,
which is placed on the surface. See Figure 8-38.
Figure 8-38:
Thickness measurement of plate.
Before starting the measurements, a contact liquid is applied to the test locations.
Further, the equipment must be calibrated. For common steel alloys, the calibration
is performed by means of test blocks. For unknown alloys (or if you are not sure),
the calibration is performed by adjusting the sound velocity setting of the equipment
until the equipment shows the same thickness as can be measured by a slide calliper
at a free edge.
After calibrating the range of the ultrasonic equipment using a suitable calibration
block for example a 5, 10 or 25 mm thick steel block, you can read off the thickness
of the plate in different ways.
Reading off the position of 1st bottom echo
This method is often used, if the plate has a very uneven surface, which only gives
you the 1st bottom echo. You would normally use a TR-probe. See Figure 8-39.
TR-probe
t
Figure 8-39:
Thickness measurement of uneven steel plate.

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At plate thicknesses below 20 mm, the range shall preferably be calibrated to 25 or

10 mm sound path in steel to achieve the best possible reading accuracy.
Another option is to use waterproof equipment. That means that you can bring both
the transducer and the apparatus with you into the water.
Reading off the position of one of the successive bottom echoes
If more successive bottom echoes turns up on the screen you choose one, which is
placed to the right of the screen. You count the number by counting echoes from the
left, and you read off its position on the screen, that is the equivalent sound path,
see Figure 8-40.
Bottom echoes
1
5
t = s/4
t
Soundpath s
Figure 8-40:
Thickness measurement with successive echoes.
The equipment time base range should be calibrated in order to give you as many
bottom echoes as possible on the screen. The gain should not be greater than corresponding to 1st bottom echo from the calibration block in scale height. This will give
you the most accurate reading.
Digitalised equipment does not need successive echoes because the reading is done
where the gate intersects with the echo you want to use.
Reading off the position of one of the successive bottom echoes, with 1st or 2nd bottom echo on 0 on the scale
If the surface of the plate is covered with paint or scale or if it has just become rusty
or rough, this method should be used. Doing this you avoid measuring the thickness
of the layer covering the surface, no matter if it is stuck to the surface or it is coupling agent on a corroded surface.
Such coatings can result in rather considerable errors. The velocity in for example
water is about of the velocity in steel. A 0.5 mm thick layer of water will therefore
give an error of 2 mm, if 1st bottom echo is read off. The reading of the thickness is
done exactly in the same way as for the previous method.
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You should be aware when using this method that it is necessary to place 1st or 2nd
bottom echo on 0 on the scale before each measurement. See Figure 8-41.
Bottom echoes
1
5
t = s/4
t
Soundpath s
Figure 8-41:
Thickness measurement of plate with a coating.
Todays' digital equipments are using so-called "gates" which means that you do not
have to move 1st or 2nd echo to zero.
You place the 2 gates in order to measure between 2 successive echoes. See Figure
8-42.
Layer
Steel
Steel
Steel
Figure 8-42:
8.5.3
Measuring through a layer with digital equipment.
Special equipment
Thickness measurements can also be done with special equipment, which normally
only are intended for this purpose. They are called thickness gauges and they can
operate with TR-probes or normal probes. The gauges normally give you the thickness in digits but some gauges have both digits and an oscilloscope. Some of these
gauges are capable of compensating for layers. See Figure 8-43.
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Figure 8-43:
Thickness gauge for measuring through coating (left), and (right)

for use without coating.
These gauges are normally calibrated in steel.
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8.6
Covermeter Measurements
This method can be used for concrete structures. For underwater use the transducers and cables must be waterproof.
The cover meter is used to locate the reinforcement in the concrete and to measure
the depth of the concrete cover. The cover meter is often used to locate the rebars
before starting other investigations such as HCP-measurements, core drilling, Capotests, inspection of cables etc.
The cover meter measurement is based on changes in the magnetic field lines/eddy
current. The presence of nearby magnetic rebars will cause changes, which can be
measured by passing the measuring head over the surface above the rebars.
The measuring head is an encapsulated unit containing the search coil. As the coil
windings are directional, the head should always be used with its longitudinal axis
parallel to the expected line of the reinforcing bars. A lead from the head is plugged
into the battery-operated cover meter.
The measurements are performed by performing a vertical and horizontal sweep of
the considered area, see figure below.
The method is generally suitable. Tests have shown that the inaccuracy increases
from 5-10% at approx. 35 mm depth to approx. 15-25% at 60-70 mm depth.
The findings may be reported in terms of the maximum and minimum values as well
as the mean and standard deviation of the cover. The findings may also be presented as a surface graph.
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8.7
Schmidt hammer
This method can be used for concrete and masonry structures. It is most commonly
used for concrete structures. For testing of underwater structures a special rebound
hammer (Schmidt Hammer) can be used. The rebound hammer is mounted in a waterproof housing which contains an electrical pickup to sense the position of the rebound mechanism. The rebound hammer is connected to a data acquisition system
above water where the signals are collected.
For underwater use one must be aware of the fact that water saturated concrete
tends to show lower rebound values than dry concrete. The accuracy is also affected
by the marine growth on the surfaces.
The Schmidt hammer is used for testing the strength of hardened concrete.
The device consists of a spring loaded steel mass that is automatically released
against a plunger when the hammer is pressed against a concrete surface. Part of
the energy is absorbed by the concrete through plastic deformation and part of the
energy causes a rebound of the hammer. The rebound of the hammer depends on
the hardness and thereby the strength of the concrete.
In order to estimate the strength of concrete at least 20 measurements should be
made. The measurements shall be performed at locations where the concrete surface
is smooth. The distance between the individual measurements should be at least 0,5
1,0 m. All measurement shall naturally be performed within a homogenous area.
The actual measurements are made by pressing the Schmidt hammer with the
plunger extended slowly against the concrete surface until the hammer is released.
At the moment of impact the hammer must be held perpendicular to the surface.
The Schmidt hammer should not be used to measure the strength of weak concrete,
fractured concrete and concrete with an uneven surface.
The results obtained using a Schmidt hammer are not as accurate as strength testing of concrete cores drilled from the structure. The method is best suited for scanning large areas in order to divide the structure into homogenous areas, i.e. areas
with different values (levels) of the concrete strength. The compressive strength of
the concrete in the poorest areas may then be estimated on the basis of a more accurate method such as e.g. compression tests on concrete cores.
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8.8
Coring equipment
This method can be used for concrete and masonry structures.
A qualitative assessment of the concrete quality may be obtained by scrutiny of
drilled-out cores.
The right place to take the cores depends on the structure geometry, the condition of
the concrete or masonry, and what information is required in order to determine the
type and extent of damage.
Prior to the drilling out of cores the condition of the concrete or masonry has usually
been investigated on the basis of a visual inspection or some NDT-measurement
such as e.g. half-cell potential, Impact-Echo or impulse response (for concrete structures). In areas where the previous investigations with a high degree of accuracy
have shown that the structure is either damaged or undamaged only few cores
should be drilled out. The majority of the cores should be drilled out at locations
where the results of the previous measurements are inconclusive. The cores will then
provide a basis for an interpretation of the results of the NDT-measurements in
these areas, thereby assuring that the degree of deterioration of the structure is estimated with the highest possible degree of accuracy.
The number of cores depends on the size of the considered area. Normally, about 2 4 concrete cores are drilled out within each area investigated by a given NDTmethod.
Avoid cutting reinforcement bars. To ensure this, locate the reinforcement by means
of the cover meter before drilling.
For under water use, the machine for drilling out the core is normally hydraulic or
pneumatic. Usually, the diameter of the concrete cores is 75-100 mm.
Once the core has been drilled out a photograph of the cores is taken and the location where the core was taken is registered. The location should be registered in
terms of the grid used for the NDT-measurements (HCP-measurements, Impact-
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Echo or Impulse Response), see the figure below. Also registration of the hole left in
the structure (where the core has been taken out) is to be made. Especially signs of
cracking are to be registered.
Once the surface of the core has dried out the core is wrapped in saran wrap and put
into an air-tight plastic bag.
The concrete cores provide very accurate information about the quality of the structure from which the cores were taken. However, it is time-consuming to drill out
cores. Furthermore, a core leaves a defect in the structure from which it was taken.
8.9
Chloride content
This method can be used for concrete structures.
The chloride content in concrete may be determined on the basis of:
Cores (underwater cores are used for chloride tests of the part of the structure
that is located under the water surface)
Dust samples (can be used in the splash zone)
Cores are obtained as described in the section Coring equipment. The diameter of
the cores should be at least 75 mm. The chloride content can be measured on underwater cores.
Dust samples are obtained using a power drill this can be performed in the splash
zone. The power drill should preferably be mounted with a unit for automatic collection of the concrete dust.
The dust sample should weigh at least 15 g. The dust samples are usually obtained
at different depths at the same location usually in steps varying between
10 20 mm (in depth). The number of holes necessary to obtain 15 g dust is shown
below as a function of the diameter or the drill. The holes should be located within a
circle with a diameter of 75 mm.
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It is recommended to measure the chloride content at the following depths from the
surface:
0 10 mm
10 20 mm
20 30 mm
30 50 mm
50 70 mm
The chloride concentration may be determined by the Rapid Chloride Test (RCT) or
by Volhard titration.
The Rapid Chloride Test, RCT, is a fast method of determining the acid soluble
amount of chlorides of concrete in-situ.
Pulverised concrete obtained by hammer drilling of hardened concrete or from a concrete core is mixed with a chloride extraction liquid and shaken for 5 minutes. The
amount of acid soluble chlorides - expressed as weight percent of concrete weight is determined directly by means of a calibrated chloride sensitive electrode connected to the RCT-electrometer.
Volhard titration must be conducted in accordance with a given code.
Both methods measures bonded as well as free chlorides.
Using the dust samples from different depths - the chloride profile is determined by
testing each depth interval.
Examining the profile, the probable source of the chlorides and mechanism of penetration can be detected (curing water, saline soil, seawater, freed chlorides from aggregates, air-borne chlorides etc.).
On the basis of the chloride profile and a mathematical model of chloride ingress
(e.g. Ficks second law see section 7.3.7) the time to initiation of corrosion may be
determined. The critical chloride concentration for initiation of corrosion must be
known. This value may e.g. be estimated on the basis of chloride measurements
performed at break-ups where corrosion has been initiated.
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The results may e.g. be reported in terms of charts showing the chloride concentration as a function of the distance from the surface. The results may also be shown on
the surface graphs of the registered half-cell potentials.
8.10

This method is naturally used for concrete structures. However it has to be noted
that cores of other materials can also be examined in the laboratory both as macroscopic and microscopic evaluations. Underwater cores can be drilled out from the
structure.
Besides serving as calibration for specific NDT-methods (e.g. Impact-Echo and impulse response measurements) the evaluation of concrete cores can be used to determine the concrete quality and composition and to evaluate the cause of damage.
By laboratory investigations of concrete cores the information of the composition,
condition and damage cause can be utilised to estimate the future development of
damage. This information can be used to define the optimum time of repair.
Some of the results from evaluation of concrete cores are:
8.10.1
Macro analysis on cores and plane sections.
Carbonation depth measurements.
Crack detection on impregnated plane sections.
Micro analysis on thin sections.
Air void analysis on plane sections.
Moisture analysis.
Residual reactivity (AAR/ASR Alkali-Aggregate / Alkali-Silica Reactivity).
SEM-analysis (SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy).

Close macroscopic inspection of concrete cores (possibly using a magnifying glass or
a stereo microscope) can give information about the concrete mix (the aggregate
type, aggregate content, encapsulated air voids), and it may uncover internal deficiencies such as cracks and inhomogeneities. Casting defects and the condition of
joints can be determined by the macroscopic evaluation as well.
In particular the core can tell how deep cracks reach into the concrete, thus giving
an indication of the cause of the cracks. If reinforcement is included in the cores the
condition of the reinforcement can also be evaluated. An example of a concrete core
is shown in Figure 8-44.
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Figure 8-44: Concrete core for macroscopic evaluation.

The results from the macroscopic evaluations are usually registered by filling in a
standard form. The registrations are always supplemented by one or more photos of
the core.
By making a fresh cut in the concrete core the carbonation depth can be determined
by using phenolphthalein.
Figure 8-45: Measurement of carbonation depth by use of phenolphthalein. The red

part of the core is not carbonated.
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8.10.2

The crack pattern can give valuable information regarding the cause of damage. To
evaluate the crack pattern impregnation of a plane section of the concrete core is a
great tool. The impregnation of the plane section is performed in two steps as illustrated in Figure 8-46.
a)
b)
Figure 8-46: Illustration of the two steps in impregnation of a plane section for detection of cracks. a) Vacuum-impregnation of full core with fluorescent epoxy resin.
Cracks, voids and porous paste connected to the core surface will be filled with fluorescent epoxy resin. b) Impregnation of plane section with fluorescent epoxy resin.
Cracks, voids and porous paste near the cut surface will be filled with fluorescent
epoxy resin.
By use of ultra-violet light on the impregnated plane section all cracks, voids and
porous paste near the cut surface will be shown clearly. An example of a fluorescent
impregnated plane section is shown in Figure 8-47. The crack pattern is very clear
and the extent and distribution of cracks can be determined.
Figure 8-47: Fluorescent impregnated plane section from a bridge deck under ultra
violet light. The cause of damage could be AAR or freeze-thaw.
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8.10.3

More information may be obtained from the cores by performing 'thin section petrography' which is a technique using a microscope in combination with various optical
filters and epoxy resin impregnation to investigate very thin slices of the concrete.
This technique requires sophisticated laboratory equipment and extensive experience.
A thin section is a 20-micron thick slice of concrete, which has been impregnated
with a fluorescent epoxy resin. The thin section is typically 35 mm x 45 mm in size.
The semi-transparency of the concrete slice allows the examination of the concrete
by transmitted light microscopy. The impregnation with the fluorescent epoxy resin
makes it possible to determine the water-cement ratio and the homogeneity of the
cement paste. Further more the air voids, cracks (including micro cracks) and porous
materials are clearly shown in the thin section.
Figure 8-48: To the left a thin section is shown. To the right a thin section is examined in a microscope.
When performing a thin section analyse it is possible to determine the following parameters:
concrete composition
cement type and content
aggregate type and mineralogy
w/c-ratio
air void content and void structure
defects (cracks and inhomogeneities)
aggressive environment (e.g. acid)
moisture conditions and effects
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signs of deterioration (e.g. AAR)

strength level
initial defects (casting, curing etc.)
Air void
Ettringite in air void
Sand
Figure 8-49: Part of thin section. To the left the thin section is shown in ordinary
light with parallel polarizers and to the right the thin section is shown in fluorescent
light. To the right the homogeneity of the cement paste is shown by the colour intensity the darker colour the more dense cement paste (low w/c).
Signs of deterioration can also be identified in a thin section. In Figure 8-50 an illustration of alkali silica reaction is shown.
Figure 8-50: Sand aggregate of reactive porous flint with interior and exterior cracking.
The results of the thin section analyse is very precise when performed by an experienced engineer or geologist. It is however very important to keep in mind that the
results from the microscopic analyse is only valid for the part of the structure represented by the thin section. Thus, selection of the position for the thin section is very
important remembering that the thin section is only 35 mm x 45 mm large. Typically the thin section is placed so it includes one or more cracks if any. Also intact
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areas of the concrete should be included in the thin section. It might be necessary to
make two thin sections of one core to represent the concrete of the entire core.
8.10.4
Air void analyse on plane section

By preparing a plane section of the concrete core, the air content and air void distribution can be determined.
Figure 8-51: Plane section prepared for determination of the air content and distribution. All air voids are white and all paste and aggregate are grey or black.
8.10.5
Moisture analysis
By slicing the concrete core into several slices a moisture profile through the core
can be determined.
If the moisture profile is to be determined it is very important that the core is sealed
in an air tight bag right after drilling out the core. The core must then be stored cold
(e.g. in a refrigerator) untill the measurements starts.
Figure 8-52: Slicing the concrete core makes it possible to determine the moisture
profile.
The mass of each of the concrete slices is measured (m0) and the concrete slices are
then stored in water. The initial mass is used to determine the actual water content
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of the concrete. The mass is measured regularly and the measurements continue till
the mass is constant (mcap) this constant mass is used to determine the degree of
capillary saturation. By placing the concrete slices in a pressure camber more water
can be pressed in to the concrete and by measuring the mass again (mpressure), the
degree of pressure saturation can be determined. Finally the concrete slices are
stored at 105 oC until the mass is constant (mdry) this provides the dry mass of the
concrete.
The formulas for determining the actual water content (U), the degree of capillary
saturation (Scap) and the degree of pressure saturation (Spresure) are given by:
U=
m0 mdry
mdry
S cap =
100%
m0 mdry
mcap mdry
S pressure =
100%
m0 mdry
m pressure mdry
100%
Moisture content [U%]

0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
0-20
Depth from surface [mm]
20-40
40-60
60-80
80-100
Kerne 2
100-120
120-140
140-160
160-180
180-200
200-220
220-230
Figure 8-53:
8.10.6
Moisture profile trough concrete core.
Residual Reactivity Test

If the registrations from the macroscopic and microscopic evaluations indicate alkaliaggregate reactions (AAR) as the cause of damage a residual reactivity test can be
preformed on one or more concrete cores. The purpose of the test is to evaluated
the potential risk of development of AAR damage and to estimate the residual potential for further reactions under the following conditions:
-
unlimited access for moisture (the test specimen is wrapped in a wet towel and
kept in a plastic container by the humidity of 100%)
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unlimited access for moisture and sodium chloride (the test specimen is kept in a
container filled with concentrated NaCl-solvent)
Expansion 0/00
The test is performed by storing two specimens cut out of the concrete core in the
conditions mentioned above. The size of the test specimens could be app. 4x4x15
cm. To accelerate the chemical reactions the specimens are stored at 50 oC. By regular measurements of the expansion of the test specimens the development of AAR
can be evaluated in the case of unlimited access for moisture respectively unlimited
access for moisture and sodium chloride (alkalis). The time of storing and there by
the time of performing the test depends on the type of reactive aggregate. If the
expansion exceed 1 0/00 harmful cracking of the structure could occur in the future.
In Figure 8-54 an example of test results from residual reactivity tests is shown.
Specimens stored in
sodium chloride
Specimens stored at
100% RH
Storing time in weeks at 50oC in sodium chloride solution
and at 100% relative humidity
Figure 8-54: Example of test results for residual reactivity tests.

In the example shown in Figure 8-54 there is a small risk of future harmful cracking
due to AAR if alkalis are provided from the surroundings.
8.11

A crack measuring gauge is used to measure the crack width of a visible crack. This
method can be used for both concrete, steel and masonry structures. The method is
most commonly used on concrete and masonry structures.
For underwater use the crack measuring gauges being a sheet of plastic with lines of
different thickness could be used. When using the crack measuring gauge one must
bear in mind that some cracks have broken edges that make the crack look wider
than it is.
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Some cracks are measured continuously at specified intervals in order to monitor a

possible crack growth.
If a large number of measurements have been performed the temperature-induced
changes of the crack width may be filtered out. Normally a series of measurements
spanning several years must be made in order to determine whether the crack is
expanding.
The results are reported in terms of a graph showing the crack width as a function of
time.
8.12
Impulse Response equipment

This method can be used for concrete structures. For underwater use the transducer
and the cables need to be waterproof.
Impulse response equipment is used to produce a stress wave in the considered
component. The stress wave may e.g. be produced by an impact with an instrumented rubber tipped hammer. The impact causes the component to act in bending
mode. A velocity transducer placed adjacent to the impact point measures the response of the component.
In contrast to the Impact-Echo method the impulse response equipment does not
measure the reflection of the impact. Furthermore, the impact used to produce the
response is considerably larger than the impulse used for the Impact-Echo method.
The hammer used to produce the impact and the transducer used to measure the
response of the component are both connected to a laptop PC. The laptop performs a
spectral analysis of the impact as well as the response. Dividing the resultant velocity spectrum by the force spectrum then derives the mobility. An example of a mobility graph is shown below.
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Mobility
Hammer
Impact
Transducer
Frequency
For each measurement the resulting mobility graph is shown. On the basis of the
mobility graph the following parameters are determined:
Average mobility: The average mobility is shown as the green line in the figure above. The average mobility depends on the thickness of the material. If
the thickness is reduced the average mobility is increased. This implies that
laminated concrete has a higher average mobility than non-laminated concrete.
Stiffness: The stiffness is determined as the inverse of the inclination of the
part of the mobility graph below 80 Mz, the red line in the figure above.
The stiffness depends on the stiffness of the material, the thickness of the material and it depends on how the component is supported. Based on a comparison of the stiffness at a number of different locations potential weak areas may be located.
Mobility slope: The presence of honeycombs in the concrete will reduce the
damping of the signal. This implies that the mobility graph will be increasing
within the considered frequency range, see figure below.
Voids index: The voids index is defined as the ratio between the initial maximum of the mobility and the average mobility.
If the component is laminated the initial maximum of the mobility will be con-
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siderably higher than the average mobility. If the voids index is higher than 2
4 it indicates a potentially weak area, see figure below.
The impulse response method is a fast method which may be used to screen a relatively large area within a short period of time. The equipment delivers surface graphs
of the measured parameters. In the figure below a surface graph of the average mobility of a bridge deck is shown.
The results of the impulse response testing shall always be calibrated on the basis of
e.g. cores, break-ups or a visual inspection using a boroscope. The locations of these
tests are selected on the basis of the surface graphs of the measured parameters.
8.13
Impact-Echo equipment
This method can be used for concrete structures. For underwater use the transducer
and the cables need to be waterproof.
Impact-echo equipment introduces a short-duration stress pulse into the considered
member by a mechanical impact.
The impact introduces three types of waves:
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P-waves (compressional wave)

S-wave (shear wave)
R-wave (surface wave)
The P-wave will be reflected when it reaches a surface or a material with another
acoustic impedance. The successive arrivals of the P-waves to the surface are registered by a displacement transducer.
On the basis of a spectral analysis of the reflected P-waves, the frequency of the
reflected wave is determined. The thickness of the material or the depth to the defect, d, may be determined by:
d=
v
2f
where v denotes the wave speed and f the frequency of the reflected wave.
The principle behind the Impact-Echo method is shown in the figure below. It is seen
that the frequency of the measured response is higher when a void is present than
when no void is present. This is due to the fact that the wave reflected from the void
reaches the transducer faster than the wave reflected from the bottom of the test
specimen.
Impact
Impact
Transducer
Transducer
Void
Concrete slap
Amplitude
Amplitude
Frequency
Frequency
The wave speed may be determined by testing a specimen with known thickness
containing no defects. Alternatively the wave speed may be measured on the surface
using two transducers.
The equipment may also be used to measure the depth of a crack. Using the setup
indicated below, the crack depth may be determined on the basis of a measurement
of the time it takes the P-wave to reach the two transducers.
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Transducer
Impact
Transducer
Concrete slap
Crack
In general the equipment may be used to determine:

Thickness of members
Presence and depth of cracks, voids and honeycombing
Injection quality of cable ducts
The measurements are performed by producing an impact on the concrete surface
e.g. with steel balls (impactors) with diameters ranging between 2 to 15 mm. The
size of the steel ball should be selected on the basis of the thickness of the considered test specimen.
For each measurement the spectrum of the measured response is shown on a laptop
PC connected to the transducer. On the basis of the response spectrum the operator
estimates whether defects are present. The results obtainable from using the Impact-Echo equipment to a great extent depend on the experience of the operator.
The method is fast and an experienced operator is able to test relatively large areas
(e.g. a bridge deck with the dimensions 12 x 50 m) for defects within a working day.
The measurements should always be calibrated on the basis of independent tests.
Usually the inspection of concrete structures is calibrated on the basis of cores,
break-ups or a visual inspection using a boroscope.
The results of the measurements are used to report the general condition of the considered component as well as a detailed mapping of the detected defects.
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8.14
Half-cell potential Measurements

This method can be used for concrete structures. Underwater measurements can be
performed with a special underwater electrode.
The potential difference between a standard half-cell (normally a copper/copper sulphate reference electrode) placed on the surface of the concrete and the reinforcement underneath may be measured using the principle shown in the figure below.
Voltmeter
+
Reference electrode
Reinforcement
Concrete
The potential difference is associated with the rate of corrosion of the reinforcement.
The purpose of potential measurements is to map the electrochemical potentials in
order to locate areas with risk of corrosion see section 7.3.9.
In the field the following steps have to be followed:
1)
Exposure of a rebar for the electrical connection.

Normally go for:
Stirrups
The most convenient areas:
The cover often varies, find the areas with the smallest concrete cover.
2)
Check the circuit of the reinforcement:
The resistance between more contacts to the reinforcement must be zero

to have the circuit required. If that is the case, use the same connection
during the required series of measurements.
If the resistance is not zero, first of all check the connection to the rebar.
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Look for joints in the piers and check piers on all sides of the joints.
3)
Make a measuring grid (columns and rows) on each part to be measured, noting the following:
When making survey measurements on large areas, a mesh size of 500 x 500
mm may be chosen.
Prior to making the grid, survey measurements at (more or less) random locations may help locating the areas to be mapped.
When making measurements in areas where corrosion is likely to occur (selected as a result of survey measurements, experience or other test types),
the mesh size should be 250 x 250 mm or less.
The grid size, location and orientation must be marked on sketches of the
structure.
4)
Check the stability of the potential measurements:
wet a single measuring point
place the electrode and note the potential and time
wait until the potential is stable. NOTE the potential and time. This time
difference is the necessary time required between wetting and measuring.
In very dry concrete, it is normally necessary to wet continuously for a
longer period. This means that one person is constantly wetting the structure in front of the person doing the measuring.
5)
Start the Measuring

It should be noted that the potential measurement itself does not lead to a final assessment of the condition. Supplementary testing has to be carried out.
As a first guide to an evaluation of the reliability of the measured potential values, the measurements are normally divided into groups. Immediately after
completing the measurements, the results are printed out and then evaluated
according to a scale based on experience, e.g. (when using a copper/copper
sulphate reference electrode):
Group 1: potential > -200 mV:
90 % probability of no corrosion
Group 2: -200 mV > potential > -350 mV:
An increasing probability of corrosion
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Group 3: -350 mV > potential

90 % probability of corrosion
The probabilities of corrosion given above are also given in ASTM C876.
It is important to notice that the probability of corrosion also depends on many
other factors such as:
The oxygen concentration
Moisture content
Carbonation
Chloride concentration
Temperature
Use of corrosion inhibitors
Concrete resistance
Coatings and sealers
Cathodic protection systems
All the above mentioned factors must be taken into account when assessing
the probability of corrosion. Hence, the results of half-cell measurements must
always be calibrated on the basis of break-ups.
Make break-ups to confirm the first evaluation and to evaluate the reduction of
cross-sections. Note that the potential measurement is meant only for the detection of areas with corrosion activity. The reduction in cross sections cannot
be assessed by half-cell measurements.
Break-ups must be carried out for each group. As a rule of thumb, the breakups are placed in the most negative areas in each group. Breaks-up should
therefore be performed in groups 1, 2 and 3. Start making a break-up in group 1 and group 2. If the rebars are without corrosion in group 2 then no
break-up is necessary in group 1.
When the connection between the potential values and the actual corrosion
condition has been established through break-ups, the half-cell measurements
can be used to assess the size of the damaged areas as a basis for rehabilitation design.
If the first evaluation does not confirm the results (if e.g. severe corrosion is
found in group 2) limits must be changed for the three groups accordingly.
These new limits must be confirmed by new break-ups.
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Potential [mV]
4.0
1.0
Hjd [m]
2.0
Height [m]
3.0
0.3
10
11
0.0
12
Avstnd
fog [m]
Distance
totilljoint
[m]
100-150
50-100
0-50
-50-0
-100--50
-150--100
-200--150
-250--200
-300--250
-350--300
-400--350
-450--400
-500--450
-550--500
-600--550
-650--600
-700--650
Core, severe corrison
Break up, severe corrosion

Break up, corrosion has been initiated
> 0,10 % CL- at reinforcement
Core, corrosion has been initiated
Break up, surface corrosion
0,05 - 0,10 % CL- at reinforcemnt
Core, surface corrosion
Break up, no corrosion
< 0,05 % CL- at reinforcement
Core, no corrosion
The results of the half-cell measurements may be reported in terms of a surface graph as shown above. In the surface graph all relevant measurements of
the chloride concentration, observations from break-ups and cores may also
be given.
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9.
9.1
Economic analysis
General
When a bridge deteriorates very often rehabilitation work is necessary. It may not
obvious which repair methods to use, and at what time to carry out the works. In
other words, the optimum repair strategy is not obvious.
Many factors may influence the choice of repair strategy, such as:
The urgency of repair.

Possible repair under water (wet repairs).
Remove the water and repair in dry conditions (dry repairs).
The repair cost estimate.
The available funds.
The traffic hazards caused by damage to the bridges.
The inconvenience to the public in case of closure of the bridge (no trains passing the line, ).
The inconvenience during the repair works.
Other repair works on the same railway line.
An economic analysis can be carried out in addition to a level III inspection in order
to select the repair strategy which is economically optimum (most profitable) for the
bridge owner or for the society as a whole.
The economic analysis takes into account only those factors, which can be measured
in the 'unit' money. The analysis is carried out in order to determine which strategy
is the optimum for the underwater bridge component, given the premises at the time
of decision.
When a strategy is selected for the underwater bridge component (which includes
activities over a period of 20 to 30 years), it does not mean that the decision-makers
are stuck with this strategy for the next 20 or 30 years. Circumstances may change,
and another strategy may become more profitable. The development of traffic volume, the interest rate, the inflation may change, and the development of damage to
the substructure may not be as expected.
If the decision makers suspect that a chosen strategy is no longer the optimum, a
new level III inspection has to be carried out, including an economic analysis, in order to determine which strategy is the optimum given the new premises.
Obviously, if the chosen strategy implies a replacement or an exhaustive repair of a
bridge, there is not much room for a later change of strategy.
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9.2
Present Value Method

Economic analyses are normally carried out by the 'Present Value Method'.
The basic idea is that all amounts connected to a repair strategy are 'discounted' to
the same year in order to compare costs that occur at different times.
This section describes in more detail how to carry out economic analyses for underwater bridge repair strategies.
The analysis is carried out by performing the following steps:
Identify the relevant repair strategies.
Determine the size and distribution of costs (repair, maintenance) connected to

each strategy.
Calculate the present value of each strategy.
Choose the strategy with the lowest present value as the economical optimum
strategy.
In connection with a repair work it is often necessary to choose between various

strategies. Shall one choose an expensive repair with a long service life or a cheaper
repair with a short service life? Another problem is the time at which the repair
should be carried out. Should it be done as soon as possible, can it be deferred, or
can it wait until the structure is replaced? An economic calculation method that can
help in such decisions - the present value method - will be described in the following.
In the present value calculations, the costs for repairs, operation and maintenance
may be calculated year for year within a chosen time-horizon; the timing of each
cost is based on the service life of each repair. The annual amounts are then discounted back to the initial year using a given discount rate. In this way the present
value of each years expenditure is obtained.
By summing the present values, a value for the strategy in question is obtained that
can be compared with the corresponding value for other strategies. The strategy for
which the cumulative present value is lowest is the economic optimum for the structure considered in isolation.
The cumulative present value makes it possible to compare strategies in which the
costs are spread over varying periods, as all costs are converted to the initial year.
The further in the future a cost falls due, the lower is the present value of the cost.
This effect is proportional to the discount rate adopted.
To put it simply, the present value is the amount that must be deposited in the bank
today to cover a cost that will fall due at the time the repair is carried out.
The present value is calculated by:
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In = I
where:
1
(1 + r )n
In
is the present value of a cost I in year n
is the cost in year n calculated based on the chosen price level

(normally the current price)
is the number of years until the costs falls due
is the discount rate decided by the management authority
The present value calculation is thus carried out in fixed prices (those of the initial
year) with a chosen price level and a chosen discount rate.
By fixed prices is understood the initial years prices. Inflation and development of
wages, taxes, etc. should not be incorporated in the calculations.
For an economic evaluation of alternative solutions are the most important parameters:
9.2.1
Repair
Maintenance strategies equal content
The service life of the structural components
The time frame for the calculations
Time for repair and maintenance
Residual value
Discount rate
Repair Strategies
In order to cover the relevant range of strategies fundamentally different strategies
may be investigated in addition to a level III. The strategies normally fall within the
following groups:
Total replacement of the whole bridge or the bridge components in question.
Thorough (major) repair of the relevant bridge components.
Interim repair, and after some time a thorough repair/replacement.
Doing nothing.
Example:
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A slab/girder reinforced concrete bridge with a thin slab suffers from overload. Structural cracks and spalling of the lower concrete cover have developed in a few deck
panels. If nothing is done, one or more panels are expected to fail within 5 years.
Relevant strategies may be:
A:
Replacement of the slab, or possibly of the whole superstructure.
B:
Strengthening of the slab by pouring a new reinforced top layer on top of the
existing slab, with anchors into the existing concrete. Injection of coarse cracks
and local replacement of spalled concrete.
C:
Replacement of spalled concrete. After approximately 5 years the damage is

expected to have reoccurred to the same extent. At that time the repair is repeated. After additionally 5 years the damage is expected to be so serious that
the slab has to be replaced.
D:
Doing nothing. After 5 years the slab is expected to fail, and it is replaced or
repaired.
Strategy A and D may seem very close to each other. But in reality, they are not:
In A, a replacement of the slab is planned in advance, and it is possible to make the
replacement with very little disturbance to the railway line.
In D, we let the slab fail. When it has failed, the bridge must be closed to traffic while investigations and rehabilitation design is carried out. Thus, the bridge may be
closed for several months, causing very high inconvenience for the users of the railway. In reality, the bridge must be closed well in advance of any possible failure of
the bridge or bridge component. It is not acceptable to allow traffic on the bridge
when there is a known risk of failure. Therefore strategy D may require the bridge to
be closed well in advance of any possible failure which taken uncertainties into
account may be 5-10 years.
9.2.2
Service Life
The service life of the bridge components in question is estimated for each maintenance strategy. Service life estimations are based on experience of the different
maintenance methods used in the maintenance strategies.
Estimation of the service life should be based on considerations where ordinary preventive and corrective maintenance is carried out on the component.
Safety considerations can reduce the service life relative to that estimated on the
basis of the selected maintenance strategy due to outdated components.
Determination of the optimal repair time is associated with the evaluation of the development of damage and their influence on durability and safety of the components.
One has to evaluate how fast the component is deteriorating and when the function
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requirements are no longer fulfilled, i.e. the end of its service life. This evaluation is
often complex because it includes an evaluation of the continuing deterioration and
the damage time-dependent development.
When the possible damage development is evaluated it is important to describe the
most possible development. Additional safety factors applied when determining the
damage development on the safe side should not be used when the economic optimal time for repair should be found. It can be wrong (and costly) to repair too early
as it is too repair to late. However when there is a risk to the safety of the bridge
and railway users, the design codes safety limit should be used.
9.2.3
Time Frame
The time frame is laid down on the basis of the service life of the main repair work
necessary to carry out. The same time frame should always be used for the different
maintenance strategies to ensure that they are economic comparable.
The time frame should be chosen so long that cost that becomes due after the time
frame has only little or no influence on the accumulated present value.
Normally is chosen a time frame of 25 years but it may be longer if the discount rate
is low.
9.2.4
Time of Repair
Repair time for the different strategies is based on experience. By postponement of a
repair work normally the damage extent is increased and will consequently result in
an increase in repair costs later.
The repair time is therefore based on economic optimal service life of the different
components. In that way a minimum present value is reached for each repair strategy.
By stipulation of the repair time for each part of the maintenance strategy it should
be taken in consideration the general costs such as traffic management and by that
collect the different repair works in different time phases.
To help choosing the optimal time for execution of a repair service life models and
present value calculations may be used. General, where the optimal time for execution is found, the present value of the maintenance strategy will increase if the works
is carried out in advance or postponed considering the optimal repair time.
This means that the economic optimal time for repair may differ depending on the
discount rate used in the present value calculations.
Due to budgetary limitations it may be necessary to postpone the works. This means
that the present value of the maintenance strategy increases due to increases in the
extent of repair work (increases in damage etc.). The costs due to increase in repair
work should overdue the economic advantage by postponement.
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9.2.5
Residual Value
As consequence of using the same time frame for the different maintenance strategies it will often be a residual value of a repair work which service life is not reached
within the time frame. This residual value should be incorporated in the strategies.
The present accumulated value should contain the residual value with opposite sign.
9.2.6
Discount Rate
The discount rate should be determined by the management authority and be based
on the societys possibility for return of investments.
The societys return of investments is depended on the interest rate and the inflation
in the economy. The discount rate is normally the interest rate minus the inflation.
If the discount rate is high, the pay pack time of investments should be low (i.e.
throw away and buy new). Opposite if the discount rate is low it will pay back to
invest in components that will have long service life, which means durable components and carry out proper maintenance.
The above considerations points in the direction of using different discount rates
which may be exemplified by investment in computes (i.e. installations) where the
discount rate normally had to be high compared to concrete structures where it had
to be low (concrete structures is expected to last for a long period).
However to keep things simple normally one discount rate is used covering both installations and structural components.
9.2.7
Sensitivity Analysis
The sensitivity analysis should prove the changes in present value due to changes in
the different factors that are involved in the different maintenance strategies.
A sensitivity analyse should show the increase in the costs due to postponement of
the works.
Only the parameters that have a significant effect on the different strategies need to
be investigated. Parameters that have the same effect will increase or decrease the
present value of all the strategies by the same factor.
Be aware that it often pays to postpone a strategy if the damage costs develop with
a lower rate than the used discount rate.
9.2.8
Optimum solution
Within each strategy investigated an analysis is carried out in order to determine in
detail which works to carry out and at what times. This is called finding the optimum
'solution' within the individual strategy.
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The relevant repair methods must be considered incl. the extent of the repair. (In
the above example, should replacement of the slab include repair of girders?) The
repair works must be described in so much detail that the cost estimate can be sufficiently accurate.
When determining when to carry out repair works, the development of damage and
the discount rate are the dominating factors. If you postpone a repair, normally the
extent of damage and thus the repair cost will increase. However, if the annual increase in repair cost is less than the discount rate, it could be profitable to postpone
the repair. When performing an economic analysis the bridge owner has to provide
you with the value of the discount rate to take into account.
If you continue postponing a repair work, the extent of damage (and thus the cost)
will in most cases increase slowly and linearly until a point where the cost rises dramatically. This is because at some point the problem can not be solved by the proposed repair method, and a more extensive and expensive method has to be used.
(E.g. if damage to the superstructure is allowed to develop, it may at some point be
necessary to use interim supports when carrying out the repair). It is very often
profitable to postpone repair works until just before this kind of 'jumps' in the repair
costs.
The present value method is used to determine which solution is optimum within
each strategy. (The solution with the lowest present worth is the optimum).
When comparing strategies, it is important that all strategies cover the same components of the bridge. If for example strategy 1 comprises repair of the superstructure while strategy 2 is a replacement of the whole bridge, both strategies must include all costs regarding repair and maintenance of the whole bridge. Otherwise the
strategies are not comparable.
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10.
10.1
Reporting of Level I Inspection

General
In order to facilitate comparison of level I inspection reports made by different people, and in order not to forget important aspects of the inspection, the reporting is
made using a standardised table of contents.
The report of a level I inspection contains a text section, and appendices with the
detailed registrations made on site. This section gives a short summary of the content of the level I inspection report.
10.2
Text Section
In the following the chapters that the level I inspection report should include, are
described:
10.2.1
10.2.2
Cover Page
The cover page of the level I inspection report must comprise the following information:
Identification of the bridge owner (e.g. Central Railway)
Identification of the bridge (Bridge-ID according to the bridge management system if a management system is used - and bridge name).
'Underwater Inspection, Level I of ... (the components in question)', e.g. 'Underwater Inspection, Level I of Piers and Abutments'.
Date of the level I inspection.
Name of the company in charge of the level I inspection.
Front Page
The front page of the level I inspection report must comprise the following information:
'Underwater, Level I Inspection of ... (the components in question)', e.g. 'Underwater, Level I Inspection of Piers and Abutments'.
Date of the level I inspection.
Identification of the engineer(s) in charge of the inspection (name and company).

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10.2.3

This section describes the method of investigation and the extent of investigation.
E.g. A close visual examination or a tactile examination using large sweeping motions of the hands where visibility is limited has been performed of x piers and 2
abutments. The inspection has been conducted over the total exterior surface of
each pier and abutments.
In this section it is stated whether a clear water box has been used.
The inspection also comprises limited probing of the substructure and the adjacent
streambed.
10.2.4
Background Material
This section includes a description of the structural components investigated in the
underwater inspection. The background material that has been available for the inspection is listed in this section, such as:
Inventory report and previous underwater inspection reports.
Reports from previous underwater inspections from similar bridges with similar
damage.
'As built' drawings.
10.2.5
Registrations
This chapter describes the registrations from the inspection. The chapter includes
reference to the appendices with sketches, photos and video recordings of the observed damage of all the investigated underwater bridge components.
10.2.6
This chapter includes condition rating of the under water components investigated.
The condition rating is a number of 9 to 0 and is based on the following guidelines:
9:
Excellent condition.
8:
Very good condition. No problems noted.
7:
Good condition. Some minor problems.
6:
Satisfactory condition. Some minor problems.
5:
Fair condition. All primary structural components are sound but may have minor section loss, cracking, spalling or scour.
4:
Poor condition. Advanced section loss, deterioration, spalling or scour.
3:
Serious condition. Loss of section, deterioration, spalling or scour has seriously

affected primary structural components. Local failures are possible. Fatigue
cracks in steel or shear cracks in concrete may be present.
2:
Critical condition. Advanced deterioration of primary structural components.

Fatigue cracks in steel or shear cracks in concrete may be present or scour
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may have removed substructure support. Unless closely monitored it may be

necessary to close the bridge until corrective action is taken.
1:
Imminent failure condition. Major deterioration or section loss present in critical structural components or obvious vertical or horizontal movement affecting
structural stability. The bridge is closed to traffic but corrective action may put
it back in light service.
0:
Failed condition. Out of service beyond corrective action.
N:
Not applicable.
An example of reporting the condition rates of the structure is seen in the next page.
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UNIT REFERENCE NO.

UNIT DESCRIPTION
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
Comments:
10-4
OTHER
PREVIOUS REPAIR OR MAINTENANCE
LOSS OF SECTION
CHANNEL
MASONRY
STEEL
CONCRETE
OVERALL CHANNEL & PROTECTION CONDITION
OTHER (DRIFT / DEBRIS)
SUBSTRUCTURE
EMBANKMENT PROTECTION
EMBANKMENT EROSION
SCOUR
OVERALL SUBSTRUCTURE
CONDITION CODE *
OTHER (BRACHING)
DISPLACEMENT
FOOTINGS
COLUMNS, SHAFTS OR
FACES
PILING
MAXIMUM DEPTH OF WATER

[m]
CONDITION RATING
GENERAL
Abutment 1
18
Pier 1
Pier 2
Pier 3
Pier 4
Pier 5
Pier 6
Pier 7
Pier 8
Abutment 2
* Under water portion only
10.2.7

This chapter describes recommendation of future activities. The need for major rehabilitation jobs and further inspections is included in this chapter. The description
does not include budgets for the activities.
If there is any doubt of the carrying capacity of the bridge recommendation of calculations must be included in this chapter.
10.3
Appendices
The level I inspection report comprises those relevant of the following appendices.
10.3.1
This appendix includes the inventory of the bridge components for the underwater
inspection and previous underwater inspection reports which are relevant for the
inspection.
10.3.2
This appendix includes selected drawings of the bridge components included in this
inspection.
10.3.3

This appendix includes sketches and detailed descriptions of the registrations of the
bridge components included in the underwater inspection. If water depth soundings
and scour registration have been carried out sketches of the results from these
inspections should be included in this appendix.
10.3.4

This appendix includes photos and videos documenting the registrations.
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11.
11.1
Reporting of Level II Inspection

General
In order to facilitate comparison of level II inspection reports made by different people, and in order not to forget important aspects of the inspection, the reporting is
made using a standardised table of contents.
The report of a level II inspection contains a text section, and appendices with the
detailed registrations made on site. This section gives a short summary of the content of the level II inspection report.
11.2
Text Section
In the following the chapters that the level II inspection report should include are
described:
11.2.1
11.2.2
Cover Page
The cover page of the level II inspection report must comprise the following information:
'Underwater Inspection, Level II of ... (the components in question)', e.g. 'Underwater Inspection, Level II of Piers and Abutments'.
Date of the level II inspection.
Name of the company in charge of the level II inspection.
Front Page
The front page of the level II inspection report must comprise the following information:
'Underwater, Level II Inspection of ... (the components in question)', e.g. 'Underwater, Level II Inspection of Piers and Abutments'.
Date of the level II inspection.

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11.2.3

E.g. A detailed visual inspection has been carried out in areas cleaned of marine
growth. In this section the equipment used for cleaning the surface is described (if
any e.g. water jet cleaning). The cleaning of the piers and abutments are performed in areas of app. 0.30 m x 0.30 m in 3 different levels on each face of the
element.
If a level I inspection is carried out as well the registrations from the level I inspection could be described in this report as well.
11.2.4
Background Material
The content of this section is similar to the content of section 10.2.4.
11.2.5
Registrations
reference to the appendices with sketches, photos and video recordings of the observed damage of all the investigated underwater bridge components. Damaged areas should be measured and the extent and severity of the damage should be documented.
11.2.6
11.2.7

11.3
Appendices
The level II inspection report comprises those relevant of the following appendices.
11.3.1
The content of this appendix is similar to the content described in section 10.3.1.
11.3.2
11.3.3

bridge components included in the underwater inspection. Specific sketches should
be made of the areas cleaned for the inspection.
11.3.4

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12.
12.1
Reporting of Level III Inspection

General
When reporting a level III inspection a standardised table of contents is used. If a
level I inspection is carried out at the same time as the level III inspection, the two
inspections are reported together.
The level III inspection report contains a text section, and appendices with the detailed registrations made on site. This section gives a short summary of the content
of the level III inspection report.
12.2
Text Section
In the following, the chapters that the level III inspection report must include are
described:
12.2.1
12.2.2
Cover Page
The cover page of the Level III inspection report must comprise the following information:
'Underwater Inspection, Level III of ... (the components in question)', e.g. 'Underwater Inspection, Level III of Piers and Abutments'.
Date of the level III inspection.
Name of the company in charge of the level III inspection.
Front Page
The front page of the level III inspection report must comprise the following information:
'Underwater, Level III Inspection of ... (the components in question)', e.g. 'Underwater, Level III Inspection of Piers and Abutments'.
Date of the level III inspection.

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12.2.3
Summary
The summary must contain all relevant information from the other chapters in a
short form. This chapter must include a comprehensive overview of the registrations
and conclusions on the damage to the bridge components investigated. It must comprise description of the extent of registrations, conclusions on cause and extent of
damage, and a summary of the general considerations regarding future maintenance
strategies. However, the summary should not be more than 2-3 pages in length.
12.2.4
Motivation of the level III inspection

This chapter describes why and by whom the inspection is initiated. It tells which
parts of the bridge components are the objects of the inspection and which visible
damage has been registered.
12.2.5
Background Material
12.2.6
Registrations
This chapter describes the registrations. On the basis of the visual inspections (reports from level I and II inspections) and prior knowledge the structure may be divided into homogeneous areas. A homogenous area is defined as an area where the
parameters affecting the deterioration and the deterioration itself of the structure
exhibits only a random variation.
For each of the homogeneous areas a damage hypothesis is prepared. These hypotheses are described in this section.
For each of the test methods used, the extent and location is described, and a summary of the results is given.
The detailed record of all registrations is enclosed in the appendices.
12.2.7
This section includes an interpretation of the test results from the NDTinvestigations. E.g. for chloride-measurements of concrete structures: do the measurements show risk of chloride initiated corrosion of the reinforcement are the values of the chloride content larger than the critical chloride content in the depth of
reinforcement.
In this chapter the probable deterioration mechanisms and causes of damage is described based on the registrations. The chapter must include an estimate of the actual damage of the bridge components investigated. It should also include a description of the expected development of damage if no action is taken.
The damage mechanism should be described in detail. This means that in cases of
corrosion, 'saline soil' is not sufficient as explanation. You must also explain how the
chlorides have reached the reinforcement, etc.
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It is also important to explain the differences in damage appearance: Why are some
piers damaged while others are undamaged etc.
12.2.8

12.3
Appendices
The level III inspection report comprises those relevant of the following appendices.
12.3.1
inspection e.g. level I and level II reports for the selected components.
12.3.2
inspection.
12.3.3
C: Visual Inspection
This appendix includes the registrations from the visual inspection of the cleaned
areas of the bridge components included in the level III inspection. General orientation of the bridge and the bridge components under investigation, numbering of
components and damage pattern are most conveniently shown on sketches.
An overview sketch of the whole structure is often suited to register the extent of
damage (which piers have spalling of cover etc.).
The appendix should include photo pages for the photos taken during the visual inspection. Photos showing details of the registrations, e.g. exposed reinforcement,
deteriorated stone of masonry structures, etc. should be enclosed.
12.3.4

12.3.5
E: NDT-method No. 1
Depending on the complexity of the NDT-method a general description of the principles of the method is described in this appendix.
This appendix includes the registrations from one of the NDT-methods used in the
level III inspection. The appendix should include sketches of the areas of measurements and of the measuring grid if used e.g. for HCP, Impact-Echo, Impulse Re12-3
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sponse (sMASH) etc. The appendix should also include relevant photos related to the
NDT-investigation (of break-ups etc.).
Mapping of HCP (Half Cell Potential measurements) readings is shown on sketches.
Mapping of sMASH (impulse response measurements) readings is shown on
sketches.
Mapping of Impact-Echo readings is shown on sketches.
12.3.6
F - ?: NDT-method No. 2 - ?
This appendix includes registrations from another NDT-method. The content of this
appendix is similar to the content mentioned in section 12.3.5.
12.3.7
G.. Other
In some cases it is appropriate to include other appendices than the 'standard' ones.
These are numbered 'H', 'I'.....
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13.
References
[1]
Collins Engineers, Inc.: Underwater Inspection of Bridges. Federal Highway

Administration, Report No. FHWA-DP-80-1, 1989.
[2]
CEB: Durable Concrete Structures. Design Guide. Second Edition, reprint

1997.
[3]
Geiker, M.: Durability of concrete chloride induced corrosion. Course 59203,

Danish Technical University, 2000.
[4]
Larsen, E. S.: Service Life Prediction of Cementitious Materials. SBI Report

221, 1992.
[5]
Larsen, E. S.: Inspection of Structures Special Inspection Compendium for

support and Inspiration (in Danish). VEJ-EU, 1997.
[6]
Mattsson, E.: Electro chemistry and corrosion (in Swedish). 2end edition, Corrosion Institute, Stockholm 1984.
[7]
Nielsen, A.; Eeg, R. and Sorensen, H.: Building Materials Metal (in Danish)
Polyteknisk Forlag 1998.
[8]
Sowden A.M. (1990). The Maintenance of Brick and Stone Masonry structures.
ISBN: 0-419-14930-9. E. & F.N. Spon. First Edition
[9]
Ron Grieve. Non-destructive Testing of Concrete and Masonry Buildings. The

construction Specifier, October 2005
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APPENDIX A
Handout of Slides from Classroom Training in UWI-Methods
5721063-07_L014-VerA_UWI_manual_App_frontpages.doc
APPENDIX A1
Introduction to the Class Room Training in NDT and UWI
Appendix A1, Page 1 of 28
UWI-Course
Non Destructive Testing and

Underwater Inspections
Concrete, Steel and Masonry Bridges
Agenda
0. Welcome by Central Railway, LTR and Ramboll
1. Presentation of the lecturers by AKN
2. Presentation of the participants by AKN
3. Presentation of the Ramboll Group by AKN
4. Lecture program for NDT and UWI by LTP
5. General introduction to deterioration mechanisms by LTP
6. General introduction to systematic operation and maintenance by LTP
7. Special inspection by LTP
8. Structural assessment Case by LTP
Non Destructive Testing and Underwater Inspection - 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
1. Presentation of the lecturers
1. Presentation of the lecturers

Asger Knudsen:
Head of department of Bridge Management and Materials Technology
15 years of experience with bridge inspections, NDT-testing, condition assessment and bridge
management systems
Lene Torrnaes Helbo:
Project coordinator of the NDT & UWI pilot project.
Extended experience with inspections, NDT-testing, condition assessment, petrographic analysis,
deterioration evaluation and bridge management systems.
Peter H. Moeller:
NDT- and corrosion expert, cathodic protection expert
Extended experience with NDT-testing, inspections, condition assessment, deterioration evaluation,
rehabilitation
Morten Daroe Tranholm Jensen:
NDT-specialist
Extended experience with NDT-testing, inspection and condition assessment
Joergen Lenler
NDT-expert in Steel investigations especially ultra sonic testing
Extended experience with NDT-testing of steel structures
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
2. Presentation of the participants
2. Presentation of the participants
Position in Central Railway

Experience within the fields of NDT and UWI
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
3. Presentation of the Ramboll Group
History of the Ramboll Group

Ramboll was established in
Copenhagen in 1945 as
Ramboll & Hannemann,
named after its founders:
B.J. Ramboll, D.techn.Sc.,
and I.G. Hannemann,
D.techn.Sc
In 2003 the company merged

with the publicly listed
Scandiaconsult AB originally
established in Stockholm as Orrje
& Co. AB in 1947 by five
engineers: Alfred Orrje, Bengt
Wrd, Hans Hilborn, Bjrn
Romson and Lars Berlin.
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UWI-Course
The Ramboll Group in brief

The Ramboll Group is a leading
Nordic provider of knowledge
services with a broad
specialisation, operating globally
in the main business segments of
buildings, infrastructure,
environment, energy, oil and gas,
IT and management.
Our customers have access to our
large network of specialists from
91 offices in the Nordic region and
another 50 permanent or project
offices around the world.
Slide
Our organisation
Ramboll
Gruppen A/S
Ramboll
Management A/S
Ramboll
Informatik A/S
Ramboll
Danmark A/S
Rambll AB
(Sweden)
Ramboll
Norge A/S
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Ramboll
Finland OY
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UWI-Course
Our Nordic coverage

The Ramboll Group ranks among
Top 10 consultancies in Europe
and Top 25 globally, a ranking
primarily maintained by a strong
domestic market position.
With 91 offices covering the
Nordic region, being a local
partner is a key strategic focus of
the Group.
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11
Our global coverage
The Ramboll Group reaches out to the

rest of the world with experience from
projects in more than 100 countries.
Ramboll offices abroad

Belgium (Bruxelles)
Germany (Hamburg, Munich)
Greenland (Nuuk, Sisimiut)
Estonia (Tallinn)
India (Chennai, Delhi,
Hyderabad)
Latvia (Riga)
Lithuania (Vilnius)
Laos (Vientiane)
Qatar (Doha)
Romania (Bucharest)
Russia (Moscow, St. Petersburg)
Thailand (Bangkok)
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UWI-Course
The customers knowledge bank fields of specialisation

The specialisation of Ramboll is wide, covering almost any aspect of
engineering, IT and management. We have divided our skills into a number of
primary fields of specialisation, which can be accessed by customers through
any of our 105 permanent offices worldwide.
Constant research and development initiatives support our ability to provide
state-of-the-art solutions.
Infrastructure, transport and traffic
Buildings
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Water and environment
Energy, oil and gas
Telecommunications
Industry
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UWI-Course

Waste
Health
International development projects
Facilities management
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Architecture & landscape architecture
Geotechnical and rock engineering
Management
Information technology
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UWI-Course
Our value keywords

Trust
Honesty and integrity, openness and cooperation
Quality
Quality and value for the consumer
Innovation
Development, improvement, exploitation and sharing knowledge
Commitment:
Responsibility, focus, initiative and high motivation
Empowerment
Decentralisation and delegation of authority
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Our human resources

2004
Number of permanent employees
4.029
Engineers, %
54
Other graduate staff, %
13
Technicians, %
21
Other staff groups, %
12
Male/Female, %
70/30
Gender distribution among line managers
92/8
Average age, years
41,5
Employee facts in the Ramboll Group at 31 December 2004
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UWI-Course
Bridge Management and Materials Technology

The department
The department comprises app. 30 persons.

21 have an engineering degree or other academic degrees of similar
level.
We cover all relevant fields of expertise in relation to operation and
maintenance of civil works such as:
minor and major bridges
tunnels
ports
We have theoretical as well as practical expertise on materials

technology for the relevant construction materials.
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19

The department
Our competences cover areas like:

Routine inspections
Special inspections including laboratory and on site testing
Risk analysis for assessment of the importance of damage on safety
and durability
Rehabilitation projects and supervision
Monitoring
Maintenance management systems
Operation and maintenance contracts
Materials technology (concrete, surfacing, waterproofing, steel,
natural building stone, etc.)
Research and development
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UWI-Course

Material technology
Concrete:
A team of experts within the field of cement and concrete technology

offers individual services to companies in materials supply, production
and use of concrete and repairs on a worldwide basis. Among other
things, Ramboll's expertise covers specialized knowledge regarding:
Deterioration mechanisms
Curing design
Mix design optimisation or trouble-shooting
At Ramboll's laboratory, materials can be prepared for different tests.
The laboratory includes a chemical laboratory, a concrete mixing
laboratory as well as optical polarization microscopes, scanning electron
microscope and equipment for automatic air void analysis.
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21

Material technology
Steel:
Ramboll evaluates deterioration mechanisms in steel structures.
Masonry:
Ramboll evaluates deterioration mechanisms in masonry structures.

Natural building stone:
Ramboll has extensive experience in the selection and evaluation of stone
and with the use of stone in buildings.
Roadway surfacing and waterproofing:
Ramboll has state of the art knowledge regarding road surfacing and
waterproofing.
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UWI-Course
Mobile concrete laboratory for onsite testing

Purpose with mobile
laboratory:
all planned test equipment are available
most unplanned test
equipment are available
all relevant practical
tools are available
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23
Selected references - inspection and maintenance of bridges

Great Belt connection (Denmark)
Oeresundsbron (Sweden and Denmark)
Tete bridge (Mozambique)
Large bridges & tunnels for the Danish Road Directorate (Denmark)
Several bridges for the Danish Railways (Denmark)
Hooghley bridge (India)
Victoria Falls Bridge (Zambia)
Steel bridges (Greece)
Riveted steel bridge (Denmark)
Soerstraumen bridge monitoring system (Norway)
Haicang suspension bridge (China)
Progreso pier (Mexico)
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UWI-Course
Great belt (Denmark)
Inspections / repair projects / life time evaluations of concrete structures
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Oeresundsbron (Sweden and Denmark)
Inspection of steel and concrete structures bridge and tunnel
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UWI-Course
Tete bridge (Mozambique)
Inspection of 5 span suspension bridge
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Danish Road Directorate
Management and maintenance of large bridges and tunnels
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UWI-Course
Danish Road Directorate
Management and maintenance of large bridges and tunnels
Danish Railways
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Maintenance and repair of several bridges
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2nd. Hooghley River Bridge (India)
Maintenance manual and DANBROweb management system
Victoria Falls Bridge
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Inspection and fatigue analysis/assessment
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UWI-Course
Inspection and evaluation of 2 steel bridges (Greece)
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Inspection / NDT test of rivet steel bridge

(Road and railway - Denmark)
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UWI-Course
Soerstraumen Bridge (Norway)

Monitoring system
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Haicang suspension bridge (China)

Maintenance manuals
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UWI-Course
Progreso Pier (Mexico)
Inspection of a 65-yr. concrete pier with stainless steel
1937: Pier with stainless steel
1965: Pier with carbon steel
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4. Non Destructive Testing and

Underwater Inspections
Lecture program
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UWI-Course
4. Lecture program
Classroom training
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4. Lecture program
Classroom training and field inspections
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UWI-Course
4. Lecture program
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41
4. Lecture program
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42
UWI-Course
4 Lecture program
NDT-methods above water

NDT-method
Concrete, steel and masonry
Crack detection microscope
Boroscope
Half cell potential measurements
Concrete
Corrosion rate meter
Concrete
Cover meter
Concrete
Spraying indicators (pH)
Concrete
Impact Echo equipment
Concrete
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43
4 Lecture program

NDT-method
Impulse response equipment
Concrete
CAPO test
Concrete
Pull-off/Bond test
Concrete
Schmidt Hammer
Ground Penetration Radar
Chloride content
Concrete
Coring equipment
Concrete
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UWI-Course
4 Lecture program

NDT-method
Acoustic emission monitoring
Steel
Structural testing system
Structural scan equipment
Ultrasonic Thickness gauge
Steel
Ultrasonic testing
Steel
Magnetic thickness gauge
Steel
Dye penetrant
Steel
Magnetic particle testing
Steel
Strain gauging
Steel
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45
4 Lecture program
NDT-methods under water

NDT-method
Steel
Ultrasonic testing
Concrete and steel
Cover meter
Concrete
Schmidt Hammer
Chloride content
Concrete
Coring equipment
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UWI-Course
4 Lecture program
NDT-methods above and under water

Agenda:
1. Theory Technical Method Description
2. Applications and Limitations
3. Test Planning and Execution of Field Tests
4. Interpretation and Reporting of Results
5. Application Summary
6. References
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4 Lecture program
Field inspections
NDT-training - Overview
Bridge
Inspections and NDT
Thane Creek
Bridge
Visual, CAPO, Boroscope,

Schmidt Hammer, Spraying
indicators, Crack Detection
Microscope, Crack Measuring
Gauge, Chloride Content
No. 25/1
Sandhurst
No. 1/9
Photo
Visual, Boroscope, Crack

Detection Microscope, Crack
Measuring Gauge, Ultrasonic
Thickness Gauge, Ultrasonic
Testing, Magnetic Thickness
Gauge, Dye Penetrant
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UWI-Course
4 Lecture program
Field inspections
Bridge
Inspections and NDT
Diva-Panvel
Visual, Impact-Echo, HCP,

Cover Meter, Boroscope,
Schmidt Hammer, Spraying
indicators, Chloride Content
No. 49/2
KarjatLonavala
No. 107/2
Photo
Visual, Schmidt Hammer,

Boroscope, Crack Detection
Gauge
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4 Lecture program
Field inspections
Bridge
Inspections and NDT
Neera Bridge
Visual, Schmidt Hammer,

Boroscope, Crack Detection
Gauge
No. 149
Photo
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UWI-Course
4 Lecture program
Field inspections
UWI-training - Overview
Bridge
Inspections and NDT
Thane Creek
Bridge
Water soundings and scour.

Level I inspection.
Photo
No. 25/1
Mumbra
Creek Bridge

Level I inspection.
No. 38/2
Level III inspection including:

Schmidt hammer, Coring, Ultra
Sonic Testing of Concrete,
Cover Meter, Chloride Content.
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51
4 Lecture program
Field inspections
Bridge
Inspections and NDT
WardhaNagpur

Level I and level II
inspections.
Dham Bridge
Photo
No. 768/2
WardhaNagpur
Kistna Bridge

Level I and level II
inspections.
No. 807/1
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UWI-Course
4 Lecture program
Field inspections
Bridge
Inspections and NDT
Daud
Kurduwadi
Bheema
Bridge
Photo
Level I inspection.
No. 301/1
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APPENDIX A2
General Introduction to Deterioration Mechanism
UWI-Course
5. General introduction to deterioration

mechanisms
5.A Concrete Bridges
5.A Deterioration mechanisms in concrete bridges
Selected deterioration mechanisms

Carbonation
Chloride ingress
Alkali Silica Reaction (ASR)

Initial defects (honey combing
etc.)
Chemical attack
Acid attack
Sulphate attack
Seawater attack
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UWI-Course
Initiation:
Chloride ingress, carbonation.
Result:
Reduction of cross-section, surface cracks, spalling concrete.
Visual appearance: Wide cracks in a pattern, spalling concrete.

Growth:
Chloride: Very fast (pitting). Carbonation: slow.
Typical areas:
Splash zones on marine structures, areas with small

concrete cover.
NDT-methods:
HCP, corrosion rate, break-ups, crack detection, boroscope.
Rehabilitation methods:
- Preventive:
Reduce moisture and chloride, cathodic protection.
- Corrective:
Replacement of reinforcement and concrete, replacement of

waterproofing on road carrying bridges.
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56
Carbonation
Chlorides
Diffusion of oxygen
Moisture (H2O)
Deterioration of coating of ferric oxide
Possibility of corrosion
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Corrosion products (black) with
a small volume are created in
environments with high
humidity and limited access of
oxygen (lack of oxygen). This
is often observed by chloride
initiated corrosion.
In environments with plenty of
oxygen corrosion products with
more volume are created
(brown). This is often observed
at corrosion caused by
carbonation of the concrete
cover.
Black
Black
Brown
Brown - yellow
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The ingress of chloride in concrete depends on e.g.:
How the ingress is happening:
Diffusion
Capillary suction (ascension)
Water pressure
Migration (electrical field)
And factors as:

Concrete cover (Concrete) quality (w/c-ratio, cement type and content,
pH-value of the cellular liquid, cellular system, appearance of pozzolanes,
defects (cracks, inhomogeneities), the air void system).
Thickness of concrete cover.
Chloride impact from the environment (concentration, exposure)
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UWI-Course
Alkali silica reaction (ASR)

Initiation:
Reactive material, alkaline environment, moisture.
Result:
Reduction of concrete strength, surface cracks, spalling

concrete, pop-outs.
Visual appearance: Narrow cracks in a pattern, spalling concrete.

Growth:
Fast/slow depending of the reactive aggregate. Acceleration:

ingress of e.g. sodium-chlorides.
Typical areas:
Splash zones on marine structures, etc.
NDT-methods:
Concrete cores, Impact-Echo, Impulse Response,

Boroscope.
- Preventive: Reduce moisture/chloride ingress, surface treatment.
- Corrective: Replacement of concrete.
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60

4 components must be present to cause ASR:
Reactive Silica (e.g. SiO2H2O)
Ca(OH)2
ASR
Water (H2O)
Alkali (Na+, K+)
Harmless ASR interior cracking/solution of reactive grain

Damaging ASR cracking in concrete
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UWI-Course

To cause damage due to ASR a certain minimum
amount of alkali reactive grains has to be
contained in the concrete. The value of the
minimum amount depends on the type of
reactive material.
For ASR to cause expansion and cracking of the
concrete the alkali content of the concrete has to
exceed a certain value this value depends on
the type of reactive aggregate. It has to be
noted that alkalis from outside (e.g. sodium
from salt water) also contributes to the alkalis in
the reactions.
Reactive sand
aggregate
Alkali silica reaction in a sand aggregate.

Photo: 2.5x3.5 mm.
The relative humidity of the concrete typically

has to be > 80% RH.
Alkaline environment in the concrete is
necessary for the reactions (pH > 12) thus no
reactions will take place if the concrete is
carbonated.
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Initial defects
Initiation:
Poor vibration, poor casting.
Result:
Honeycombing, spalling.
Visual appearance: Cracking, spalling concrete, stones in the concrete surface.

Growth:
Slow.
Typical areas:
Areas with poor conditions for casting/vibration e.g. areas

with heavy/close reinforcement and relatively low concrete
cover.
NDT-methods:
Break-ups, Impulse Response, boroscope.
- Preventive:
Good workmanship and QA while casting in critical areas.
- Corrective:
Replacement of concrete.
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UWI-Course
Initial defects
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64
Chemical attacks
Ca(OH)2 + SO42- CaSO4 + 2OH2Sulphate and acid attacks the mechanism:
Sulphates are found in sea water, sewage water etc.
A number of sulphate compounds can attack the concrete.
First the compounds convert Ca(OH)2 to gypsum.
Then the compounds react with the aluminate parts (C3A) of the cement paste
and form the chemical compound of ettringite.
The result of the chemical reactions is loss of concrete strength and expansion of
the cement paste which causes cracking and spalling in the outer layer of
concrete.
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UWI-Course

mechanisms
5.B Steel Bridges
5.B Deterioration mechanisms in steel bridges

Corrosion of steel
Chink corrosion
Galvanic corrosion
Atmospheric corrosion
Ageing of steel
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UWI-Course
Corrosion of steel Electrochemical Corrosion

The water drop dissolve O2 from the atmosphere.
Where the water layer is thin the oxygen reach the steel very fast and acts as an electron
acceptor according to the cathode process.
Inhomogeneities in the steel surface result in a certain area to become anode.
The circuit is working and the steel corrodes anodic in the centre.
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68
Corrosion of steel Chink Corrosion

Chink corrosion is a case of electrochemical corrosion.
Two plates overlap each other, and there is water in the overlaps (in the chink).
The free water surface absorbs oxygen and the metal surfaces in the marginal
zones become cathodes.
In the chink the oxygen have difficulties to penetrate and the metal surfaces
become anodes and is corroded. This corrosion is not visible from the outside
and it is therefore dangerous.
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Corrosion of steel Galvanic Corrosion

Galvanic corrosion is initiated when electrical contact occurs between two metals
in a moist environment.
The more anodic metal releases ions and is corroded.
The smaller ratio between anode and cathode the more severe corrosion.
Prevention of galvanic corrosion:

Remove the moisture.
Disable electrical contact by:
greasing
inserts of plastic
coating
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70
Corrosion of steel Atmospheric Corrosion

Atmospheric corrosion is corrosion on un-protected steel surfaces
exposed to the atmosphere.
If the air humidity > 65 % relative humidity adsorption of connected
water film occurs and thereby electrochemical corrosion occurs.
Different factors influence the risk and velocity of the corrosion.
Temperature:
Increase of 10 oC double corrosion velocity.
Air pollution:
In an industrial environment the creation of soot is high. The
soot contains sulphur and carbon. The sulphur acid acts as
electrolyte and a strong corrosion cell is created between
carbon and steel.
In marine environment the large amount of salts in the air
may cause stronger corrosion than in the inner of the country.
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UWI-Course
Ageing of steel
Impact on steel at very low temperatures may result in fracture without any large
deformation as seen at normal temperatures.
The brittle fracture form may also be seen on very old steels at normal
temperatures: brittle fracture due to aging of steel.
Impact ductility according to Charpy-V test
Brittle
Transition
Ductile
Ageing
Transition temperature
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mechanisms
5.C Masonry Bridges
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5.C Deterioration mechanisms in masonry bridges

Chemical/biological attack
Stress-related effects
Water and waterborne acids
movement of foundation
Sulphates
movement/consolidation/washout
Pollution
of infill
vibration
Erosion
Particles in flowing water and
wind
frost attack
overloading
moisture movement
thermal movement
salt crystallization
plant root action
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Chemical/biological attack (Water)

Initiation:
Water ingress.
Result:
Loose sandy or friable mortar, loss of mortar.
Visual appearance: Raked joints, loss of bricks, stains due to precipitation of

dissolved material.
Growth:
Usually slow
Typical areas:
Piers: Under water and in the splash zone. Abutments or

other structures partly covered by water/soil.
NDT-methods:
Cores, crack detection, boroscope.
- Preventive:
Channel water away, or use strong impermeable mortars
- Corrective:
Mechanical repointing using a waterproof or polymermodified mortar.
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UWI-Course
Chemical/biological attack (Water)

Absolute pure water will have no
direct chemical effect but some of the
constituents of mortar are slightly
soluble and will leach away slowly.
Rainwater contains dissolved carbon
dioxide forming a very mild acid which
dissolves calcium carbonate by
production of soluble bicarbonate.
Lime mortars will eventually be
destroyed by percolating rainwater
because calcium carbonate is their
main binding agent.
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Chemical/biological attack (Sulphate)

Initiation:
Reaction between sulphate ions in water solution and the tricalcium

aluminate (C3A) phase in mortars
Result:
Net expansion that causes both local disruption of the mortar bed
and stresses in the brickwork as a result of the expansion.
Visual appearance:
Small horizontal cracks are sometimes visible in the centre of each

bed joint. Rendered masonry may exhibit a network of cracks.
Typical areas:
Will only occur in wet or saturated conditions and where there is a

source of water-soluble sulphate compound.
NDT-methods:
Cores, crack detection.
- Preventive:
Keep the masonry dry, exclude sulphates, use mortars that are not
affected by sulphates.
- Corrective:
Correction of faults that are causing unintended wetting. In serious

cases it might be necessary to demolish and rebuild.
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UWI-Course
Chemical/biological attack (Sulphate)

A sulphate attack will only occur
in a wet or saturated environment
where there is a source of watersoluble sulphate compound.
It will never take place in dry or
slight damp masonry.
Sulphates may be present in
groundwater and can affect
masonry below the waterproofing
membrane - and affect masonry
in contact with the ground such as
retaining walls, bridges and
tunnels
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Erosion (frost)
Initiation:
Expansion of water freezing in the pore system of materials.
Result:
Spalling of material, softening and erosion of the mortar

(indistinguishable from chemical erosion)
Visual appearance: Spalling, loss of mortar

Typical areas:
Water-saturated or near-saturated conditions in porous

material.
NDT-methods:
Cores, sonic methods.
- Preventive: Eliminate saturation of construction.
- Corrective: Mechanical repointing with a mortar containing a waterproofing or
polymer additive.
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UWI-Course
Erosion (Salt crystallization)

Initiation:
Expansion of hydrated salts in the pore structure
Result:
Spalling of material, softening and erosion of the mortar
Visual appearance: The spalling, softening and erosion of mortar will usually be
associated with salt crystals.
Typical areas:
Normally occurs in warm conditions where there is a rapid

drying of water causing the salts to crystallize.
NDT-methods:
Cores.
- Preventive: Using appropriate materials and detailing
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80
Erosion (Abrasion and Stress related effects)

Abrasion:
Abrasion by particles in wind and water
often acts in combination with other
processes.
The appearance will normally be a loss
of surface and change of colour and
texture
Stress-related effects:
Step cracking or splitting of the mortar
beds is common where movement or
tension/shear forces occur.
The most common source is invasion
by plant roots which then split the
porous mortar as they grow
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UWI-Course

mechanisms
5.D Underwater structures
5.D Deterioration mechanisms of underwater structures
Selected deterioration mechanisms - UWI

Basically the deterioration mechanisms of underwater structures include
the same mechanisms as for structures above water however the
degree of deterioration may differ from the ones above water.
Deterioration due to chloride ingress will
typically only be actual to a depth of app.
0.5 m from the minimum water line.
NOTE: Severe corrosion may occur in
this zone and the corrosion products will
be less voluminous.
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UWI-Course

Scour
Erosive action of running water carrying away material.
Aggradation (long term changing of the conditions):
Deposition of material elevation the riverbed.
Reduction of the waterway the surface of water will rise.
Unintended horizontal forces to the piers/abutments during flood.
Failure of piers / abutments failure of bridge.
Degradation (long term changing of the conditions):

Lowering the river bed caused by erosion.
Undermining of foundation failure of piers / abutments failure of
bridge.
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84

Scour
General scour:
Erosion / removal of material from the whole width of the waterway.
Takes place over a short period of time (due to increased water speed).
Due to obstructions of the waterway upstreams or downstream.
Local scour:
Erosion / removal of material from part of the waterway.
Occurs where obstructions (piers etc.) changes the flow of water creating
accelerations and vortex.
Depends on the shape of the obstruction (pier).
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APPENDIX A3
General Introduction to Systematic Operation and
Maintenance
UWI-Course
6. General Introduction to Systematic

Operation and Maintenance
6 General introduction to operation and maintenance
Systematic Operation and Maintenance

Systematic maintenance and operation requires:
Overview of assets.
Overview of documentation.
Overview of condition.
Activity management.
- Planning.
- Budgeting.
- Optimization of resources.
- Follow-up on execution and economy.
Several approaches could be used the next slide shows one

approach.
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UWI-Course

Chain of activities
Activities
Output
Principal Inspection
Report
Rehabilitation needs
Extended Principal
Inspection
Report, General Considerations

of Rehabilitations
Rehabilitation needs
Economic Evaluation
Routine Inspection
No rehabilitation need
After 1- 6 years
Routine Maintenance
No rehabilitation need
Special Inspection
Optimization
Rehabilitation Design
Execution
Report, Strategies
Projects to Execute
Tender Documents
'As Built' Documentation
Updating of Principal
Inspection
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Optimisation
The challenge:
The funds are often not sufficient for

maintaining all structures in perfect
condition.
Basic demands for safety and capacity

must be fulfilled.
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UWI-Course

Optimisation
Purpose
Finding a set of long-term rehabilitation strategies (one for each
structure) that meet the available funds and has the lowest total cost
for society.
Principle
Projects required for reasons of safety etc. will be carried out.
Projects with high cost increase over time will be carried out and
projects with low cost increase will be postponed.
Result
Budget for selected maintenance/repair work for each structure for e.g.
a 5-year period.
Penalty (the cost of not having sufficient means to carry out all work at
the optimum time).
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90
Inspection types and frequencies
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UWI-Course
Inspection Types
Routine Inspection
Extended Principal Inspection
Special Inspection
Monitoring (online or ad-hoc)
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92
Routine Inspection
Purpose
Identify and register suddenly occurred damage and thereby ensuring safety
Register the need for and supervise the execution of routine maintenance and cleaning
Method
Superficial visual inspection
Frequency
Normal routine inspection usually calendar based (day/week)

Extended routine inspection usually calendar based ( year 1 year)
Reporting
Standard forms / check lists

Lists of standard works
Requisitions of maintenance works
Personnel
Usually limited needs for education (can be carried out by maintenance crew with some
training)
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UWI-Course
Purpose
Detect deterioration before it gets serious
Register the need for rehabilitation works
Register the need for special inspections
Keep track of the condition of the structure
Method
Detailed visual inspection of all visible parts at close range registering:
Condition rating
Description of damage
Need for rehabilitation, including year and cost estimate
Need for special inspection
Photos
Year for next principal inspection
Slide
94
Condition rating of the bridge components:
0:
1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
No damage. As new.
Insignificant damage. No action needed.
Minor damage. Repair when convenient.
Damage. Repair soon (or: evaluate more closely the need for repair).
Severe damage. Repair is urgent.
Extreme damage. Action must be taken immediately.
Frequency
Usually every 1-6 years depending on the condition of the structure
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95
UWI-Course
Reporting
Inspection report with registrations and
recommendations
Overview of condition rating for the structure
Description of the condition of the structural
elements (damages)
List of structural elements to be repaired
Running forecasts of budget needs 5-10 years ahead
List of structural elements that require special inspection
The time to the next principal inspection (for the various structural elements)
Personnel
Good knowledge of damage types, causes and consequences, a certain
knowledge of material technology and structural behaviour of bridges, good
knowledge of maintenance and repair methods (usually carried out by
engineers)
Slide
96

Purpose
Detect deterioration before it gets serious

Register the need for general rehabilitation works
Keep track of the condition of the structure
Determine knowledge about the type and extent of
damage of selected bridge components
Frequency
Irregular intervals is performed instead of a principle inspection if

there is doubt about damage type and extent of some bridge
components
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97
UWI-Course

Method
Detailed visual inspection of all visible parts at close range registering:
Condition rating (defined as in principal inspection)

Description of damage
General considerations of the need for rehabilitations
Need for special inspection
Photos
Year for next principal inspection
Non Destructive Testing of selected bridge components
Slide
98

Reporting
Inspection report with registrations and

recommendations
Overview of condition rating for the structure
Description of the condition of the structural
elements (damages)
General considerations of need for rehabilitation
The time to the next principal inspection (for the different structural
components)
Personnel
Good knowledge of damage types, causes and consequences, a certain

knowledge of material technology and structural behaviour of bridges, good
knowledge of maintenance and repair methods, experts with experience in on
site investigations, laboratory analysis, structural analysis etc. (usually carried
out by experienced engineers)
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UWI-Course
Special Inspection
Purpose overall
To obtain detailed knowledge about
the type and extent of damage
resulting in the below benefits for the
owner of the structure:
Optimal use of budgets

Extended service lifetime of structures
Avoidance of unforeseen costs
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100
Special Inspection
Purpose specific
Determine cause and extent of damage.
Assess probable future development of damage.
Set up and analyze alternative rehabilitation strategies (usually 1-3

strategies).
Make cost estimates.
Assess the technical and economical consequences of a (e.g. 5-year)

postponement of each strategy. This part analyse may be left out.
Establish basis for rehabilitation design.
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Special Inspection
Test methods Concrete Structures
Detailed investigation comprising combinations of:
On site NDT-investigations:
Laboratory analysis:
Half Cell Potential
Chloride content
Galvapulse (corrosion rate)
Moisture content
sMASH (Impulse Response)

Impact-Echo
Carbonation depth
Boroscope
Concrete quality
(microstructure, w/c ratio, air
void distribution etc.)
Break-ups to reinforcement
Alkali Silica Reactivity
Covermeter
Etc.
Ground Penetration Radar
Capo test
Etc.
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Special Inspection
Test methods Steel Structures
Ultrasonic testing gauge
Fracture toughness
Ultrasonic testing
Chemical composition
Magnetic particle testing
Pressure testing
Dye penetrant
Etc.
Magnetic thickness gauge

Strain gauge
Boroscope
Etc.
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Special Inspection
Test methods Masonry structures
Schmidt hammer
Evaluation of masonry cores
Ground penetration radar
Etc.
Coring
Etc.
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104
Special Inspection
Method:
Identify relevant strategies, typically

Thorough repair now that solves the problem permanently.
Interim repair now. Thorough repair later.
Do nothing now. When the structure is no longer safe, replace it.
For each strategy:

Estimate all direct over a long period (typically 50 years)
Calculate the net present value (NPV) of the costs
The optimum strategy is the one with the lowest net present value
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Special Inspection
Frequency
Special Inspections are carried out at irregular intervals when there
is doubt about:
Damage mechanism/interaction
Damage cause
Damage type and extent
Damage development/growth
Slide
106
Special Inspection
Reporting
Inspection report on a scientific level
Description of the structure and the problem
Presentation of the test methods used
The registrations (measurements/test results)
Evaluation of the registrations (What is wrong? What will
happen if nothing is done? What should be done ?)
Recommendations for remedial actions
Personnel
Experts with experience in on site investigations, laboratory
analysis, structural analysis etc. (usually carried out by
experienced engineers with significant knowledge on the
required topics)
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Monitoring
Monitoring of the condition and behavior of bridges is an integrated part
of bridge management.
Benefits:
Monitoring critical parts of the structure gives detailed information of
the actual condition.
Reduced direct costs by postponing and tailoring the need for
rehabilitation.
Reduced traffic interference and traffic regulations.
Slide
108
Monitoring
Economy:
The monitoring approach is often more economic than the traditional
approach in the field of rehabilitations.
Early-warning of damages or safety risks.
The basis for making decisions and prioritization regarding maintenance
and repair activities is improved
Fewer unexpected major costs and cost reductions as repairs may be
postponed by several years and/or tailored.
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Monitoring
In-situ monitoring:
Frequent inspection with traditional methods (HCP etc.), providing a
picture of the development of the properties that are registered.
On-line-monitoring
Continuous (or very frequent) measuring of specific properties,
performed by sensors placed in the structure.
Possible to monitor areas where access is difficult or impossible.
Traffic interference is reduced.
The data can be collected directly from a data logger on site or be
downloaded using Internet or telephone line
Slide
110
Monitoring
Management solution for monitoring
SMARTmonitoring an integrated module in the SMARTmanagement
system.
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Under Water Inspection (UWI)

Under Water Inspections for Indian Railways are conducted according to:
FHWA-DP-80-01, Underwater Inspection of Bridges
US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration
November 1989
Three levels of inspection are considered:
Level I: Purely visual inspection,

corresponding to Principal Inspection,
supplemented by water depth soundings
Level II: Level I supplemented by cleaning
selected areas for closer inspection,
corresponding to Extended Principal
Inspection
Level III: Detailed investigation of specific
elements, using Non-Destructive Testing,
corresponding to Special Inspection
Slide
112

UWI - Level I:
Visual, tactile inspection using large sweeping motions of the hands
where visibility is limited.
Major damage or deterioration due to over-stress or severe
deterioration (spalling) or corrosion should be detected.
The continuity of the full length of all members should be confirmed.
Undermining or exposure of normally buried elements should be
detected.
The inspection should be conducted over the total exterior surface of
each underwater structural element.
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UWI-Course

UWI - Level II:
Detailed inspection requiring parts of the structure to be cleaned of
marine growth.
The cleaning of piers and abutments are performed in areas of app.
0.30 m x 0.30 m in 3 different levels on each face of the element.
The thoroughness of cleaning should be governed by what is
necessary to identify and register the condition of the underlying
material.
Damaged areas should be measured and the extent and severity of
the damage should be documented.
Slide
114

UWI - Level III:
Highly detailed inspection of a critical structures, structural
components, or members where extensive repair or possible
replacement is contemplated.
Hidden or interior damage must be detected.
Loss of cross sectional area must be detected.
The material homogeneity must be evaluated.
The level III inspection includes extensive cleaning, detailed
measurements and selected Non Destructive Tests.
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115
APPENDIX A4
Introduction to Underwater Inspections
UWI-Course
Introduction
Introduction
1. Where and when is UWI required.
2. Structural components under water.
3. Relevant damage types.
4. References.
Introduction to Under Water Inspection - 21 February,

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1. Where and When is Under Water

Inspection needed
1. Where and when is UWI required
Where and when is

Under Water Inspection required
A majority of major railway bridges are built over waterways,

and most bridge failures occur because of underwater problems.
Serious damage can occur and develop without being detected
before it is too late if Under Water Inspection is not performed
regularly.
Under Water Inspection must comprise all structural components
under water, and the riverbed and possible river bed protection
around them.
The interval between routine inspection should never exceed 5
years, and in many cases it must be shorter.

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History
The presented material is, as agreed, based on the report:
By the:
Federal Highway Administration
U.S. Department of Transportation

2006
Slide
History
Collapse of several bridges in the
U.S. during the 80s
All caused by underwater damage
Thruway Bridge over Schoharie
Creek, 1987 ten people died
A larger revision was made to the
National Bridge Inspection
Standards

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History
Slide

2006
When to perform Under Water Inspection

Intervals between routine (scheduled) inspections depend on:
The condition of the riverbed (hard rock / sand / mud)
The amount and speed of water flow
In general
At high flood
Possible prop wash (turbulence caused by the propellers of

passing ships) that can cause erosion/scour and a sandblasting
effect on piers
The aggressiveness of the water (steel structures or reinforced
concrete structures in salt water call for attention)
The condition and sturdiness of the structures
No fixed rules for intervals, only: should never exceed 5 years

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Unscheduled Under Water Inspection

After unusual floods
After vessel impact (unless it is
obvious that no damage has
occurred)
After Ice floes (can damage piers
by impact or abrasion, and
accumulation of ice can cause
scour because the ice reduces the
cross section of the river)
irrelevant in most areas of India
Mexico after flooding
Slide

2006

Build-up of debris at piers and
abutments (horizontal forces on
the structures and scour because
of reduced cross section of the
river)
Unusual prop wash from vessels
Mexico

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UWI-Course

Settlements or other evidence of
scour
Honduras after
hurricane Mitch

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2. Structural Components Under Water
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2. Structural components under water
Types of structures under water
Illustrations from report FHWA-DP-80-01, Underwater Inspection of Bridges

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Slide 17

2006
3. Relevant Damage Types
Under Water Components
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Settlements and displacements of piers and abutments because
of scour.
Structural damage to piles and piers caused
by overload, impact of debris, logs etc.
or by ship impact.
Compression
failure of
concrete pile
Structural damage because of

inadequate design or poor
workmanship.
Eccentricity in pile bent

Slide 19

2006
Structural Deficiencies, steel structures

Fatigue cracks at welded connections.
Brittleness due to ageing and cold
brittleness.
Buckling of compression members.
Eccentricities in connections.

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UWI-Course
Deterioration of concrete structures

Abrasion (erosion of concrete surface by physical matters)
caused by debris, logs, ice, etc. in the river
Scaling: Gradual and continuous loss of surface
mortar and aggregate, typically caused by
freeze/thaw action or chemical attack
Spalling: Loss of a layer of concrete,
often caused by expanding corrosion
products of corroding reinforcement
Slide 21

2006

Cracking caused by shrinkage/temperature difference
Normally harmless from a
structural point of view,
but can cause problems
because of exposure of
the reinforcement

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Cracking caused by Alkali Aggregate Reactions (AAR)
Slide 23

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Chemical attack
Acid Attack
Sulphate Attack
Seawater Attack

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UWI-Course

Caused by carbonation of concrete (whereby it looses its protective
properties). Most common in the splash zone. Gives general
corrosion with expansive products that causes spalling of concrete
cover.
Caused by chlorides (e.g. from salt
water). Can occur far below water
surface. Gives local corrosion and
potentially fast loss of cross section.
Slide 25

2006

1. Areas with the risk of local corrosion especially in constantly wet and chloride
contaminated concrete. In concrete exposed to alternating wetting and drying,
the corrosion product will expand causing cracks and spalling of the cover.
2. General corrosion, mainly caused by carbonation. The corrosion will develop
slowly, but visible damage will appear at an early stage.
3. Areas at risk of local corrosion. The
lack of oxygen does not prevent
corrosion as the cathodic process
will take place at the steel areas
above ground level. The corrosion
rate can be very high.

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UWI-Course
Masonry structures
Damage of masonry structures
Stone cracking
Stone delamination
Pointing failure
Slide 27

2006
Deterioration of masonry structures
Erosion of masonry structures is mainly caused by
Particles in flowing water

(and wind)
Wash out of the joints
Frost attacks
Salt crystallization
Plant root action
Increased earth or hydrostatic

pressure
Scouring at the base because of wave and current

actions

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UWI-Course
Deterioration of steel structures

Abrasion
Exposure to wave actions in areas with
a sandy bottom.
Overloading
Impact / collision
Compression overloading damage.
Corrosion
Illustration from Underwater Inspection Criteria, Naval

Facilities Engineering Service Center, 1999.
2006
Slide 29

Corrosion is worst:
primary in the splash zone (ample
supply of water and oxygen),
secondary right below the mean
low water
Illustrations from report FHWA-DP-98-01, Underwater

evaluation and repair of bridge components and Underwater
Inspection Criteria, Naval Facilities Engineering Service
Center, 1999.
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UWI-Course

Corrosion is worst in the following conditions:
in salt water (is a better electrolyte than fresh water)
in warm water (chemical processes run faster in
warm environment)
in moving water (carries more oxygen to the steel,
removes passive layer)

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Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion occurs in corrosive environment when the steel is

exposed to tension stresses. Often the attacks are not visible and
thereby very dangerous.
The stresses may be introduced when the steel melt is solidified,

or due to cold deformation of the steel, or due to outer static
forces.
The corrosion takes place where the stresses and thereby the
energy level is highest.

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If the steel is exposed to alternating stresses there is a risk of

fatigue fracture of the steel. This risk is increased when corrosion
occurs together with the alternating stresses.

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4. References
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4. References
References
FHWA-DP-80-01, Underwater Inspection of Bridges, US

Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
November 1989.
(Basis for the inspections to be performed for Indian Railways)
FHWA-DP-98-01, Underwater evaluation and repair of bridge

components, US Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration, November 1995.
Shawn, K., Underwater Inspection Criteria, Naval Facilities

Engineering Service Center, 1999.

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APPENDIX A5
Levels of Underwater Inspections
UWI-Course
Levels of Under Water Inspection
Under Water Inspection
Introduction
Under Water Inspections for Indian Railways are conducted according to:
US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration
November 1989
Three levels of inspection are considered:
Level I: Purely visual inspection,

corresponding to Principal Inspection,
supplemented by water depth soundings.
Level II: Level I supplemented by cleaning

selected areas for closer inspection,
corresponding to Extended Principal
Inspection.
Level III: Detailed investigation of specific

components, using Non Destructive
Testing, corresponding to Special
Inspection.
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Introduction
Guidelines to the extent of under water inspections:
Level I:
100% of the underwater structural components

Carried out on a regular basis
Level II
10% of the underwater structural components

Carried out on a regular basis
Level III
Various extent depending on the damage to be investigated

Carried out when the regular inspection (visual inspections) is not conclusive
Is often executed prior to larger rehabilitations or replacement of members

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Slide
Slide
Agenda
1. Planning Under Water Inspection.
2. Level I Inspection and Scour Investigation.
3. Level II Inspection.
4. Level III Inspection.

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1. Planning Under Water Inspection
Planning
The following subjects should be considered while planning an under
water inspection:
Background material (as-built drawings,

previous reports), number and shape of
the piers, piles etc.
Inventory (how are the piers / piles etc.

identified).
Site visit to estimate the local conditions.
Critical areas of the structure.
Wave actions.
Water temperature range.
Atmospheric temperature range.

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Planning
The following subjects should be considered while planning an under
water inspection:
Water depths.
Tidal range.
Water visibility (need for clear water

box).
Pollution / sewage in the water.
Currents.
Amount of bio fouling growth on the

bridge component.
Seasonal flooding / (ice).

2006
Slide
2. Level I Inspection and Scour

Investigation
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2. Level I Inspection and Scour Investigation
The Under Water Inspection (UWI)

UWI - Level I:
Visual, tactile inspection using large sweeping motions of the hands
where visibility is limited.
Major damage or deterioration due to over-stress, severe
deterioration (spalling) or corrosion should be detected.
The continuity of the full length of all members should be confirmed.
Undermining or exposure of normally buried elements should be
detected.
The inspection should be conducted over the total exterior surface of
each underwater structural element.

2006
Slide

Carrying out the visual inspection:
Inspection of a pile bent (in a spiral motion):
Illustration from report

FHWA-DP-80-01,
Underwater Inspection of
Bridges

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Inspection of piers / abutments:
Schematic illustration of inspection pattern of a pier or abutment.
If the diver is not line tended or using equipment from above, the
piers must be inspected in a circular pattern.
2006
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Scour Investigation
Three methods of detecting scour:
Level I Under Water Inspection
Water depth soundings
Visual evidence
(settlements or movements, SKOV-handrail)

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UWI-Course

Scour Investigation
If scour is registered, the investigation

must always include an assessment of the
causes of scouring:
General scour caused by contraction of river
flow, possibly because of the presence of the
bridge itself (approaches, abutments, piers),
possibly in combination with abnormal flood
Local scour caused by vortexes at piers, at
edges of river bed protection, or at other
obstacles like debris, timber logs etc. in the
river
The cause of the scour can be upstream or

downstream
Slide 13

2006

Scour Investigation
Upstream conditions
Stable/unstable banks?
Main channel clear and open, without debris, islands, etc.?
Main channel perpendicular to bridge?
Conditions at bridge site, substructure

Settlement, displacement or rotation of piers and abutments?
Damage to scour countermeasures
Changes in streambed elevation at
foundations (undermining)
Scour holes

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Scour Investigation
Conditions at bridge site,

superstructure
Evidence of overtopping by
flood can superstructure resist
horizontal forces from high
floods?
Will the superstructure collect
debris or does it present a
large surface to the flow?
Saudi Arabia. Superstructure found

100 m from bridge site

2006
Slide 15

Scour Investigation
Conditions at bridge site, channel

protection
Riprap, gabions or stone pitching intact or
undermined?
Guide banks in place?
Are the existing scour countermeasures
adequate?
Downstream conditions
Stable/unstable banks?
Main channel clear and open, without
debris, islands, etc.?
Main channel perpendicular to bridge?

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UWI-Course

Scour Investigation, registrations of geometry of riverbed
Divers registrations (sketches of foundations with indication of

riverbeds location, registration of bottom condition
(mud/rock/riverbed protection)
Slide 17

2006

Manual depth measuring (plumb line), single readings
Soundings/single readings

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UWI-Course

Manual depth measuring (plumb line), single readings
Soundings/single
readings

2006
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Soundings/area registrations
Soundings/area registrations
Automatic sounding from vessel, GPS positioning
Automatic sounding from vessel, GPS positioning
3-D presentation of results
3-D presentation of results

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Level I inspection Reporting:
Condition rating:
9: Excellent condition.
8: Very good condition. No problems noted.
7: Good condition. Some minor problems.
6: Satisfactory condition. Some minor problems.
5: Fair condition. All primary structural components are sound but may have
minor section loss, cracking, spalling or scour.
4: Poor condition. Advanced section loss, deterioration, spalling or scour.
Slide 21

2006

Condition rating:
3: Serious condition. Loss of section, deterioration, spalling or scour has
seriously affected primary structural components. Local failures are possible.
Fatigue cracks in steel or shear cracks in concrete may be present.
2: Critical condition. Advanced deterioration of primary structural components.
1: Imminent failure condition. Major deterioration or section loss present in
critical structural components or obvious vertical or horizontal movement
affecting structural stability. The bridge is closed to traffic but corrective
action may put back in light service.
0: Failed condition. Out of service beyond corrective action.
N Not applicable.

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Reporting sheet:

2006
Slide 23

Level I inspection, reporting
Supplement the report form

with
Description of any significant
damage
Sketches of any significant
damage
Photos / video
If signs of deterioration is
observed a level II or a level
III inspection may be
required.

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UWI-Course

Level I inspection, reporting
Slide 25

2006
3. Level II Inspection

UWI - Level II:
Detailed inspection requiring parts of the structure to be cleaned of
marine growth.
The cleaning of piers and abutments are performed in areas of app.
0.30 m x 0.30 m in 3 different levels on each face of the element.
The thoroughness of cleaning should be governed by what is
necessary to identify and register the condition of the underlying
material.
Damaged areas should be measured and the extent and severity of
the damage should be documented.

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UWI-Course

UWI - Level II:
Where to clean surfaces for closer inspection
Piles:
25 cm high bands
of the perimeter
in 3 different levels
Splash zone (low waterline)
Mudline (bottom of river)
Midway between low waterline and mudline
Concentrate on damaged and suspicious

areas, but also include apparently
undamaged areas
Horizontal section in piles
Slide 27

2006

UWI - Level II:
Where to clean surfaces for closer inspection
Piers and abutments (solid elements):
Areas of app. 0.30 m x 0.30 m
In 3 different levels
Splash zone (low waterline)
Mudline (bottom of river)
At construction joints or other structural details. If no such exist, midway
between low waterline and mudline
On each face of the element.

Concentrate on damaged and suspicious areas, but also include
apparently undamaged areas

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UWI - Level II Reporting:
As level I, supplemented by sketches showing where the surface of
structures has been cleaned for closer inspection.
Slide 29

2006

UWI - Level II Reporting:

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UWI-Course
4. Level III Inspection

UWI - Level III:
Highly detailed inspection of critical structures, structural
components, or members where extensive repair or possible
replacement is contemplated.
Hidden or interior damage must be detected.
Loss of cross sectional area must be detected.
The material homogeneity must be evaluated.
The level III inspection includes extensive cleaning, detailed
measurements and selected Non Destructive Tests.
Slide 31

2006
4. Level III Inspection

UWI Level III Reporting
Inspection report on a scientific level

Description of the structure and the problem
Presentation of the test methods used
The registrations (measurements/test results)
Evaluation of the registrations (What is wrong? What will
happen if nothing is done? What should be done ?)
Recommendations for remedial actions

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UWI-Course
Levels of Under Water Inspection

References
FHWA-DP-80-01, Underwater Inspection of Bridges, US

Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration,
November 1989
(Basis for the inspections to be performed for Indian Railways)
FHWA-DP-98-01, Underwater evaluation and repair of bridge

components, US Department of Transportation, Federal
Highway Administration, November 1995.
Shawn, K., Underwater Inspection Criteria, Naval Facilities

Engineering Service Center, 1999.

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APPENDIX A6
Practical Considerations on Underwater Work
UWI-Course

Conditions for Effective Inspection.
Diving Equipment & Safety.
Methodology Adapted.
Surface Cleaning Equipment.
Distress Features.
Pilot Project An Introduction.
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CONDITIONS FOR DIVING.
Water Level, Current & Tides

Turbidity, Pollution & Visibility
Temperature & Accessibility
Divers Health Condition.
Vessel Movement (if any)

Water Level, Current & Tides.
Depth is inversely proportional to Effective Diving time.
Upto 30m Normal diving conditions apply.
Beyond 30m Saturation Diving with High precision.
High water currents also effect the diving time.
Would reduce the clarity of the picture.
Tidal variations effect the working time.
Tidal variations also bring lot of turbidity.
Tidal variations effect Divers movements.
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Turbidity, Pollution & Visibility.
More Turbidity means less Visibility.
Less Visibility - Diver Unable to Assess Visually.

Most of the assessment through CCTV system
Needs to communicate with diver continously.
Clear Water Boxes might help the surface crew.
Most of the Inspection using Touch & Feel.
Calls for experience Divers.
Surface Crew needs to be Patient.

Temperature & Accessibility
More the temperature & Less would be diving time.
Efficiency would also gets reduced.

Protective Clothing may help a bit.
Accessibility to target is very important.
Common example is group of piles.
Inaccessible areas may be hazardous.
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CONDITIONS FOR DIVING

DIVERS HEALTH
Frequent health check up of diver is needed.
Time gap between two dives should be maximum poss.
Certified Doctors are available to issue fitness certificate.
Avoid sending Divers showing Respiratory disorders.
Diving Supervisor educated in Common Health req.
Responsible for his teams health & Diet.
Diving Equipment
1. KMB Helmet.
2. Divers Radio.
3. Demand Valve.
4. Masks, Fins & Suits.
5. Surface Supplied Air.
6. LP Compressor.
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UWI-Course
DIVING EQUIPMENT
KMB HELMET
Light Weight and easily worn.

Robust & Rugged for rough handling.
Equipped with headphones & Microphone.
Allows to communicate while breathing.
Covers the complete face & hence safe.
Allows free movement to diver.
Highly safe at any water depths.
DIVING EQUIPMENT
DIVERS RADIO
Two way communication System.

Allows to be used as round robin or
simulcom systems.
Enables live inspection of work.
Enables ease of understanding.
Enables recording of communication.
Can also be used for deep sea diving.
Simple in operation.
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
DIVING EQUIPMENT
DEMAND VALVE
Held by the Diver between his jaws.

Enables supply of air to diver.
No means of communication.
Used either by stand by divers.
Or for small repair works.
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Hard wired, two way communication.

Available for single or two divers.
Operates either two wire or 4 wire ( simulcom)
Two wire operation Single comm. Path.
Divers path is always open Preference.
A Push to Talk Button allows tender to spk. To diver.
Headphone with Mic can be used.
Simulcom is a dual communication path.
A Pair of wires for Up link & a pair for down link.
Common Example is the Telephone.
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
UNDERWATER VIDEO
I.
Hand held Digital Camera Encased in a Waterproof

case with fixed focus & recording arrangement.
9Proceedings recorded by the diver.
9 Shown to Engineers after reaching the surface.
9 Edited & Subtitles added for easy understanding.
9No chance of watching live proceedings .
9Diver needs to go back again to confirm distress.
9Measurement of distresses possible.
UNDERWATER VIDEO
I.
Hand held Digital Camera Encased in a Waterproof

case with fixed focus & recording arrangement.
Video Clip
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
UNDERWATER VIDEO
II.
Hand held VHF / DIGITAL bullet camera Encased in

a Waterproof case with fixed focus & connected to
monitor at top.
9Proceedings watched live.
9Proceedings recorded in either VCR / DVR.
9Radio attached to Diver helps comm.
9Communications also are recorded.
9Personnel at shore can direct the diver
while watching live.
9Very helpful in areas where visibility is
zero.
9 Measurement of distress accurate.
UNDERWATER VIDEO
II.
Hand held VHF / DIGITAL bullet camera Encased in

a Waterproof case with fixed focus & connected to
monitor at top.
Video Clip
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
COMPRESSOR
AIR FILTER
DIVERS RADIO
CCTV SYSTEM
DIVERS
KMB
HELMET
CONNECTED
TO DIVERS
HAND HELD
CAMERA
METHODOLOGY ADAPTED
Divide the periphery into equal intervals Chainage.

Give notations to the chainages.
Drop a Wire rope with weight as guide line.
Guide line shall be divided in equal levels RLs.
Entire surface is divided in equal grids.
Adapt a standard bench mark to report Relative levels.
Diver descends along the chainage covering each grid.
The same shall be recorded grid wise.
Distresses shall be located & measured.
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
METHODOLOGY ADAPTED
Proceedings can be watched live on CCTV system.
All communication done using Divers radio.
Zero visibility areas touch & Feel method.
Distress features are measured in three dimensions.
Features shall be located w.r.t. grid.
Diver needs to be briefed before every inspection.
Extract the information from diver.
Bed details near the periphery shall be reported.
Scour depth shall be recorded by sounding.
DISTRESS FEATURES IN STRUCTURES

MASONRY
PEELED JOINTS
SCOOPED BRICKS
POT HOLES
CAVITIES
India 2005/2006
CONCRETE
CRACKS
BARS EXPOSED
HONEY COMBING
CAVITIES
UWI-Course
JOINTS WITHOUT ANY DISTRESS
DISTRESSED JOINTS IN BR. 333
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
DISTRESSED JOINTS
Bridge No. 215 Subarnareka.
JOINTS FOUND OPEN AT ALL PLACES.
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Bridge No. 215 KGP Division.
CLOSER VIEW OF PEELED JOINTS.
Bridge No. 215- KGP Division
CAVITY IN PIER P11 OF 215 UP AT BED LEVEL.
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Bridge No. 215 KGP Division
POT HOLES AT MANY LOCATIONS.
Bridge No. 57 KGP DIVISION.
JOINTS FOUND OPEN
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Bridge No. 57 Rupnarayan.
MORTAR LEECHED OUT OF THE JOINTS
PEELED JOINTS IN MASONRY
BR.13CCR
India 2005/2006
BR. 217
Br.333
UWI-Course
CAVITY FORMED IN MASONRY

DUE TO SCOOPING OF BRICKS
Video Clip
BRIDGE NO. 2A IN SDAH DIVISION.
CAVITIES FORMED IN MASONRY
CAVITY IN PIER P3
P2
OF TAWA BRIDGE
CAVITY IN PIERS OF TAWA BRIDGE
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
CRACK FORMED IN CONCRETE

PIER
Video Clip
BRIDGE IN NORTH FRONTIER RAILWAY
EXPOSED REINFORCEMENT
DIAPHRAGM WALL OF JETTY AT KAKINADA
DEEP WATER PORT,
KAKINADA, ANDHRAPRADESH
Video Clip
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
CAVITIES IN RCC DIAPHRAGM WALL

CAVITIES FORMED IN DIAPHRAGM WALL OF
JETTY AT KDWP
KAKINADA, ANDHRAPRADESH
Video Clip
PILOT PROJECT - SCOPE
Bridges Covered :
India 2005/2006
1.
Thane Creek Bridge Vashi.
2.
Kisna Bridge Nagpur
3.
Dham Bridge Nagpur.
4.
Bheema Bridge Daund.
5.
Mumbra Bridge Mumbra
UWI-Course

Thane Creek Bridge Vashi
9 Concrete piers with avg. 10m water depth
9Inspection of 10 piers using Level I(Swim by) method.
9 CCTV arrangement on Boat.
9 Visibility Poor to Nil.
9 Diver covers the entire pier area.
9 Concentrates on Distress locations If any.
9 Sort of Aerial survey.
9 Effect of Tides can be understood.
9 Scour depth measurement .

KISNA & DHAM BRIDGE
9 Masonry Piers Two from each bridge.
9 Visibility Satisfactory.
9 CCTV arrangement on shore / track refuge.
9 Level I as discussed above.
9 Level II Three locations of 1 x 1 on each face.
9 Each location Cleaned Manually.
9 Each location Shown on Video camera.
9 Scour Depth Measurement.
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course

BHEEMA BRIDGE
9 Concrete Piers Five piers with Avg. 25m depth.
9 Visibility Clear.
9 Concrete Distresses if any can be seen clearly.
9 Distress Measurement.
9 CCTV arrangement on Boat / Pantoon.
9 Ideal site for training.
9 Level I as discussed above.
9 Scour Depth Measurement.
CLEANING METHODS
VERY IMPORTANT FOR EFFECTIVE BOND
HYDROJETTING - HIGH PRESSURE WATER JETS
SCRAPPING PNEUMATIC SCRABBLERS.
ABRADING PNEUMATIC ROTARY BRUSHES.
CHIPPING PNEUMATIC HAMMERS.
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
CLEANING EQUIPMENT
HIGH PRESSURE WATER JET
CLEANING EQUIPMENT
PNEUMATIC SCRABBLER
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
HYDROJETTING OF RCC
SURFACE
Video Clip
PREPARED SURFACE
Video Clip
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
India 2005/2006
APPENDIX A7
Underwater Repair Methods
UWI-Course
Under Water Repair
Agenda
General working conditions (repair under water or remove the
water)
Most relevant methods for
Remedy of undermining
Pier and abutment repairs
Concrete
Masonry
Pile repairs
Cathodic protection
Scour protection
Under Water Repair- 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Working conditions
Two general options for repairing under water structures:
Repair under water (wet repairs)
Remove the water and repair in dry conditions (dry repairs)
Most repairs can be performed wet, i.e. under water

Better quality can be achieved by creating dry conditions
Only the specific conditions at the individual projects can
determine which option is best
Slide
Working conditions
Factors that influence the choice of wet/dry repair:
The type and duration of work to be performed:
Small jobs with a short duration cannot justify the costs of the
interim works needed to achieve dry conditions unless the works
can actually only be performed satisfactorily in dry conditions
Quality control/supervision:
In dry repairs normal repair techniques can be used, and the
supervisors can follow the work under normal conditions.
In wet repairs the supervising engineer is restricted to follow the
work by video and photos
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Working conditions
Factors that influence the choice of wet/dry repair:
The depth:
Working at large depths reduces the effective working time for wet
methods, but it will also make the dry solution more expensive
because the interim structures must be able to resist the larger
water pressure
Environment protection:
If polluting methods are used in wet repair, pollution of the water
is difficult to avoid. In dry repairs the pollution can better be
controlled.
Availability of qualified contractors for under water work
Slide
Slide
Working Conditions, Dry Repairs

Methods for establishing dry conditions:
Cofferdam
Partial Cofferdam
Portable dams
Dikes / diversion of the river
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Cofferdam
The cofferdam is
expensive, but it provides
very good working
conditions
It is used for construction
as well as for repair works
Slide
Cofferdam
Items to consider before deciding on a cofferdam:
Bottom materials (the possibility of driving the steel sheet piling,
and resistance against water ingress)
Existing foundations or other obstacles
Water level variation
Current
Waterway traffic (risk of ship impact, influence on traffic capacity)
Clearance under bridge deck (driving of sheet piling requires
headroom under the bridge)
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Partial Cofferdam
Can be used for small repairs
Relatively easy to establish compared to the full cofferdam
Can be moved to allow step-by-step repairs of larger areas
Requires even surface of the pier / abutment
Slide
Portable cofferdam
Portadam By Portadam Inc.
India 2005/2006
Slide 10
UWI-Course
Dikes /diverting the river

For large construction works on moderate depths it may be
feasible to construct dikes and in some cases even diverting the
whole river to another alignment in the construction period.
Another option is to build an artificial island, excavate for the
construction site within the island, and finally remove the whole
island again
These options will normally be most relevant for new
construction works.
The influence on the river environment can be massive and must
be studied carefully before decision is taken
Slide 11
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course

Remedy of Undermining
Concrete
Hand patching
Concrete casting
Injection of cracks
Masonry
Mortar joints
Stone replacement
Concrete replacement for missing stones
Encasement with concrete
Slide 13
Undermining
Grouted stone
The scour hole is filled with
stones
The voids are grouted /
injected with cement mortar
India 2005/2006
Slide 14
UWI-Course
Undermining
Cofferdam repair
Slide 15

Hand patching of concrete (for minor repairs)
Materials:
Cement mortar
Hydraulic mortars, pre-packed including fibres and additives
Epoxy or polymer mortars
Application
Remove weak concrete
Mix the mortar
Apply with trowel or similar tools
Note that pot life can be short for the chemical types
India 2005/2006
Slide 16
UWI-Course

Concrete casting, e.g. encasement around deteriorated pier, procedure
(I):
Cleaning of concrete and exposed reinforcement / removal of weak existing
concrete
Hammer/chisel
Wire brush (on reinforcement)
Water jetting
Abrasive blasting
Establishment of anchors in existing concrete

Expansion anchors
Grouted anchors (cement or resin)
Possibly supplementary reinforcement

Placing of formwork
Slide 17

Concrete casting, e.g.
encasement around deteriorated
pier, procedure (II):
Tremie
Placement of concrete
In dry (e.g. behind cofferdam,
casting as on land)
Pumped (as on land)
With Tremie
Pre-placed Aggregate
In any case, Anti-Washout

admixtures are used
India 2005/2006
Slide 18
Appendix A7, page 10 of 28
UWI-Course

Concrete casting, e.g.
encasement around deteriorated
pier, procedure (II):
Pump
Placement of concrete
In dry (e.g. behind cofferdam,
casting as on land)
Pumped (as on land)
With Tremie
Pre-placed Aggregate
In any case, Anti-Washout

admixtures are used
Slide 19

Injection of cracks
A well performed injection will
seal the crack and restore the
strength across it
Injection material will
normally be epoxy resin
Crack
Sealant
Injection starts at the lowest

pipe
When the injection material
comes out of the next tube,
the first one is blocked and
injection proceeds from the
next one
India 2005/2006
Injection pipe
Slide 20
UWI-Course

Masonry, mortar joints
Weak mortar is removed
water jetting
hand tools
New mortar is applied with pointing trowel
Slide 21

Masonry, stone replacement
Remove all weak mortar
Position the replacement
stone with spacers
Grout all voids on all sides
of the stone with cement
based mortar
Cross section
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
UWI-Course

Masonry, concrete
replacement for missing
stones
Remove all weak
mortar
Vent
Fasten formwork
with injection tube and
vent tube securely
Concrete
pumped in
Pump concrete into the

injection tube until it
comes out of the vent
tube
Slide 23

Masonry, encasement with concrete
Performed like jacket on concrete pier.
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
UWI-Course
Pile Repairs
Pile Repairs
Replacement
Partial replacement
Pile wraps
Jackets (encasements)
Crack injection (as described under pier and abutment repairs)
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
UWI-Course
Pile Repairs
Replacement
Will often consist in driving new piles
next to the damaged one.
The old piles will only be removed
(fully or partly) if they are in the way
for the new piles.
It will for practical reasons like
insufficient headroom under the
bridge normally be necessary to
place the new piles outside the
existing pile cap and often outside
the bridge. The static behaviour of
the revised pile group must be
considered carefully, and an
extension/strengthening of the pier
or pile cap will often be required
Existing
pier
Encasement
well
anchored in
pile
New pile
Slide 27
Pile Repairs
Partial replacement or
strengthening
In many cases the damage to
the piles is restricted to a small
part of the pile (splash zone)
In that case a partial
replacement can be considered
Partial replacement is mostly
used on steel piles.
Splices can be welded or bolted
Strengthening can be a better
alternative
India 2005/2006
Strengthening of H-profile
by two channel sections
bolted to the web
Slide 28
UWI-Course
Pile Repairs
Pile wraps
Corrosion of steel and scaling of concrete can be inhibited by
wrapping the pile in a tight fabric.
Various systems exist
Slide 29
Pile Repairs
A very common repair of deteriorated piles of steel and concrete is
applying a reinforced concrete jacket that will protect the
remaining pile and add strength
Procedure:
Remove all weak material
Arrange reinforcement of the jacket
Establish formwork (flexible and rigid standard forms are available)
Grout with concrete
India 2005/2006
Slide 30
UWI-Course
Pile Repairs
A very common repair of deteriorated piles of steel and concrete is
applying a reinforced concrete jacket that will protect the
remaining pile and add strength
Procedure:
Remove all weak material
Arrange reinforcement of the jacket
Establish formwork (flexible and rigid standard forms are available)
Grout with concrete
Slide 31
Pile Repairs
Crack injection
A well performed injection
will seal the crack and
restore the strength across it
Injection material will
normally be epoxy resin
Crack
Sealant
Injection starts at the lowest

pipe
When the injection material
comes out of the next tube,
the first one is blocked and
injection proceeds from the
next one
India 2005/2006
Injection pipe
Slide 32
UWI-Course
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic Protection
What is corrosion?
Corrosion is the process of iron ions leaving the steel surface because of en
electric field.
India 2005/2006
Slide 34
UWI-Course
Cathodic Protection
What is corrosion?
The electric field that causes corrosion is due to different electrochemical

potentials.
Slide 35
Cathodic Protection
The current of iron ions can be stopped by applying an electric

potential of the opposide direction
India 2005/2006
Slide 36
UWI-Course
Cathodic Protection
The reversed current is created by establishing an electric field

between en external anode and the steel surface.
Slide 37
Cathodic Protection
Two types: Impressed current vs. sacrificial anodes
Impressed current
Sacrificial anodes
India 2005/2006
Slide 38
UWI-Course
Cathodic Protection
Impressed current vs. sacrificial anodes
Sacrificial Anodes
Anodes for impressed current for

sheet piling
Slide 39
Cathodic Protection
Impressed current for under water concrete

Large anodes for large structures
with little need for current
India 2005/2006
Slide 40
UWI-Course
Cathodic Protection
Sacrificial anodes for concrete above water
Slide 41
Cathodic Protection
Typical need for current (per square meter of steel surface)
Uncoated steel sheet piling in sea

water: 50-100 mA/m2
Reinforcement inconcrete:
1-10 mA/m2
above water
0,5 1,5 mA/m2 under water
India 2005/2006
Slide 42
UWI-Course
Cathodic Protection
Operation cost for 1 km of steel sheet piling
Impressed Current: 50.000 kWh/year
Sacrificial Anodes: 3300 kg Al/year
Slide 43
Great Belt Bridge
Major damage is repaired

Cracks in caisson under water will
not be repaired; instead, cathodic
protection is established
India 2005/2006
Slide 44
UWI-Course
Great Belt Bridge, cathodic protection of

caisson
Sacrificial Anodes mounted on
racks connected to the
reinforcement
Slide 45
Great Belt Bridge

Control of sacrificial anodes under water
Simple potential mapping

= check of anodes
Verification of
protection:
India 2005/2006
- Anodes disconnected
- Anodes re-connected
Slide 46
UWI-Course
Great Belt Bridge

Control of sacrificial anodes under water
Anode consumption after 12 years:
15-35% for piers in 7-19 m water

50% for piers in 25 m water
Standard expected life (90% utilisation)
5 - 50 years
Average current produced
1-4A
Actual current produced
0.5 1.5 A = 20-30 years remaining service life
(1992-2004)
Slide 47
Scour Protection
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Scour Protection
Riprap
Sheet pile containment
Jet Grouted Underpinning
Bottom Paving
Slide 49
Scour Protection
Riprap
Consists in stones, large enough
not to be moved by the current
Can be used as prevention
Can be used for filling of scour
holes
Design formulas for dimensioning
are uncertain. Therefore, riprap
should be monitored
India 2005/2006
Slide 50
UWI-Course
Scour Protection
Sheet pile containment
Very efficient
Rather expensive
Reduces river cross section
and will thereby increase the
risk of scour
Slide 51
Scour Protection
Jet Grouted Underpinning:
Water/cement slurry is sprayed into the soil at high pressure
Thereby, the soil is converted into concrete
It is possible to drill through foundations and create columns
underneath
India 2005/2006
Slide 52
UWI-Course
Scour Protection
Bottom Paving, can be useful to prevent general scour
Types:
Gabions (stone filled wire baskets)
Riprap (stones large enough to not be moved by the current)
Grouted fabric mattresses
Cast-in-place concrete
Slide 53
Slide 54
The End
India 2005/2006
APPENDIX A8
Case The Kalvebod Bridge
UWI-Course
Case: Kalvebod Bridge
UWI - Concrete
Introduction
2005 A busy year at Kalvebod:
Level I and II Under Water
Investigation
Special inspection of chloride
ingress in piers
Repair of 3 fenders
Case - Kalvebod 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Introduction
Two sets of twin bridges
Build in 1978 1982
Post tensioned concrete box girder bridge
Very good concrete quality
Slide
Slide
Agenda
1. Back Ground Material
2. Visual Survey
3. Under Water Inspection
4. Repair of Fender
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
UWI - Concrete
Plan
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Reinforcement
Slide
Concrete Cover
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Drawing of Pier and seabed
Slide
2. Visual Survey
UWI - Concrete
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
2. Visual Survey
Photos Principal Inspection

Zoom photos from afar
Principal inspection a very
thorough visual survey
All external faces of all piers
inspected from negative lift
All interior parts of the piers
inspected through hatch
Slide 11
2. Visual Survey
India 2005/2006
Slide 12
UWI-Course
2. Visual Survey
Slide 13
2. Visual Survey
India 2005/2006
Slide 14
UWI-Course
2. Visual Survey
Slide 15
2. Visual Survey
India 2005/2006
Slide 16
UWI-Course
2. Visual Survey
Slide 17
2. Visual Survey
Photos Special Inspection

Special Inspection of corrosion
and chloride
Thorough visual inspection from
raft
Visual registration is included in
the interpretation of the Under
Water Inspection
India 2005/2006
Slide 18
UWI-Course
2. Visual Survey
Slide 19
2. Visual Survey
India 2005/2006
Slide 20
UWI-Course
2. Visual Survey
Slide 21
2. Visual Survey
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
UWI-Course
2. Visual Survey
Slide 23
2. Visual Survey
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
UWI-Course
2. Visual Survey
Sketches
Slide 25
UWI - Concrete
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Test Planning
1. Initial Visual Survey
2. Forecast of Results Creating a
Hypothesis
3. Selection of Test Areas
4. Estimating the Appropriate Test
Quantity
Visual all piers

Cleaning of selected areas
4 underwater cores
5. Practical Preparations
Experienced diving crew
6. To Bring (tools)
Slide 27
Visual Inspection
Pier footing
A lot of marine growth
No spalling beneath the water
No sign of scour
India 2005/2006
Slide 28
UWI-Course
Visual Inspection
Pier footing
A lot of marine growth
No spalling beneath the water
No sign of scour
Slide 29
Visual Inspection
India 2005/2006
Slide 30
UWI-Course
Measurement of depth
Measurements at corners
Tide: app. 0.5 m in difference
No significant development
No scour
Slide 31
Visual Inspection
Pier face:
Cracks
India 2005/2006
Slide 32
UWI-Course
Visual Inspection
Pier face:
Cracks
Wires from
casting
Slide 33
Visual Inspection
Pier face:
Cracks
Wires from
casting
Repair of
core
India 2005/2006
Slide 34
UWI-Course
Visual Inspection
Larger hole in concrete footing?
Slide 35
Measurements at corners
Scour ?
Is the footing visible?
India 2005/2006
Slide 36
UWI-Course
Visual Inspection
Visible footing?
Scour?
Sever Problem?
Slide 37
Visual Inspection
India 2005/2006
Slide 38
UWI-Course
Visual Inspection
Slide 39
Visual Inspection
Pier
shaft
Deadweight
India 2005/2006
Slide 40
UWI-Course
Visual Inspection
Harmless hole from formwork in deadweight
Slide 41
No scour
No problem!
India 2005/2006
Slide 42
UWI-Course
4. Repair of Fender
UWI - Concrete
4. Repair of Fender
10 meters of fender missing
India 2005/2006
Slide 44
UWI-Course
4. Repair of Fender

Anchor rod intact
Limited corrosion
No bolt
Corrosion of
bolts?
Rotting timber?
Theft?
Slide 45
4. Repair of Fender

Anchor rod
missing
Expansion part
intact
Stainless steel
Corrosion of
bolts?
Rotting timber?
Theft?
India 2005/2006
Slide 46
UWI-Course
4. Repair of Fender

Anchor rod
missing
Expansion part
intact
Stainless steel
Corrosion of
bolts?
Rotting timber?
Theft?
Slide 47
4. Repair of Fender

Rotting timber
Larger investigation in 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 48
UWI-Course
4. Repair of Fender
New Fender Timber with resin
Slide 49
4. Repair of Fender
New Fender - Inspection

Inspection of repair with normal
digital camera in casing on stick
Fast investigation
Documentation
India 2005/2006
Slide 50
UWI-Course
4. Repair of Fender
New Fender - Inspection
India 2005/2006
Slide 51
APPENDIX A9
Case Power Plant: Asnaes
UWI-Course
Case: Power Plant - Asnaes
Introduction
Power Plant
Asnaes
Inspection of
outlet channel

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Introduction
The outlet channel is constructed in two phases:

1974: 500 m of the southern part (section B, C and part of section A).
1978: Section D, E and part of section A.

2006
Slide
Slide
Introduction
Outlet of warm water from the power plant

2006
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Introduction
Principal
Principal
Inspection
Inspection
Inventory
Inventory
Special
Special
Inspection
Inspection
Priority
Priority
Ranking
Ranking
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation
Design
Design
Execution
Execution of
of
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation
Severe corrosion of
large areas of the
steel sheet pilings
was observed.
A special inspection
was required to
estimate the extent
of damage and to
evaluate repair
strategies.
Routine
Routine
Inspection
Inspection
Routine
Routine
Maintenance
Maintenance

2006
Slide
Slide
Introduction
Section D: Local corrosion
Section C: Severe corrosion

2006
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Introduction
Principal
Principal
Inspection
Inspection
Inventory
Inventory
Routine
Routine
Inspection
Inspection
Measurements of the
remaining thickness.
Special
Special
Inspection
Inspection
Priority
Priority
Ranking
Ranking
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation
Design
Design
Execution
Execution of
of
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation
Routine
Routine
Maintenance
Maintenance

2006
Slide
Slide
Introduction
1. Planning.
2. Structural Assessment.
3. Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge Measurements.
4. Evaluation.
5. General Considerations of Repair Methods.
6. Conclusion.

2006
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
1. Planning
Special Inspection
1. Planning
Planning phase
Visual Inspection from a raft
Homogeneous Areas (visual
damage, age, warm water
outlet)

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 10
UWI-Course
1. Planning
Planning phase
Visual Inspection from a raft

2006
Slide 11
1. Planning
Planning phase
Homogeneous Areas from visual
inspection:
The southern steel sheet piling
was in the worst condition.
Less laminating and corrosion
product below the normal water
level.
Warm water outlet in section A
and B.

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 12
UWI-Course
1. Planning
Planning phase
Test plan:
16 test location in
sections C and D
Slide 13

2006
1. Planning
Planning phase
Test plan:
8 measurements were planned at
each test location along section C
Steel Sheet Piling
Anchoring of
bolts
Raft
2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 14
UWI-Course
1. Planning
Planning phase
2 test locations in
section A
Section I
LWL

2006
Slide 15
2. Structural Assessment
Special Inspection
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Calculations
4 different sections represent the structure with regard to the structural
behaviour.
Calculations are carried out in the 4 sections.
Section 1 Section 1A
Section 2
Section 3
Slide 17

2006
Calculations - Result
Moment [kN/m]
The general distribution of the

stress dimensioning forces is
determined.
Level
Anchor
Maximum moment

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 18
UWI-Course
3. Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge
Measurements
3. Ultra Sonic Thickness Gauge
Preparations and measurements

Removal of loose corrosion
products and laminations at
the test locations by hammer.
Grinding for a plane surface.
Measurement of remaining
thickness.
Calibration of measurements
by drilling few small holes.

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 20
UWI-Course
Preparations
Slide 21

2006
Results
Section C and D Level 0,4 0,7
Number of measurements
Section C and D Level 1,6-1,7
Thickness [mm]
Thickness [mm]
Thickness [mm]
Thickness [mm]
2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
UWI-Course
Results
Section A - Web
Section A - Flange
Thickness
Thickness
Thickness
2006
Slide 23
Results - Variations
Section A:
In the level from the anchorage and downwards the thickness is
almost constant.
Above the level of anchorage the thickness is larger in location 18
compared to location 17.
Section C and D:
Northern part: Relative constant thickness in the different levels
along the steel sheet piling.
Southern part: Little variation in the thickness in two levels at the
top of the piling along the steel sheet piling. Relative constant
thickness in lower test locations along the steel sheet piling.

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
UWI-Course
4. Evaluation
Residual Thickness Measurements and Structural

Calculations
4. Evaluation
Evaluation of Measurements
Section A Conservative values for the residual thickness:
Level
[m]
Thickness Web [mm]
Thickness Flange [mm]
1,7-1,9
4,5
6,0
1,2-1,4
5,5
5,0
0,7-0,9
5,0
5,0
0,2-0,4
7,5
7,5
-0,1-0,1
8,5
8,5

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
UWI-Course
4. Evaluation
Evaluation of Measurements
Section C and D Conservative values for the residual thickness:
Level
[m]
Thickness
Thickness
Section D [mm] Section C [mm]
1,6-1,7
9,0
6,5
0,9-1,1
8,0
5,5
0,4-0,7
7,0
6,5
0,2-0,3
7,5
7,5
This corresponds to the division in homogeneous areas based on the visual inspection as
section C is the southern steel sheet piling and section D is the northern part.
Slide 27

2006
4. Evaluation
Evaluation - Calculations
Moment [kN/m]
Based on the distribution of the

forces and the measurements
of the residual thickness the
safety level of the structure is
evaluated in 4 levels:
Level
Anchor
Anchorage level.
Level -0,2 m
Level -0,9 m
Maximum moment
Level of maximum moment

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 28
UWI-Course
4. Evaluation
Calculations
Section 1
(south)
Section 1A
(south)
Section 2
(south)
Section 2
(north)
Section 3
(south)
Section 3
(north)
tresidual [mm]
8,7 / 5,5
trequired [mm]
4,9 / 1,7
2,1
1,7
1,4
1,1
1,6
Utilization
40 %
30 %
25 %
20 %
15 %
25 %
Utilization, anchor
103 %
93 %
57 %
Not
documented
69 %
Not
documented
Utilization, strk
38 %
Not
documented
33 %
Not
documented
60 %
Not
documented
Utilization, bolt
~100 %
Not
documented
~100 %
Not
documented
~100 %
Not
documented
tresidual [mm]
13,2 / 10
9,5
9,5
9,5
9,5
9,5
trequired [mm]
10,5 / 7,3
3,3
2,7
2,7
1,2
1,5
Utilization
67 %
30 %
25 %
25 %
11 %
15 %
Above WL, corroded piling
Below WL, intact piling
Slide 29

2006
4. Evaluation
Calculations - Conclusion
1. Construction of anchorage structure in section D is unknown
the structure must be further investigated.
2. Evaluation of steel sheet pilings below water (below level 0,9m) is based on assumption of no corrosion of the pilings.
This should be verified with under water measurements
especially in the section of maximum moment.
3. As the anchors are constructed using high strength steel the
condition of the anchors (hidden behind the steel sheet piling)
is suggested for further inspection.
4. Further investigation of the bolts is suggested based on the
severe corrosion.

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 30
UWI-Course
5. Repair Methods
General Considerations of Repair Methods
5. General Considerations of Repair Methods
Repair Strategies Steel Sheet Piling

1. Further investigations to refine the basis material for the
calculations:
Under water measurements of the residual thickness at critical

locations.
Measurements of ground water level behind the steel sheet piling.
More detailed registrations of the water level in the channel.
The constituent of the filling material behind the steel sheet piling
should be investigated (e.g. ground penetration measurements
combined with break ups).
Detailed evaluations of the load from vehicles on the area behind

the steel sheet piling.

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 32
UWI-Course

2. Detailed calculations:
Three dimensional models can be used to refine the calculations

at critical parts.
3. Strengthening of the corroded zone:
Concrete shell
Slide 33

2006

3. Strengthening of the corroded zone:
Steel plate repair welding of steel plates to the steel sheet

piling in critical areas. E.g. combined with filling with concrete.

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 34
UWI-Course

4. Replacement
The typical service life time for steel sheet pilings is 30-40 years.
5. Load reduction of the area behind the steel sheet piling
Restrictions for heavy vehicles
Reduction of the pressure from the ground water (drainage)
Reduction of the earth pressure behind the steel sheet piling

(changing the type of earth to one with a lower density)
Slide 35

2006
Repair Strategies Anchorage

1. Further investigations
Mapping of the anchors e.g. by using ground penetration radar.
Condition of the anchors by break ups.
2. Strengthening
Repair or strengthening of deteriorated anchors.
3. Replacement
4. Load reduction of the area behind the steel sheet piling

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 36
UWI-Course
Repair Strategies Bolts

1. Further investigations
Assessment of the degree of

corrosion.
2. Detailed calculations
Refined calculation models.
3. Replacement
4. Load reduction of the area
behind the steel sheet piling

2006
Slide 37
6. Conclusion
Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge Measurements and Structural

Assessment
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
6. Conclusion
Conclusion
The client has not decided yet to carry out further inspections or
rehabilitation jobs.

2006
India 2005/2006
Slide 39
APPENDIX A10
Case The Great Belt Link
UWI-Course
Rambll
Case: Great Belt link

Underwater inspection of concrete piers
Underwater Inspection
The Great Belt link, Underwater inspection of piers
The task:
- Level 2 inspection
- Residual lifetime of
cathodic protection
- Cores
Rambll Underwater Inspection
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Piles inspected:
Level 2 inspection: 12
Cathodic protection,
anode inspection: 12
Cathodic protection,
Potentials: 6
Cores: 4 (19 cores)
1 collision
15. Feb. 2006
Slide
Slide

Level 2 inspection:
- General inspection program
- Inspection of scaling in the splash zone
- Inspection of repairs
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
UWI-Course
Corrosion in cracks formed

during construction was
prevented with cathodic protection
15. Feb. 2006
Slide

Cathodic protection:
8 16 sacrificial aluminum anodes
(20 kg each), placed on holders
connected to the reinforcement
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide
UWI-Course
The reaction of the current from cathodic protection:

4 e- + 2 H2O + O2
4 OH-
Oxygen is consumed
Oxygen diffusion through water saturated concrete is minimal and

current requirement should be reduced significantly when the initial
oxygen is consumed
15. Feb. 2006
Slide

Inspections at cores:
- Risk of freeze/thaw attack
- Risk of sulfate attack
- Water saturation
- Chloride profiles
0 .0
2 .0
4 .0
6 .0
8 .0
0 -2 0
2 0 -4 0
4 0 -6 0
6 0 -8 0
8 0 -1 0 0
K e rn e 2
1 0 0 -1 2 0
1 2 0 -1 4 0
1 4 0 -1 6 0
1 6 0 -1 8 0
1 8 0 -2 0 0
2 0 0 -2 2 0
2 2 0 -2 3 0
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide
UWI-Course

Systematic update on chloride ingress
15. Feb. 2006
Slide

Chloride profiles, used for:
- Estimation of corrosion initiation
- Evaluation of lifetime modeling (Duracrete)
Fick II
Measured
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 10
UWI-Course

The diving vessel:
65 ton
1 captain
2 divers
1 chef
Compressor
Welding and torch sticks
Hydraulic drive
High pressure water pump
Decompression tank
Crane
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 11
Tender Hj 3 months at The Great Belt

India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 12
UWI-Course

The diver:
Wetsuit with heating
Camera + light + communication
Glasses for welding
2 layers of latex gloves when
welding
Weight in the water: approx 10 kg
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 13

The diver, security:
Air from:
- Compressor
- 300 liters reserve tanks
- Reserve tank a the back
- Air hose: > 500 kg tension
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 14
UWI-Course

The sea:
Temperature: 16 C
Current 1-2 knots
Waves 1 m
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 15

Holding the vessel in place:
4 anchors, each approx 250 kg
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 16
UWI-Course

Placing the anchors
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 17

Returning from placing the anchors
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 18
UWI-Course

Level 2 inspection:
Cleaning the surface with high
pressure water jet
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 19

Visual registration, cracks:
Corrosion has been detected earlier
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 20
UWI-Course

Level 2 inspection: scaling
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 21

Main problem from
scaling:
Degradation of concrete
cover = corrosion
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 22
UWI-Course
Anodeconsuption after 12 years:
15-35% for piles at depth 7-15 m

approx. 50% for piles at depth 20 m
Direct estimated residual life time: 5-50 years

Average current output: 1000 3500 mA
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 23
Simple potential measurements

= anode inspection
India 2005/2006
Protection measurement requires

disconnection of the anodes
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 24
UWI-Course
The anode holders were

disconnected from the
reinforcement using a
torch flame.
The anode holders were
afterwards reconnected
to the reinforcement by
welding
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 25
Measuring
instrument
By connecting the anodes through the

measuring instrument:
The current output of the anodes can
be measured
The residual lifetime of the anodes can
be calculated
(1 Amp = 3,6 kg aluminum anode/year)
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 26
UWI-Course

Placing the diver from a crane
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 27

Measurement of half cell potential
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 28
UWI-Course

Measurement from rope and boat
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 29

Pille 16, instant-off
Pille 16, 16 h depolarisering
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Results:
- Full protection
(<-850 mV)
below water level
- Inconclusive results
from the splash
zone
- Low risk of corrosion
above level +2 m
Slide 30
UWI-Course
The Great Belt link, Underwater inspection of

piers
Additional results from
inspection of the cathodic
protection system:
Residual lifetime of
cathodic protection 20-30
years
Anode range >100 m
Anode consumption:
3 kg/year/pillar
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 31

Marking of cores
Air driven core drilling creates a lot of bubbles

Hydraulic core drilling is free of bubbles.
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 32
UWI-Course

After removal of the core,
the hole is photographed
using a usual digital
camera in a underwater
housing
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 33
Repair:
Holes from
core drilling
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 34
UWI-Course
Grouting of holes after

core drilling
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 35
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 36
UWI-Course
Problem zone
Pressure
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 37
After removing the formwork
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 38
UWI-Course

Results from inspection of cores:
Corrosion in cracks
Corrosion initiation at the splash zone 100 years
Corrosion initiation above the splash zone 200-400 years
Models calculation of corrosion initiation time are relatively
consistent
Scaling in the surface at the splash zone will not influence the
time of corrosion initiation significantly
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 39

Cathodic protection of:
1 pillar
approx. 20 $/year
or
1 AA battery/day
India 2005/2006
15. Feb. 2006
Slide 40
APPENDIX A11
Ultrasonic Testing - Concrete
UWI-Course
Ultrasonic testing
Under Water Inspection - Concrete
Introduction
Ultrasonic testing of concrete - Measuring Concept
Measure the transit time of a sound wave through concrete with known
thickness and thereby the speed of sound.
The speed of sound is closely related to the stiffness of the concrete and
thereby to the strength and general quality
When the speed of sound is determined, the transit time of sound waves
can indicate internal flaws
Typical Applications
Assessment of general concrete quality and strength
Assessment of uniformity of concrete properties
Detection of internal flaws and cracks
NOTE: Water filled cracks will not be detected
Ultrasonic Testing of Concrete - 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Introduction
Benefits:
Fast and completely nondestructive way of assessing
quality and uniformity of concrete
Slide
Slide
Agenda
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Ultrasonic testing of concrete
Agenda
Theory base: correlation of strength and pulse velocity
More correct correlation between stiffness and pulse velocity
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Measuring Principle The Instrument

Ultrasound Unit
Transmitter
(piezoelectric transducer)
Receiver
Couplant (gel to provide good
contact between transducers and
concrete)
For under water use, transducers and
cables must be waterproof.
Slide
Measuring Principle What is Measured?

Speed of Sound = distance / time
Speed of Sound ~ stiffness
Stiffness ~ strength ~ quality
First detected signal with
amplitude above set value is
measured.
Correct
Attenuated
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course

Speed of Sound = distance / time
Speed of Sound ~ stiffness
Stiffness ~ strength ~ quality
Velocity in reinforcement 1.2
1.9 times velocity in concrete
Slide

Estimation of concrete strength
from 1-side measurements:
Longer transmit time indicates
flaws (the sound wave must
travel a longer path to get
around the crack)
Transducer arrangement to reduce

influence from reinforcement
India 2005/2006
Slide 10
UWI-Course

When Speed of Sound is known:
Longer transmit time indicates
flaws (the sound wave must
travel a longer path to get around
the crack)
Slide 11
Ultrasonic measurements (UPV)

Measurement principle:
Methodical detection of cracks
L
Transmitter
Receiver
X
h
Crack
Transmission time (s)

500
480
460
440
420
400
380
360
340
320
300
280
260
240
220
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
T2
T1
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900 1000 1100 1200
Transmitter distance (mm)

T 500 198 127
LT
h 2 1 =
= 230 mm
2 T1 T 2
2 127 198
India 2005/2006
Slide 12
UWI-Course
Factors of General Influence

The presence of reinforcement
bars, in which the speed of sound
is higher, can give misleading
results
If the cracks are water filled, they
may not be detected, i.e. the
method is not reliable for finding
cracks in under water concrete.
Stiffness of aggregate affects the
measurements
Slide 13
Accuracy
Detection of concrete strength
within approx. 20% (transverse
method)
India 2005/2006
Slide 14
UWI-Course
Ultrasonic Testing of Concrete
Common Applications Damage Types

Assessment of general concrete
quality and strength
Assessment of uniformity of
concrete properties
Detection of major internal flaws
and cracks
India 2005/2006
Slide 16
UWI-Course
Common Applications - Structural Elements

Under water:
All concrete elements
Slide 17
Possible Applications
Under water:
condition of masonry
Condition of timber
Determination of
grouting quality in
joints
India 2005/2006
Slide 18
UWI-Course
Common Applications - limitations

Under water:
Surface deterioration reduces
measured velocities
Cracks are not detected
Water filled voids are poorly
detected
Water saturation reduces
measured velocities
Good surface contact must be
established
Slide 19
Input to Rehabilitation Strategies

Identifying good and damaged
areas, assessing the extent of
damage.
Parameters for structural
analysis
India 2005/2006
Slide 20
UWI-Course
Test Planning
1. Initial Visual Survey: Reports
from Level I and Level II
inspections

Hypothesis:
What is the most probable cause
of damage?
and can it be detected by
ultrasonic testing?
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
UWI-Course
Test Planning
3. Selection of Test Areas: Where
on the structures do we expect
to find the damage, and where
do we expect not to find it?
Quantity: How many tests do we
need to confirm the hypothesis
on damage cause, and to
determine the extent of
damage?
Slide 23
Test Planning
Practical Preparations:
Diver incl. all equipment
Cleaning of the concrete

surfaces to be tested
To Bring (tools)
Ultrasonic device
Transducers and cables
Metal detector
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
UWI-Course
Execution of Field Tests

5. Conduct Measurements
Clean the surface.
Locate reinforcement
Perform measurements
Adjust density of measure

points dynamically according to
the results
6. Calibrate Measurements:
Measure speed of sound on an
undamaged section.
Correlate the readings with the
visual appearance of the
concrete.
Slide 25

7. Evaluate Measurements and
Calibration
8. Registration / Reporting
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
UWI-Course
Summary Planning and Execution

Planning
Execution

Hypothesis
6. Calibrate Measurements

Quantity

Calibration
Slide 27
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Calibration and Reliability

It must be evaluated how reliable
/ accurate the measurements are:
Calibration of instrument:
Special metal cylinder
How good is the correlation

between measurements and
calibration?
Calibration of strength determination:
Are the measured areas

representative for the whole
element / structure?
Strength evaluation on cores:

- Direct testing
- Optical strength evaluation
In any case the interpretation of

the results should be performed
with care, and by an experienced
inspector
From form of signal (displayed on

advanced instruments) risk of false
readings can be evaluated.
Slide 29
Reporting of Results
Report:
The conclusions of the measurements should
be summarized
Overall condition, damage type and extent
Consequences of the damage to the safety and
durability of the structure
Possible repair methods
Are further measurements needed?
(describe benefits).
India 2005/2006
Slide 30
UWI-Course
Appendix:
The results will normally be presented in a table
and indicated on a sketch of the structure
India 2005/2006
Slide 31
APPENDIX A12
Ultrasonic Testing - Steel
UWI-Course
Ultrasonic testing
Under Water Inspection - Steel
Introduction
Ultrasonic testing of steel - Measuring Concept
Measure the transit time of a sound wave through steel with known
When the speed of sound is determined, the transit time of sound
waves can indicate internal flaws
Thickness measurement (separate lesson)
Detection of lamination (surface parallel cracks)
Detection of internal flaws and cracks
OBS: Water filled cracks will not be detected
Ultrasonic Testing of Steel - 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Introduction
Benefits:
Fast and completely nondestructive way of detecting
cracks and internal laminations
Slide
Slide
Agenda
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Ultrasonic testing of steel

Through Transmission (2 transducers)
Ultrasound Unit
Transmitter
Receiver
Couplant (gel to provide good contact
between transducers and steel)
For under water use, transducers and

cables must be waterproof. Couplant
gel will often not be necessary
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course

Velocity of Sound = distance /

time (v=d/t ~3-6,000 m/s
depending of steel type and
quality)
Calibration: Find velocity from the

measured transmission time on
an object with known thickness
After calibration, thicknesses can
be determined on similar steel:
d=v x t
d
Slide

If there is a defect inside the

steel, only some of the signal will
reach the receiver, and the
response will be weaker (a
smaller peak)
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course

If there is a large defect inside

the steel (lamination), no signal
will reach the receiver, and there
will be no response
Slide

One transducer
The signal is registered after
passing two times through the
steel reflected from the opposite
side:
2xd=vxt
or
d = v x t
Because of repeated reflections a
new, but weaker, peak will appear
corresponding to 4 x d, 8 x d, etc.
d
India 2005/2006
Slide 10
UWI-Course

One transducer
If there is a small defect inside
the steel, some of the signal will
be reflected from the defect, and
some from the opposite surface
d
Slide 11

One transducer
the steel (lamination), all the
signal will be reflected from the
defect, and nothing from the
opposite surface
d
India 2005/2006
Slide 12
UWI-Course

Rivets:
If there are no cracks, only one
clear echo is received,
corresponding to the full length of
the rivet.
Slide 13

Rivets:
If there are cracks, echoes can be
received from the crack and from
the opposite end of the rivet
Crack
India 2005/2006
Full length
Slide 14
UWI-Course

Welds, angle transducer:
If there is an air gap at the edge
of the weld, a reflected signal will
be detected corresponding to the
distance d
The angle transducer emits the
ultrasonic waves at an angle.
Weld
Angle transducer
d
Slide 15

If there is a crack, a reflected
signal will be detected
corresponding to the distance d
The angle transducer emits the
ultrasonic waves at an angle.
Crack
Angle transducer
India 2005/2006
Slide 16
UWI-Course

Reflections from other faces of the
steel specimen can blur the image
of the reflections
If the cracks are water filled, they
may not be detected, i.e. the
method is not reliable for finding
cracks in under water structures
The generally difficult working
conditions under water make it
difficult to obtain good results
Slide 17
Method
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course

Assessment of general steel
quality
Detection of internal flaws and
cracks
Quality check of welds
Slide 19

Checking for cracks in rivets
Checking for cracks in other
connections
Checking for laminations in plates
and rolled bars
India 2005/2006
Slide 20
UWI-Course

The presence of cracks will often indicate high stresses and
possibly a short remaining life.
It will, however, often be required to perform a structural
analysis to assess the severity
The test results can provide valuable input to the structural
assessment
Slide 21
Method
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Test Planning
1. Initial Visual Survey: Level I and
Level II inspections
Forecast of Results Creating a
Hypothesis:
What is the most probable cause
of damage?
and can it be detected by
ultrasonic testing
Slide 23
Test Planning
A structural analysis can often
pinpoint the details where failure
is most likely, and where it is
most important to check
damage?
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
UWI-Course
Test Planning
Cleaning and possibly grinding

of the steel surfaces to be
tested
To Bring (tools)
Ultrasonic device
Slide 25

undamaged section.
Make measurements to
determine at what distance from
the transducer to expect echoes.
visual appearance of the steel
7. Measurements are calibrated on
samples tested in the laboratory
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
UWI-Course

Calibration, i.e. write the
conclusion on the damage
detected
Slide 27

Planning
1. Initial Visual Survey (level I and
II inspections)
Hypothesis
Quantity
Execution
Calibration
India 2005/2006
Slide 28
UWI-Course
Method

calibration?
In any case the interpretation of

the results should be performed
with care, and by an experienced
inspector
India 2005/2006
Slide 30
UWI-Course
Report:
The conclusions of the measurements should be
summarized
Consequences of the damage to the safety and durability of
the structure
(describe benefits)
Avoid inserting detailed data of the measurements

The technical presentation of the measurements should be
constricted to the appendix
Slide 31
Appendix:
Indicate the location of each test accurately

on sketches of the structure, supplemented
by photos
The damage that has been detected is often

best described by making small sketches
India 2005/2006
Slide 32
APPENDIX A13
UWI-Course
Under Water Inspection - Steel
Introduction
Ultrasonic testing of steel - Measuring Concept
Measure the transit time of a sound wave through steel with known
When the speed of sound is determined, the transit time of sound
waves through a similar steel will indicate the thickness
Thickness measurement when only one side of the steel part is
accessible. Particularly to register steel loss caused by corrosion
Detection of laminations
Ultrasonic Steel Thickness Gauge- 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Introduction
Benefits:
Fast and non-destructive
Accurate measuring of remaining
thickness of intact steel
Detection of internal laminations
Slide
Slide
Agenda
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Ultrasonic testing of steel

Basis of method:
Velocity in steel is constant
When sound waves reaches a
material with other acoustic
parameters a reflective wave
is created
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course

The transducer emits an
ultrasonic sound wave
The signal is registered after
passing two times through the
steel reflected from the opposite
side:
2xd=vxt
or
d = v x t
Because of repeated reflections a
new, but weaker, peak will appear
corresponding to 4 x d, 8 x d, etc.
d
Slide

Corrosion of the steel surface
If the steel is corroded, the sound
wave is reflected from the
interface between firm steel and
corrosion products; so, it is the
thickness of sound steel that is
measured
d
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course

the steel (lamination), all the
signal will be reflected from the
defect, and nothing from the
opposite surface
d
Slide

If the steel is coated, the signal will
first pass through coating and steel,
but then it will be reflected repeatedly
between the two surfaces of the steel.
Therefore, the distance between the
emitted signal and the first reflection
will correspond to the combined
thickness of coating and steel, while
the distances between the following
reflections will correspond to the
thickness of the steel only.
Modern thickness gauges discard the
first reflection, and thereby they
actually measure the steel thickness
even if it is coated.
d
India 2005/2006
Slide 10
UWI-Course

Thickness gauges interpret the
signals and present the thickness
directly on a digital display
Advanced models also used for
ultrasonic testing displays a
graphical image of the signals for
interpretation by the experienced
user.
Slide 11

Reflections from other faces of the
steel specimen or from internal
defects can blur the image of the
reflections
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Slide 12
UWI-Course
Accuracy
Measurement of thickness:
+ 0,1 mm
Typical measuring range 5-25 mm
Slide 13
Method
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course

Assessment of general steel
quality
Detection of internal flaws and
cracks
Quality check of welds
Validation of drawings
Slide 15

Detection of laminations:
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Slide 16
UWI-Course

Measuring thickness where access
is only possible to one side of the
steel structure (typical example:
steel sheet piles)
Measuring remaining thickness
after corrosion attack
Slide 17

Basis of in structural analysis
Lifetime of the structure
Onset of preventive precautions
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Slide 18
UWI-Course
Method
Test Planning
1. Initial Visual Survey: Level I and
Level II inspections
India 2005/2006
Slide 20
UWI-Course
Test Planning

Hypothesis:
Where is it most likely to find
reduced thickness
Corrosion rate is controlled by:

-
Oxygen access
Conductivity of the water
Temperature
Water velocity
Slide 21
Test Planning

Hypothesis:
Where is it most likely to find
reduced thickness
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
UWI-Course
Test Planning
damage?
Slide 23
Test Planning
Cleaning of the steel surfaces

to be tested
To Bring (tools)
Ultrasonic device
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
UWI-Course

undamaged section.
Make measurements to
determine at what distance from
the transducer to expect echoes.
visual appearance of the steel
Slide 25

Calibration, i.e. write the
conclusion on the damage
detected
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
UWI-Course

Planning
1. Initial Visual Survey (level I and
II inspections)
Hypothesis
Quantity
Execution
Calibration
Slide 27
Method
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course

calibration?
Calibration plates
Drilling of holes (back-side
corrosion)
Slide 29
Report:
South
North
4
3
2
1
10,5-11,0
9,5-10,0
10,0-10,5
8,5-9,0
9,0-9,5
8,0-8,5
7,5-8,0
10,5-11,0
10,0-10,5
9,5-10,0
8,5-9,0
9,0-9,5
8,0-8,5
7,5-8,0
7,0-7,5
6,5-7,0
6,0-6,5
5,0-5,5
5,5-6,0
4,5-5,0
4,0-4,5
South
North
India 2005/2006
7,0-7,5
Section C and D - Depth point 1,6-1,7

8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
3,5-4,0
The technical presentation of the

measurements should be constricted to
the appendix
Number of observations
Avoid inserting detailed data of the

measurements
Thickness
3,0-3,5

(describe benefits)
6,5-7,0
6,0-6,5
5,0-5,5
5,5-6,0
4,0-4,5
4,5-5,0
0
3,5-4,0
Consequences of the damage to the

safety and durability of the structure
Number of observations
Overall condition, damage type and

extent
3,0-3,5
The conclusions of the measurements

should be summarized
Section C and D - Depth point 0,4 - 0,7

7
Thickness
Slide 30
UWI-Course
Appendix:
Indicate the location of each test accurately

on sketches of the structure, supplemented
by photos
The damage that has been detected is often

best described by making sketches
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Slide 31
APPENDIX A14
Covermeter
UWI-Course
Cover meter
Under Water Inspections - Concrete
Introduction
Cover meter - Measuring Concept
The equipment consists of sensor and a recording instrument
Advanced metal-detector
Measurement of concrete cover and rebar size
Fast (very fast) overview
The under water application is similar to above-water application,

except for waterproof transducer and cables. Illustrations are
from above-water use
Covermeter - 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Introduction
Advanced metal detector:
Fast screening of a large areas
Estimation of extent of repair
Estimation of where repair is
needed
Locating of vital reinforcement
Validation of drawings
Slide
Slide
Agenda
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Principle (electrical Conductivity):

AC-current (pulse) is run through the
coils in the sensor head, and the
resulting current is measured.
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Slide
UWI-Course
Rebar size:
Signal strength
from 2 positions is
measured and
compared.
Slide
Accuracy
Cover meter investigations are reliable and easy to reproduce
The deeper a rebar is located, the harder it is to detect
Typical Accuracy:
+ 1 mm (cover 10-30 mm)

+ 2 mm (cover 30-65 mm)
+ 5% (cover > 65 mm)
Typical max. cover depth: 130 mm ( 8 mm), 180 mm ( 32 mm)
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Slide
UWI-Course

Rebar orientation
Rebar spacing
Slide
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UWI-Course
Common Applications - Damage

Corrosion from chloride ingress
Spalling caused by carbonation
Slide 11

All reinforced concrete
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Slide 12
UWI-Course
Theoretical Possible Applications/Limitations

Cover meter can be used on all non-metallic materials (concrete,
masonry, wood, stone etc.)
Special metal detectors can locate steel at depth of -1 meter
With proper equipment, underwater measurements are possible
Very rough surfaces will reduce accuracy
Go / no-go factors
Expected concrete cover
Expected rebar spacing
Expected other metallic objects
Slide 13
Case 1: Soderledstunnel
1.5 km concrete
tunnel in Stockholm,
Sweden
Spalling due to
carbonation and
small concrete cover
Corrosion due to
chloride ingress and
moderate concrete
cover
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Slide 14
UWI-Course
Case 1: Soderledstunnel
Very small concrete cover
Deep carbonatisation
Slide 15
Case 2: Bernstorffstunnel, facade

Problem: Spalling due to
carbonation of concrete
India 2005/2006
Slide 16
UWI-Course
Case 2: Bernstorffstunnel, facade

Non-uniform concrete quality causes variations in carbonation depth
Break-up no. 1: Carbonation approx 10 mm
Break-up no. 2: Carbonation approx. 25 mm
Slide 17
Case 2: The Sorterende Bridge

A 300 m long concrete bridge
in Denmark
Deep chloride ingress in
concrete piers during 25
years lifetime. Concrete
cover is important when
evaluating the time to
corrosion initiation.
India 2005/2006
Slide 18
UWI-Course
Case 2: The Sorterende Bridge

Determination of chloride content at the
reinforcement level
S2.2- , Kote -0,5 m

Reinforcement level
0,500
0,400
0,300
0,200
0,100
0,336
0,235
0,121
0,061
0,021
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-50
50-70
0,000
Concrete cover
D yb de b a g o ve rfla de [mm]
Slide 19

Fast screening of large areas
Identifying good and damaged areas
Estimating the extent of needed repair
Locating of areas to be repaired
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Slide 20
UWI-Course
3. Test Planning and Execution of Field

Tests
Test Planning
1. Initial Visual Survey (Under water:
Level I and Level II inspections)
Focus on visible damage and signs of

small concrete cover
Accessibility
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UWI-Course
Test Planning
2 Selection of Test Areas
Risk of damage (reinforcement

drawings)
Identification of critical areas
Identification of critical elements
Include apparently intact and

damaged areas in each test-grid
3 Estimating the Appropriate Test Quantity
Rebar size, etc.
Dynamic test planning
4 Rebar size and direction (drawings)
Slide 23

Make a superficial visual survey

in order to confirm the
feasibility of the planned tests
Mark up test grid
Under water: Clean test areas

for fouling etc.
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
UWI-Course

6
Conduct Measurements
Position of 2 rebars from

outer rebar net is located
Position of 1 rebar from

outer rebar net is marked
for approx. 2 m
Cover of rebars in the

inner rebar net is
measured between outer
rebars
Slide 25

Calibration
Verify concrete cover
Examine rebar size
Does the results match with the

hypothesis?!
Decide whether additional steps

must be taken (e.g. extra cores
or break-ups)
8. Registration
Make a thorough visual

registration, geometry, breakups etc.
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Slide 26
UWI-Course

Planning
Execution
4. Control rebar size
5. Calibrate Instrument

Quantity
Calibration
8. Registration
Slide 27
Under Water inspection - Concrete
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course

Error:

calibration?
2 rebars

Slide 29
Damage Identification
The areas which are found to be damaged are pointed out
Spalling
Height
Distance from joint
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Cover (mm)
Slide 30
UWI-Course
Report:
The conclusions of the measurements should
be summarized
(describe benefits)
Avoid inserting plots of the measurements

The technical presentation of the measurements
should be constricted to the appendix
Slide 31
Registration of position and geometry in a table
Graphical representation
Is used as a tool for interpretation
Gives the reader an overview of exactly where there measurements have been made
If successive measurements are expected thorough registrations are necessary for
comparison of results
Height
Distance from joint
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Cover (mm)
Slide 32
UWI-Course
Appendix:
Measurements and Calibration
These are equally important and should be
presented accordingly
Focus on rehabilitation strategy

Good and bad areas
Degree of damage and repair methods
Description of relevant uncertainties
India 2005/2006
Slide 33
APPENDIX A15
Schmidt Hammer
UWI-Course
Surface Hardness Schmidt hammer
UWI - Concrete
Introduction
Schmidt hammer - Measuring Concept
One instrument the Schmidt Hammer
Principle: Push and measurer
On-site measurements
Concrete hardness
Concrete strength
Inhomogeneities
Schmidt hammer - 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Introduction
Benefits:
Fast screening of a large area
Easy to use
On-site estimate of concrete
strength
Slide
Slide
Agenda
6. References
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Schmidt hammer

The components:
Outer body
Plunger
Hammer mass
The main spring
Indicator
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course

The hammer mass hits the plunder and the rebound is measured.
Slide
Measurements
Above water:
The Schmidt hammer measure
the stiffness of the concrete.
There is no theoretical
relationship between the
stiffness and the concrete
strength
Empirical correlations between
the concrete strength and the
rebound number
Under water
Less accuracy due to marine
growth
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Slide
UWI-Course
Accuracy
In laboratory the accuracy is 15 %
In the field the accuracy is 25% or
less
The accuracy can deviate even more
if great care when selecting test
points is not taken
Slide

Smoothness of test surface
Size, shape, and rigidity of the
specimens
Surface and internal moisture
conditions of the concrete
Type of coarse aggregate
Type of cement
Type of mould
Carbonation of the concrete surface
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UWI-Course
Schmidt hammer
Common Applications - Damages

Carbonation
Frost
ASR
Casting defects
Location of use of different
concrete types (strength)
Deteriorated mortar
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Slide 12
UWI-Course

Thane Creek Bridge
Piers
Abutments
Wing walls
Mortar between masonry bricks
Slide 13

Any structural element where the surface stiffness can be used
for evaluating the condition
If the Schmidt hammer is used for detecting differences only - its
usefulness increases significantly
One measurement is never accurate! - But:
Even few measurements may indicate the order of
magnitude of the strength ( 5 vs. 50 MPa)
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Slide 14
UWI-Course
Case: Englandsvej
Bridge under Airport runway at
Copenhagen Airport
Larger loading due to larger plains
The carrying capacity could be
fulfilled if a certain concrete
strength could be documented
Before making Capo test and
drilling of cores the Schmidt
hammer was used to evaluate the
order of magnitude of the
concrete strength
Slide 15

Estimating the concrete strength
Locating heterogeneous areas
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Slide 16
UWI-Course
Schmidt hammer
Test Planning
Diva-Panvel Bridge
1. Initial Visual Survey (Level I/II)
Identify the general condition
Locate potential critical areas
Find surfaces suitable for

inspection can it be found?

Hypothesis
Estimation of concrete strength

and the correlated value
expected for the Schmidt
hammer
Evaluate if it is sufficient to find

the order of magnitude of the
strength
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Slide 18
UWI-Course
Test Planning
Select test areas from the hypothesis
The exact location of each measuring point must be found on site
by the diver! Ask for photo documentation!
4. Estimating the Appropriate Test Quantity

If more accurate measurements are wanted the quantity must be
decided from the dispersion of the result on site
If less accuracy is sufficient 3-7 measurements within each
assumed homogeneous areas will do in most cases
Slide 19
3. 3. Test Planning and Execution of Field

Tests
Test Planning
Create sketch sheets for visual

registrations
Make a time plan
Create a list of the planned

investigation
Dive briefing
Make background material for

the diver
Diva-Panvel Bridge
6. To Bring (tools - diver)
A normal hammer
Chalk for marking
Measuring tape and folding rule
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Slide 20
UWI-Course

Tests

Make a sketch (table) with

indication of each or groups
test points
Conduct measurements
Evaluate dispersion of results
Make additional measurements
Nira Bridge
Calibration can be made by

drilling cores or making Capotests
It is always a good idea to use

a normal hammer as a second
opinion
Slide 21

Tests

9. Evaluate Measurements and Calibration
For more accurate measurements it may be necessary to make a statistical analysis

on site to confirm that the wanted reliability of the measurements has been achieved
Calibration can be made by concrete cores
10.Registration
The diver should make a thorough visual registration

A photo of the surface of all measuring points to use for successive evaluation
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Slide 22
UWI-Course

Tests

Planning
Execution

Hypothesis

Quantity

Calibration
10.Registration
6. To Bring (Tools)
Slide 23
Schmidt hammer
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course

It is essential to decide the level of reliability before conducting
the measurements
Statistics should always be used to evaluate the results
For less accurate measurements calculating the mean value and
the standard deviation is mostly sufficient
For more accurate measurements to use for e.g. carrying
capacity calculations the used design code will decide which
parameters should be calculated
Calibration with a concrete core and successive analysis
Slide 25
Make an overview of all registrations this will often give a
good idea of the deterioration pattern
A direct damage identification is not possible but in
combination with:
Analysis of a core
Spraying indicators
Chloride measurements
etc.
Schmidt hammer measurements is able of locating damaged

areas
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Slide 26
UWI-Course
Report:
Background for making the investigation including the wanted
reliability / accuracy
Extend and position of the investigation
Summary of the results
Result evaluation/evaluation of hypothesis note if it some areas
was inaccessible
Slide 27
Appendix:
Sketch of all investigations and a result of each measurement or
group of measurements
Field sketches and all results
Photo documentation
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Slide 28
UWI-Course
Schmidt hammer
(x) (x)
(x)
Initial defects
ASR
(x)
(x)
(Freeze-thaw)
(x)
(x)
X
X
India 2005/2006
Macro/Micro analyses
Structural problems
Impulse response
Bond-test/Pull-off
(Air void)
ASR reactivity
Chloride penetration
Corrosion
Cores
Damage
Break up
Impact Echo
Chloride contents
Half cell potential &

corrosion rate
Carbonation
Schmidt hammer
Spraying indicators
Cover meter
CAPO-test
Crack detection
Boroscope
NDTMethod
Slide 30
APPENDIX A16
Coring Equipment
UWI-Course
Core Drilling
Concrete and Masonry
Introduction
Core Drilling Concept
(Non) destructive testing.
Damaging small area of the
structure.
Piers
Abutments
Core Drilling - 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Introduction
Core Drilling Equipment
Usually a portable drill
powered by either
compressed air or
hydraulics
The size of the core
varies depending on the
actual conditions. For
laboratory evaluation
cores with a diameter of
app. 100 mm and at
least 250 mm in length
are preferable.
Slide
Slide
Introduction
Benefits:
On-site evaluation
A piece of the actual structure
Relatively mobile
Possibility of laboratory evaluation
and thus large information of the
concrete.
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Agenda
Slide
Core Drilling
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Common Applications
Chloride content
Verification of structural drawings:
Rebar, concrete cover, filling of
masonry structures etc.
First step in a macro/micro analysis.
First step in laboratory testing of the
concrete compression strength.
Slide

Cracks
Delaminations
Alkali Aggregate Reactivity
Carbonation
Freeze/Thaw
Thickness of masonry
Filling behind masonry
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course

A core can be drilled where ever it
is possible to anchor the
equipment the limitations are
mostly the diving conditions
All concrete structures.
All masonry structures.
Concrete or masonry can be so
deteriorated that anchoring is
impossible.
Slide

Twin concrete prestressed bridge
Build in 1980
Six piers in salt water
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Slide 10
UWI-Course

Cores drilled above and beneath
the waterline
Slide 11
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Slide 12
UWI-Course
Slide 13
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Slide 14
UWI-Course

The drilling of cores itself seldom gives direct input to strategies.
The core gives valuable information for calibration of other Non
Destructive Testing that has been carried out prior to the core
drilling.
Drilling out cores gives the basis of fast screening tests if it is
followed up by laboratory analysis. E.g. fast screening of
potential risk of alkali aggregate reactivity, freeze-thaw damage
etc. This can usually be done by drilling 1-2 concrete cores from
a bridge component.
Slide 15
Core Drilling
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Test Planning
1. Initial Visual Survey Level I/II inspection
Both diver and engineer conducts a survey
Input from the diver on local conditions is used during planning
Slide 17
Test Planning
2. Forecast of results
If the cores are drilled out as a calibration of other NDT-measurements an

on-site comparison of actual condition of the core and the expected
condition of the core is made.
The expected extent of laboratory analysis is estimated this may

influence the number of cores needed. And it also influence the size of the
cores needed.
India 2005/2006
Slide 18
UWI-Course
Test Planning
The right place to take out the cores depends on

the structure geometry
the condition of the concrete
The information needed from the core.
Cores of bad and good areas must be

represented. If cracking occurs in the bridge
component place at least one core on top of the
cracking.
Unless the condition of the reinforcement is

needed you should avoid drilling out cores in the
positions of reinforcement. If reinforcement is to
be included in the core make sure to include the
whole rebar to avoid problems when carrying out
the drilling.
Slide 19
Test Planning
Never drill out cores at the
location of prestressed cables.
The majority of the cores should
be taken in areas where the
results from the previous
measurements are inconclusive.
Keep in mind that the cores
should represent all types of
areas in the structure, which
influence the repair strategy.
India 2005/2006
Slide 20
UWI-Course
Test Planning
Quantity
For a fast screening for e.g. the

concrete composition, the risk
of AAR, the risk of freeze-thaw
damage etc. usually only 1-2
cores are needed in each
homogeneous area.
The number of cores needed is

also influenced of the need for
laboratory evaluation. Enough
material for the needed tests
must be present.
Slide 21
Test Planning
Practical Preparations
Make a dive briefing
To Bring (tools)
As-built drawings for the diver
Coring equipment.
Cover meter.
Common hand tools.
Folding ruler.
Saran wrap, tape and plastic bag (if the

moisture content is to be determined).
Chalk or a pen to write on the core

before it is bagged.
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
UWI-Course
Execution of Field Work

5. Conduct the core drilling
Locate the reinforcement including prestressed

cables using cover meter and as-built drawings.
Mark the location of the core.
Mount the coring equipment.
Be sure that the equipment cannot move when

drilling out the core.
Mark the length of the core need on the coring

equipment (add 1-2 cms to the length wanted).
Do the drilling.
Carefully break off the core.
When breaking off the core you should be careful

not to do any damage to the core. If you have
trouble getting out the core it has to be noted as
you may have caused some defect / cracking to
the core.
Slide 23

6. Registration
Before drilling out the core

take a photo of the core
location and note if there are
any damage (cracking etc.)
On the core the direction to the

surface is marked.
If the core is broken make sure

to mark every piece (if
possible).
Take photos of the core and the

hole in the structure.
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Slide 24
UWI-Course

6. Registration
Right after taking out the core

look for pop-outs (and note if
any pop-outs are registered).
Note if you had problems

getting out the cores if you
could have damaged the core
during this procedure.
Note the depth of the

laminations in the hole of the
core if any.
Slide 25

Planning
Execution
5. Conduct the core drilling
2. Forecast of Results
6. Registration

Quantity
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
UWI-Course
Core Drilling
Report:
No written report is usually needed
separately for the core drilling
procedure only your registrations
from the field is needed. Usually the
evaluation and the reporting is
carried out as part of reporting
other non destructive
measurements or as part of the
laboratory evaluation.
India 2005/2006
Slide 28
APPENDIX A17
Chloride Content
UWI-Course
Chloride content
UWI - Concrete
Introduction
Chloride content - Measuring Concept (the RCT principle)
A core is drilled
In the laboratory it is divided in small pieces and crushed
Dust can also be collected by drilling at low tide
The dust and thereby the chlorides are dissolved in a solution
The Chloride content can be found by measuring the potential of
the solution
Concrete piers in salt water
Submerged concrete structures
Chloride content- 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Introduction
Benefits:
Estimate the risk of for initiation
of corrosion
Prediction of initiation of corrosion
via Fichs II law
Estimate the risk of accelerated
ASR damage
Slide
Slide
Agenda
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course
Chloride content of hardened concrete
Measuring Principle Dust Collection

The collection of dust can be done
with a normal drill and some
plastic bags
Customized equipment reduces
errors and uncertainties
Standard rules for collecting dust
has been made also to reduce
uncertainties
Dust is collected from at least
three holes within a square of
15x15 cm
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course

The collection of dust can be done
with a normal drill and some
plastic bags
Customized equipment reduces
errors and uncertainties
Standard rules for collecting dust
has been made also to reduce
uncertainties
Dust is collected from at least
three holes within a square of
15x15 cm
Slide

The chloride content varies the
most near the surface
Selection of drilling intervals for
dust collection should reflect this
The Danish standard is as shown
on the graph
These intervals are sufficient for
making ingress analysis using
Fichs II law
India 2005/2006
Slide
UWI-Course
Measuring Principle What is measured?

Estmation of chloride content and
chloride profiles.
Total Cl- ions
Water soluble Cl- ions dangerous to
corrosion
Chloride content is determined on a

powder of concrete.
Crushed samples single measurements
and large scale profiles
Grinding (cores) detailed profiles
Drilling sampling in the field
Two methods of determination

Titration method Precise estimations
RCT (Rapid Chloride Test) Quick
estimations
Slide
Total chloride content by the RCT method

Extraction of chlorides:
1.5 g of fine powder is poured
into an RCT ampoule
Chloride phases is dissolved in
the ampoule:
Quick measurements: Shake
the ampoule in 5 min
More precise measurements:
Shake the ampoules and let
the dissolution take place over
12-24 hours.
India 2005/2006
Slide 10
UWI-Course

Preparations of the RCT
electrode:
Electrode is filled with an
electrode wetting agent
Air entrapped within the
wetting agent is carefully
avoided
Connect the electrode to the
to the electrometer
Electrode is calibrated by four
calibration liquids of known Clconcentration.
0,005%
0,020%
0,050%
0,500%
ClClClCl-
:
:
:
:
ca.
ca.
ca.
ca.
100 mV
72 mV
49 mV
5 mV
Slide 11

Measurements:
The tip of the electrode is
lowered into the RCT ampoule
Record the mV reading when
the value becomes stable (stir
the electrode a couple of
times)
The reading of mV are
transformed to Clconcentration by a logarithmic
scale.
India 2005/2006
Slide 12
UWI-Course
Total chloride content by the titration method

The Principle:
12 g of fine powder is
dispersed in water
Chloride bearing phases is
dissolved by concentrated
nitric acid and water.
The solution is filtered
The solution is treated with
silver nitrate in excess, which
cause the Cl- ions to
precipitate as silver chloride
The silver nitrate in excess is
back titrated with an
ammonium thiocyenate
solution
The amount of precipitated

silver chloride is proportional
to the chloride content of the
concrete and is calculated by
Cl- = 3,545(V1N1-V2N2)/m
V1: total amount of
silvernitrate
V2: titrated ammonium
cyenate solution
m: Weight of powder sample
N1, N2: Normalisation factors
Slide 13
Accuracy
Practical limitations of the accuracy:
Thoroughness collecting dust samples
The number of holes which has been drilled
The natural variation in chloride content
Current measuring method are sufficiently accurate to predict the

risk of chloride initiated corrosion within at least 5 10 years
For totally submerged members the accuracy is even better
India 2005/2006
Slide 14
UWI-Course
Accuracy
The RCT method
Based on linear interpolation
between 4 predetermined
concentrations
The accuracy at very low or very
high concentrations is less but
is also less relevant !!!
An on- site measurement is less
accurate than a measurement
after 24 hours
Slide 15
Accuracy
The titration method is slightly
more accurate than the RCT but
RCT is faster, less costly and
require less drilling dust
Total Cl- ions is measured but
Only Water soluble Cl- ions are
dangerous in terms of corrosion
(can be estimated by RCTW)
The theory of chloride ingress and
chloride initiated corrosion is still
debated
India 2005/2006
Slide 16
UWI-Course

Max aggregate size larger aggregates decreases accuracy
Fe-Ions in the dust sample these ions will ruin the measurements
Cracks in the surface
Carbonation pushes the chloride ions away, presence of chloride rules out
carbonation and presence of carbonation rules out chloride
Slide 17
Chloride content
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course

Chloride initiated corrosion on reinforcement
in concrete
Alkali Aggregate Reactions in concrete
Slide 19
Map of Natural Aggregates Commonly Used in

India
Schematic map not in scale.
The common rock types
present in India are reactive
to varying degrees.
From Mullick, A.K., Alkalisilica reaction Indian

Experience in The AlkaliSilica Reaction in Concrete,
edited by Swamy, R.N., 1992.
India 2005/2006
Slide 20
UWI-Course

Bridge:
Piers
Abutments
Marine structures
Harbours
Houses
Wind mill foundations
Slide 21

Concrete structure subjected to salt
Including submerged areas Chloride content can be meassured
from cores
Measurements are only possible if dust ca be collected or if a
core can be drilled
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
UWI-Course
Case: Kalvebod
Two sets of twin bridges
Build in 1978 1982
Post tensioned concrete box girder bridge
Very good concrete quality
Slide 23
Case: Kalvebod
Part of the great coastal bridge
project conducted from 1996 to
2000 including over 20 coastal
bridges
An investigation was conducted in
1996
The successive investigation was
conducted in 2005:
Chloride content
Half Cell potential, resistance
Corrosion rate measurements
Drilling of core above and sub
surface
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
UWI-Course
Case: Kalvebod
Test plan
Chloride content above and
under the water
Drilling of core above and sub
surface
Carbonation
Concrete cover
Slide 25
Case: Kalvebod
Test plan
Chloride content
Drilling of core above and sub surface
Carbonation
Concrete cover
The variation with the height was

investigated
Chloride ingress under water was
meassured
Measurements with half cell potential
was conducted at identical levels
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
UWI-Course
Case: Kalvebod
Results:
Chloride at low levels
Little chloride near
rebars (40 mm)
Slide 27
Case: Kalvebod
Level 0 m
India 2005/2006
Slide 28
UWI-Course
Case: Kalvebod
Level 0,3 m
Slide 29
Case: Kalvebod
Development:
1996 - 2005
India 2005/2006
Slide 30
UWI-Course
Case: Kalvebod
Forecast of chloride ingress
Slide 31
Case: Kalvebod
Chloride ingress - RCT
India 2005/2006
Slide 32
UWI-Course
Case: Kalvebod
Chloride ingress - RCTW
Slide 33

Locating areas with critical chloride content in the depth of the
reinforcement hence the areas where a removal of concrete is
necessary can be identified
Estimating the time of which chloride initiated corrosion on the
reinforcement in the concrete will start Precautions can be
initiated before the reinforcement starts to corrode
India 2005/2006
Slide 34
UWI-Course
Method
Test Planning
1. Initial Visual Survey (Level I or II)
Locate accessible areas
Overview of damages
2. Forecast of Results Creating a Hypothesis
Thorough investigation of background material
Expected variation of chloride exposure / content
Expected concrete cover
India 2005/2006
Slide 36
UWI-Course
Test Planning
Areas without significant

damage
Use a covermeter to avoid

reinforcement

Quantity
Expected variations
Aim of the investigation

estimation of repair need or
estimation of initiation of
corrosion
The wanted reliability
Slide 37
Test Planning
Create sketches to register the

position of the measurements
Investigate drawings of the

reinforcement
Make material for the diver
Brief the diver
6. To Bring (tools)
Drilling equipment
Plastic bags for dust collection
Dust blower for cleaning holes
India 2005/2006
Slide 38
UWI-Course

Drill and collect dust
Field RCT
RCT after 24 hours for

verification
8. Calibration
Break ups to detect corrosion

on the reinforcement
The electrode is calibrated prior

to making the RCT
measurements
Slide 39

9. Evaluate Measurements
Amount of dust which has been

collected
Is the measured profile as

expected (Fe pollution)
10.Registration

registration
India 2005/2006
Slide 40
UWI-Course

Planning
Execution
7. Calibration

Hypothesis

Quantity

Calibration
10.Registration
6. To Bring (tools)
Slide 41
Method
India 2005/2006
UWI-Course

The reliability the RCT measurements itself is seldom calibrated
Finding the critical chloride content by break ups is only possible
in rare cases
In general values for the critical chloride content above water is
between 0.05 % and 0.1 % weight compared to dry concrete
For submerged members the critical chloride content may exceed
0.15 %
Slide 43
Corrosion is found in the break ups:
The critical chloride content in the depth of the reinforcement
has been reached
The depth of carbonation may be found inderectly
India 2005/2006
Slide 44
UWI-Course
Report:
Background for making the measurements also including a
result summary of earlier measurements if any are available
Result summary
Description of variations and development
Slide 45
Appendix:
All results
Sketches and photos of positions where measurements has been
conducted
Comparison of measurements
India 2005/2006
Slide 46
UWI-Course
Method
5. Application Summary Concrete Bridges
(x) (x)
(x)
Structural problems
Initial defects
ASR
(Freeze-thaw)
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
X
X
India 2005/2006
Carbonation
(Air void)
ASR reactivity
Impulse response
Corrosion
Cores
Damage
Break up
Impact Echo
Chloride contents

corrosion rate
Spraying indicators
Bond-test/Pull-off
Cover meter
CAPO-test
Schmidt hammer
Crack detection
Boroscope
NDTMethod
Slide 48
APPENDIX A18
Evaluation of Concrete Cores (from NDT-course)
NDT-Course
NDT - Concrete
Introduction
Evaluation of concrete cores - Concept

Carbonation depth measurements
Air void analysis on plane sections
Chloride content determination
Moisture analysis
Residual reactivity (ASR Alkali Silica Reactivity)
SEM-analysis (SEM Scanning Electron Microscopy)
All types of concrete structures: Evaluation of concrete quality
Damaged / deteriorated concrete: Evaluation of damage cause and further
development of damage
Calibration of other NDT-methods such as Impact-Echo and Impulse Response
Evaluation of concrete cores - 14 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course
Introduction
Benefits:
Obtaining an overall view of the
concrete quality
Investigation of damage of the
concrete
Necessity of repair based on the
conclusions from the two above
mentioned investigations
Results are input to deterioration
models
Tool in a fast screening of structures
(e.g. risk of AAR or not)
Slide
Slide
Agenda
6. References
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course
Evaluation
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
Technique
What is evaluated?
Macro analysis on cores and plane sections - overview
Impregnated Plane Sections
Chloride Content
Micro Analysis - overview
Optical Determination of Compression Strength
Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Moisture Content and Moisture Profile
Residual Reactivity (ASR)
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course
A. Evaluation Principle Technique

Vacuum-impregnation of full core with fluorescent epoxy resin
Cracks, voids and porous paste connected to
the core surface will be filled with
fluorescent epoxy resin
Slide

Fluorescence impregnated plane section
Cracks, voids and porous paste near the cut surface will be filled
with fluorescent epoxy resin
Core from bridge deck,

core length 170 mm
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course

Fluorescence impregnated thin section
The thin section is a 20-micron thick
slice of concrete, which has been
impregnated with a fluorescent epoxy
resin. The thin section is typically
35mm x 45mm in size.
The semi-transparency of the concrete
slice allows the examination of the
concrete by transmitted light
microscopy.
Slide
B. Evaluation Principle What is Evaluated?

Concrete quality
Aggregates
Cracks
Carbonation
W/c-ratio
Homogeneity
Damage causes
AAR
Carbonation
Freeze-thaw
Moisture content
DEF
India 2005/2006
Slide 10
NDT-Course
C. Evaluation Macro analysis on cores, overview

Evaluation and determination of:
- aggregate type
- aggregate content
- cracks (coarse and fine)
- encapsulated air voids
- carbonation
- casting defects, segregation
- condition of joints
Phenolphthalein
pH-indicator
red colour: not carbonated
- condition of reinforcement
- signs of attack
Slide 11
D. Evaluation Impregnated plane sections

Crack detection on impregnated plane sections, under UV-light
Evaluation and determination of
- extent and distribution of cracks
(fine, coarse)
(crack width > 0,01 mm)
- possible causes
(ASR, freeze-thaw etc.)
India 2005/2006
Slide 12
NDT-Course

Crack detection on impregnated plane sections:
Core from bridge deck

Plane section through
impregnated core
Fluorescence impregnated
plane section under UV-light
Slide 13

Fluorescence impregnated plane sections:
Varying capillary porosity in small samples for thin section preparation

India 2005/2006
Slide 14
NDT-Course
E. Evaluation Air void analysis on plane sections

Evaluation and determination of the
air void structure
(ASTM C 457, linear traverse):
- air void content A (vol. %)
- specific surface , mm-1
- spacing factor, L, mm
Slide 15
F. Evaluation Chloride content

- Chloride content
- Chloride profiles
India 2005/2006
Slide 16
NDT-Course
G. Evaluation Micro analysis, overview

- concrete composition
- cement type and content
- aggregate type and mineralogy
- w/c-ratio
- air void content and void structure
- defects (cracks and inhomogeneities)
- aggressive environment (e.g. acid)
- moisture conditions and effects
- signs of deterioration (e.g. AAR)
- strength level
- initial defects (casting, curing etc.)
Slide 17
H. Evaluation Optical determination of compressive strength

Point counting of thin section paste, air
voids and w/c-ratio
Compressive strength, fc, MN/m2
Application of Ferets formula for

calculation of strength level.
Cr = Vol% cement
V = Vol% water
L = Vol% air
Density of cement paste, T
India 2005/2006
Slide 18
NDT-Course
I. Evaluation Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)

Typical crack pattern for a
concrete suffering from DEF
pt
Em
y
bs
ga
Slide 19
J. Evaluation Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

- phases in the cement or concrete
- depositions (compositions)
- chemical composition - profiles
BS-image
Ca
Si
Mg
India 2005/2006
Slide 20
NDT-Course
J. Evaluation Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM)

Ordinary
Combination of Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM)
and Optical Microscopy:
Crossed
Ettringite deposits in air

void
Back Scatter
Slide 21
K. Evaluation Moisture Content and Moisture Profiles

moisture content and profiles:
- water content (U %)
- degree of capillary saturation (Scap)
- degree of pressure saturation (Spressure)
- relative humidity (RH %)
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
0-20
20-40
40-60
60-80
80-100
Kerne 2
100-120
120-140
140-160
160-180
180-200
200-220
220-230
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
NDT-Course
K. Evaluation Moisture Content and Moisture Profiles

Moisture content and moisture profiles:
U%
Dry
Semi dry
Wet
0.0
Very wet
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
0-20
20-40
5
70
Scap %
60
90
Spressure %
60
65
80
RH %
60
70
80
95
Condition
Moisture
40-60
60-80
80-100
Kerne 2
100-120
120-140
140-160
160-180
180-200
200-220
220-230
NOTE: The values of U depend on the w/c-ratio. The larger the w/cratio the larger value of U before the concrete condition is wet. The
values in the table are according to a w/c ratio of 0,50.
Scap < 90%: No risk of freeze-thaw damage
90% < Scap < 95%: Small risk of freeze-thaw damage
Scap > 95%: Large risk of freeze-thaw damage
Slide 23
L. Evaluation Residual Activity (ASR)

Evaluation and determination of the potential risk of development of damage due to Alkali
Aggregate Reactions (AAR) and estimation of the residual potential for further reactions
under the following conditions:
- unlimited access for moisture
- unlimited access for moisture and sodium chloride
1 expansion
Expansion [0/00]
Limit:
Small risk of future

harmful cracking due to
AAR
Storing at 50oC in sodium chloride solution and at 100%

relative humidity
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
NDT-Course
Evaluation
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
G.
H.
I.
J.
K.
L.
Technique
What is evaluated?
Macro analysis on cores and plane sections - overview
Impregnated Plane Sections
Chloride Content
Micro Analysis - overview
Optical Determination of Compression Strength
Delayed Ettringite Formation (DEF)
Scanning Electron Microscopy
Moisture Content and Moisture Profile
Residual Reactivity (AAR)
Slide 25
Precision
In general the precision of evaluation of concrete
cores depends on the experience of the investigator
the evaluation is assumed to be carried out by an
experienced investigator.
It is very important for the general precision of the
evaluation that the cores as well as the thin sections
etc. represents the structure test planning!
Aggregate, carbonation, homogeneity & cement type
These parameters can be determined with a high
precision within the test sample.
Cracks
High precision within the test sample - it is assumed
that the cores are handled correct before entering the
laboratory.
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
NDT-Course
Precision
ASR
Reactive sand aggregate: Good precision (e.g. one sample for testing the residual
reactivity is usually enough).
Reactive stone aggregate: Poor precision (e.g. three samples for testing the residual
reactivity is usually required). Note that the representation of the stone aggregate in
the test sample is poorer that the representation of the sand aggregate.
Residual reactivity test: A European research project, PARTNER, has shown that the
residual reactivity test will expose whether the concrete is reactive or not. E.g. the
project has shown that chlorides from outside the concrete will accelerate all kinds of
alkali silica reactions.
Air void analysis

The precision is within 5% of the test result.
The influence of the sample preparations is essential.
The position of the test sample can be essential especially for in situ concrete
columns etc. where the air content can likely differ from top to bottom of the column.
Slide 27
Precision
Moisture
The precision of the test results is approximately
10%.
The influence of sealing and storage of the cores
is essential.
Optical strength analysis

The precision of the test results of the samples is
app. 10%. E.g. the analysis may tell whether
the strength is 25MPa or 30MPa, etc.
The precision of the results is larger with lower
values of the w/c-ratio. For w/c-ratios above
0,70 determination of w/c is more uncertain.
Initial cracks will influence the result of the
optical strength analysis. The analysis are to be
carried out on intact concrete for the best result.
India 2005/2006
Slide 28
NDT-Course

Handling the cores before they
enter the laboratory:
Note if the core was stuck and
forced out of the structure (not
initial damages).
Be sure to seal the core if
moisture analysis are to be
made.
Preparation of the test samples

e.g. for thin sections, plane
sections for automatically rapid
air analysis.
Slide 29
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course

Laminations
Caused by ASR, freeze-thaw, initial
defects, etc.
Cracks in general
Caused by ASR, freeze-thaw, initial
defects, etc.
Carbonation
Structural problems
Estimation of concrete strength.
The density of the concrete influence
the velocity of chloride ingress.
Slide 31

Concrete Bridges
Deck, girder, columns,
abutments, etc.
Railway sleeper.
Concrete Floor Slabs and Walls.
Cylindrical Concrete Structures
Silos, Tanks, Chimneys.
Underground Parking Structures.
India 2005/2006
Slide 32
NDT-Course

In general the evaluation can be used on
all types of concrete structures.
Limitations evaluation is not necessary:
Structures where the cause of damage is
obvious e.g. corroded reinforcement due
to carbonation of a very small concrete
cover.
Structures where the budget of
rehabilitation is less than the costs of an
evaluation.
Slide 33
Case - Concrete cores from bridge deck
Bridge from 1935

Cores from bridge deck
Concrete:
Ordinary Portland cement
W/C-ratio 0.4-0.5
Granite and flint in coarse aggregate
Sand with alkali-silica reactive, porous flint
India 2005/2006
Slide 34
NDT-Course

Soffit of bridge deck:
Right: Map cracking and transversal
cracks with dry white deposits.
Below: Fine parallel longitudinal cracks
with dry white deposits.
Slide 35

Core No. 16:
Protective layer at top (left)
Waterproofing
Structural concrete with cracks
India 2005/2006
Slide 36
NDT-Course

Plane section of structural concrete
Cracks are mainly surface parallel
Slide 37

Thin section:
Massive ettringite
formation in cracks show
long time moisture
exposure of the concrete,
indicating that the
waterproofing is not
protecting against water.
Size: 0,4 mm x 0,6 mm.
Arrow = Crack width
Needles in crack: Ettringite
India 2005/2006
Slide 38
NDT-Course

Thin section:
Porous flint particle with
high number of cracks
in right part of photo.
Micro cracks and fine
cracks in the paste, left
part of photo.
W/c-ratio: ~0.40
Size: 2,7 mm x 4,2 mm.
Slide 39

Petrographic evaluation:
Main cause of surface parallel cracking is water saturation of the concrete
and freeze-thaw damage.
A secondary cause is alkali silica reaction from reactive aggregate.
The full depth of the core is affected (> 170 mm).
The concrete has not been protected from water for a long time, e.g. the
waterproofing is not effective.
If protected from water the concrete is expected to be of an overall high
quality as regards to strength, with low w/c-ratio.
If not protected from water and possible de-icing chemicals (sodium
chloride) freeze-thaw damage as well as alkali silica reactions will
deteriorate the concrete due to 1) lack of an entrained air void system
and 2) a critical content of reactive particles in the fine and coarse
aggregate.
India 2005/2006
Slide 40
NDT-Course

Petrographic evaluation input to repair strategy in inspection report:
Cause of damage is primary freeze-thaw and secondary ASR.
The full depth of the core is affected (> 170 mm).
The waterproofing has not been intact for some years in the position of the core.
If a new waterproofing is not established more damage will occur due to freezethaw and ASR.
Conclusion of the inspection (utilizing results from the petrographic analyse
and Impulse-Response measurements):
A new waterproofing is needed in 5 years from the inspection time.
At the time of repair approximately 10% of the road area will need concrete repairs
to a depth of 40-70 mm from the surface. Locally concrete repairs to a depth of
175-200 mm is needed.
Slide 41

Identifying the cause of damage.
Evaluation of the concrete quality and identifying parameters
that influence the future development of damages.
Input to evaluation of the optimal time of rehabilitation.
India 2005/2006
Slide 42
NDT-Course
Test Planning
Gathering knowledge of the structure photos

of the structure before and after drilling out
the core.
Macroscopic analysis of all cores from the

same structure.
2. Forecast of Results Creating a Hypothesis
Do the cores represent the same quality of

concrete?
Expected cause of damage (ASR, etc.).
Expected signs of damage (cracks, etc.).
India 2005/2006
Slide 44
NDT-Course
Test Planning
3. Selection of Sample Areas
If the cores include cracks make a fluorescence

impregnated plane section of a representative
core. The crack pattern can give information
regarding the cause and extent (depth from
surface) of damage.
Make test samples for the relevant tests such as

carbonation, residual reactivity (ASR), rapid air
(air content).
Select area(s) of thin sections if needed (concrete

composition), ASR, etc. Selection of the area(s)
should be based on evaluation of the plane
section. The damaged area should be
represented.
Cut for plane

section
Slide 45
Test Planning
4. Estimating the Appropriate Sample Quantity
Depending on the hypothesis the amount of test samples is determined.

E.g. in case of ASR caused by reactive stone aggregate: 3 samples for
residual reactivity test in case of ASR caused by reactive sand
aggregate: 1 sample for residual reactivity test.
Depending on the homogeneity the amount of test samples is chosen.

Note:
Thin section
The selection of the area for

thin sections is very
important
Sand aggregate
with possible ASR
India 2005/2006
Slide 46
NDT-Course
Execution of Evaluation
5. Conduct Evaluation
The macro analysis is carried out.
Areas of test samples (plane sections,

etc.) are marked on the cores or on
sketches.
The samples are prepared by a

laboratory technician.
The samples are evaluated by an

experienced engineer. All observations
are registered.
Slide 47
Execution of Evaluation
6. Evaluate the observations
The observations are evaluated with

regard to the cause of damage and
future development of damage.
Does the observations match with

the hypothesis?!

must be taken (e.g. extra thin
sections, laboratory tests etc.)
India 2005/2006
Slide 48
NDT-Course

Planning
Execution
5. Conduct Evaluation

Hypothesis
6. Evaluate the observations
3. Selection of Sample Areas

4. Estimating the Appropriate
Sample Quantity
Slide 49
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course

It must be evaluated how reliable / accurate
the evaluations are:
How good is the correlation between
evaluation and registrations of the structure?
Was it possible to detect the cause of
damage?
Error: Not
deteriorated
concrete but two
construction joints
Are the evaluated cores representative for

the whole element / structure?
Slide 51
Based on the cause of damage

identified by the evaluation of
the concrete cores the necessity
of rehabilitation is estimated.
The evaluations of the concrete

cores are often used as a
supplementary investigation or
calibration to other NDTmethods. In these cases the
input from the evaluation is
compared with the results from
the NDT-method.
Carbonated concrete at the surface
India 2005/2006
Slide 52
NDT-Course
Report overall conclusions:
The conclusions of the evaluation should be summarized answering the
questions made by the inspector delivering the core(s) to the laboratory
Overall condition of the concrete, damage type and depth
Are further tests needed?
(describe benefits)
Slide 53
Report detailed input to inspection report:
The extent of the analysis should be summarised often more cores are
evaluated in different levels (typically a macro analyse is preformed on all cores.
Based on the results from this specific cores are chosen for further analysis).
The conclusions of the evaluations should be summarized for every structural
element or concrete type (e.g. bridge deck, column, etc.)
Damage type and depth

Moisture content (if measured)
Potential risk of ASR
Are further investigations needed?
(describe benefits)
Avoid inserting photos from the micro analysis

The technical presentation of the evaluation should be constricted to the appendix
India 2005/2006
Slide 54
NDT-Course
Slide 55
Appendix:
We are dealing with a complex method an introduction to the
laboratory analysis performed should therefore always be made.
Detailed description of observations from the different analysis.
Evaluation of the observations.
Summary of the concrete quality and condition.
Evaluation of the risk of future development of damages.
India 2005/2006
Slide 56
NDT-Course
Appendix example of
observations from a micro
analyse.
In the micro-description
qualitative evaluations are
made in a scale from 0-3:
Degree
0
1
2
3
Content
None / little
Some
Many
A lot
Slide 57
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course
(Freeze-thaw)
(Air void)
ASR
ASR reactivity
X
X
(x)
(x)
(X)
(x)
(x)
X
X
Cores
Initial defects
Break up
Damage
Structural problems
Spraying indicators
Impulse response
(x) (x)
Impact Echo
Chloride contents

corrosion rate
Carbonation
Bond-test/Pull-off
Cover meter
Corrosion
CAPO-test
Schmitt hammer
Boroscope
Crack detection
NDTMethod
Slide 59
ASR
(Freeze-thaw)
(Air void)
ASR reactivity
(x)
(X)
(x)
(x)
X
X
India 2005/2006
Initial defects
Spraying indicators
Structural problems
Cores
(x)
Break up
(x) (x)
Damage
Impulse response
Impact Echo
Chloride contents

corrosion rate
Carbonation
Bond-test/Pull-off
Cover meter
Corrosion
CAPO-test
Schmidt hammer
Boroscope
Crack detection
NDTMethod
Slide 60
NDT-Course
6. References
Thaulow, A. et. al. : Estimation of the compressive strength of concrete
samples by means of fluorescence microscopy, Nordisk Betong, 1982.
Mullick, A.K.: Alkali-silica reaction Indian Experience, The AlkaliSilica Reaction in Concrete, Edited by R.N. Swamy, 1992.
Visvesvaraya, H.C. et. al.: Analysis of Distress Due to Alkali-Aggregate
Reaction in Gallery Structures of a Concrete Dam, Concrete AlkaliAggregate Reactions, Proceedings of the 7th International Conference
1986, Ottawa, Canada.
Mullick, A.K., et. al.: Evaluation of Quartzite and Granite Aggregates
Containing Strained Quartz, Concrete Alkali-Aggregate Reactions,
Proceedings of the 7th International Conference 1986, Ottawa, Canada.
India 2005/2006
Slide 61
APPENDIX A19
Crack Measuring Gauge (from NDT-course)
NDT-Course

Crack Detection Microscope
NDT Concrete, Steel and Masonry
Introduction
Crack measuring gauge and Crack detection microscope Measuring Concept
Visual measurement of crack widths
Light weight and portable
Measurements of cracks induced by load or deterioration
Concrete, masonry or steel structures
Identification of crack width and development in crack width

Crack Detection Microscope - 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course
Introduction
Benefits:
Low costs
Great accuracy
Fast measuring
Easy to use
Light weight and portable

Slide
Slide
Agenda
6. References

India 2005/2006
NDT-Course


Comparison of visible crack with
predefined accurate scale

Optical magnification
Build in light and measuring
scale

India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course

The crack width opening at the
surface is measured
It is a visual comparison between
a predefined scale and the
appearance of the crack at the
surface
Often several points along a crack
are measured in order to gain
more accuracy

Slide
Measurements
For a general determination of
cracks in a structure a crack
measuring gauge is used
Several cracks are measured and
often a hand sketch is made
Often the cracks are marked with
chalk
If the exact width of a crack is
wanted a crack detection
microscope is used
The crack is measured in several
points
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course
Accuracy
In general an accuracy of 0,01
mm is possible
Cracks smaller than 0,05 mm are
hard to see for an un aided eye
a crack detection microscope is
needed
The complex nature of crack
propagation causes the crack
width to deviate substantially
along the crack mouth opening
The accuracy is in general limited
by the number of measurements

Slide

Diva-Panvel Bridge
Broken edges near the surface

will often make a crack seem
larger than it is this effect
becomes more and more
dominant in time
Temperature and load has great
influence on the crack width

India 2005/2006
Slide 10
NDT-Course


Cracks in concrete caused by:
Overloading
Shrinkage and temperature
ASR, Frost, corrosion
Cracks in masonry caused by:

Overloading
Settling of the foundation
Loss of strength (aging)
Cracks in steel caused by:
Overloading
Fatigue
Hydrogen brittleness
Corrosion (loss of capacity)

India 2005/2006
Slide 12
NDT-Course

Bridge decks, edge beams and
wing walls
Concrete in general crack free
concrete has yet to be invented!!!
Masonry arches and walls
All steel members subjected to
tension and shear

Slide 13

Obviously any cracked structure can be measured if it is visible
Measurements must be performed hands-on hence internal
or other inaccessible areas cannot be measured

India 2005/2006
Slide 14
NDT-Course

There are almost infinite application possibilities of the crack
measuring gauge and the crack detection microscope regarding
input to rehabilitation strategies
The main output for any survey including crack measurements
will in general be to estimate:
The cracks influence on the structural integrity
Crack propagation / development
Need of rehabilitation
Feasible rehabilitation techniques

Slide 15

India 2005/2006
NDT-Course
Test Planning
Diva-Panvel Bridge
Identify the general crack

pattern
Find areas suitable for making

measurements

Hypothesis
Cause of cracking
Expected size and deviation of

crack widths

Slide 17
Test Planning
Choose representative areas for

coarse measurements
Choose the critical areas for

accurate measurements
Diva-Panvel Bridge

Quantity
Often it will be optimal to make

a larger set of coarse
measurements combined with a
smaller set of accurate
measurements

India 2005/2006
Slide 18
NDT-Course
Test Planning

registrations
Make a time plan

investigation
Diva-Panvel Bridge
6. To Bring (tools)
A normal hammer
Camera
Chalk for marking

for measuring crack lengths

Slide 19

Make a sketch (table) with the cracks to be measured
A relative precise indication of the measuring point is

needed for successive measurements
Take out concrete/masonry cores in selected cracks to

calibrate the measurements for different crack widths

India 2005/2006
Slide 20
NDT-Course

Consider whether additional measurements are necessary

based on current results
10.Registration
Make a thorough visual registration

Slide 21

Planning
Execution

Hypothesis

Quantity

Calibration
10.Registration
6. To Bring (Tools)

India 2005/2006
Slide 22
NDT-Course


The reliability of the measurements is mainly dependent on:
The correct areas and number of measurements has been chosen
The inspector has been thorough doing the measurements
A calibration by drilling cores or making break ups may identify

correlations between:
Crack width and crack depth
Crack width and corrosion extent of rebars
Crack width and concrete condition/quality
(Petrographical analysis)

India 2005/2006
Slide 24
NDT-Course
Report:
Description of measuring strategy and equipment
Results - including variations
Cause of cracking (if known)
Developments in different positions

Slide 25
Appendix:
Sketch of the general crack pattern
Field sketches and all results
Photo documentation

India 2005/2006
Slide 26
NDT-Course

ASR
(Freeze-thaw)
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
X
X

India 2005/2006
Initial defects
Impulse response
Structural problems
(Air void)
(x)
ASR reactivity
(x) (x)
Cores
Damage
Break up
Impact Echo
Chloride contents

corrosion rate
Spraying indicators
Carbonation
Bond-test/Pull-off
Cover meter
Corrosion
Schmidt hammer
CAPO-test
Crack detection
Boroscope
NDTMethod
Slide 28
NDT-Course
Always bring your Crack Measuring Gauge !!!
It is useful anywhere - anytime

India 2005/2006
Slide 29
APPENDIX A20
Impulse Response (sMASH) (from NDT-course)
NDT-Course
Impulse Response
NDT - Concrete
Introduction
Impulse Response - Measuring Concept
The equipment consist of an instrumented hammer, a geophone
and a laptop
Principle: Hit and measure
On-site measurements and analysis
Delamination and deterioration of concrete
Bridge decks, beams and piers
Impulse Response - 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course
Introduction
Benefits:
Identification of good and bad
areas
needed
Estimation of what kind of repair
is needed
Slide
Slide
Agenda
6. References
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course
NDT - Concrete

A low-strain impact with an instrumented rubber tipped hammer sends stress waves through
the tested element.
The element acts in bending mode and a velocity transducer (geophone), placed adjacent to
the impact point, receives this response. Response to the impact is logged in the time
domain
Both the hammer and the velocity transducer are linked to a portable field computer with
sMASH software for data acquisition, processing and storage.
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course

The time trace of the hammer force
and the velocity transducer are
processed into frequencies using the
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT)
algorithm.
Dividing the resultant velocity
spectrum by the force spectrum then
derives the mobility and stiffness
of the structural element tested.
Mobility
Areas which react differently in

bending mode can be identified. The
difference may be due to voids,
honeycombing, deteriorated concrete,
etc.
Vo
Fo
Soft
Base
Vo
Fo m
Q
Rigid
Base
fm
Frequency
Slide
Measurements
The aim of an Impulse Response investigation is in general to make a fast
screening of a large area and locate damages
The measurements are performed within a predefined grid
Results are exported to an Excel-file where the graphs of mobility vs. frequency
are subjected to a standard analysis which is presented in five surface plots
Average Mobility
0-10
10-20
20-30
S5
S4
S3 Row
S2
S1
14
13
12
11
10
Column
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course
Measurements
Average Mobility
A parameter found by calculating
the average value of the mobility
for frequencies between 100 and
800 Hz (red line)
Average Mobility
Stiffness
Dynamic stiffness in MN/mm
derived from the mobility slope
between 0-50 Hz
Stiffness
Is in fact the inverse slope of the

initial part of the mobility curve
Slide
Measurements
Mobility Slope
Parameter defined as the slope
of the mobility curve within the
range of 100 to 800 Hz
Voids Index
Parameter found by dividing the
peak mobility with the average
mobility
Mobility x Slope
Average Mobility multiplied with
the Mobility Slope
India 2005/2006
Slide 10
NDT-Course
Measurements
Correlation between calculated parameters and actual damages
Void in
concrete
Honeycomb
in concrete
Slide 11
Measurements
Average Mobility
Average mobility from 100 to
800 Hz
Stiffness
Inverse slope from 0 to 50 Hz
Mobility Slope
Slope from 100 to 800 Hz
Voids Index
Peak divided by average mobility
Mobility x Slope
India 2005/2006
Slide 12
NDT-Course
Accuracy
Impulse Response investigations are reliable and easy to reproduce
The deeper a damage is located, the harder it is to detect
Flaws smaller than 0.25 m times 0.25 m cannot be found
The instrument is very accurate and factors such as how the hammer hits the surface or
flaws in the surface makes the uncertainties of the instrument insignificant
The greatest source of uncertainty is the blow with the hammer
Concrete Bridge Deck
Undetectable flaw
Detectable flaws
0.5 m
Slide 13
Accuracy
It is always necessary to make an on-site calibration of the measurements
The calibration establishes the connection between the measured relative differences and the
actual variation of the condition
Hence the precision of an investigation is found and documented by the calibration
Test experience increases the precision considerably
Average Mobility
0-10
10-20
20-30
S5
S4
Core 3
Core 1
Core 2
S3 Row
S2
S1
14
13
12
11
10
Column
India 2005/2006
Slide 14
NDT-Course

Stiffness, geometry and support
conditions
Example:
Systematic variation of stiffness
Caused by support conditions
and geometry
Wing
s1
s2
s3
s4
Part of
box
girder
s5
Slide 15
NDT - Concrete
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course

Delaminations
Caused by ASR, Corrosion etc.
Voids
Often seen beneath
reinforcement with too little
spacing
Honeycombs and Poor

Consolidation of concrete
E.g. near reinforcement
Damages due to Overloading

Could be from accidents such as
a derailed train or a ship collision
Slide 17

Concrete Bridges
Deck, girder , etc.
Pavement on Bridges
Floor Slabs and Walls
Pile Integrity
Cylindrical Structures
Silos, Tanks, Chimneys
Cladding on Buildings
India 2005/2006
Slide 18
NDT-Course

Concrete Bridges
Deck, girder , etc.
Pavement on Bridges
Pile Integrity
Slide 19

Concrete Bridges
Deck, girder , etc.
Pavement on Bridges
Pile Integrity
India 2005/2006
Slide 20
NDT-Course

Concrete Bridges
Deck, girder , etc.
Pavement on Bridges
Pile Integrity
Slide 21

Any part of a structure where a correlation between damage and
response to an impact is thinkable can be tested
A sound way of estimating such a correlation is by looking at
changes in stiffness caused by the damages
Very rough surfaces cannot be tested the surface must be
smooth enough for the hammer to make reproducible impacts
Go / no-go factors
Expected flaw size
Expected flaw depth
Expected dynamical performance
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
NDT-Course
Case 1: Aalborg
5 Span Prestressed Concrete
Bridge
Butterfly Cross Section
Prestressed in the Longitudinal
Direction
Severe Deterioration due to ASR
Set to Demolition in September
2005 because the Underpass is to
be widened
Slide 23
Case 1: Aalborg
5 Span Prestressed Concrete
Bridge
Butterfly Cross Section
Prestressed in the Longitudinal
Direction
Severe Deterioration due to ASR
Set to Demolition in September
2005 because the Underpass is to
be widened
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
NDT-Course
Case 1: Aalborg
Photo taken on a rainy day
Water is coming through the
bridge deck
Coarse cracks are also present
where the concrete is wet on the
under side
Slide 25
Case 1: Aalborg
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
NDT-Course
Case 1: Aalborg
Visible damages due to ASR:
Extensive cracking
White precipitation and stalactites
Water is coming through the deck
Damages are limited to the wing
only
Slide 27
Case 1: Aalborg
India 2005/2006
Slide 28
NDT-Course
Case 1: Aalborg
Slide 29
Case 1: Aalborg
Results
Measurements conducted
every 4 m along the entire
bridge
8 measurements across
Average Mobility inserted
on sketch
India 2005/2006
Slide 30
NDT-Course
Case 1: Aalborg
Delaminated Concrete
Intact Concrete
Local Damage
Slide 31
Case 2: The Great Belt Link

East Bridge, a 6,790 m long
suspension bridge
West bridge, a 6,611 m long
combined rail and road bridge
An 8,000 m long immersed rail
tunnel
India 2005/2006
Slide 32
NDT-Course

Ship collision on the West Bridge
Upper picture: Ship prior to
collision
Lower picture: Ship after the
collision
The front crane is broken
Slide 33

The front crane of the ship
collided with the southern
cantilever wing
The impact was in an upward
direction as indicated
The damage was visible both on
soffit and top side
India 2005/2006
Slide 34
NDT-Course
Slide 35
India 2005/2006
Slide 36
NDT-Course

Investigations were conducted both on the under and the top side of the
cantilever wing
Impulse Response was used to identify the extend of the damage
Cores were drilled for calibration
Average Mobility
0-10 10-20 20-30
S5
S4
Core 3
Core 1
Core 2
S3 Row
S2
S1
14
13
12
11
10
Column
Slide 37
S5
S4
Core 3
Core 1
Core 2
S3 Row
S2
S1
14
13
12
11
10
Column
India 2005/2006
Slide 38
NDT-Course

Impulse Response and visual
inspections was used to create a
damage assessment
The assessment was used to
make a calculation of the capacity
A repair project was made and
has been executed
Slide 39

India 2005/2006
Slide 40
NDT-Course
NDT - Concrete
Test Planning
Focus on visible damages and
Practical hindrances
Accessibility

Hypothesis
Thorough investigation of
background material
Identification of critical
elements
Expected damages
India 2005/2006
Slide 42
NDT-Course
Test Planning
Include intact and damaged

areas in each test-grid
Choose representative grids
Consider possible
uncertainties/errors from
geometry etc.

Quantity
Flaw size
Slide 43
Test Planning

registrations
Make a time plan

investigation
6. To Bring (tools)
A normal hammer
Camera
Chalk for marking the grids
Equipment for core drilling
India 2005/2006
Slide 44
NDT-Course
Test Planning

registrations
Make a time plan

investigation
6. To Bring (tools)
A normal hammer
Camera
Slide 45


Mark up test grid
Measure
Create Excel-plots and view the

results
Make a swift visual registration

/ survey of the test grid, use
also a normal hammer
Mark up where cores should be

drilled for on-site calibration
India 2005/2006
Slide 46
NDT-Course

Calibration
Examine cores and core holes
Evaluate actual vs. expected

condition of the cores
Does the results match with the

hypothesis?!

must be taken (e.g. extra
cores)
10.Registration

registration, geometry, cores
etc.
Slide 47

Planning
Execution

Hypothesis

Quantity

Calibration
10.Registration
6. To Bring (tools)
India 2005/2006
Slide 48
NDT-Course
NDT - Concrete

Establish correlation between
measurements and calibration
Selection of parameters to be
used for interpretation: Average
Mobility, Voids Index etc.
Error: Not
deteriorated
concrete but two
construction joints
Find out whether the degree of

damage is detectable
Estimate how representative the
measurements are for the whole
element / structure
India 2005/2006
Slide 50
NDT-Course
The areas which are found to be

damaged are pointed out
If possible the damaged areas

are subdivided by the type of
repair which is found to be
necessary, e.g.:
Damaged
Areas
1. Shallow removal and repair of

concrete cover (cheap)
2. Removal and repair of concrete
to a depth behind the
reinforcement (expensive)
Slide 51
Report:
Background for making the investigation
Result evaluation/evaluation of hypothesis
Estimate of the reliability of the investigation
Description of needed rehabilitation
India 2005/2006
Slide 52
NDT-Course
Appendix:
We are dealing with a complex method an
introduction to the method should therefore
always be made
Registration of position and geometry
Gives the reader an overview of exactly where
there measurements has been made
If successive measurements are expected
thorough registrations are necessary for
Slide 53
Appendix:
We are dealing with a complex method an
introduction to the method should therefore
always be made
Gives the reader an overview of exactly where
there measurements has been made
If successive measurements are expected
thorough registrations are necessary for
India 2005/2006
Slide 54
NDT-Course
Appendix:
These are equally important and should be
presented accordingly
Often it is a good idea to make a separate
appendix with registration of concrete cores

Good and bad areas
Slide 55
Application Summary
NDT - Concrete
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course
Application Summary Concrete bridges
(x) (x)
Structural problems
Initial defects
ASR
(Freeze-thaw)
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
X
X
Cores
(Air void)
ASR reactivity
X
X
Break up
Damage
Impact Echo
Carbonation
Impulse response
Chloride contents
Corrosion

corrosion rate
Spraying indicators
Cover meter
Bond-test/Pull-off
CAPO-test
Boroscope
Schmidt hammer
Crack detection
NDTMethod
Slide 57
Structural problems
Initial defects
ASR
(Freeze-thaw)
(Air void)
ASR reactivity
(x) (x)
X
X
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
X
X
India 2005/2006
Cores
X
X
Break up
Damage
Impulse response
Carbonation
Impact Echo
Chloride contents
Corrosion

corrosion rate
Spraying indicators
Cover meter
Bond-test/Pull-off
CAPO-test
Boroscope
Schmidt hammer
Crack detection
NDTMethod
Slide 58
NDT-Course
References
Davis, A.G. : The non-destructive impulse response test in
North America: 1985-2001, NDT & E International 36 (2003),
185-193, Elsevier Science Ltd.
Ottosen, N.S, Ristinmaa, M & Davis, A.G, : Theoretical
interpretation of impulse response test of embedded concrete
structures, Div. of Solid Mechanics, Lund University, Lund,
Sweden (to be published in ASCE).
India 2005/2006
Slide 59
APPENDIX A21
Impact-Echo (from NDT-course)
NDT-Course
Impact Echo
NDT - Concrete
Introduction
Impact Echo - Measuring Concept
The equipment consist of a Transducer (Receiver), a steel ball
(Impactor) and a laptop
Principle: hit and measure
On-site measurements and analysis
Delamination and deterioration of concrete
Bridge decks, beams and piers
Impact Echo - 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course
Introduction
Benefits:
Qualitative measurements
needed
Estimation of what kind of repair
is needed
Slide
Slide
Agenda
6. References
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course
Impact Echo

The Impact Echo equipment
consist of:
Displacement transducers for
measuring surface movements
Arrangement with different sizes
of steel balls (impactors) for
making the impact
A laptop with custom made
signal amplifier and software
The transducer is linked to the

laptop with Impact-Echo software
for data acquisition, processing
and storage.
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course

A short-duration stress pulse is introduced into
the test element by mechanical impact
Three types of stress waves are generated:
P-wave (spherical wavefront waves)
S-wave (spherical wavefront waves)
R-wave (surface wave)
The P-wave will, when reaching a material with

another acoustic impedance be reflected and
return to the surface.
A sensitive displacement transducer picks up
the successive arrival of the P-wave to the
surface.
Slide

A. Mechanical impulse on the surface
B. Measuring of the surface movement
C. Frequency analysis of surface movement

D. Evaluation
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course
Measurements
The aim of an Impact-Echo
investigation is in general to make
a fast screening of a large area
and locate position and depth of
flaws and damages
The measurements are performed
within a predefined grid
Results are stored, analyzed and
presented on the laptop.
Slide
Measurements
The red cursor/line indicate the
peak frequency from which a
depth is calculated
The blue cursor indicate a
predefined depth (used for fast
overview of location of the flaw /
defect)
India 2005/2006
Slide 10
NDT-Course
Accuracy
Two reflections
One reflection
No reflection the distance

between surface and flaw is
to small
Slide 11
Accuracy
The deeper a damage is located, the larger it must be to be detected
The surface of the tested media must be fairly smooth in order to avoid distortion
of the waves
The instrument is very accurate and factors such as how the steel ball hits the
surface or flaws in the surface makes the uncertainties of the instrument
insignificant
Concrete Bridge Deck
Undetectable flaw
Detectable flaws
India 2005/2006
0.5 m
Slide 12
NDT-Course
Accuracy
The limits of depth and size of flaws which can be detected are given by the
wavelength of the impact wave
The wavelength is primarily governed by the size of the steel ball used for the
impact
A relation between flaw size/depth and size of the steel ball has been
established:
Slide 13
Accuracy
It is always necessary to make an on-site calibration
of the measurements
The calibration should validate the used wave speed
and interpretation of the signal
Hence the accuracy of an investigation is found and
documented by the calibration
Test experience increases the accuracy
India 2005/2006
Slide 14
NDT-Course

Heterogeneous materials can
cause strongly distorted signals
Humidity will often alter the wave
speed in the material
Slide 15
Impact Echo
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course

Delaminations
Caused by ASR, Corrosion etc.
Voids
Often seen beneath
reinforcement with too little
spacing
Honeycombs and Poor

Consolidation of concrete
E.g. near reinforcement
Geometry
Slide 17

Concrete Bridges
Deck, girder, pier etc.
Pavement on Bridges
Silos, Tanks, Chimney
India 2005/2006
Slide 18
NDT-Course

Any part of a structure which has a sizeable flaw of defect
parallel to the surface
Very rough surfaces cannot be tested the surface must be
smooth enough for the steel ball to make reproducible impacts
Go / no-go factors
Surface roughness
Expected flaw size
Expected flaw depth
Slide 19
Case 1: Road surface/Water proofing

Concrete bridge: Special
inspection of pavement and water
proofing.
Large area - 18.000 m2
Much traffic - 50.000 cars pr.
day.
Time restriction Traffic
restriction only allowed between
hours 9 am and 3 pm
India 2005/2006
Slide 20
NDT-Course

Determinations of the velocity of
propagation in the road surface.
Velocity found to be
~ 3400 m/s
Slide 21

Assessments of:
- delaminations
- internal voids
- crushed layers
- slip
from the Impact-Echo signal
Concrete cores to calibrate the
measurements
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
NDT-Course
Case 2: Delaminations in concrete

Concrete bridge from 1917.
Railway bridge.
Any delaminations will cause
problems with stability in the
middle section of the arch
Slide 23

The top part of the intrados of the
arc was selected as test area
0,5 m between points in the
length
5 concrete cores to calibrate the
measurements in good and bad
areas
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
NDT-Course

A 9 mm steel ball was used this
enabled detection of flaws in
depths between 70 and 600 mm
The arc thickness in the top is 400
mm and in the bottom 1000 mm
In the top the measurements
showed a thickness of 400 mm
The wave speed is set to 3500
m/s
Slide 25

In the lower sections
measurements showed a
delamination in a depth
of 150 mm
This was validated by a concrete
core
Note that smaller cracks and
delamination create noise
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
NDT-Course

The measurement shows
delaminating in 1 - 1,5 m from
north and south arch face.
In the middle 8 m the
measurements showed no
delaminations
Slide 27

Qualitative investigation of flaws / geometry
India 2005/2006
Slide 28
NDT-Course
Impact Echo
Test Planning
Focus on visible damages and
Practical hindrances
Accessibility

Hypothesis
Thorough investigation of
background material
Identification of critical elements
Expected damages
type
size and depth
India 2005/2006
Slide 30
NDT-Course
Test Planning
Include non-damaged and

damaged areas in each testgrid
Choose representative grids
Consider possible
uncertainties/errors from edges
or surface conditions

Quantity
Expected extend of flaws
Expected variation
Slide 31
Test Planning

registrations
Make a time plan

investigation
6. To Bring (tools)
A normal hammer
Camera
India 2005/2006
Slide 32
NDT-Course


Mark up the test grid
View all the results and find

signals indicating damage
Make a swift visual registration

/ survey of the test grid, use
also a normal hammer
Mark up where cores should be

drilled for on-site calibration
Slide 33

Calibration
Examine cores and core holes
Evaluate actual vs. expected

condition of the cores
Do the results match with the

hypothesis?!

must be taken (e.g. extra
cores)
10.Registration

registration, geometry, cores
etc.
India 2005/2006
Slide 34
NDT-Course

Planning
Execution

Hypothesis

Quantity

Calibration
10.Registration
6. To Bring (tools)
Slide 35
Impact Echo
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course

Establish correlation between
measurements and calibration
Wave speed, depths etc.
Identify signals from geometry

and flaws
Estimate how representative the
measurements are for the whole
element / structure. This is
essential as we are dealing with
a point test
Slide 37
The areas which are found to be

damaged are pointed out
If possible the damaged areas

are subdivided by the type of
repair which is found to be
necessary, e.g.:
1. Shallow removal and repair of
concrete cover (cheap)
2. Removal and repair of concrete
to a depth behind the
reinforcement (expensive)
India 2005/2006
Slide 38
NDT-Course
Report:
Background for making the investigation
Result evaluation/evaluation of hypothesis
Estimate of the reliability of the investigation
Description of needed rehabilitation
Slide 39
Appendix:
We are dealing with a complex method an introduction
to the method should therefore always be made
Gives the reader an overview of exactly where the
measurements has been made
If successive measurements are expected thorough
registrations are necessary for comparison of results
India 2005/2006
Slide 40
NDT-Course
Appendix:
These are equally important and should be presented
accordingly
Often it is a good idea to make a separate appendix with
registration of concrete cores

Good and bad areas
Slide 41
Application Summary
Impact Echo
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course
Structural problems
Initial defects
ASR
(Freeze-thaw)
(Air void)
ASR reactivity
(x) (x)
X
X
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
X
X
Cores
X
X
Break up
Damage
Impulse response
Carbonation
Impact Echo
Chloride contents
Corrosion

corrosion rate
Spraying indicators
Cover meter
Bond-test/Pull-off
CAPO-test
Boroscope
Schmidt hammer
Crack detection
NDTMethod
Slide 43
Structural problems
Initial defects
ASR
(Freeze-thaw)
(Air void)
ASR reactivity
(x) (x)
X
X
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
X
X
India 2005/2006
Cores
X
X
Break up
Damage
Impulse response
Carbonation
Impact Echo
Chloride contents
Corrosion

corrosion rate
Spraying indicators
Cover meter
Bond-test/Pull-off
CAPO-test
Boroscope
Schmidt hammer
Crack detection
NDTMethod
Slide 44
NDT-Course
References
India 2005/2006
Slide 45
APPENDIX A22
Half Cell Potential Measurements (from NDT-course)
NDT-Course
Half-cell potential
NDT - Concrete
Introduction
Overview of recent corrosion activity
Half-cell potential - 21 February, 2006
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course
Introduction
Typical application:
Pitting corrosion
Uniform corrosion
Slide
Slide
Agenda
6. References
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course
Method

Instrument:
Half cell (Copper rod in a container
filled with Copper sulphate and
having a porous plug)
Voltmeter
Reinforcement contact
Measuremet:
Voltage between reinforcement and
electrode
India 2005/2006
Slide
NDT-Course
Potential measurement, theory

A steel rod placed in water will start to dissolve. The process will be
reduced by the increasing electrical difference, and eventually stop.
Fe
Fe++ + 2e-
Slide

A less noble metal like zinc will also dissolve in Water, but the process will
continue much longer than for the steel rod, and much stronger electrical
differences will be created.
Fe
Fe++ + 2e-
Zn
India 2005/2006
Zn++ + 2e-
Slide
NDT-Course
If the 2 metal rods are connected an electrical voltage can be

measured. This is the difference in potential between the 2 metals.
Slide
Measurements
Metal in stable
solution will have a
stable potential
Concrete environment surrounding

the reinforcements affects the
potential
Reinforcement in concrete
Porous plug
India 2005/2006
Half cell (Zn-cell)

Slide 10
NDT-Course
Corrosion potentials, EKP-measurement

Potential criterion: quality of passive layer on the reinforcement surface
Potential
+ (Noble)
Less noble -
Potential: quality of passive layer on the reinforcement surface
Au
Ag
Reinforcement in
good concrete
(passivation)
Cu
Pb
Fe
Zn
Al
Reinforcement in
poor concrete
Slide 11
Simple interpretation of results

Potential evaluation (ASTM
C876)
If the potential is more

positive then -200 mV
the risk of corrosion is
less than 10%.
If the potential is more

negative then -350 mV
the risk of corrosion is
more than 90%.
Conclusion:
Poor correlation
India 2005/2006
Slide 12
NDT-Course
Half-cell potential, theory

Refined interpretation of results
2
Oxygen access affects critical

potential level, and oxygen
access must be evaluated.
This is done from concrete
resistance.
Conclusion:
Resistance must be evaluated
Slide 13
Corrosion evaluation, resistance
Corrosion involves current through concrete
Long vs. Short distance through concrete
Corrosion form is mainly controlled by concrete resistance:

- Very high resistance prevents corrosion
- Low resistance increases risk of macro cell corrosion
- Low resistance reduces potentials in general
Conclusion: Resistance must be evaluated

India 2005/2006
Slide 14
NDT-Course

Principe: Potential gradient from fixed current
Pros: Independent of contact resistance
Cons: Errors from reinforcement, time consuming
Slide 15

Practice: AC-resistance
between reference cell and
reinforcement, parallel to
potential measurement.
Pros: Fast and direct connected
to potential mapping
Cons: Errors from contact
resistance
Conclusion:
Potential and resistance is
measured simultaneously.
India 2005/2006
Slide 16
NDT-Course
Aim of measurements
Measurements of potential and resistance is used for:
- Determination of actual condition
- Determination of future condition development
- Estimation of corrosion cause
- Estimation of corrosion problems (structural
damage, spalling)
These results are used for:
- Evaluation of recent and future need for
repair/corrosion prevention
- Estimation of cost and methods for repair/corrosion
prevention.
Slide 17
Accuracy
Accuracy:
- Location of corroding area approx. 10-20 cm
- Potentials, approx. 20 mV from measurement, much more from seasonal
changes.
- Resistance, approx. 50%
Note:
On areas with very sharp gradients, small changes in the location of the
measuring point can have high influence on the results.
India 2005/2006
Slide 18
NDT-Course

The potentials are greatly
influenced by:
- Moisture content
- Concrete resistance
- Concrete cover
- Chloride content
The potentials are to a much
smaller degree influenced by
carbonation.
Slide 19
Method
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course

The results are used for evaluation
of corrosion from:
Deep carbonation
General chloride ingress
Local chloride ingress (cracks, pile
base)
Water leaks through cracks
Slide 21

The method is usually used for
evaluation of corrosion problems in:
Bridges: decks, columns, facades
Tunnels: Inside surface
Parking decks
Housing: facades, balconies
India 2005/2006
Slide 22
NDT-Course

Apart from the usual applications the method can to some degree
be used for evaluation of corrosion problems in:
- Masonry and stone constructions
- Underwater constructions
- Constructions covered with soil
Further more the method can be used for evaluation of cathodic
protection in constructions surrounded by air, water and soil.
The method can be used for evaluation of problems from stray
current.
Slide 23

The method has several limitations:
- Reinforcement should have electrical continuity
- The surface should be free of electrical isolating surface
treatment
- Potentials will only come from the reinforcement close to the
electrode
- Corroding areas with small concrete cover are often not detected
- Corroding areas without contact to the concrete will not be
detected.
India 2005/2006
Slide 24
NDT-Course
Case 1: Soderledstunnel, Stockholm, Sweden

1.5 km concrete tunnel
Spalling due to
carbonation and small
concrete cover
Corrosion due to
chloride ingress and
moderate concrete cover
Slide 25
Case 1: Soderledstunnel, Stockholm, Sweden
Carbonation
Chloride
No corrosion
India 2005/2006
Slide 26
NDT-Course
Case 2, Shell Parking house, Denmark

- Optimal location for breake ups
- Evaluation of overall area of damage
Slide 27
Case 3, access balcony, Copenhagen, Denmark

Evaluation of the effect of stopping water leakage
Before
1 year after
India 2005/2006
3 years after
Slide 28
NDT-Course
Case 4, Great Belt Bridge, Denmark

Inspection of
cathodic
protection from
water anodes
Slide 29
Case 4, Great Belt Bridge, Denmark

Protection criteria: Potential lower than -850 mV
All underwater areas protected.
India 2005/2006
Slide 30
NDT-Course
Expected input to maintenance strategies

Were is the corrosion
How much corrosion there is
Size of the areas with corrosion
What type of damage (structural damage, spalling)
Is a repair necessary
What type of repair
Time before the repair must be done
Area of the repair
Slide 31
Half cell potential
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course
Test Planning
-
General environmental impact

General concrete quality
Corrosion signs
Deviant environmental impact
Deviant concrete quality
2. Forecast of Results
Creating a Hypothesis
Slide 33
Test Planning
- How critical are the damage
(safety, economical)
- Magnitude of variations
4. Estimating the Appropriate

Test Quantity
- Sharp gradients
- Low resistance
Close spacing
Close spacing
India 2005/2006
Slide 34
NDT-Course
Test Planning
Practical Preparations
-
Mark measuring grid

Make 2 reinforcement contact
points
Calibration brake-ups
Access of water and electrode
To Bring (tools)
Slide 35
Test Planning
To Bring (tools)
Measurement unit
Measurement device
Cables
Contact to reinforcement
Jack hammer
Repairer equipment and
material
Generator
Cover meter (metal detector)
India 2005/2006
Slide 36
NDT-Course

-
Visual registration of corrosion signs

2 reinforcement contact points
Measure the resistance between the 2
points
Mark measuring grid with sufficient
accuracy
Calibrate instrument
Wetting the measure points
Conduct measurement
Control results during execution
Dynamic adjustment of measure-point
spacing (gradients, resistance)
Slide 37

-
Brake-ups
Chlorides
Carbonation
Concrete cover
Select calibration points at:

-
Most corroding areas (serious

damage?)
Typical areas (general condition)
Not corroding areas (control of
Hypothesis
India 2005/2006
Slide 38
NDT-Course
Potential measurement, calibration

Remember:
Check the
apparently
undamaged
areas
Slide 39

Direct
Colured
plot
(potential)
Calculated
corrosion
risk
(potential
and
gradient)
India 2005/2006
Slide 40
NDT-Course
Interpretation of results
Potentials
Potential
gradients
Resistance
Calibrating
brake-ups
Experience
Supplementary
measurements
chlorides,
carbonation
Visual
damange
Experience
Interpretation
Slide 41

Planning
Execution

Hypothesis

Quantity

Calibration
8. Interpretation
India 2005/2006
Slide 42
NDT-Course
Method

Potentials have no direct
connection to corrosion rate
Potentials have no direct
connection to corrosion history
Numerous factors influence the
potentials and the influence can
only be estimated.
Calibration by direct inspection is

vital and experience is necessary
India 2005/2006
Slide 44
NDT-Course
Sharp gradients, low resistance:
chloride initiated corrosion, risk of
cross-section reduction
General:
Damage identification is
difficult and supplementary
measurements are usually
necessary.
Low gradients, high
resistance: carbonation
initiated corrosion, risk
of spalling
Slide 45
Report:
General conclusions
Eventually illustrative plots
India 2005/2006
Slide 46
NDT-Course
Appendix:
-
Measured potentials and resistance

Measuring grid
Calibrating brake-ups
Relevant metrological data
Slide 47
Method
India 2005/2006
NDT-Course
(x) (x)
(x)
Carbonation
Structural problems
Initial defects
ASR
(Freeze-thaw)
(x)
(x)
(x)
(x)
X
X
India 2005/2006
(Air void)
ASR reactivity
Impulse response
Corrosion
Cores
Damage
Break up
Impact Echo
Chloride contents

corrosion rate
Spraying indicators
Bond-test/Pull-off
Cover meter
CAPO-test
Schmidt hammer
Crack detection
Boroscope
NDTMethod
Slide 49
APPENDIX B
Underwater Inspection of Bridges, Federal Highway
Administration, (FHWA-DP-80-1)
UNDERWATER
INSPECTION OF
BRIDGES
t3c/
U.S. Depadment
of Transportation
Federal Highway
Administration
MMONSTRATlON
Dlvlsloc(
PROJECTS
FEDERAL
HIGHWAY
AWlNlSTRATiON
400 TrH STRER,
SW.
WASHINGTON,
D.C. 20590
REPORT
NO.
FHWA-DP-8&1
FINAL REPORT
NOVEMBER,
1989
Underwater
Inspection
Report No. FHWA-DP-80-1
Prepared by
Collins Engineers, Inc.
165 N. Canal St.
Chicago, Illinois 60606
Prepared for
U.S. Department of Transportation
Washington, D.C. 20590
November, 1989
of Bridges
Underwater
A,.k-0
Inspection
of Bridges
( 6.
Thomas J. Collins, Richard J. Jarmakowicz,

9
Pc*iornrn9
O,jon~rpt~on
Name
12
Sponsor,ng
Apcncy
Name
10.
Work
11.
Contract
13
and Address
and Addr*r*

Demonstration Projects Division
400 7th Street, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20590
;
;.
15
5upplemenlpry
16.
198s
organ~ration
Code
14.
Un!t
No.
ITRAIS)
oc Gfon* No.
DTFH71-68-C-0023
YP~
of
Report
and Parsod
Cpv.r.d
Final Repon
November, 1989
-
S~onror~~9
HHO-40
Apency
Code
NO~CS
Project Manager:
PWfOrm~ng
FHWA-DP-80
Michael J. Ganich
Collins Engineers, Inc.

165 N. Canal Street
Chicago, IL 60606
I
/
I
November,
Dennis Decker (HHO-43)
Abstract
To ensure public safety and to protect the capital investment in bridges over water, underwater members
must be inspected to the extent necessary to determine their structural condition with certainty. Underwater
inspections must also include the streambed.
In shallow water, underwater
inspections
may be
accomplished visually or tactilely from above the water surface; in deep water, however, inspections will
generally require diving or other appropriate techniques to determine conditions.
Underwater diving,
inspection, and documentation
equipment has improved in quality in recent years, and the underwater
inspector has a wide range of equipment and techniques available to him.
The purpose of this manual is to provide guidelines for underwater bridge inspection; acquaint those
responsible for bridge safety with underwater inspection techniques and equipment: and briefly present
methods of repair for commonly found defects.
It should be of interest to bridge and maintenance
engineers, technicians and inspectors. This manual is a stand alone supplement to the Bridge Inspectors
Training Manual and was prepared in accordance with its procedures and rating systems.
II
17.
K .y Words
18.
Bridge inspection,
inspection scour
19.
Security
Ciors,f.
(of
th,r
Unclassified
form DOT F 1700.7
D,rtr~button
(a-72)
Stptwneot
This document is avai:dble to the U.S.

public through the National Technical
Information Service; Springfield,
Virginia 22161
underwater
report)
10.
.:
Reproduction
Sm~t~t~
Clo,saf.
Unclassified
of
complotod
(of
thtr
peg.)
pop0
outhoritod
21. No.
of Ppje8
22.
Prtc*
PREFACE
The bridge structures of today reflect technological advances in design, and construction that have evolved
over the years. Nevenheless, these advances havenot precluded unfortunate and, in some instances, tragic
occurrences.
The collapse ofthe Silver 8ridge in 1967, aroused increased interest in the inspection and
maintenance of bridges and prompted the United States Congress to add a section to the Federal-Aid
Highway Act of 1968 requiring the Secretary of Transportation to establish a national bridge inspection
standard and to develop a program to train bridge inspectors.
In April 1985, the collapse of the U.S. Route 43 Bridge over Chickasawbogue
Creek near Mobile, Alabama
prompted the Chief of the Bridge Division of the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) to issue a
memorandum
to FHWA regional offices stressing the importance of underwater inspection, and ordering
steps to ensure that each state has a well-founded underwater inspection program.
The tragic collapse of the New York State Thruway Bridge over Schoharie Creek in April, 1987 in which ten
persons died and the U.S. Route51 Bridge over the Hatchie River near Covington, Tennessee in April, 1989
in which eight persons died again illustrate the critical importance not only of underwater investigations but
also appropriate correction of deficiencies discovered.
In October 1988, revisions to the National Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) became effective which,
among other stipulations, mandate that a master list be developed of all bridges which require underwater
inspection; that procedures be determined for the underwater inspections, and that the frequency of
inspection for each bridge, not to exceed five years, be determined.
In 1988, to assist bridge owners in
complying with these new requirements, FHWA issued two Technical Advisories, Revisions to the National
Bridge Inspection Standards (NBIS) and Scour at Bridges, which included guidelines for underwater
inspections and scour investigations. The procedures in the FHWA Technical Advisories are not regulatory
or policy but rather the best FHWA technical advice.
This manual was prepared as part of the FHWAs Demonstration Project 80, Bridge Inspection Techniques
and Equipment, which included presentation
of a 2-l/2 day course for state highway organizations
throughout the country. Many organizations and individuals have contributed photographs, slides, and other
graphic materials which have been used in the class presentation and this manual; many others have-offered
suggestions for both the course and the manual. Their assistance is acknowledged
and appreciated.
Although it is intended that this manual reflect current NBIS requirements at the time of its publication, it may
not in all instances reflect current FHWA interpretation of underwater inspection requirements.
Readers are
urged.to refer to the NBIS and the American Association of State Highway Transportation (AASHTO) Manual
for the Maintenance Inspection of Bridges.
To facilitate use of this manual and in the interest of clarity and brevity, single-gender
He is to be read as he or she and so on.
pronouns
are used.
..
METRIC (SI*) CONVERSION

APPROXIMATE
CONVERSIONS
Yul6ply
WhmYouKnow
ey
FACTORS
TO SI UNITS
lo
Fhd
APPROXIMATE
Whw
SY-
You
CONVERSIONS
Yultlply
Know
LENGTH
In
fl
Inchmr
1001
yMl0
mller
Yd
ml
2.54
0.3048
0.914
1.61
quaro
square
qimre
quart
acre0
H
Y@
ml
ac
5.
Inches
1001
yardr
ml100
mllllmolrer
metros
metrsr
kll~Olf0~
mm
m
m
km
ouncw
pounds
whorl Ions
lb
1
mllllmatres
rquarad
melrer
squared
metror
squared
kllometreo
o&red
hectare8
845.2
0.0928
0.636
2.58
0.395
(2000
mm
m8
rn*
km*
ha
28.35
0.454
lb) 0.907
gr8ma
kIlograma
megagramr
0
kQ
MO
VOLUME
28.57
3.785
0.0328
0.0705
fluld ouncoo
gallono
cubic
foot
cubic
yardr
NOTE:
Vdumor
than
grealu
loo0
mlllllllrer
Illres
malroo
cubed
mstrea, cubed
L shall
be rhown
TEMPERATURE
-F
Fahronhell
temperature
St la the symbol
for tho
S/S (after
subtracllng
Internallonal
To Find
mm
m
m
km
mllllmetrss
metros
metros
kllometres
0 039
3 28
1.09
0.821
lnchse
Ieel
yards
mllss
AREA
MASS (welcrht)
02
By
LENGTH
AREA
II-P
TO SI UNITS
32)
Syrtem
mL
L
rn
rn
mm
ml
km
ha
mllllmstrer
squared
metros
squared
kllometres
squared
hectoras
(10 Ooo rn9
0.0016
10.764
0.39
2.53
square
square
square
acres
Inches
toot
mller
MASS (weight)
Qrams
kllwrrms
magagramr
0
kg
WJ
(1 Ooo kQ)
0.0353
2.205
1.103
our8co5
pounds
short tons
01
lb
T
VOLUME
mL
L
m*
m*
mlllllltres
ll1res
melros
cubed
melrea
cubed
0.034
0264
35.315
1.308
TEMPERATURE
oc
In rn.
celalul
temper&us
915 (then
add 32)
fluld ounces
gallons
cubic
feet
cubic
yard8
(exact)
Fahrenhell
lemperature
(exact)
celrlur
lemperaturo
ot Mearurementr
oc
Theso
faclora
conlorm
to Ihe requlremont
of FHWA
Order
5tW
IA
CHAPTER I
Section 1.
Section 2.
ESTABLISHINbAN
UNDERWATER INSPECTION PROGRAM .......
identification of Bridges For Underwater Inspections.. ................
Underwater inspection.. ......................................................................
CHAPTER II
Section 1.
Section 2.
Section 3.
THE UNDERWATER INSPECTOR .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. . .. ..

Introduction .........................................................................................
Safety.. .................................................................................................
Management of Diving Personnel.. ....................................................
7
7
9
10
CHAPTER III
Section I.
Section 2.
Section 3.
IDENTIFICATION OF UNDERWATER STRUCTURAL DEFECTS ....

Introduction .... 1.....................................................................................
Types of Substructures Located in Water.. .......................................
Deterioration of Structural Materials.. ................................................
1.1
CHAPTER IV
Section 1.
Section 2.
Section 3.
Section 4.
Section 5.
UNDERWATER INSPECTION EQUIPMENT.. .....................................

The Divers Environment.. ...................................................................
Modes of Diving.. ................................................................................
Divers Equipment.. ..............................................................................
inspection Tools.. ...............................................................................
Underwater Photography and Video Equipment.. ............................
27
27
28
30
.33
34
CHAPTER V
Section I.
Section 2.
Section 3.
Section 4.
UNDERWATER INSPECTION TECHNIQUES.. .................................

Preparation and Safety.. .....................................................................
Inspection.. ..........................................................................................
Special Testing, Level III Examination.. .............................................
Documentation.. ..................................................................................
41
41
42
43
46
CHAPTER VI
Section 1.
Section 2.
Section 3.
Section 4.
Section 5.
Section 6.
Section 7.
SCOUR INVESTIGATIONS.. ................................................................

Background.. .......................................................................................
Baisc Concepts and Definitions of Scour.. .......................................
Evaluating the Vulnerability of Existing Bridges to Scour.. ..............
Scour Inspections.. ..........................................................
.:. ................
Soundings.. ......................... .................................................................
Diver inspection.. ............................................
, ...................................
Geophysical inspection.. ..................................................
..................
49
49
49
53
55
59
61
62
CHAPTER VII
Section 1.
Section 2. ~
Section 3.
Section 4.
REPAIR OF UNDERWATER MEMBERS ............................................

Introduction.. .......................................................................................
Concrete.. ............................................................................................
Steel.. ...................................................................................................
Timber.. .............................................
...................................................
67
67
67
70
72
CHAPTER Vlll
Section 1.
Section 2.
Section 3.
Section 4.
Section 5.
Section
Sectior
MANAGEMENT OF UNDERWATER CONTRACTS.. .........................

Introduction.. .......................................................................................
Scope of Work ....................................................................................
Qualifications of Inspection Personnel.. ............................................
Insurance Requirements.. ...................................................................
Scheduling. ............................................................................................
Report Forms.. .....................................................................................
Requirements for Proposal Submittal ..:. ............................................
73
73
vii
1
1
3
11
11
16
5;
77
78
79
79
TABLE
Section
sec:;on
Secticn
Section
8.
9.
10.
1 1.
CHAPTER IX
Section 1.
Section 2.
OF CONTENTS
(Continued)
Special Requirements.. .......................................................................

Quality Control of Underwater Inspections.. .....................................
Contractor Monitoring and Coordination ..........................................
73
81
82
83
INSPECTION REPORTS.. ...................................................................

.I ..........................
Introduction.. ...........................................................
Recording Jnspection Notes.. ............................................................
85
85
85
Contractor
Selection.. ..........................................................................
Appendix
Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Diving Standards...... .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . ... . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . ..
91
Sample Scope of Work .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .
97
Bibliography .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. .. . .. .. .. ..
101
Glossary.. ............................................................................................
103
Index ....................................................................................................
113
.. .
VIII
CHAPTER
~. ESTABldSHlNG
AN
UNDERWATER INSPECTION PROGRAM
SECTION
l-l.1
1. IDENTIFICATION
OF BRIDGES FOR
UNDERWATER INSPECTIONS
Need for Underwater
may include visual and tactile inspections during

periods of low water by wading, diving inspections,
remotely operated vehicles and underwater cameras,
radar and sonar, sounding equipment,
sampling
equipment, and other specialized inspection equipment
as needed to determine underwater structural and
streambed conditions.
Inspections
Approximately 86 percent of the bridges in the National

Bridge Inventory (NBI) are built over waterways and
most bridge failures occur because of underwater
problems. Underwater members must be inspected to
the extent necessary to determine with certainty that
their condition has not compromised
the structural
safety of the bridge. To achieve that certainty, bridge
owners may have to employ one or more specialized
underwater inspection techniques. These techniques
Figure l-l
Bridges that cross waterways often have foundation

elements located in water to provide the most
economical tbtal design. Where these elements are
continuously submerged, underwater inspection and
management techniques must be used to establish
their condition so that failures can be avoided.
(Figs. l-1 and 112).
Bridge failure.
1
ilncerha:ar
rs;ec:!On
dxziucing
:ne
streamoed,
ic)
is only
first step in the investigation of a bridge.

The
inspection results must be evaluated by qualified
engineers. In many cases. a bridge located over water
must be evaluated
by a multi-disciplinary
team
including
structural,
hydraulic,
and geotechnical
engineers.
the
(4
I;)
Bridge
Selection
Criteria
The National Bridge Inspection

Standards (NBIS)
require that all bridges with substructures located in
water receive periodic inspections of the submerged
elements. A comprehensive review must bemade of
all bridges contained
in an agencys inventory to
determlne which bridges require underwater inspection.
Many combina!ions of waterway condi?ions and bridge
substructures
exist.
For any given bridge, the
combination of environmental conditions and structure
configuration can significantly affect the requirements
of the inspection.
Those bridges which require
underwater inspection must be noted on individual
inspection and inventory records as well as be
compiled in a master list. For each bridge requiring
underwater inspection, the following information should
be included as a minimum:
(a) Type and location of the bridge.
(b) Type and frequency of required inspection.
of
memters
to
Ge
Water depth, clarity and current influence the selection

of methods of inspection.
In waterways with slow
currents and maximum depths of a few feet, an
undewater inspection might be conducted by wading
and probing provided that the structural condition of
the underwater elements can be determined with
certainty. .Wading inspections can often be performed
by regular bridge inspection teams with waders and a
life preserver.
For greater depths, diving or other
specialized
methods
or equipment
are typically
required.
In determining whether a bridge can be
inspected by wading or whether it requires the use of
diving equipment, water depth can not be the sole
criteria. Channel bottom ,conditions such as softness,
mud, quick conditions and slippery rocks; current;
debris; watervisibility; and structureconfiguration
affect
the ability of a wading inspector to determine structural
safety with certainty. Even in water less than three feet
deep, it may not be safe for an inspector in waders to
inspect a structurai element below water.
Bridge
owners should have a written rationale and criteria for
determining
which
bridges
require
underwater
inspection; the inspection procedures to be employed
for various situations; and the maximum inspection
frequency for each specific .bridge.
Figure 1-2 Bridge failure.

1-1.2
Location
inspected.
Inspection procedures to be used
Dates of previous inspections.
Special equipment requirements.
Findings of the last inspection.
Follow-up actions taken on findings of the last
inspection.
a. Scheduled Inseections.
Routine inspections of
substructures in water must be conducted at least
every five years. Five years is a maximum interval
which is only appropriate for a strlidture in excellent
condition.
Structures having undewater
members
which are partially deteriorated or which are in unstable
channels require shorter inspection inten/als. The
American
Association
of State Highway
and
Transportation
Officials
(AASHTO)
Manual
for
Maintenance inspection of Bridges requires that steel
substructure
elements
located
in
corrosive
environments be inspected at least once every two
years.
b. Non-scheduled InsDections. Certain conditions and
. events affecting a bridge may require more frequent
2
inspections.
following:
These include, but are not limited to the
(5) Build-Up of Debris at Piers or Abutments.

This
material build-up effectively widens the element and
may cause scouring currents or increase the depth of
scour.
(1) Unusual Floods.

Bridge ,elements located in
streams, rivers, and other waterways. with known or
suspected scour potential should be inspected after
every major runoff event to the extent necessary to
ensure bridge foundation integrity.
(6) Evidence of Deterioration or Movement.

Many
underwater deficiencies only become apparent above
water when the distress extends above the waterline
or is manifested by lateral movement or settlement.
Bridges should also be inspected underwater foilowing
significant earthquakes.
(2) Vessel Impact.

Bridges should be inspected
underwater if there is visible damage above water. This
should be done in order to determine the extent of
damage and to establish the extent of liability of the
vessel owner for damages (Fig. l-3). It is especially
important to inspect vessel damage in busy channels
in a timely manner so that damage can be attributed to
the proper vessel.
(7) Adverse Environmental Conditions. Brackish water,

polluted water, and water with high concentrations of
chemicals may cause rapid and severe deterioration of
materials.
(8) Critical Location in Highway System. Structures

whose loss would cause significant economic damage
to the community
may warrant more frequent
inspections even though the structure is generally in
gocd condition.
SECTION 2. UNDERWATER
l-2.1
INSPECTION
Levels of Inspection
Underwater inspection practices developed by offshore

certification agencies, such as Lloyds of London, and
the U.S. Naval Facilities E.ngineering Command have
led to widespread acceptance of standard levels of
inspection. The levels of inspection, as defined below,
are indicative of the level of effort required for various
inspections and provide a system for standardization
of inspection terminology.
Three levels of inspection
have been adopted
by the Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA). These levels, as defined more
fully below, may be summarized as:
Figure 1-3 Bridge pier struck by a ship.

..,
(3) Unusual
Ice Floes.
Ice floes can damage
elements, and accumulations
of ice on
the elements
can cause scouring
currents
or
increase the depth of scour.
substructure
Level I: Visual, tactile inspection

Level II: Detailed inspection with partial cleaning
Level Ill: Highly detailed inspection with
Non-Destructive Testing (NOT)
(4) Prop Wash From Vessels.

Prop wash, i.e.,
turbulence
caused .by the propellers
of marine
vessels, can cause scouring currents and may propel
coarse-grained bottom materials against substructure
elements in a manner similar to that of blast cleaning
operations.
a. Level I Insoection. A Level I inspection includes a

close visual examination, or a tactile examination using
large sweeping motions of the hands where visibility is
limited. Although the Level I inspection is often referred
J
to as a swim-by inspection, it must be detailed

enough
to detect
obvious . major
damage
or
deterioration due to over-stress, or severe deterioration
or corrosion. It should confirm the continuity of the full
length of all members, and detect undermining
or
A Level I
exposure of normally buried elements:
inspection is normally conducted over the total exterior
surface of each undewater structure element, whether
it be a pier, abutment, retaining wall, bulkhead, or pile
bent. A Level I inspection may also include limited
probing of the substructure and adjacent streambed.
on an H-p@ at least the outside faces of the flanges

and one side of the web.
On large solid faced
elements such as piers and abutments, 1 foot by 1 foot
areas should be cleaned at three levels on each face
of the element.
The selection of the locations for
cleaning should be made so as to minimize the
potential for damage to the structure. damaged areas
should be measured, and the extent and severity of the
damage documented.
The Level Ii inspection is intended to detect and identify
damaged and deteriorated areas which may be hidden
by surface biofouling. The thoroughness
of cleaning
should be governed by what is necessav to discern
the condition of the undertying material. Removal of all
biofouiing staining is generally not needed.
The results of the Level I inspection provide a general

overview of the substructure condition and verification
of the as-built drawings.
The Level I inspection can
also indicate the need for Level Ii or Level III
inspections, and aid in determining the extent and
selecting the location of more detailed inspections.
c. Level III Insbection. A Level ill inspection is a highly

detailed inspection of a critical structure or structural
element, or a member where extensive repair or
possible replacement is contemplated.
The purpose of
this type of inspection is to detect hidden or interior
damage, or loss in cross-sectional area, and to
(.
.t
Figure
1-4 Level II cleaning of a pile.

;
.c
6. Level II lnsoection. A Level II inspection is a detailed

inspection which requires that ponions of the structure
be cleaned of marine growth.
Cleaning is timeconsuming and should be restricted to critical areas of
the structure. For pile type structures, a lo-inch high
band should be cleaned at designated
locations,
generally near the low waterline, near the mudline and
midway between the low waterline and the mudline.
On a rectangular pile, the cleaning should include at
least three sides: on an octagon pile, at least six sides:
on a round pile, at least three-fourths of the,perimeter;
.?.-
Figure
l-5
Level III inspection. Ultrasonic

measurement of steel thickness.
evaluate material homogeneity.

This level of inspection
includes extensive cleaning, detailed measurements,
and selected non-destructive and partially destructive ^
testing techniques such as ultrasonics, sample coring
or boring, physical material sampling and in-situ
hardness testing.
The use of testing techniques is
4
generally limited to key structural areas, areas which

are suspect, or areas which may be representative of
the underwater structure.
1-2.2
Frequency
A basic scour investigation should include probing the

channel
bottom
adjacent
to the structure,
and
determining channel cross sections in the area of the
bridge.
and Types of Irkpection
c. In-Death lnsoection.
One or more of the following
conditions
may dictate the need for an indepth
inspection:
a. General Various factors influence the selection of

the frequency, type, and level of inspection for a
particular structure. As a minimum, all structures must
receive routine underwater inspections at intervals not
to exceed 5 years, This is the maximum interval
permitted between underwater inspections for bridges
which are both in excellent condition underwater and
which are located
in passive,
non-threatening
environments.
More frequent routine and in-depth
inspections may be desirable for many structures and
necessary for critical structures.
The bridge owner
must determine
the inspection
interval that is
appropriate
for each individual bridge.
Factors to
consider in establishing the inspection frequency and
levels of inspection include:
(1)
(2)
Inconclusive results from a routine inspection.

Critical structures,
whose loss would have
significant impact on life or property.
(3) Unique structures whose structural performance
is uncertain.
(4) Prior evidence of distress.
(5) Consideration of reuse of an existing substructure
to support a new superstructure,
or planned
major rehabilitation of the superstructure.
The in-depth inspection typically includes Level II
inspection over extensive areas and Level Ill inspection
of limited areas. Nondestructive
testing is normally
performed and the inspection may include partially
destructive testing methods such as extracting kmples
for laboratory analysis and testing, and boring and
probing.
(1)
I
Age.
(2) Type of construction materials.
(3) Configuration of the substructure.
(4) Adjacent waterway features such as dams,
dikes, or marinas.
_
(5) Susceptibility of streambed materials
to scour.
(6) Maintenance history.
(7) Saltwater environment.
03) Waterway pollution.
(9) Damage due to waterborne traffic,
debris, or ice.
SUMMARY OF GUIDELINES
FOR
ROUTINE UNDERWATER INSPECTION
,.,
100% of all
underwater elements.
(Limited measurements
underwater
Scour investigation:
Cross sections of channel.

Probe bottom near underwater elements.
Frequency:
Maximum
41
b. Routine Insoection.
As a minimum,
routine
inspections, which must be conducted at maximum
interdais of 5 years or less, should include a Level I
inspection of the complete underwater structure: a
Level II inspection of at least ten percent of the
substructure elements; and a basic scour investigation.
The Level II inspection should be conducted
on
representative areas of the structure and in areas of
apparent
distress as determined
by the Level I
inspection. The initial routine inspection may indicate
that additional Level II or Level III inspections must be
performed in some areas to confirm the Level I and
Level II findihgs, or to gain additional data so that the
structural conditions can be evaluated with certainty.
elements.
of every 5 years.
Figure l-6
5
.. .
Level I inspection:
(Visual, tactile,
swim-by oven/iew)
Summary of minimum routine underwater

inspection procedures.
The distinction
between
routine
and
in-depth
inspections is not always cleariy defined.
For some
bridges, such as steel pile supported structures in an
actively corrosive environment, it may be necessav to
include Level III, nondestructive
testing, inspection
techniques as part of routine inspections.
CHAPTER
THE UNDERWATER
SECTION
2-1.1
INSPECTOR
inspection
the
judgment
to expend
effort
commensurate
with the indicators of defects he
and the technical
competence
and
perceives;
vocabulary to relate his findings to someone on the
1. INTRODUCTION
General
surface.
The person in charge 9 a state bridge inspection

program is respons LE for establishing minimum
qualifications
for the diver-inspectors
who will be
This
conducting
underwater
bridge inspections.
chapter suggests attributes desirable in the underwater
inspector and discusses the environmental conditions
under which he must operate. The undetwater bridge
inspector not only needs to have a thorough knowledge
of bridges and inspection techniques, but must apply
these skills while working in an unnatural and often
adverse underwater environment.
2-1.2
II
The underwater inspector must also be an experienced

and accomplished diver. Diving conditions are usually
adverse at bridge sites. Bridges are often built at the
narrowest point in a channel where velocity is greatest,
and in areas where water may be dark and polluted.
Marine traffic, floating logs, and construction debris
are among commonly found underwater hazards.
b. Technical Comoetence
and Exoerience.
The
cc--oetence and experience required by the inspectordiver depends on the bridge complexity, substructure
and superstructure interaction, water depth, current,
and other site conditions. All underwater inspections
should be conducted under the direct supervision of a
fully qualified bridge inspection team leader. Some
bridges are of such complexity that they require the
actual diving inspection to be conducted by a fully
qualified team leader. In fact, in some cases, only a
professional engineer experienced in underwater bridge
inspections would be considered qualified. In other
cases, a diver fully trained and experienced in the
t inspection
and evaluation
of substructure
and
streambed conditions will meet inspection and safety
requirements.
Qua.iifications
a. General. The success of any inspection program

depends on the training and dedication of those
persons charged with the actual inspection, whether
for an underwater or an above-water inspection. An
appreciation of the importance of the work to the safety
of lives and property, and dedication to do a good job
are essential prerequisites.
Good intentions alone, however, are not sufficient
qualifications for the underwater inspector. He must be
trained both as a diver and a bridge inspector. Training
in only one of these areas will not suffice.
Comprehensive training of underwater inspectors is
even more important than training of above-water
inspectors since the underwater inspector is often the
only person who can or will see a structure underwater.
He must have the ability to recognize the structural
significance of conditions he encounters underwater;
A diver not fully qualified as a bridge inspector or

bridge inspection team leader must be used cnly with
care and under close supervision. His work should be
limited to tasks such as simple measurements, verbal
descriptions, underwater photography, etc., which can
provide conclusive evidence for evaluation by an onsite, fully qualified bridge inspection team leader.
7
c. rh; sjcal Soca.:ion.

The underwater inspector is
subjected to hyperbaric conditions and must be in
good physical and psychological
condition.
Divers
are required to have an annual medical examination
to comply with Occupational
Safety and Health
Administration
(OSHA) Standards, atid a copy of the
examination
findings must be kept on fife by the
divers employer.
Refer to the OSHA regulations in
the Appendix for details of the medical examination
requirements.
Because of the polluted waters in
which some inspections
must be made, all divers
immunizations
should be current.
evaluatrng
the credentials
of a alving-:nsaector
working under a team leader include technician
certifications,
associate
degrees
in
related
technologies, engineering degrees. bridge inspection
training
courses,
and
experience
in bridge
inspection.
Because bridge inspectors, including inspectorldivers,
must have a basic knowledge
of how loads are
distributed throughout the bridge. the importance of the
various components of bridges to safety, and a general
understanding of the effects of deterioration upon the
safe load capacity, each bridge inspector should
participate in a continuing training program including
a comprehensive
bridge inspection training course
with a minimum course duration of two weeks for
engineers not experienced in bridge inspection and
three weeks for technicians.
All bridge inspectors
training should besupptemented
periodically, preferabty
annually, by a short refresher course or updated
training sessions.
d. Attitude. A determined diver with a resilient spirit

is essential, since the inspector often is isolated
under adverse conditions.
He must realize the
importance
of his work and his responsibility
in
ensuring overall bridge safety.
2-1.3
Training
a. Bridae Insoection.
The National Bridge Inspection

Standards
(NBIS) recognize
four avenues
for
achieving certification as a bridge, inspection team
leader. These are:
(1)
Registration
(2)
Eligibility
engineer
(3)
Completion
of a comprehensive
course in
bridge inspection
(generalfy, a two to three
week course depending
on the educational
background
of the inspector): and a minimum
of 5 years of bridge inspection experience
(4)
as a professional
for
registration
b. Diving. At present, there is no single, nationally

recognized dive certification agency. Three types of
formal diving training
are commonly
available:
certification from a nationally recognized diver training
program,
(e.g.; YMCA; PADI, i.e., Professional
Association of Diving Instructors; and NAUI, i.e., the
National
Association
of Underwater
Instructors),
certification
from a commercial diving school, and
military training. In addition, organizations specializing
in marine studies, such as NOAA, the National
Oceanographic and Aeronautical Administration, offer
diving training.
Many divers atso receive initial or
advanced training on the job.
engineer
as a professional
Programs conducted
by organizations such as the
YMCA, PADI, and NAUI are oriented toward the
recreational diver. General!y, these organizations offer
a basic type of certification; and may offer advanced
training and certifications such as Deep Diver, Wreck
Diver, Rescue
Diver, Underwater
Photography,
Divemaster and others. These courses alone, however,
may not prepare an individual for diving in the severe
conditions encountered
at bridges (poor visibility,
strong current, and underwater obstructions): nor do
they teach the use of surface supplied air equipment,
or the use of testing.equipment.
A recieational diver
having advanced through a number of certification
levels or having dived for a number of years can gain,
but may not necessarily have gained, the diving
Level Ii/ or Level IV certification

under the
National Society of Professional
Engineers
National InstituteforCertificationofEngineering
Technologies
(NICET) program.
The N6lS do not specify minimum

requirements
necessary for a diver to be considered fully trained
and experienced
in the inspection and evaluation of
substructure
and streambed
condition
so that he
meet
FHWA
inspection
and
ssfety
would
requirements.
These minimum requirements must be
established
by the person in charge of the state
bridge inspection program.
Factors to consider in
8
s c.:
competence necessary to cope with the condi%%L

commonly encountered during bridge inspections.
, ;:*;.
Graduates of commercial diving schools are generally

better prepared initially for the diving conditions
encountered
in underwater inspectibns.
They are
taught various types of diving methods, equipment
maintenance, and how to perform mechanical tasks
underwater.
Some schools also provide specialty
When
courses in Nondestructive
Testing (NDT).
students graduate from a commercial diving school,
they often join a diving company as a tender or tenderdiver gaining experience before they are considered
fully qualified commercial divers.
Many of the provisions of the standard are described

in following sections of this manual. Some of the key
provisions are:
Personnel Reauirements:
Military divers complete extensive courses in various

types of diving systems, and normally receive extensive
on-the-job training and experience in diving operations.
(1) Ail divers must be trained in their duties,

including dive physiology, first aid and
cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR).
None of the training alternatives described above fully

prepares
a diver for the conditions
typically
encountered
during underwater bridge inspections,
either from..a diving or a technical perspective.
A
novice bridge inspector-diver, regardless of type of dive
training he has received, should receive additional onthe-job
training
under thi
supervision
of an
experienced bridge inspect&diver.
Additional training
can include familiarization with diving under bridge site
conditions,
recognition
of structural
distress,
underwater photography and video, and NDT.
General and Soecific Oberatina
Diver training, like bridge inspection training, should be

supplemented periodically by refresher training. Divers
can only maintain their competency through continued
practice. Divers who have not had regular and recent
in-water experience can pose a threat to themselves
and others if placed in a hazardous situation without
sufficient time to acclimate themselves.
SECTION 2. SAFETY
2-2.1
Occupational
Administration
Safety and Health

(OSHA)
Procedures:
(1)
Ail employers
must develop a safe diving
practices manual for their diving operations.
(2)
An employer designated person-in-charge of the

operation, who is qualified by training and
experience, must conduct predive and post-dive
briefings.
(3)
The use of scuba diving is not allowed at

depths greater than 130 feet sea water
(fsw).
(4)
The use of scuba is not allowed in currents

exceeding 1 knot unless the diver is line tended.
tf4
The use of surface-supplied

air is not allowed at
depths greater than 220 fsw.
(6)
For dives to depths deeper than 100 fsw

or for dives outside the no-decompression
limits, a. recompression chamber must be
on-site ready for use.
Eauipment
Procedures:
The standard specifies minimum equipment

requirements for the diver aho diving
operations; and equipment testing and
maintenance requirements.
In 1976, the revised Occupational Safety and Health

Administration established Subpart T - Commercial
Diving Standards for diving and related operations
conducted in connection with ail types of work and
9
.,
,.>,.
employments.
All divers, regardless of their tralnina. if
receiving renumeration for their diving services are
considered commercial divers. A copy of the OSHA
Commercial
Diving Standards is included in the
Appendix. The standard delineates minimum personnel
requirements, general operations procedures, specific
operations procedures, equipment procedures and
requirements, and recordkeeping requirements.
Recordkeepinq:
taken. These may include additional imnr;;nlzat!cnS

and the empioyment
of special diving equipment to
provide complete diver encapsulation.
In some cases
it may be necessary to obtain water samples and have
the samples tested prior to diving. Diving managers
must ensure that proper precautions are observed (Fig.
2-l). The long term effects on the diver of these and
other occupational
hazards may result in future
liabilities.
Records of all dives and ail diving accidents

must be maintained.
In general. the OSHA standards provide a good basis
for ensuring
safe diving operations
during
an
underwater bridge inspection but compliance with the
standards, in themselves, may not be sufficient.
A
company or agency diving safety program, coupled
with competent, experienced divers and dive managers,
is essential to preventing serious diving accidents.
Many commercial
organizations
and governmental
agencies. have developed comprehensive
policies to
govern their specific diving operations.
The U.S. Navy, for example, conducts operations in
accordance with the U.S. Navy Dive Manual, and the
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Safety Manual contains
a chapter on diving. Both these manuals were written
for specific situations,
They are more restrictive in
some instances than OSHA standards, and what is
commonly referred to as Commercial Practice.
If
applied to all underwater bridge inspections, the Navy
and Corps of Engineers guidelines may be too
restrictive. Specifying these or other standards without
being fully cognizant of their individual provisions may
result in unnecessary expense.
Figure 2-1 Conducting

SECTION 3. MANAGEMENT
PERSONNEL
OF DIVING
The management
of diving personnel, whether by a
governmental
agency, a contractor or a consultant,
poses special problems because of the hazardous
nature of the work.
Diving work is very strenuous. As a result, divers
generally
cannot
spend an entire day working
underwater.
A great amount bf time and energy is
often expended
in preparation for a dive of short
duration.
It must be remembered that this is not lost
time, but rather part of the total work effort.
Bridge inspectordivers
must move from dive site to
dive site. Often divers must enter waters of unknown
quality. Local water quality monitoring agencies should
be contacted to determine the degree of hazard the
water presents, and appropriate precautions must be
10
a pre-dive briefing.
.-
.,
il
1. INTRODUCTION
III
DEFECTS
Scour of streambeds has been a major cause of bridge

failure, primarily, because there are usually no early
warning signs visible above water. Problems of ioss of
lateral support and undermining
normally are not
detected until they are extremely serious or disastrous.
Even if scour does not reach catastrophic proportions,
it can manifest itself in less spectacular, but still costly,
symptoms such as settlement of piers, misalignment of
joints and bearings, and binding of movable spans.
There are, however, several ways to check the
condition of the streambed.
The most common
methods
are taking soundings
and underwater
inspections.
More
sophisticated
geophysical
equipment and techniques, as described in Chapter VI,
are also available-which, although not commonly in use
at this time, are gaining wider acceptance as a pan of
comprehensive bridge safety programs.
3-1 .l General
In order to completely inspect and evaluate the
condition of bridges located in the water, the inspector
must be able to recognize various types of substructure
configurations, materials, types of defects commonly
encountered, likely locations of defects, and causes of
deterioration.
The principal causes of underwater
bridge distress are deterioration
of the structural
material, vessel damage, and undermining and loss of
lateral and vertical soil support due to scour.
Deterioration of the structural material is caused by
environmental factors and the quality of the material
itself. For example, timber piles in water will eventually
decay or be attacked by marine borers. How quickly
this will happen depends on how well the pile has been
protected with preservative or other measures, and the
environmental conditions in which it is located. The
type of deterioration that will occur in a structure is
dependent upon the properties and characteristics of
the material, and the location of the material within the
structure.
There are, however, indicators of the
condition of the material which the diver-inspector can
look for in any pa? of a structure and which can be
used to evaluate the structural condition.
SECTION 2. TYPES OF SUBSTRUCTURES

LOCATED IN WATER
3-2.1 Pile Bents
Pile bents are structural supports consisting of piles
and pile caps. Superstructure loads are distributed to
the piles by the pile cap. Pile bents, which can be
constructed of timber, concrete, steel, or a combination
of these, are used both as intermediate supports and
abutments
(Fig. 3-l).
Often, bracing is used to
increase lateral stability (Fig. 3-2):
On navigable waterways, bridges are also subject to

damage by marine vessel impact. When damage is
caused by marine traffic, the damage may be visible
above watAn underwater inspection, however, is
often the r
#Nayto determine the overall condition of
the strucL
and evaluate i* -; structural adequacy.
Piles can also be used as supports for piers and

abutments where soil conditions are such that the piers
11
OF UNDERWATER
STRUCTURAL
SECTION
I
.I_,.
CHAPTER
IDENTIFICATION
Figure 3-l
Types of piles.
and abutments cannot be supported by spread footings

on the upper soil strata.
normally added within the concrete, especially near the

top of the pile, where it may be subject to lateral loads.
Timber piles may be untreated or may be pressure

treated with preservatives such as creosote, creosotecoal tar, pentachlorophenof
or arsenate solutions.
Timber piles generally have butt diameters in the range
of 12 to 18 inches, and maximum lengths of about 40
to 50 feet, although longer piles are sometimes used.
Uncased,
cast-in-place
concrete
piles can be
constructed by driving a casing into the soil, and
removing the casing as the concrete is placed. In very
firm soils, concrete may also be placed in augered
holes without any casing.
Large diameter, cast-in-place concrete piles, called
drilled shafts, may be used to support massive bridge
elements.
These shafts may also support formed
columns from the channel bottom to the
underside of the bridge.deck (Fig. 3-3).
Concrete piles can be cast-in-place, with or without a

permanent shell; precast concrete; or prestressed
concrete.
Cast-in-place
concrete piles can be
constructed by driving a metal casing into the ground
and using the casing as a form for the concrete. There
are many types of proprietary shell piles available.
Precast and prestressed concrete piles, which may be

solid or hollow, are generally square, rectangular, or
octagonal shafts with a tapered end for driving. They
commonly range in size from about 8 inches to 30
Usually the shell is thin and not considered to add to

the structural capacity of the pile. Reinforcing, steel is
steei 3ent cap
concrete sent cap

1
yT==L
PlLF 3ENT
CONCRETE PILE BENT
Figure 3-2 Pile bents.

12
,..
#llH SOIID WFR WAU,

DN SPRFAD FOOULG
DRMED
COIUMNS AND
D!?ll LEO SHAFT?
Figure 3-3 Representative
pier types.
inches wide. Some of these piles have longitudinal

holes to assist in jetting them into place and reduce
weight for handling.
3-2.2 Piers
Piers are transverse, intermediate supports constructed
of concrete, masonry, timber.or steel. A pier consists
of three basic elements: a footing, a shaft, and a pier
cap (Fig. 3-3).
Steel piles may be pipe piles, concrete-filled pipe piles,

or H-piles. Steel sheet piles areoften used also as
stay-in-place forms for foundations
of piers and
abutments.
Footings can be founded on driven piles, drilled shafts,

caissons, or directly on soil or rock, i.e., on spread
footings. The pier shaft may be a solid wall or may
consist of a number of columns, with or without a
solid diaphragm wall between columns. The pier may
be a separate member, or integral with the shaft.
Piles which are a combination of materials are called

composite piles. Often, timber and steel piles are
partially or totally encased in concrete for protection
and repair.
13
STUB
ABUTMENT
OPEN
ABUTMENT
FiguFe 3-4 Types of abutmehts.

3-2.3 Abutments
rivers, a floating caisson (closed-end caisson) may be

used. Once in place, the caisson acts as the piers
footing.
The term abutment

is usually applied to the
substructure units at the ends of bridges. An abutment
provides end support for a bridge and retains the
approach embankment.
Caissons are constructed

of timber, reinforced
concrete, steel plates, or a combination of materials.
The structure is towed to the construction site and
sunk. Soil below a caisson is removed through
openings in its bottom which are sometimes referred
to as dredging wells. Once the caisson is in place, it
is filled, generally with concrete, and the bridge pier is
built on it (Fig.3-5).
Abutments, classified according to their locations, are

<full height (closed), stub, or open (spill-through) (Fig.
3-4).
Pile bents are also used as abutments.
Wingwalls are abutment extensions on the sides of an
abutment which enclose the approach fill.
3-2.4
3-2.5 Protection
Caissons
A caisson is an enclosure used to build a piers

foundation and carry a load through poor soil and
water to sound soil or rock. In bridges designed over
Dolphins, fenders, and shear fences are placed around

substructures to protect them from .vessels. These
devices are designed to absorb the energy of physical
14
..
Devices
Figure, 3-5 Floating caisson.
Figure 3-6 Timber dolphins.
. ...
.- _..
.
.
.
.
,
.
.
.
1
3
9
.
3
-.
.
-___
-.
L-l-
.---i,
-&
-_
.- -*
Figure 3-7 Steel sheet pile dolphins.
Figure 3-6 Fenders attached to a pier.
contact with a vessel, and may be able to protect the

. bridge from serious damage by redirecting an errant
vessel. Some of these devices, or portions of them,
are designed to absorb very large forces, while others
are designed to absorb only smaller vessel impacts.
stone or sand, and capped with a concrete slab (Fig.

3-7).
A fender system usually consists of timber or steel
members attached directly to the substructure unit, or
to piles driven adjacent to the substructure unit. (Fig.
3-8).
Dolphins are generally constructed of a group of timber

piles. The piles are driven into the channel bottom and
the tops are pulled together and wrapped tightly with
steel cables or chains (Fig. 3-6). Steel piles may also
be used. Dolphins are also constructed of steel sheet
piling driven to form a large cylinder that.is filled with
A shear fence is generaky an extension of a fender

system consisting of a series of timber piles supporting
timber walers (Fig. 3-9). Steel piles are sometimes
used instead of timber.
1.5
.I
..
..:-.
SECTION
3.
DETERIORATICN
MATERIALS
OF STRUCTURAL
3-3.1 Concrete
There are basically three types of concrete structures:
plain, reinforced and prestressed.
Although current
AASHTO specifications require that shrinkage and
temperature reinforcement be placed near exposed
surfacesof walls not otherwise reinforced. older bridges
may have piers constructed
of plain concrete.
Prestressed concrete is used to obtain high bending
strength and is generally used in bridge beams. Piles
are also often constructed of prestressed concrete and
it is in this form that prestressed concrete will most
commonly be encountered underwater. Because the
prestressing forces tend to close cracks and limit
intrusion of water, prestressed concrete piles are widely
used in marine construction.
Concrete itself is a compressive material with little
tensile strength. The compressive strength of concrete
commonly used in bridges varies from 3 to 11 ksi. The
addition of reinforcing steel or prestressing steel gives
the member tensile or flexural strength.
Figure 3-9 Shear fence.
a. Crackinq. Almost all concrete cracks. Cracks are

common in both new and oid concrete.
Because
concrete has little tensile strength cracks occur due to
volume changes as temperatures vary and a concrete
member contracts or expands. Cracks may also be an
indication of overloading, corrosion of the reinforcing
steel, or settlement of the structure. Even when the
cracks themselves are not structurally significant, they
are often the early stages of more serious deterioration
and they are an avenue through which water and
deleterious substances can enter the concrete.
312.6 Culverts
A culvert is a small bridge normally constructed
entirely below the elevation of the roadway surface
and having no part or portion integral with the
roadway. Structures over 20 feet in span, parallel to
the roadway, are usually called bridges, rather than
culverts; and structures less than 20 feet in span are
called culverts even though
they may directly
support
traffic loads, and may be constructed
similarly to larger structures.
Refer to the FHWAs
Culvert lnsoection Manual for an in-depth discussion
of culvert inspection.
Cracks can occur at any location on a substructure

element. When reporting cracks, the length, width,
location and orientation (horizontal, vertical, diagonal,
etc.) should be noted, and the presence of rust stains,
efflorescence, or evidence of differential movement on
either side of the crack should be indicated.
.\
Cracking can also occur 3uring the fabrication or
installation of precast concrete members. Overdriving,
for example, can cause cracking of concrete piles (Fig.
3-10).
Culverts which cannot be inspected in thedry should

-be inspected
by diving or some other means as
necessary to determine their structural condition with

certainty. The inspection of dry culverts having poor
air quality may be facilitated
by use of diving
equipment. The underwater inspection of culverts by
diving
presents
special
safety considerations
because of their confining nature.
16
(4) Severe Scaie. Loss of coerse aggregate

particles as well as surface mortar and the
mortar
surrounding
the
aggregates.
Penetration of the loss exceeds 1 inch.
When reporting scaling, the inspector should note the
location of the defect, the size of the area, and the
depth of penetration of the defect. To avoid confusion
in reporting
defects,
a standard
format and
nomenclature shouid be used consistently.
Location
should be reported by horizontal distance from a
known point such as a corner of an abutment and
vertical distance by depth below water surface. The
extent of the defect should be reported as height and
width, with height referring to a vertical distance and
width referring to a horizontal distance. The extent of
intrusian of the defect into the member should be
referred to as penetration, rather than depth, since
depth could also refer tp the distance below water.
.
Figure 3-10 Cracked concrete pile below water.

b. Scalinq. Scaling is a gradual and continuous loss
of surface mortar and aggregate from an area. This
condition is commonly found at the waterline on
piers and piles (Fig. 3-l 1). It is caused by freezethaw action and, therefore,
is found in colder
&mates.
Pores and minor surface defects allow
water to penetrate and saturate the concrete. When
the temperature
drops, the water freezes and
expands causing the surface of the concrete to popoff or appear to disintegrate.
At the waterline,
conditions are ideal for scaling to occur.
The Bridae Insoectors
scaling in the following
Trainina Manual
categories:
i.,
-.
;
. .
.-a
.
-\.
classifies
(1) Light Scale. Loss of surface mortar; up to

l/4 inch penetration, with surface exposure
of coarse aggregates.
Figure 3-l 1 Scaled concrete on a pier at the waterline.
(2) Medium Scale. Loss of surface mortar; l/4

inch to l/2 inch penetration,
with some
added mortar loss between aggregates.
c. Soallinq. Spalling is a depression in the surface of

concrete which exposes corroded reinforcing steel
(Fig. 3-12).
It is primarily the result of jnternal
pressures within the concrete caused by corrosion of
the steel. Extensive research has been conducted into
the spalliog process in bridge decks. Much of this
information can be transferred directly to the waterfine
environment.
(3) Heavy Scale.,

Loss of surface mortar
surrounding aggregate particles; l/2 inch
to 1 inch penetration.
Aggregates
are
clearly exposed and stand out from the
concrete.
17
generally
produced
can be detected
by the hoilow sound
by striking the surface with a hammer.
Reinforcing steel placed with insufficient cover is

subject to corrosion, and it is not uncommon to find
pieces of reinforcing steel protruding from concrete
structures below water. It is also common to find steel
rods used to tie form work together on piers steel
beams used to brace cofferdams, and wire rope lifting
loops on concrete piles. Over
a period of time, this
steel can also corrode,
causing spalling of the
concrete.
Figure 3-12
When inspecting concrete substructure units, the diverinspector should especially look for visual signs of
spalling above and in the area of the waterline. These
areas should also be struck with a hammer to
determine if there are fracture planes hidden below the
surface of the concrete.. Particuiar attention should be
paid to areas that are intermittently wet and dry. Below
the water surface, the areas adjacent to construction
accessories should be closely examined.
Spaliing concrete at the waterline.
d. Chemical Attack. Substructures located in water are

often subjected to chemicals which attack the concrete.
The forms of chemicals vary widely and may be
present naturally or due to man-made poilution.
Cracks in concrete over bars near the surface, due to

shrinkage, cracks due to external damaging forces, and
pores that occur naturally in concrete allow moisture
and air (oxygen) to reach reinforcing steel near the
surface.
When the steel corrodes, the products of
corrosion occupy up to ten times the volume of the
parent material and can produce forces in excess of
5.000 psi. This expansive force cracks the concrete
and pops-off areas on the surface of the concrete
member
exposing
the reinforcing
steel to the
environment.
The process then accelerates until large
areas are spa/led.
The penetration of chlorides into concrete can cause

corrosion of the reinforcing steel. Chlorides may enter
the concrete
from deicing agents, saltwater, or
admixtures.
Spalling and cracking of the concrete is
likely to occur when chlorides are present.
Sulfates are present in seawater and are common in
ground waters, especially when high proportions of
certain clays are present. Structures in seawater can
suffer sulfate attack in the tidal zone. Sulfate attack is
usually detected as a softening of the surface of the
concrete. With further deterioration, the surface ravels
as material is easily chipped away, and the newly
exposed surface is often white in color. When sulfate
damage is far advanced, there may also be swelling
and cracking of the concrete.
Sulfate attack is more
common in older structures and those constructed of
Type I cement.
The environment
at the waterline of bridges is
especially conducive
to spalling.
Abrasion and
constant wet-dry cycles can provide the initial paths
for moisture and oxygen to reach the steel. Salt water
or water with acidic pollutanis
make excellent
eiectrctytes for the corrosion process, and wave and
tidal action regularly remove the film of corrosion that
develops to provide a new s&ace for rapid corrosion.
In colder climates, water freezing in small cracks also
expands and accelerates the spalling process.
Pollutsd water can cause various defects depending

upon the type of pollution present, but where chemical
attack is suspected, it is common to find uniform
scaling on the submerged portions of a structure.
At times, spalling can occur over a large area, hidden

by the surface concrete. Internal fracture planes may
develop below the surface of the concrete.
These
18
e. Abrasion. Abrasion damage is due to external forces

acting on the surface of the concrete member. Minor
abra+on damage resembles scaling, and major
abrasion damage may cause gouges, cracks and
voids. Ice can cause severe scaling and abrasion at
the waterline. In some rivers, scalingnear the mudline
is also found due to the abrasive action of bottom
material being carried along in a swift current.
cathodic areas become more massive and the anodic

H-pile becomes smaller.. Rapid and severe corrosion
of H-piles has been noted below the concrete
encasement (Fig. 3-13).
Cracks, voids, and chipped corners can be caused by

vessel impact. Marine traffic or cables used to fasten
vessels to structures can also cause abrasive damage.
Ferry vesseis, which repeatedly and rapidly start and
reverse their propellers, and tugs maneuvering close to
bridges can effectively sand-blast underwater elements,
causing severe damage over the long term.
3-3.2
Steel
Steel is used as a structural material and as external

protective cladding on concrete foundation elements.
The primary cause of damage to steel is corrosion.
Corrosion is most prevalent in the splash and tidal
zones, but can occur both above and below water.
Figure 3-13
H-Pile corroded
encasement.
below concrete
Steel foundation elements located in water, commonly

H-piles, pipe piles, or sheet piling, can suffer distress
in the form of corrosion.
The corrosion can be
especially severe when the bridge is located in salt
water or brackish water. The most important factors
influencing and producing corrosion are the presence
of oxygen, moisture, chemicals,
pollution, stray
electrical currents, and water velocity.
Corrosion is the conversion of the metallic ion, through

electrochemical reactions, into a compound form (rust).
In the electrochemical process, there must be a current
flow. This current flow can be caused by external
forces, or as the result of differences in potential
between different metals. Bridges in industrial areas,
where there may be many stray electrical currents, may
experience severe corrosion problems.
a. Corrosion. Corrosion of steal H-piles in saltwater

and brackish water can be severe. In a typical bridge
configuration, relatively lightweight piles driven into a
massive soil c.hannel bottom support a massive
concrete deck system.
These two massive end
conditions act as cathodes and the exposed slender
metal pile acts as an anode, giving up electrons which
go into solution.
Often the most severe corrosion
occurs near the waterline.
For bridge elements located in water and not protected

from the water, the water acts as an electrolyte. Salt
water or those waters that contain significant amounts
of sulfur or chlorides are more acidic and make better
electrolytes so that the corrosion rate is much greater
than in fresh water. In the splash zone, caused by
waves and tides, and in areas of high velocity flow, the
corrosion rate is also much greater than in still waters.
The moving water provides more wetdry cycles
carries more oxygen to the metal, and tends to remove
the initial film of corrosion which would normally retard
further deterioration.
If there are abrasive materials in
the water, these can also remove the: initial film of
corrosion and increase the rate of corrosion. Corrosion
rate is also generally greater in warm waters than in
cold waters.
A common remedial action is to encase the H-pile with

concrete from the underside of the deck to a few feet
beiow mean low water. In many cases, this is only
temporarily successful because the loss of metal is
shifted to just below the concrete encasement.
This
repair may, in fact, make the situation worse, as the
19
aactenal corrosion is sometimes found below the

waterfine in fresh waters.
This corrosion forms
brownish orange nodules, which can be removed with
a hand scraper. The metal under the nodule is usually
shiny and pitting is normally found.
bulkheads.
ConnectIons are also of-ten
splash zone for bracing members.
iout:c
in
ihe
COnneCtiOnS
are potential sites of corrosion because
their composition may be dissimilar from the structures
main material, causing the formation of corrosion ceils
at these discontinuities.
Heavy marine growth,

found. in seawater,
can
sometimes
inhibit corrosion,
but it can also hide
severe distress or loss of section.
During an
inspection, areas of heavy growth should be spotcleaned to check for loss of section.
Bolts and rivets should be cleaned and examined for

corrosion and fit. Nuts should be examined for tight
fit. Even the bolts used to connect timber bracing can
corrode. Dissimilarities between materials of nuts and
bolts can cause significant losses to either the nut or
the bolt.
b. Coatinas. Coatings are used to prevent corrosion.

Steel structures should be checked for breaks, or
holidays, in the coating because these are areas of
potential deterioration.
Small breaks in the coatings
can concentrate
corrosion in a small area.
Connections
such as H-piles splices should be
examined at the welds. The dissimilarities between
weld metal and the base metal can be corrosion
producers. If backup bars for the weld have not been
removed, these are highly suspect since their material
composition may differ greatly from the base material.
The configuration of the weld, if it has not been ground
smooth, can also cause a local corrosion cell to
develop. In coated structures, the area at welds should
be closely examined since coatings are usually thinnest
and tend to break at irregularities such as welds.
Care must be used in cleaning steel structures so as

not to damage any coating which is present. Marine
growth may adhere more tightly to the coating than
the coating does to the steel member.
Damage to
the coating caused by inspection methods could be
more injurious to the long term condition
of the
structure than present damage to the steel itself, and
detailed examinations of the coating should be made
with care.
The interlocks on sheet piling shduld be examined for

cracks, corrosion, and gaps between sheets. Cracks
can develop during driving of the sheets or from vessel
impact.
Gaps between sheets may occur during
construction causing loss of fill material from behind the
sheeting.
c. Cathodic Protection. Cathodic protection systems

are used in some areas to protect reinforcing steel
in bridge decks, and they have been used to protect
harbor facilities, but they are not commonly found on
bridge
substructures.
In the future,
cathodic
protection
systems will probably
become
more
common on bridge substructures.
3-3.3
Cathodic
protection
systems can be active or
passive.
In an active system a small impressed
current is used to counter the electron flow found in
the corrosion cell. Passive systems use sacrificial
anodes. Sacrificial anodes are made from elements,
such as manganese, which are more active than the
base metal of the structure.
Masonry
Masonry is not now commonly

used in bridge
construction,
although it is sometimes used as an
ornamental facing. Many older bridges, however, have
piers and abutments constructed of masonry.
The
types of stone commonly found are granite, limestone,
and sandstone (Fig. 3-14). Problems commonly found
in masonry structures include cracking, scaling and
deteriorated pointing.
d. Connections.
Connections,
such as bolts, welds,
and interlocks on sheet piling, are potential areas of
corrosion. While bridge substructures are generally
constructed without connections below water, there
: are some instances where underwater connections
may be encountered,
such as at splices in piles and
at bracing connections,
and on wales of sheet pile
Masonry is a naturally porous material and although it

is generally mere durable
than concrete,
it is
susceptible to deterioration by freezing and thawing.
The stone may fracture and break off in small pieces
(Fig. 3-15) and the man-made mortar deteriorates like
20
Figure 3-14
Masonry pier.
Figure 3-15 Severely deteriorated
concrete. More rapid deterioration, such as cracking

along bedding planes, may also occur in stone of lower
quality.
masonry.
protection devices are constructed of timber, and many

piers and abutments are supported on timber piles.
Deterioration in timber members results from a variety
of sources, including the decaying action of bacteria,
fungus, marine infestations, abrasion, and collisions.
Masonry mortar joints near the waterline are usually

most susceptibie to freeze-thaw damage.
It ndt.
uncommon for the stone masonry to be in good
condition, and for the mortar to be completely missing
from several courses of stone near the waterline.
The abrasive action of sand in water may cause the
masonry below water to experience lo&es in both the
masonry and the pointing. The areas of deterioration
should be measured, noting the length, width, and
penetration of the defect.
Older masonry structures may have been repaired
using masonry or concrete.
The condition
of the
_1
re@irsshould also be noted.
3-3.4
Timber
Timber pile bents are common in smaller and shorter

span bridges (Fig. 3-16). On larger bridges, many
Figure 3-16
21
Bridge supported
by timber piles.
Other damage may result from careless construction

practices and faulty or missing connectors.
include sufficient moisture, oxygen, and warmth Near

the waterline of timber elements, these conditions are
at least present intermittently. These micro-organisms
a. Presematives.
Preservatives are used to protect
timber from freshwater infestations of fungi and insects.
In coastal waters, preservatives- m&t also protect
against infestations from marine borers.
Creosote,
coal-tar creosote and arsenate solutions are common
preservatives.
Creosote, like other preservatives, is applied to the
timber under pressure in a tank.
Because the
preservative does not completely penetrate the wood
(Fig. 3-l 7) it is desirable that the timber be precut and
all holes be predrilled so that the maximum surface
area can be treated during the fabrication of the
members.
Figure 3-18
Figure 3-17
Marine borer
brace.
Section cut from treated timber pile.

Note penetration of the preservative
is limited to the outer portion of the
timber.
Where timber members must be cut or drilled in the

field. preservative must be applied in the field to protect
the exposed surfaces. Penetration of this preservative,
however, wiil be less than in pressure treated areas.
Timber treated with creosote is deep dark brown or
black in appearance.
An inspector should look for the
presence or absence of creosote and should pay
especially close attention to holes and the cut ends of
cross bracing (Fig. 3-18).
b. Funaal Processes.
Fungi thrive on the organic
matter in wood cells. ideal conditions for their growth
. Figure 3-19 Decayed pile.

22
damage to end of cross
can easily penetrate untreated timber or dder timber

where the preservative has become in&e&e.
In early
stages, decaying members appear slightly discdored.
It is possible for some spec@s to grow up to six feet

length. The hole made by the teredo varies from I /4
1/2 inch in diameter (Fig. 3-21), with some species
bankia growing to 3/4 inch in diameter and four feet
length.
In advance stages of rot, the wood becomes spongy,

stringy, crumbly, and splintered Me&rs
with internal
decay may appear slightly splintered and produce a
+dlow sound when struck with a hammer 01 metal bar
(Fig. 3-l 9). Vegetation growing from a pile is usually an
indicator that decay is ocdurring on the interior of the pile
(Fig. 3-20).
Figure S21
Section cut from a pile damaged by the

teredo.
Figure 3-20 Vegetation growing on a decayed pile.

c. Marine Borers. Two types of marine borers are most
common to the saltwater environment: mdluscan borers
and crustacean
borers.
Because of their destructive
capabilities. the teredo and the banki, which have similar

characteristics. are the most important m&scan
borers,
and the limnoria is the most important crustacean borer.
Both infest wood that is untreated or whose preservative
has become ine&ctiv&
Additionally, any holes drilled
during construction or other defects invite the infestation
of these creatures.
The teredo, or bankia, enters the timber at an early stage

of life and remains there for the rest of its Me. While the
organism bores to the inner core of the timber it leaves
its tail in the opening to obtain nourishment from the
water.
~ Fiiure
23
3-22 Limnoria attack at the watertine.
in
to
of
in
Since the damage caused by these shipworms is

hidden within thetimber, it is often difficuit to detect. A
Close visual inspection for the entrance hole is one
method of detection.
Suspect areas may require
destructive testing to confirm the teredos presence.
d. Caddisfly.
The caddisfly, an Insect which is
generally found
in freshwater,
but can tolerate
brackish water, can also damage timber piles.
The caddisflies are an order of insects closely related
to moths and butterflies.
In water, during the larva
and pupa stages of their life cycle, they can dig small
holes into the timber for protection.
The homes
consist of a silken retreat portion which shelter the
larva that is fixed to the substrate after the larva
chews out a small depression to reduce its profile.
In addition,
an anterior net of some type which
strains food from the flowing water is attached to the
shelter. At the end of the larval stage. all species
construct some sort of shelter for the ensuing pupa.
At this time the shelter is enlarged, deepened and
strengthened.
After completion of the pupal period,
the pupa cuts its way out of the shelter, swims to the
surface, crawls out of the water and onto solid
substrate.
The pupas skin splits and the adult
emerges and flies away, thus beginning the cycle
Unlike the teredo, the limnoria (also called the wood

louse or gribble) is a surface boring crustacean. The
iimnoria, which is about l/8 inch long, bores only a
short way into the wood surface and as water action
breaks down the thin layer of wood protecting it, the
crustacean bores deeper, eventually producing the
hour glass shape commonly found in wood piles in the
splash zone (Fig: 3-22).
Damage from marine borers can occur anywhere
between the mudline and the waterline (Fig. 3-23).
Creosote presen/atives have proven effective against
teredo attack and arsenate preservatives have been
effective against limnoria.
A combination of both of
these preservatives can be used to protect against both
borers.
MAX.
again.
HIGH
MEAN
.,.
r-l
TIDE
TIDE
POINTS
OF
MAXIMUM
MUD
TYPICAL
TIERED0
.L
DAMAGE
..a
LINE
TYPICAL
Figure 3-23 Drawing of typical borer damage.

24
LIMNORIA
..
DAMAGE
..I
The next generation of latvae may inhabit the same

hole and perhaps several larvae live in the same retreat,
enlarging the hole until retreats intersect, and create
large irregular depressions.
While most species have
a single life cycle annually, research has documented
as many as two or three generatibns per year. The
high density of caddisflies on a timber pile can create
so many pits that pieces of timber have been
characterized as having the appearance of a person
scarred by smallpox.
After being attacked for
numerous years the number of pits within a given area
may not be distinguishable.
Over. the last approximately
twenty years, several instances have been reported in
which dontinuously submerged timber structures have
undergone considerable strength reductions over long
periods of time. This degradation
is the result of
bacteria which can live in totally submerged piling.
e Bacterial Dearadation.
,u
_.. I
2.
; t _;.
.
overdriving, scars caused by machines used to place

the timbers, and holes drilled into the wood which
render its preservative
ineffective
and make it
vulnerable to borer attack.
h. Damaaed Connectors.
Damage to bolts and drift
pins which connect elements of timber structures can
also weaken the facility. The inspector should note
missing, bent, or corroded connectors, as well as any
loss of .section in the connector due to corrosion.
Dissimilarities between material properties of nuts and
bolts can cause significant losses to either the nut of
the bolt. It may be necessary to remove bdts to
inspect for hidden corrosion (Fig. 3-24).
Bacterial attack is a slow process promoted by wet

conditions. The attack may be classified as tunneling,
:. ;. .) in which the bacteria penetrate the wood cell walls and
thus produce channels within the walls; erosion, in
which the layers of the wood cells are attacked; and
cavitation, in which the bacteria form cavities within
the cell walls. All three can significantly reduce the
strength and other properties of the timber. While little
quantitative
data is available on these effects,
degradation appears to be greatest near the outer are&
of the pile and decreases toward the center.
f. Abrasion.
The abrasive action of waterborne
materials. such as ice and sand, can also damage
timber members.
Damaged areas appear worn and
smooth.
Abrasive damage typically occurs at the
waterline and mudline. There are indications that the
bacterial action in acidic waters may soften the surface
of timber piles so that they are vulnerable to abrasion.
A gradual and general reduction in diameter can occur
along the entire length of the pile between
the waterline
and the mudline. Detection of this general reduction in
diameter may only be possible by measuring pile
diameter.
The freeze-thaw action of surface ice can
also break down the surface of timber piles.
Figure 3-24 Timber bolt with slight loss of section on

threads.
g Qnstruction
Defects.
Damage to timbers that
occurs during construction
often leads to serious
deterioration later. Common problems include splits or
cracks in piles caused
by rough handling
or
25
CHAPTER
UNDERWATER
IV
INSPECTION
SECTION 1. THE DIVERS ENVIRONMENT
EQUlhUlENT
Divers are particularly and uniquely exposed to

physiological
hazards such as pressure, oxygen
deficiency and nitrogen narcosis.
The divers work environment is inherently hostile. He

often works in dark, cold isolation and is exposed to a
variety of pressuredecompression
relatedillnesses and
injuries (Fig. 4-l).
Divers must rely completely on
external life support systems while working under
severe limitations such as diminished sensory and
perceptual capabilities; and interference with cognitive
processes and psychomotor skills. Reduced physical
working capacity, and physiological and psychoiogical
stress limit his effectiveness.
When air is breathed under pressure, as in diving

situations, inert nitrogen diffuses into the tissues of the
Depth
m
NO-DECOMPRESSION
LIMITS
No-Decompression
Limit (minutes1
30
40
50
60
70
00
90
100
110
120
130
140
150-190
310
200
100
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
10
10
5
Figure 4-2 No-Decompression

Limits
(From the U.S. Navy Dive Manual)
Figure 4-l
body. The amount of nitrogen absorbed increases

with depth and duration of the dive. When the diver
ascends, the nitrogen comes out of solution. If the
ascent rate is too rapid, the nitrogen will not be
dissipated and gas bubbies can form in the divers
tissues and blood. These hubbies tend to form at the
bodys joints resulting in what is commonfy known as
the bends or more correctly as decompression
Diver working in a hostile environment.
To work effectively, the diver must adapt to his

environment, be familiar with his equipment, and select
methods appropriate to the task. He cannot properly
conduct an inspection if he must concern himself solely
with his survival.
This tabie is not structured

27
for repetitive dives.
sickness. For this reason, a divers time in the water

must be carefully monitored. Combinations of deeper
dives and dives of long duration may require the diver
to decompress in stages by slowly ascending and
spending time at intermediate depths. The majority of
bridge inspection dives are of short-duration
or at
shallow depth, therefore decompression is not needed.
Such dives are referred to as no-decompression
dives.
Figure 4-2 indicates the nodecompression
time limits
for various depths of diving.
Because of the potential for nitrogen narcosis and

oxygen poisbning when breathing air under high
pressure, mixed gas, generally a helium-oxygen
mixture, is used for deep dives, generally 190 feet or
greater. Mixed-gas dive stations are costly to set up
and operate, and they require specially trained dive
personnel. Most bridge inspections are conducted at
depths where air can be used. For this reason, air
diving is the only type discussed in detail in the
fdlowing sections.
Even though decompression is not required within the

limits shown in Figure 4-2, an amount of nitrogen
remains in the divers tissues after every dive. If he
dives again, the diver must consider this residual
nitrogen.
SECTION 2. MODES OF DIVING

4-2.1
Breathing air under pressure can cause nitrogen

narcosis, a feeling of euphoria sometimes referred to
as rapture of the deep. At depths bdow about 100
feet, most divers feel the early lightheaded effects
associated with nitrogen narcosis. Beyond 200 feet
few divers can work effectively while breathing air.
General
Within air diving, two principal modes are used: scuba,

in which the diver carries his air supply with him in a
tank, and surface-supplied diving in which the divers
air source is in a boat or on shore. While some
organizations may be predisposed to one mode over
the other, both modes are permitted by OSHA
standards and both have a @ace in bridge inspections.
in some situations, one mode may have significant
economic benefiis over the other, while providing all
the inspection information required without in any way
compromising safety. Their appropriateness for any
specific diving situation depends on a number of
factors including depth, bottom time, inspection tasks,
waterw;dy, environment,
and the experience and
capability of the diver.
Each mode has unique
operational advantages and disadvantages.
The divers greatest threat is loss of his air supply, but

inadequate ventilation of the divers mask or helmet can
cause carbon dioxide poisoning.
Because exhaust
fumes from internal combustion engines in a divers air
supply can cause carbon monoxide poisoning, special
care must be taken when locating a compressors air
intake.
Breathing air under high partial pressures can cause
oxygen poisoning.
Partial pressures of oxygen in
excess of that encountered
at normal atmospheric
conditions
may be toxic to the body.
Oxygen
toxicity is dependent upon both the partial pressure
and the exposure time. In the range of 0.2 to 0.6
atmospheres
(atm) of oxygen
no toxicity
is
detectable.
From approximately
0.6 to 1.6 atm of
oxygen, with exposure times from hours to days,
lung toxicity may occur. At pressures greater than
1.6 atm of oxygen, central newous system oxygen
toxicity
occurs
before lung toxicity
produces
symptomatic
damage.
The air diver seldom
encounters oxygen partial pressures greater than 1.6
atm since it represents,a depth of over 200 f.s.w. ,His
greatest opportunity
for being exposed to the
potential
of oxygen
poisoning
is during
recompression treatment or surface decompression
using oxygen.
a. SCUBA. Scuba is an acronym for Self-Contained

Undenrvater Breathing Apparatus. Scuba is generally
air is
recognized today in the open-circuit form:
inhaled from a supply tank and the exhaust is vented
directly to the surrounding water. The first efficient
and safe open-circuit scuba was developed in France
during World War II by Captain Jacques-Yves Cousteau
and Emile Gagnan by combining an improved regulator
with high pressure air tanks. Through further years of
research and testing, Cousteau and others have
brought scuba to its current level of development
where it is used militarily, commercially,
and
.
.
recreationally.
.
Scuba utilizes high pressure steel or aluminum air
cylinders (Fig.4-3) with two-stage regulators to deliver
28
. than one sustained dive. Scuba equipment weiahs

about 75 pounds and requires no elaborate support
operation.
It has the advantage that the diver does
not have to drag an air hose behind him. The use of
scuba is limited by OSHA to depths of 130 feet and
the bottom time is limited by the amount of air the
diver can carry with him. The depth and bottom time
requirements
of most bridge inspections are well
within the limitations of scuba diving as shown in
Figure 4-5.
Surface to diver communication
is possible using
scuba with either hard wire or wireless systems.
Communication
may be desirable in deep water or
for complicated structures.
120
Figure 4-3 Small high pressure comprtissor

used to fill scuba tank.
\I\
60,
1
j
1 DURATION
OF SINGLE
ALUMINUM
SCUBA
CYLINDER
L-
t
f
,3B
60
40
20
0
10
20
30
40
50
bation.
minms
60
70
6;
WI
Figure e-5 Typical dive duration for scuba diver with

one 80 cf. tank.
Note: Dive duration varies
significantly-for
different
divers and different levels
of exertion. locations are required rather
Scuba is well suited for inspection work because of its

portability and ease of maneuverability in the water
where many dives of short duration at different
Diver with scuba equipment.
I
L
100
air 10 the diver. The first stage of the regulator is

attached directly to the valve on the high pressure
bottle. This first stage reduces the high pressure air
(up to 3,500 psi) in the tank to an intermediate pressure
(110 lo 150 bsi above,ambient).
The second stage of
the regulator reduces the intermediate pressure air to
ambient pressure and delivers it to the diver on
demand (Fig. 4-4). As the diver inhales, he activates a
valve which- allbws the aii to flow tohlti.
Figure 4-4
I\
b. Surface-Sypolied
Air. There are two types of
surface-supplied equipment: deep-sea (hard-hat) and
lightweight.
Deep-sea equipment
consists of a
helmet and breastplate, diving dress and weighted
shoes (Fig. 4-6). The equipment worn by the diver
alone can weigh more than 200 pounds. Add to this
the air compressor,
hoses, lines and possibly a
diving launch to work from, and the problems of
mobility and transportation
become significant. This
equipment is cumbersome,
not well suited for bridge
inspections,
and
generally
not
considered
economical for most modern diving operations since
the development
of lightweight
equipinent.
The
deep-sea hard-hat has changed little in the last 150
years.
29
decompression
schedules
are used.
Dives in
accordance with OSHA standards can be conducted
to depths of 190 feet or, if bottom times are less than
thirty minutes, to depths of 220 feet. The major
disadvantage
of surface-supplied
diving is the lack
of mobility. Inspection work generally requires the
diver to constantly change depth or travel around
structures or obstacles. In doing so, the diver using
surface-supplied
equipment may become entangled
in his umbilical.
As a minimum, he has the added
effort of dragging it after him.
Additional support equipment,
for both scuba and
surface
supplied
gear,
could
include
a
decompression
chamber.
A chamber is required
when dives exceed 100 fsw or the no-decompression
limits.
Figure 46
Diver in deep-sea equipment.
Lightweight equipment usually consists of a full face

mask or helmet, safety harness, weight belt; boots or
fins, back-up air supply, and an exposure suit (a wet
or dry suit). Early helmets were free-flow air hats in
which a constant stream of air is supplied to the
diver. Today, demand regulators similar to those
used in the second stage of scuba equipment have
been incorporated
in helmets and full face masks
(Fig. 4-7).
in a surface-supplied
system, air is supplied by a
high volume, low pressure compressor
or from a
bank of high pressure cylinders equipped withs
regulator
to reduce the high pressure.
The
compressed air is sent through a filtering system into
a volume tank at about 150-200 psi. From the
volume tank, the air goes to a manifold which has
the divers umbilical connected to it.
Figure
SECTION
The divers umbilical is a combination

air hose,
safety
line,
communication
cable,
and
pneumofathometer
hose. The pneumofathometer
allows the divers depth to be monitored by a tender
at the surface. With a surface supplied system, a
tender must monitor the divers air supply and depth,
and communicate
with him.
4-3.1
Diver wearing
4-7
3. DIVERS
lightweight
helmet.
EQUIPMENT
Scuba
a. gxoosure Suits. Water is one of the most effective

cooling agents known. A diver immersed in water at
a temperature
less than body, temperature
rapidly
loses body heat. Even in relatively warm water, the
diver will become chilled after proionged exposure.
To protect and insulate the diver, an exposure suit is
usually necessary. There are two kinds of exposure
suits commonly in use; the wet suit and the dry suit.
The primary advantage of surface-supplied

air diving
is the unlimited air supply.
Longer bottom times
can be obtained
on surface-supplied
dives if
30
In warm wa!ers. generally above 50 degre&?!ahrenh&%: --. having to tread water. Proper use of tne BC re;ces
a wet suit wiil provide adequate thermal, protection.
the effort Of vertical movement. There are three ways
The suit is tight fitting and constructed of neoprene.
of inflating the BC: 1) through an oral inflator, 2) wrth
The wet suit allows a thin layer of water between the
air from the scuba tank or 3) in an emergency with a
suit and the divers skin. This layer gf water, which is
CO, (carbon dioxide) cartridge attached to the BC.
warmed by body heat, acts as insulation to keep the
diver warm. A full suit consists of a jacket, pants,
A diver uses a weight belt to help control buoyancy.
boots, gloves, and hood.
The most popular weights are molded lead which frt
onto .a nylon web belt buckled with a quick-release
The variable volume dry suit is an extremely effective
mechanism. The amount of weight worn by the diver
suit in cold water. pry suits are also used in polluted
depends on his natural buoyancy and the buoyancy
waters. The more pop&r
suits are constructed of
of the equipment he is wearing.
For a scuba diver
either closed cell neoprene with nylon backing on both

sides, nylon, or vulcanized rubber. Boots are normally
integrated with the suit; hoods may be attiiched or
separate; and gloves are usually separate. .The suits
wearing a
commonly
pounds of
negatively
exhausted
Swim fins increase the propulsive force generated by

the legs while swimtiing
underwater.
Swimming
efficiency is greatly increased with the proper pair of
fins.
have a waterproof and pressure-proof zipper for entry.

The suits are designed to use a layer of air as
insulation and can normtilly be inflated from a low
pressure air supply.
Air inside the suit can be
through a separate valve on the suit. The
suits are designed to be worn with thermal underwear

which provide excellent protection against cold both in
and out of water.
The divers knife is used primarily as a tool and is

available for emergencies.
There are many styles of
knives available.
Typically the knife is made of
corrosioh-resistant
metal, usually stainless steel, and
has a serrated edge for sawing through larger and
stronger lines:
The dry suit normally requires the
diver to wear more weight than he would with a

standard wet suit, due to the volume of air in the suit.
b. Scuba Eouioment.
In addition to an exposure suit,
the diver generally has a siandard
list of dive
equipment. Essential equipment, other than the scuba
regulator and tank, includes:
Face mask
(2) Buoyancy compensator
(3) Weight belt
(4) Swim fins
(1)
Each item is discussed
below.
The face mask protects a

the water. ihe air pocket
eye to focus on underwater
corrective lenses are also
A watch. or bottom-timer is very important.

A diver
uses one of these.to stay within the nodecompression
limits or to control decompression dives. The unit must
be waterproof,.
pressure-proof,
accurate,
and
dependable:
(5) Knife
(6) Wristwatch
(7) Depth gauge
(8) Submersible
pressure gauge
The depth gauge measures the pressure created by

the column of water above the diver and is calibrated
to indicate a direct reading of depth in feet of sea
water. Accurate depth readings are essential when
diving in order to stay within nodecompression
limits
or to locate decompression
stops if outside the nodecompression limits.
divers nose and eyes from

within the mask allows the
images. Masks which have
available.
The submersible cylinder pressure gauge provides the

diver with a continuous indication of the air remaining
in the air cylinder.
b* OSHA requires the use of an inflatable flotation device
capable of maintaining
the diver at .the surface in a

The
buoyancy compensator, or Bc, is a system of one or
two rubberized air bags protected by an outer shell. It
allows the diver to maintain neutral buoyancy at depth
or to maintain a face-up position on the surface without
face-up
wet suit, ten to twenty pounds of weight is

worn. With a dry suit as much as fifty
weight may be required in order to become
buoyant.
position when using scuba equipment.
Additionally, dive lights and portable decompression

meters (dive computers) may be used. The dive light
is a waterproof, pressure-proof, underwater flashlight.
It can be very useful where natural light does not
31
4-3.2
Lightweight
SurfaceGupplied
Diving
a. &sic EauiDment.
Lightweight surface-supplied
divers share a few basic items with scuba divers,
namely: an exposure suit, a weight belt, and a knife.
Swim fins or boots are worn depending upon the work
requirements.
A wristwatch is generally not worn by
surface-supplied
divers because
the tender is
responsibie for accurate timekeeping.
For lightweight
diving, a diver is required to wear a safety harness with
the umbilical attached to it to prevent any strain on the
mask and to provide a lifting point to assist pulling a
diver out of the water in an emergency.
b. Breathina ADDaratus.
There are two types of
surface-supplied breathing equipment:
free-flow and
demand. Both types allow the diver to breathe through
his mouth or his nose.
Figure 4-8 Scuba diver using full face

mask with communications.
penetrate, but it is of limited usefulness in muddy or
dirty water where there are suspended particles.
With a free-flow system, air is delivered to helmet, or

mask, continuously and exhausted through an open
valve to the surroundingwater. The diver has to adjust
the exhaust for different working depths or levejs of
physical exertion. Each helmet has a purge button
which the diver can use if necessary to reduce air
pressure quickly. The Navys MK12 (Fig. 4-9) is a good
example of a modern free-flow air hat. With this type
of helmet, a jacking harness is worn to keep the helmet
. secure and relatively stable on the diver bt?cause, with
a continuous air flow, the helmet has a tendency to
float.
A recent invention, the dive computer, monitors bottom

time and depth. Some computers will determine a
decompression schedule, if required. When the diver
descends and ascends, the computer continually
updates and recalculates the dive profile taking into
consideration the times spent at different depths on the
way to the surface. The advantage of this method of
-^ calculatiqn is that the diver can stay in the water for
longer periods of time than if his dive profile were
computed just once based on the deepest depth
reached. This device is especially useful in inspection
work because the diver does not spend long periods
of time at any one depth, but it should not be used
without a full understanding
of its capabilities and
limitations.
c. Communication.
In general, there are two types of
diver-to-surface communication
systems available to
the scuba diver. In a hard wire system, the diver has
a microphone and speaker connected by cable to a
surface transmitter-recliver.
This is used regularly in
surface-supplied diving and can be used when a scuba
diver is tethered with a safety/communication
line (Fig.
4-8).
7.
,
. ..
.-.
-1
,.
Wireless systems are aCso available for use with SCUBA

equipment. There area variety of units on the market.
The advantage of a wireless system is that it allows the
diver greater mobility.
Figure 4-S Navy MK12 helmet, a modem free-flow

helmet.
32
Demand masks and heimets essentially combine a

regulator, similar to the scuba regulators second stage,
with a face mask in one unit. The masks, referred to
as band
masks, have a large face plate and a
regulator
The band mask generally has a neoprene
hood and a rubber strap, called a spider, to secure
the mask to the divers head, making a seal around his
face. Air is supplied to the regulator via a sideblock, a
one-way valve attached to the mask or safety harness,
which is connected to a primary and backup air source
(Fig. 4- 10)
limits, OSHA requires
that a diver carry a reser;e
breathing gas supply. Many organizations also require

this resewe for shallower dives. This is typically a
scuba tank, with appropriate fittings, connected to the
helmet, for free-flow apparatuses, or to the sideblock
of a demand mask or helmet.
Demand helmets are basically free-flow hats to which

a regulator has been added.
The helmet has a
sideblock and regulator assembly similar to a band
mask. Both the helmet and the band mask generally
have a movable nose pad to assist the diver in clearing
his ears and sinuses. More weight will be required by
a diver in a helmet because of the volume of air inside
it. Jacking harnesses are not necessary with the
demand masks.
Figure 411
Surface-supplied divers control

console with communication and
pneumofathometer.
d. Tenders. Each diver must be continually tended

while in the water.
lenders are responsible for
ensuring the dive profile is followed and maintaining
the dive station. All dive systems, i.e., communications,
compressors, pressure gauges, backup systems, as
well as the diver, are to be monitored. As a minimum,
a tender should be trained in the topside requirements
of surface-supplied diving.
SECTION 4. INSPECTION
d-4.1
General
To work effectively underwater, the diver must have

the proper tools and equipment.
Much of the
underwater work in inspection diving involves cleaning
of structural eiements. Sampling and testing may also
have to be accomplished.
The use of specialized tools
may be necessary-for testing. Both power and hand
toos are used under water.
Figure 4-10 Diver wearing a band mask.

All lightweight diving helmets and masks can be
The divers
outfitted for two-way communication.
umbilical has a communication
line which connects the
helmets
or masks earphone
and microphone
:assembly to a surface radio (Fig. 4-l 1).
. *
In deciding whether to. use power toots or hand tools.

the dive manager must weigh the advantages gained
in conserving the divers energy versus the mobilization
c. Backup Air Source. When a dive is conducted

deeper than 100 fsw or outside the no-decompression
33
TOOLS
costs and the loss of mobility.

For underwater
inspection work, unless the biofouling is especially
severe, extremely difficult to remove, and the areas to
be cleaned are extensive, hand tools are usually more
economical.
Power tools, if selected, must be used
with care so that the structural ma&M-is not damaged
after the biofouling is removed.
required tasks. Pneumatic drills, chippers, hammers,

scalers, and saws are available. Use d pneumatic power
is limited to practical depths of 100 to 150 feet and is
costly to operate and maintain. Pneumatic tools also
produce streams of bubbles that can block the divers
Vision.
Underwater hydraulic tools are modified versions of
hydraulic tools us& on land. Providing a hydraulic power
source can be costly, and the tools them&ves are often
fatiguing to use because they produce torque or
vibratbns which may be hard for the diver to counteract
unless he Is heavily weighted or secured to something at
the work site. .%I hoses add to the divers difficulty. The
biggest advantage of hydraulic tads is that they do not
create the bubbles that pneumatic tools do.
For underwater repair work, where extensive cleaning

is required, use of power tools would normally be
warranted.
4-4.2 Tools
a. Hand Tools. Almost all standard hand tools can be
used underwater, but they require better care and
maintenance. Typical tools used during an inspection
include screwdrivers, scrapers, ice picks,
Power to& have also been developed which, use sea

water rather that hydraulic oil or air. A pump located on
the surface pumps water to the tfxls, and the water is
expelled underwater by the tools.
A water blaster can also be a useful piece of equipment
for cleaning a structure. Popular commercial models
have gas powered engines, am relatbely compact, and
can dekver pressures between 3000 and 4000 psi, which
Is enough to remove deteriorated concrete and cwrosion.
SECTION 5. UNDERWATER
PHOTOGRAPHY
VIDEO EQUIPMENT
45.1
AND
General
Improvements in underwater documenMon

equipment
and techniques have b
significant in the last few years,
inpart,becausedworkonMshoreoiipfatforms,and
, because d improvements in 3Smm underwater cameras
and video equipment
in the consumer market.
Underwater documentation
in the form of cdor
photography or video can be provided at an economical
cost under almost all water conditions.
Figure 4-12 Typical hand cleaning tools.

hammers, axes, hand drills, wire brushes, pry bars,
and hand saws (Fig. 4-12) Divers routinely drop tools,
so it is usually best to secure the tools to the diver with
a lanyard to save time searching for lost tods in soft
silt. Work with hand tools underwater can be slow and
arduous, making their use impractical for larger jobs.
4-5.2
b. Power Tools. Both pneumatic and hydraulic tools

are used underwater.
Although pneumatic tools are
not usually designed specifically for undemater use,
they can usually be readily adapted to perform the
Photography
Black and white, and color 35mm photographs can be

made of. underwater conditions relatively easily. Most
popular above water cameras from the instamatic
34
4-5.3
Lighting
The lighting for underwater photography is especially

important because of the alluvial material suspended
in the water. Suspended material reduces the light
that actually reaches the subject, and it can reflect
light back into the camera lens. To minimize this
problem, the electronic flash unit must be placed to
one side so that light does not reflect directly into
the lens. It is usually best to use two light sources
of lower intensity located far to each side of the
To reduce the localized intensity of the
camera.
flash, a diffuser should be used when photographing
reflective objects such as bright steel, or when there
is considerable sediment in the water.
a
Figure 4-13 Waterproof
*-
.1-
camera housing.
type to sophisticated
35mm units can be used
which
are
underwater
in waterproof
cases,
: II commonly called housings.
Most cases today are
made of clear acrylic plastic and sealed with rubber
gaskets. (Fig. 4-l 3)
There are also waterproof 35mn-i cameras designed
specifically for use underwater.
These cameras can
be equi;ped with a variety of lenses and electronic.,
flash units for underwater photography.
Some of
these cameras, when used with a compatible flash
unit, will control the amount of light delivered on the
subject by the flash (Fig. 4-14).
Figure 4-14 Underwater

4-5.4
In underwater
photography,
selecting the proper
combinatton
of camera lens and light is very
important.
Photographs
must be taken from much
closer distances
to maintain clarity since most
bridges are not located in clean, clear water.
In
. some .wateis. like the Mississippi and Ohio Rivers,
visibility is only a few inches.
In many rivers,
however, there is one or two feet of visibility. The
to photograph
a reasonably
sized area in one
picture. It should b,e noted that because of the
refractive
property
of the water, the apparent
distances are about three-fourths
of actual distances
.It is usually best to document

conditions
with
underwater
photography
as the
inspection
progresses, rather than waiting until the end of the
project to take pictures. This permits review of the
appear larger than they actually are.

cameras are generally
calibrated
in
Underwater
apparent distances.
35
Film
Almost any film that can also be used above water

with artificial light can be used below water. Where
low intensity light sources must be used to reduce
reflection
problems,
higher
speed
films can
compensate for this. Generally, it may be best to
use one particular speed film, such as ASA 100,
maintaining the light source at the same distance
from the subject, and compensating
by using various
aperture openings.
In this way, only one variable is
changed, and it is only necessary to have one type
of film on hand.
camera-subject distance must be minimized, and a

wide angle lens, such as a 1Smm lens, must be used
and objects
camera and flash unit
photograph to provide a standard against which the

processing technician can adjust the color (Fig. 4-15).
44.5
C&mater
Box
When the water is extremely turbid, visibility may be

reduced to a few inches, making normal photographic
techniques useless. In such cases, a clearwater box
may be used. A clearwater box is a box constructed
of clear ac@ic plastic that can be filled with clean
water through which the camera can be aimed. The
box of clean water, when pressed against the subject,
displaces the dirty water. Various sizes and shapes of
boxes can be constructed, depending on the objects
to be photographed.
initial photographs and adjustment in the technique

before all photography is completed.
It is better to
find out that the first few shots have to be taken again
rather than finding out that all the photographs must be
retaken. Usually, color print film is the easiest to have
processed before leaving the job site because of the
one-hour shops that are readily accessible.
Even in relatively clear water where natural light
penetrates to the depth at which photo-documentation
is to take place, artificial light sources should be used
to obtain true color reproduction.
As natural light
penetrates water, the water filters and absorbs colors
in the natural light spectrum.
Some red is lost just
below the surface, and at about 30 feet all objects
appear blue-green.
Thus, without artificial light, key
details and contrast can be lost.
In reviewing photographs
of underwater objects, it is
often difficult to determine the size of objects and their
true color or tint without some standard of reference.
There is also no frame of reference for locating the
picture because underwater photographs
often look
similar.
Technicians
processing
film exposed
0 underwater also often have difficulty in determining the
correct tint. One processing technician may make an
object blue, while another might make the same object
brown. To provide a basis for reference, a scale, and
the location of the picture should be indicated 2nd a
patch of known color should be included
the
Figure 416
Clearwater box.
A typical clearwater
box for general purpose
underwater photography is fiied with handles to make
control easier, brackets for mounting the camera and
flash units, and caps for filling (Fig. 4-16). The box is
designed to be filled with clean water while it is in water
so that there is no great difference in pressure between
the inside and outside of the box (Fig. 4-17). The box
is slightly negatively buoyant when filled completely
with water. An air gap may be left inside the box to
%
make it positively buoyant, a
The face of the box shown in Figure 4-16 is about 20
inches high by 30 inches wide, and the distance from
the front of the box to the back is 20 inches. A wide
36
and the other strobe functions as a slave unit tnat fires

automatically when it senses the other strobe firing
Use of the clearwater box normally requires two diversone to operate the camera and one to control the box
In stronger currents, it may require three divers, and in
extremely strong currents it may not be possible to
effectively use the device.
angle lens ;s mounted on the back face of the box and

the camera is connected to the back of the lens. A
scale that is mounted on the front of the box will
appear in all ptctures. At the time of publication of this
manual. clea.rvvater boxes were not commercially
avaiiaole. but must be custom made.
Electronic strobes are mounted on each side of the

box.
The strobes are aimed so that there is no
reflection into the lens off the front face of the box.
One strobe is connected to the camera by a cable,
Refer to Figures 4-18 and 4-19 for two photographs

taken with a clearwater box.
P.
I
Figure 4-19 View of severely corroded

through clearwater box.
9rA
k -.
Figure 4-17 Divers filling clearwater box.
ste&l H-pile
4-5.6 Video
Just as consumer
video cameras and recorders have

improved dramatically in the last few years, undewater
Highly
video equipment
has likewise improved.
sophisticated,
compact underwater
cameras were
developed in recent years for underwater inspection of
offshore oil platforms. In the past few years, consumer
equipment has developed at a similar pace and is
Commercial
available at a relatively low price.
underwater
cameras and above-water
consumer
cameras in waterproof housings can be used with an
umbilical cable to the surface for real-time viewing on
a monitor, or for recording. Smaller camera-.reaorder
systems in underwater housings of acryiic plastic or
metal are avaiiabie which can be used with or without
the umbilical to the surface (Figs. 4-20 and 4-21).
Figure 4-18
View of damaged
clearwater box.
concrete pile through
These video systems can be configured to provide onscreen titles and clock, and also include narration by
37
vehicles were designed for extremely deep diving

and to provide video inspection in places that were
inaccessible
or too hazardous
for conventional
diving, such as polluted., contaminated,
or extremely
cold water.
1 _-..-L
--.- .,-7s-*. *
ir
Figure
4-21 Camera-recorder
housing..
Figure
U-22 Remotely operated

control console.
Figure 4-20 Video camera with umbilical to surface.

the diver and the surface observer.
In underwater
video work, there is often a large portion of the tape
which is of no value to the inspection record, such
as when the diver is adjusting equipment and getting
into position to operate the camera.
In addition,
there are often large portions of tape which illustrate
only good conditions.
If the tape is to be reviewed
by high level personnel, it is usually cost-effective
to
edit the tape to reduce viewing and review time.
One of the most popular types pf video units for
which housings are made is the 8mm camerarecorder. The camera and recorder are combined in
one unit. These units are compact, easy to use and,
take very good pictures. Housings for the units are
made by a number of manufacturers
and can be
modified so a surface monitor can be used.
4-5.7
Remote
Operated
Vehicle
in underwater
(NV)
A remotely operated vehicle (ROV) is a tethered

underwater
video camera
platform,
sometimes
equipped with manipulator systems, and an electric
or electro-hydraulic
propulsion systems. An ROV is
controlled from the surface by means of a video
system, for operator observation; and joystick type
propulsion and manipulator controls. Originally the
vehicle with
Although the dependability

of the ROV has steadily
increased, some problems still remain. The ROV can
only supply a two-dimensional
view of a problem; the
full extent of any defects generally
cannot be
38
obtained
from a picture.
In murky water, the
effectiveness of an ROV is extremely limited; a diver
can at least conduct a tactile inspection. It is difficult
to know the exact orientation
or position of the
vehicle to accurately identify the area,being observed
and the operator may also encounter problems with
controlling
the vehicle in a current or tangling its
umbilical.
4-5.8
Dive Platforms
in bridge inspections,
the primary dive platform is
typically a small boat. There are many different sizes
and types available.
Hulls are made of aluminum,
wood. and fiberglass. There are also inflatable boats
that work well as ,dive platforms.
A key criterion
when choosing a boat is adequate space for all dive
equipment and personnel.
Working conditions must
be safe for both the above-water crew and the diver.
Generally. the boat should be equipped
with an
engine, the size dictated by waterway conditions,
degree of portability
desired, and boat size. All
Coast Guard and local government
rules and
regulations must be followed, and appropriate
dive
flags should be displayed.
The international code flag A, a blue and white flag,
must be displayed to comply with 3SHA.
Some
states also require display of the red and white sport
diver flag.
Since recreational
boaters may not
recognize
the code flag A, both flags should
generally be flown for safety.
,
[I(:.
A I have a diver down; keep well clear at

slow speed.
Sport Diver
Figure
(White stripe on blue).
(White stripe on red).
4-23 Dive Flags.
CHAPTER
UNDERWATER
SECTION
51.1
1.
PREPARATION
Site Reconnaissance
INSPECTION
AND SAFETY,
and Data Collection
11.3
can reduce the cost by leading to
Drawings
and Previous
For many bridge inspections, scuba equipment is the

most efficient.
It requires less set-up time and
generally
allows greater mobility than surfacesupplied equipment.
If communications
are desired,
a full face mask with wired communication
and
scuba may suffice. This combination eliminates the
need for hoses, mixing consoles, volume tanks. .and
other apparatus
needed
with surface-suppiied
equipment.
Wireless communication
devices are
also available.
Reports
The diver should be given drawings of the structure,

preferably
as-built drawings, to prepare for an
inspection
By previewing the bridge drawings, the
inspector can learn what he may encounter during the
dive
It will also make communication
between the
diver and note-taker easier.
Previous reports provide additional information.
If the
diver reviews a report prior to the inspection, during
the dive he can check the condition of previously found

defects and report any new ones.
Soundings
contained in previous reports provide a baseline for
checking
scour activity.
from site reconnaissance and

a dive team to prepare for an
in the selection of the most
equipment.
As discussed
in Chapter II, commercial
diving
operations must be conducted according to OSHA
standards. Scuba can be used to a maximum depth
of 130 feet. In currents exceeding 1 knot and when
entering confined- spaces a diver must be line tended.
Surface-supplied diving equipment can be used to a
maximum depth of 220 feet. For full details, refer to the
OSHA standards in the Appendix.
During the site reconnaissance,

the dive manager
should: 1) Determine the number of substructure units
in water. 2) estimate those units which can be
inspected by wading and those which require diving,
3) determine the approximate water depth from the
drawings or using a lead-line, and 4) determine the
approximate
velocity of the water, by timing some.
floa?ing object as it passes under the bridge or in tidal
areas. consulting tide tables.
As-Built
Plan and Procedures
Information obtained
previous reports help
inspection by aiding
efficient methods and
selection of equipment and methods best suited to the

work and staffing with appropriate personnel.
S-l.2
TECHNIQUES
The inspector should be told of any repairs made since

the last inspection to allow him to check the condition
of the repairs.
Underwater bridge inspections, especially the initial

inspections, require careful planning to ensure that the
work is performed
effectiveiy and economically.
Undemater inspections can be expensive, but prior site
reconnaissance
.
41
Communications
are also used for deep dives
because they eliminate the need for the diver to
surface to report findings. During shallow dives in
swift current, where mobility is limited ancl when the
diver is line tended, communications
can expedite
the work by allowing the diver to direct the tender
and report conditions.
Safety or other considerations may dictate the use of

surface-supplied diving equipment in some inspection
situations.
underwater light is also useful at times, depending

water,clarity.
Water clarity often limits the divers ability to visually

inspect the structure. In such cases, he must use his
tactile senses to supplement
or replace the visual
inspections.
Usually it is most effective if the diver
examines the underwater elements by moving his
hands and arms in large sweeping motions to cover all
Access to many small bridges canbe from the adjacent

shore: for larger waterways, a boat will be necessary.
Aluminum or inflatable boats in the 14 ft. range will be
adequate for many bridges. They are small enough to
be carried, can be transported on the roof of a vehicle,
can be launched without a boat ramp, and can carry
the diving equipment for a small operation.
areas of each underwater
for most
larger rivers. It is big enough to support a small
surface-supplied operation. Boats used for underwater
bridge inspection can easily be damaged by bumping
against bridge piers so it is important that all sides be
protected with resilient fenders.
Boats should be
securely anchored or tied to the structure before diving
operations are started.
however, hand scrapers or power tools may be

needed. Refer to Article 44.2 for additional discussion
of these tools.
Scour is the removal of channel bottom material by

the erosive action of running water. Stone, concrete
blocks or similar material, referred to as riprap, is
commonly
placed around piers to retain bottom
material. The inspector should note the type of bottom
material, and the presence and size of riprap. This
information can help determine how vulnerable a bridge
is to being damaged by scour.
Divers can obtain
bottom samples using unbreakable sample jars or
mechanical sampling buckets. Divers can also probe
the channel bottom to obtain a measure of the relative
density of the bottom material.
At a few sites, such as when river banks are steep and

there are no boat ramps nearby, it may be necessary
to use special equipment
such as a crane to lower
either the boat or divers into the water.
If there is a history of debris collection at the site,

arrangements
should be made for its removal, or
-additional time should be allowed for the underwater
inspection team to remove it.
The type of equipment needed for cleaning areas to
do a Level II inspection needs to be determined.
Most
cleaning can be done with hand tools such as
scrapers, hammers, or pry bars, but unusually heavy
growth may require power tools such as chipping
hammers and water blasters.
5-2.2
Piers and Abutment;
Divers should inspect piers in a circular pattern, if

possible, using visual and tactile methods.
The
inspection should be started by making a circular path
around the base of the pier; then moving up a uniform
increment, such as an arms length and circling the pier
again.
This pattern should be repeated until the
inspection is complete.
2. INSPECTION
When the inspector is line tended or using surfacesupplied equipment, he cannot circle the pier without
tangling the lines. In this case, the diver should inspect
one side of the pier in a back and forth motion starting
at the bottom (Fig. 5-l). The diver can then repeat the
path on the other side of the pier.
S-2. t General
Cenain aspects of inspection procedures are common
to structures requiring underwater inspections.
Standard equipment for an inspection should include
a hammer or scraper. These tools can be used for
Level II inspections, and for probing and sounding
defective areas to determine the extent of distress. An
element.
Likewise, marine growth can obscure the condition of

substructure elements.
In fresh water, growth is
generally light and can often be removed by rubbing
with a gloved hand.
In salt water environments,
A boat in the 18 ft. range will be adequate
SECTION
on
_ Abutments should be inspected using the same back

and forth method described above.
42
Figure 5-l
Schematic representation
inspecting a pier
of a diver
Figure 5-2
The inspector should report if the footing is exposed,

any defects within the material, and any evidence of
scour.
SECTION
5-3.1
S-2.3 Piles
.*
Piles should be inspected in a spiral motion. The diver
begins at the top of one pile and inspects it while
descending; then moves to the next pile and inspects
it while ascending (Fig. S-2). If water visibility is poor
the inspector may have to ascend and descend on the
same pile.
When the inspector
is without
communication to the surface and a defectis found
he should surface immediately, report it, and then
return to the point of the defect to continue the
inspection.
When the inspector is line tended or using surfacesupplied equipment, he must move from side to side
to keep the lines free. Other aspects of the pier
inspection procedure are the same as when using
scuba.
S-2.4 Cells, Cofferdams
Schematic representation.
inspecting a pile bent,
3. SPECIAL
TESTING,
EXAMINATION
of a diver
LEVEL
111
General
The types of testing described in this section are

among those which may also be used for Level III
examinations.
Level Ill examinations are employed
when Level I and Level II examinations
cannot
conclusivelydetermine
the structural condition of the
underwater items. Findings of previous inspections
or the age of the structure may also dictate the level
of examination needed.
A Level Ill examination is
not required for all inspections.
5-3.2
and Bulkhead
The inspection procedure for cells, cofferdams, and

bulkhead is similar as for piers, The inspector should
also note the presence, size and condition of any riprap
placed at the base of these units,
and any indication of
.
scour.
Steel
In steel structures, the inspector is often concerned

with measuring the remaining thickness of corroded
members. This can be done with a graduated scale,
caliper and ultrasonic thickness measuring devices.
Weld testing methods, although not commonly used
for underwater bridge inspection, include magnetic
particle testing and radiography.
a. Graduated Scales. For measuring the exposed
edges of flanges, a rule, or graduated scale is the
most basic tool. It is not very precise, however, and
should be used. only for approximate measurements.
Its a&racy
is limited by the divers vision and its
43
Figure S-3 Calipers

use is limited to exposed
edges.
Figure 5-4 Waterproof

member
surfaces
D-Meter
and
b. Calioers.
Another simple method of thickness
measuring is to use a set of calipers (Fig. 5-3).
Calipers are compact and easy to use under most
conditions.
A disadvantage,
however, is that they
cannot take direct measurements of sheet piling or
webs of H-piles. To obtain direct measurements of
(. :. *,
cheet piles. holes could be drilled in the member. The
same drilled hole method could be used to measure
the web of H-piles, or a special large set of calipers
could be fabricated that would provide clearance
around the H-pile flanges.
c. Ultrasonic Measurina Devices. Ultrasonic devices
are also available for measuring remaining steel
thickness. The device sends a sound wave through the
member. It then measures the travel time of the sound
wave and calculates the thickness of the steel. An
advantage to this device is that it only needs a
transducer to be placed on one side of the member.
The thickness of the steel is displayed on an LED
display. To use the ultrasonic thickness measuring
device underwater, the diver must clean a small area
of the steel of marine growth and any loose protective
coatings or scale. If the steel is very rough or badly
pitted, it may be difficult to obtain accurate
measurements.
* There are, however,
special
transducers that can be used to overcome this
problem.
figure
5-5
Waterproof transducer for an ultrasonic

thickness measuring device.
can also be placed inside a waterproof

completely submerged.
housing.and
be
d. Maanetic Particle Testing. Magnetic particle testing

detects flaws in steel and welds. The process involves
inducing a magnetic field in the object to be tested. A
liquid suspension containing a fluorescent dye and
ferro-magnetic particles is appiied to the area. If a flaw
is present, the particles flow along the flaw.
Underwater magnetic particle testing is most commonly 1
used during inspections of shore structures. This test
method is not commonly used for bridge inspections
because it is difficult to implement in flowing water and
because off -the-shelf underwater testing devices are not
available.
The area to be examined must also be
carefully cleaned to obtain good results.
There are two types of devices ultrasonic thickness

measuring devices available.
One type is totally
submersible and the diver must record or relay the
measurements to the surface (Fig. 5-4). The second
type has a waterproof transducer and cable which are
carried below water.while the electronics and display
remain on the surface (Fig. 5-5). These units, however,
e. Radioaraohy.
Radiography is the use of X-rays to
photograph the interior of a member. A film cassette
is placed on one side of a member and a radiographic
44
I ,:
+?z$;#~ .~'i."&p;~> ! ! j /
,.
Tne ilim IS developed and

This
interpreted
bj8 a technician at the surface
technique Is expensive and not commonly used in
bridges
jCJ,r"2 ..-
27
:?,e
The V-meter measures the time II takes a sound Nave

t0 PaSS through a material. Location of discontinuities
in the material, such as cracks and voids are
determined by abnormal velocities.
Data has to be
interpreted by a trained technician.
i;tf-er
.
t1
b. Schmidt Hammer
The Schmidt Hammer is a
mechanical device which measures the compressive
strength of in-place concrete. For underwater use the
hammer is placed within a housing and the equipment
modified somewhat, including a special scale (Fig 5-6)
To use the hammer, the diver piaces it on the concrete

surface and presses against the spring loaded plunger
until a mass within the hammer is released causing an
impact.
The inspector estimates the concretes
strength with the data from this test.
Figure 5-6 V-meter with waterproof
Figure 5-7 2ositioning

5-3.3
of transducers
c. R-Meter. The R-meter can determine

the location
of reinforcing steel within concrete and measure its
cables
for V-meter
depth. of cover and size. The meter accomplishes this
by inducrng a magnetic field within the concrete.
R-Meters must be modified for underwater use (Fig. 5
9). This method of testing is of limited use for heavily
reinforced structures where it is difficult to obtain depth
readings of individual bars.
Concrete
Se,,,era! : 3 -A,e&uc!ive
tests can be performed on
C=inCrg:+
n;;\e~er.
the
nondestructive
testing
;l;j:-;-=~~
-bst be modified for undewater use.
I j
a V-t,Ae?er. The V-meter is an ultrasonic testing device.

Usng clitrasonics to check the condition of materials
such as concrete requires two transducers (Fig. 5-6).
When taking measurements,
the transducers can be
arranged in three different positions (Fig. S-7). The
direct transmission method provides the most accurate
data. The semi-direct and indirect methods require
correction factors to interpret the data.
d. COlinQ. Coring is a partially destructive test method.

It can be used alone or to verify and correlate data
from nondestructive
test methods.
Pneumatic and
hydraulic coring equipment
can be adapted for
underwater use. Cores obtained underwater can be
tested in a laboratory in accordance
with standard
procedures.
45
.. .
Figure S-8 Waterproof
Schmidt Hammer
Figure 5-9 Modified R-Meter
S-3.4 Timber
Partially destructive testing of timber by coring and

boring can be accomplished with hand, pneumatic,
and hydraulic tools. Samples of the pile material can
be obtained by coring, but the process is rather slow
and costly. Boring a hole in the timber and probing
the inside of the pile with a thin, hooked rod to
determine if there are voids due to decay or marine
borers is usually more cost-effective.
After taking the
core or drilling, the hole should be plugged with a
treated hardwood dowel.
Until recently testing of timber underwater has generally

been limited to visual inspections, sounding with a
hammer and using an ice pick to probethe timber. An
ultrasonic method, which is now a proprietary product
of one company for in-place testing of timber, was
developed
in the 1950s by British Columbia
Laboratories and has also been used.
in about 1979, following the partial failure of timber
piles supporting a bridge that had previously been
visually inspect&, the University of Maryland developed
a non-destructive ultrasonic wave propagation method
of determining the in-situ residual strength of timber
piling.
The, testing equipment
consists of a
commerciallyavailableultrasonicnondestructivedigital
tester and two transducers,
each mounted in 3
waterproof case, with an operating frequency of 54
kHz. It provides a means of producing ultrasonic
pulses in a timber pile and measuring the time for
passage of the sound across the pile. From tests
made on numerous timber pile sampies, both in the
laboratory and the field, the study developed empirical
formulas to estimate the residual strength of timber
piles. The empirical formulas were developed from a
band of data, and engineering judgment must be used
when evaluating a particular structure to select average
*strength values consistent
with the engineers
confidence in the data obtained. Care must also be
used in evaluating the data when internal marine borer
attack is present. The cost of an ultrasonic meter and
transducers are in the range of $5,000 to $7,000. For
further information, refer to the FHWAs lnsoection of
Bridae Timber Piling, Publication FHWA-iP-89-017.
Every underwater inspection of timber

include representative
measurements
diameter. Losses of timber section due
decay, or insect or marine borer attack
readily detected by visual means alone.
SECTION
5-4.1
4. DOCUMENTATION
Communication
The methods a diver uses to communicate

his
findings depends on diving conditions. The majority
of bridge inspections, that is, those in shallow water
with little damage, can be conducted with the diver
reporting notes at the surface. In deep water, swift
current or where there are extensive notes to report
it may be desirable
tc have diver-to-&face
communication.
This allow; :cle diver to concentrate
his efforts on obtaining ins ?tion data, and results
of the condition of the
in a more accurate descripstructure.
46
piles should
of the pile
to abrasion,
may not be
ohs can be of great value since they can

heip an inspector
his findings.
communicate
in~to~g~pns of defects are useful in preparing repair
plans can be used as part of the repair bid documents,
and may assist in obtaining funding for repair work
Still pho!Ggra
Certa!n conditions
will limit or prevent use of
photography.
Dark water may require the use of a
clearaater box although strong river currents may
preclude its use. Refer to Chapter 4 for a discussion
of various types of photography equipment.
S-4.3 Video
Underbarer video can provide documentation
for an
entire inspection or for selected areas. Video systems
with a surface monitor can facilitate communication
bePveen inspector and note-taker.
Self-contained
systems also provide good documentation
at low cost.
A monitor
on the surface is necessary
if an
inexperienced or unqualified inspector is performing
the di,ding ,work This allows an engineer on the surface
* to see the same area as the diver and to view what the
d!,,er is describing
Tne use of wdeo can be cumbersome.
It requires a
larger seaport operation and has limited use in strong
curren!s. if tne di\er must fight to maintain position,
hold a camera. and describe a defect.
Refer to
Cnap!er 4 for a discussion of various types of video
equipment
47
,CHAPTER Vi
SCOUR INVESTIGATIONS.
banks of str&ms. Different materals scour ai cYer??t

rates. Loose granular soils are tapidly &c&c
seer
water action while cohesive or cemented so~is-are -xre
scour resistant. Ultimate scour in cohesive or cemented
soils. however, can be as deep, or deeper than scour ;n
sand bed streams. Scour will reach its maxmum se$n
in sand and grave/ bed materials in hours. cohes:.exc
materiils in days: glacial tills, sandstones and sMes ;I:
months; limestones in years and dense granites in
centuries.
Massive rock formations
wnh few
discontinuities can be highly resistant to scour and
erosion during the lifetime of a typical bndge
SECTION 1. BACKGROUND
The most common cause of bridge failures stems from
Roods. and scouring of bottom material around bridge
foix!a!cns
IS the most common cause of damage to
bridges during flocds. During the Spring floods of 1987.
I 7 bridges in New York and New England were damaged
In i 385. 73 bridges were
or destroyed by scour.
destroyed by flocds in Pennsylvania. Virginia, and West
Virgina. A I 973 study for the FHWA of 383 bridge failures
caused by catastrophtc floods showed that 25 Percent
involved pier damage and 72 percent invdved abutment
damage A second, more extensive. study made In 1978
tnd,ca!ed locai scour at bridge piers to be a problem
problems.
a3cR eoual to abc;?ment scour
Inspectors need to carefully study site-specific information

in evaluating scour potential at bridges.
62.2
5~cge scour evaii;a!rons should be conducted for each

zje l:- cetarmne whether rt is scour critical. A scour
cr.xa bncge is one w$h abutment or pier foundations
,n?ch are :a!& as unstable due to (1) observed scour
a: :he brdge sfie or (21 a scour potentral as determrned
km a scoiir evaluation study.
bri~2
SECTICN 2.
62. l
Total S,cour
Total scour at a highway crossing is comprised of :?ree

components: aggradation and degradation. contraction
scour and local scour. These components are descrxx!
in detail below. *
Aaaradation 3nd Dearadation.
These are long !ern
streambed er.ation
changes due to natural or Iran
induced causes within the reach of the jver on which !?e
brdge is located. Aggradation involves the deposition of
mar--al eroded from other sections of a stream v+heras
degradation invdves the lowering or scouring of the xd
of a stream.
aASlC COt$XPTS
AND
DEFlNlTlONS OF SCOUR
General
Scour .s :+e result of the erosive action of running water,

ex~~ai.~g. and carrying away material from the bed and
Long term bed elevation changes may be the na?ura

trend of the stream or may be the result of some
modification to stream or watershed conditions. The
streambed may be aggrading, degrading or not changing
(i.e.. in equilibrium) ,in the bridge crossing reach The
state of change of the streambed, i.e.. aggradation.
degradation, or equilibrium, is consdered in terms of iOn2
Ti-xs rnapter !s based primarily on FHWA Technical

Advsoq. Scour at Bridae$ and publication RD7,8-162.
Countermeakures
for Hydraulic Problems at Bridges.
?onionsof these pubiications are reproduced
here with
I
Xe or no change.
49
general scour is called contrac:ion sCobr 7-e dxc:ease

in flow area or channel width may be natil~ity xc2mng
or may be Caused by the bridge. General scour can also
be caused by short term (daily, weekly, yearty or
seasonal) changes in the downstream water surface
ekvation that controls the backwater and hence the
velocity through the bridge opening. Because thts scour
is reversible, it is induded in general scour rather than in
long term scour. If the bridge is located on or dose to a
bend, the comxntratior\ of the flow on the outer pan of
the channei can erode the bed.
:erm trercs. as opposed :o :he cutting at-d filling of the

bed of the stream that might occur during a runoff event
(general scour).
A stream may cut and fill during a runoff
event as well as have a long term trend of an increase or
decrease in bed devation.
Factors that affect long term bed elevation changes
indude: dams and reservoirs (upstream or downstream
of the bridge), changes in watershed
land use
(urbanization. deforestation, etc.), channefization, cutoffs
of meander bends (natural or man-made), changes in the
downstream base level (contrd) of the bridge reach.
gravel mining from the stream&d, diversion of water into
or out of the stream, natural lowering c4 the total system,
movement of a bend, bridge location in reference to
stream platform and stream movement in relation to the
crossing.
General Scour and Contraction Scour. This type of scour
involves the removal of material from the bed and banks
across all or most of the width of a channel. General
scour can result from a contraction of the flow, a change
in downstream control of the water surface elevation, of
the lOCation of the bridge in relation to a bend. In each
case. the scour is caused by increased velocities and
The most
resulting increased bed shear stresses.
common form of general scour at a bridge is caused by
the approach embankments to the bridge encroaching
onto the floodplain or into the main channel with resulting
contractlon of the flow. This type of general scour is
commonly known as contraction scour (Fig. 6-l).
I Figure 62 Contraction scour.

General scour can be cydic. During a runoff event. the
bed scours with the rise in stage (increasing discharge)
and fills on the falling stage (deposition).
Figure Ql
General scour from a contraction occurs when the flow

area d a stream is decreased from the normal either by
a natural constrfctiin orby a bridge. With the decrease
In flow area there is an increase in average vdocity and
bed shear stress. Hence, there is an increase in stream
General scour.
General scour at a bridge can be caused by a decrease

in flow area or an increase in velocity. This form of
50
pwer
3 Ye :Y:3Scn
and more bed material IS

:r.rzlign ?he contracted
reach than is
i:ans;?cced
into the reach. The increase in ttinSfXXt of
!xd -.a:erdl lowers the bed eWation.
As the bed
eeiat,-r:
s :swered. the flow area increases and the
~docq
arC sheaf stress decrease until equilibrium
beween the bed marerial that is transported into the
reach IS equal to that which IS transported out of the
fa;?C?.
to a minor ;;art of ;he tic: of 3 z-.ar.,r+ -- 5 =:,occursaround peers. abutments. Stuf arc a~=-. -+-:s
and is mused by the accderatlor, of :?e 43.~ a~ :-e
development
of vortex systems inCtic=
c! r-2
obstructions to the flow (Fig. 63).
transwrec!
The basic mechanism causing local scour at a oIsr or

abutment is the formation of vortices at their 3asz 7%
formation of these vonices resufts from the piiecg of tiater
on the upstream face and the subsequent acc&eraitor sf
the flow around the nose c4 the pier or embankment
The
action of the vortex removes bed ,rrMeMls from the base
region If the transport rate of sediment away horn tr,e
local region is greater than the transport rate 1nr3 the
region, a scour hde develops. As the depth of scour s
increased, the strength of the vortex or vortices IS
reduced; the tmnspon mate is reduced and an eou~libr~;n
is reestabished and scouring ceases.
The conrziction of Row at ?he bridge Can be caused by

a decrease in flow area of the stream channel by the
abutments projecting into the channd, or the piers taking
up a large portion of the flow area (Fig. 82). Also, the
contraction can be caus.& by the apprwches to the
brdge Wting off the overland flow that normally goes
ac:oss the 4c&plain during high flow. This latter case
causes clear-aster scour at the bridge Section because
the overland Row norrr@lly does not transport any bed
matenat sediments. This clear water picks up additional
sediment from the bed when it returns to the bridge
crossing. In addition. if it returns to the stream channel
at an abutment, n increases the local scour there. A
guise bank at that abutment decreases the risk from
scour to that abutment from this returning over-bank flow
Also. relief brtdges in the approaches: by decreasing the
amount of flow returning to the natural channel. decrease
!?e scour probiem at the bridge cross section.
Cther factors that can cause scour are: (1) a natural
stream cons:nc:ron:
(2) long approaches over the
flocddain to the bridge: (3) ice formation or jams: (4)
berms formed along the banks by sediment deposits: (5).
isiand or bdr formations upstream or downstream of the
trld~e opening
(6) debris: and (7) the growth of
;ege:ation In the chantW or floodplain.
Figure 93
Local scour.
With a pier, in addition to the vortex around the &se

which is called the horseshoe vonex. there is a vertic~i
vortex downstream of the pier, which is tailed !ne ..a-~
vortex. (Fig. 6-4).
Ge?eral sc,?tir of the bridge owning may be concentrated

in one area !f the bridge is located on or dose to a bend
:he scour Ail! be concentrated on the outer part of the
rn a::. there may be deposition on the inner
bed.
POCiOC
zf :CS bend. further concentrating the flow. which
increases !he sc: ;t at the outer part cd the bend. Also
at bends the tha~.eg (the part of the stream where the
flow or ~velccity is largest) wiii shift toward the center of
the stream as the flow increases. This can increase scour
and the non- uniform. distributii
of tnq scour in the
I _
bridge opening.
Both vonices
remove. material around the ;;isr
Immediately downstream of a long pier, hov&er. :r%
is often deposition of material (Fig. 6-5).
There
are two conditions of local scour: clear-water scour
. 1~,.l-.i
and livebed s&r:- b&%&r
scour occurs when there
is no movement of the bed r&ate&i of the s:?am
upstream of the crossing, but the accderation of the tf~~
and vortices created by the piers or abutments causes :V
Local Scour This type of scour invdves removal of

materal from the channel bed or banks and is restricted
51
length of the Pier: (4) depth of fiow (,j! keicc,:,
;f ::e
approach flow: (6) size of the bed material. (7) anS;e of

attack of the approach flow to the pier or abutmen: ;,zr
shape of the pier or abutment;
(10) ice
formation
(9) bed configl;ra:,on
or jams. and (1 1) debris.
The width of a pier has a direct effect on the decth of

scour. For example, an increase in pier width causes
an increase in scour depth.
Withan increase in the projected length of an abutment

into the flow there is an increase in scour There IS.
however, a limit on the increase in scour depth with an
increase in length. This limit is reached when the ratio
of the projected iength into the stream to the depth of
the approaching flow is 25.
Figure 6-4 Schematic representation

cylindrical pier.
Pier length has no appreciable effect on scour depth as

long as the pier is lined up with the fiow. If the pier IS
at an angle to the Row, however, the length has a very
large effect. At the same angle of attack, doubling the
length of the pier increases scour depth 33 percent.
Flow depth has a direct effect on scour depth. An
increase in flow depth can increase scour depth by a
factor of 2 or larger for piers. With abutments the
increase is from 1.1 to 2.15 depending on the shape of
the abutment.
of scour at a
Velocity of the approach flow increases

The greater the velocity the deeper the
There is also a high probability that the
i.e., whetiler the flow is tranquil or rapid
supercritical). will affect ttie scour depth.
Figure 65
Scour hole and downstream

of material shown in dry.
scour death.
scour depth.
state of flow,
(subcritical or
deposition
material at their base to move. Live-bed scour occurs

*hen the bed material upstream of the crossing is also
moving.
local scour are: (1) width of the pier:

length of the abutment into the flow; (3)
Factors affecting
(2) project&
. figure
52
6-6 Debris increasing
width of pier.
tee -aterlar h :he sand sze ,<,.

range has
no effect o r scour deo!h
Larger size bed material if
fi wiil oe mob& by the approaching
flow or by the
vonices ard turbulence
created by !he pter or
abutmen?. WI; not affect the ultimate or maximum scour
bu! onlj ihe :lme it takes to reach it. Very iarge
panicles in tne bed material. cobbles or boulders. may
armor piate !he scour hole
The size of the bed
ma!enal aiso determines whether the scour at a pier
or abutmen: is clear-water or live-bed scour.
Tie
j,zs
;i
:-5
Fi.he bed material (sits and ciays) will have scour

desms as deep or deeper than sand bed streams This
IStrue even if bonded together by cohesion The effect
0 cohesion is to determine the time rt takes to reach
the maximum scour
With sand bed material. the
maximum depth of scour IS measured in hours With
cohesive bed material. it may take days, months. or
ever: years to reach the maximum scour depth
Angle of attack of the flow to the abutment or pier has
a large effect on local scour as was pointed out In the
dscusston of the effect of pier length above.
Wl!h
abi;:ments.
the depth of scour is reduced
for
embankments angled downstream and is increased if
the embankments are angled upstream. The maximum
depth of scour at an embankment inclined 45 degrees
downstream is reduced by 20 percent, whereas the
scour at an embankment inclined 45
upstream is increased about 10 percent.
Ges'?eS
end of prers rmuces :ne strengty oi :-e .*.a.+ , :y 525

A square-nose pier WIII have Y&!-L
jcc,- csc:-s
about 20 percent greater than a sharz-.ncse c a* a-c . :
percent greater
than a Cyilndrlcai or o,-C.*>se
c aAbutments with vemcal walls on the ~;*?a- s :a 3-2
upstream side will have scour depths abol;t :c~o,e :-x
of sp~li slope abutments.
Bed configuration affects the magnitlico of ;ocal scoir
In streams wtth sand bed material the shaoe of :re
bed (bed configuratron) may be rooies dues
oNaTe
bed and antidunes. The bed configuratton ~cebehcs cp
the size distribution of the sand oed matera!
7%
conditions, and fluid viscosity The bed co?! ;,:a: cr
may change from dunes to plane bed or a%:;-es
during an increase in flow. It may change bacK )ri:f: a
decrease in flow. The bed configurarioh
-a? also
change with a change in water temperature cr 2:ar;e
T7.e .z;e,j
In concentration
of silts and clays
configuration and any change in bed configs:a::on ,w~,l
affect flow velocity, sediment transport and scour
Ice and debris, by increasing the wdth of piers
changing the shape of peers and abutmerts
incieas8rg
the projected length of an abutment or causing the flow
to plunge downward against the bed can Increase oath
local and contraction
scour. The mar;?!tuce of !ne
increase is still largely undetermined
but can be as
much as IO or 20 feet (Fig. 6-6).
. In addition to the types of scour mentioned above,
lateral movenient or shifting of the stream may a&c
erode the approach roadway to the bridge or change
the total scour by changing the angle of the flow in the
waterway at the bridge crossing (Fig. 6-7). Factors !hat
affect lateral movement and the stability of a brioge are
the geomorphoiogy
of the stream, location of !he
crossing on the stream. flood characteristics. and the
characteristics of the bed and bank materials
SECTION 3. EVALUATlrjG THE VULNERABILIN

OF EXISTING @RIDGES ~0 scouR
Figure
57
Lateral scour.
The pier
scour
reduces
reduces
or abutment shape has a significant effect on

With a pier, streamlining the upstream nose
the strength of the horseshoe vortex which
scour depth.
Streamlining the downstream
63.1
General
Bridges over streams subject to scour should be

evaluated to determine their vulnerability to floods and
Th,s
to determine whether they are scour Crlfcal
assessment or evaluatCon should be conducted bf 3
a. Bridges currently exoerlenclng scoLr 3;

that have a history of scour proolems
interdsc.sc,nary team of orofessionai engineers who

can make :he necessary engineering judgments
to
decide:
making
bridge
past floods as identif;ec !rDm

records and exoerlence
inspection records. souro~ngs
maintenance
bridge
etc.
priorities for
evaluations
the scope of the scour evaluations to

be performed in the office and in the
field;
whether or not a bridge is vulnerable to
SCOW
1. piers and abutments
which alternattie scour countermeasures
2. superstructures with simple spans or

non-redundant support systems that
b. Bridges over streams with ercdible beds

or design features that make
vulnerabie to scour including
scour damage: i.e., whether the bridge

is a scour critical bridge;
may
sepve to make
vulnerable
a bridge
or invulnerable;
which countermeasure
is most suitable
and cost-effective for a given bridge;
priorities
for
countermeasures;
monitoring
installing
and
and inspection
for scour critical bridges.
the scour
evaluation
spread
footings
foundations;
less
or
them
designed
shoR
with
pile
render them vulnerable to collapse II-I

the event of foundation movement.
and
scour
schedules
The factors to be considered in a scour evaluation

require.a broader scope of study and effort than those
consdered in a bridge inspection. Whereas the major
purpose of the bridge inspection is to identify changed
conditions which may reflect an existing or potential
problem.
during
3. bridges with inadequate waterway

openings
or with designs that
collect ice and debris.
Particular
attention
should
be given to
structures where there are no relief
or
embankments
for
bridges
overtopping,
and where all water
must pass through or over the
structure.
c. Bridges on aggressive streams
waterways including those with,
is an engineering
and
assessment of what might possibly happen in the future

and what steps can be taken now to eliminate or
minimize future damage.
1. active degradation or aggradation

the streambed;
2. significant
lateral movement
erosion of stream banks;
69.2
3.
The Evaluation
Process
Compile a list of those bridges with actual

or potential
problems
with
scour.
Structures that are candidates for this
categov
in the
5. histories of having been damaged

during past floods.
scour:
STEP 1:
or
steep slopes or high velocities;
4. gravel or mining operations

vicinity of the bridge; and
The following approach is recommended

regarding
tne development
and implementation
of a program
to assess the vulnerability
of existing bridges to
of
d. Bridges located on stream reaches

with adverse
flow characteristics
including:
include:
54
ZTZSSipgS near stream confluences,

escec:ally
bridge
crossngs
of
tributary
near
their
streams
cz:f!uer;ce
with iarger streams:
2 crossings
on sharp
stream and
3
ccations
bends
evaluations.
established
following:
a.
in a
on alluvial fans.
P: or::.ze?he list compiled in Step 1, using

the following factors as a guide:
The ultimate
program are:
classification
of the
k The functional
h,gkway
on which the bridge
is
located. and the effect of a bridge
collapse on the safety of the travelling
public and on the operation
of the
c.erall transponation
system for the
area or region
;nstallation
P_ _I-:e9eas;;res.
of
scour
SECTION
:: = Z?S for inspecting

scour critical
zrdges during and after flood events
and for blocking traffic if necessary
;intil scour
countermeasures
are
ins?alled.
6-4.1
scour
evaluation
to review all bridges over scourable

streams in theNational Bridge lnventoq:
to determine those foundations

NW?
arestablefor estimated scour condrt!ons
and those which are not;
to provide for frequent lnsoectlons of

scour critical bridges during and a!!e!
Hood events until adequate
scl;:
countermeasures
are instailed
to install scour countermeasures

timely manner
4.
SCOUR
in a
INSPECTIONS
General
- to accurately record
condition
55
of this
There are two main objectives to be acc2m;);;shed

in inspecting bridges for scour:
A4er completing the scour evaluations for

the iist of bridges compiled in Step 1, the
:e,ma:nlng waterway bridges included in
the brdge inventory should be evaluated.
in order to provide a logical sequence for
accompilshing the remaining bridge scour
I.
objectives
;cr bridges identified as scour critical.

IStep 3). de!ermine a plan of action for
,monitoring
and correcting
the scour
;r:::;r?
including,
a T-s{
Bridges.
based
On. the fc;nC!iOral
classification of the highway on wn~cn
the bridge is located, Wh hlgr,es:
priorities assigned to anerial hlgh-aays
and lOWeSt priornies to local roads and
streets.
b. Bridges that serve as vital links n :ne

transportatron networkand whcsefalige
could adversely affect area or :eg!3nal
traffic operations.
(,
a The potential for bridge collapse or for

damage to the bridge in the event of
a major flood.
Conduc! field and office scour evaluations

of the bridges on the prioritized
list
deveioped
in Step
2. using
an
l~!erd:scI$inary
team
of structural,
b,,rauiic. a,nd seotechnical
engineers.
another bridge :!s: SroLic ce

glvlng pnonty stat;s to :r;e
the oresent
of the bridge and the stream
to identify conditions
that are indicat:;,e

with scour and
stream stability for further review a-d
evaluation by othek
of potent%1 problems
tnese objectives
the
in oroer :o accornplsh
inspector needs to recognize and understand
the
interrelationship
between the bridge, the stream. and
the flooc!piain.
Typically, a bridge spans the main
chanhel of a stream and perhaps a ponron of the
floodp!aln
The roadway approaches
to the bridge
&en
are constructed
on embankments
which
obstruc! flows on the floodplaln.
This over-bank or
fioodslaln flow must, :herefore, return to the stream
at the bridge or overtop the approach
roadways.
Where over-bank flow is forced to return to the main
channel at the bridge, zones of turbulence
are
es:ablished and scour is likely to occur at the bridge
abutments.
Further, piers and abutments
may
present obstacles to flood flows in the main channel,
creating conditions for local scour because of the
turbulence
around the foundations.
After flowing
through the bridge. the floodwaters will expand back
to the floodplain,
creating
additional
zones of
turbulence and scour.
The following
sections present guidance
for the
bridge
inspectors
use
in developing
an
understandlng
of the overall flood flow patterns at
each bridge inspected;
and in rating the present
condition of the bridge and the potential for damage
from scour.
When an actual or potential scour
problem is identified
by a bridge inspector,
the
bridge
should be funher
evaluated
by an
inierdisciplinary
team using the approach discussed
aaoie.
6-4.2
Office
Review
It is desirable to make an office review of bridge

pians and previous
inspection
reports
prior to
making the mdge inspection.
information
obtained
from the office review provides a better basis for
inspec?ing the bridge and the stream.
items for
ccnsideration
in the office review include:
.
Has an engineering
study been made?
scour critical?
6-4.3
What do compar;sons
of streamoeo
cross-sections iaken during successive
inspections
reveal
about
the
streambed?
is it stable? Degrading?
Aggrading?
Moving laterally7
Are
there scour holes around piers arid
abutments?
What equipment
is needed to obtain
streambed cross-sections (Rods, poles.
sounding lines, depth sounders. etc )3
Are
there
sketches
and
aerial
photographs
to indicate the plan form
location of the stream and whether the
main channel is changing dir.ection at
the bridge?
What type of bridge foundation

was
constructed
(Spread footings. piles.
drilled
shafts,
etc.)?
Do
the
foundations appear to be vulnerable to
scour?
Do special conditions exist requiring

particular methods and equipment for
underwater inspections (Divers. boats.
electronic gear for measuring stream
bottom and infilling, etc.)
Are there special items that should be

inspected?
Examples might include
damaged riprap, stream channel at
adverse angle of flow, and problems
with debris.
Field inspection
During the bridge inspection, the condition of the

bridge waterway
opening,
substructure.
channel
protection,
and scour countermeasures
should be
evaluated along with the condition
of the stream.
The inspector must observe and record conditions
at the bridge,
upstream
of the bridge,
and
downstream
of the bridge.
.
scour evaluation
If so, is the bridge
- I if the bridge is scour critical. has a

plan
of action
been
made
for
monitoring
the bridge and installing
scour countermeasures?
56
Upstream
Conditions
Upstream
conditions
to be observed
include:
a.
Banks
1. Stable
2. Unstable
b.
Natural vegetation, trees,

ban& staMization measures
sucly as riprap, paving,
,gabions,
channel
stabilization measures such
as dikes and groins.
Bank
sloughing,
undermining, evidence of
lateral movement, damage
to stream
stabilfzation
installations, etc.
3. Aggrading or degrading streambed; and

4. Evidence of movement of channel with
respect to bridge (make sketches, take
pictures).
Floodplain
of
significant
flow
on
Conditions
at bm
Extent
of debris
in upstream
Substructurg
of movement
of piers and
rotational movement
plumb line).
(check
with
settlement
(check
lines
of
substructure
and superstructure,
bridge rail, etc. for discontinuities;
check for structural cracking or
spalling).
check bridge seats and bearings for

excessive movement.
2. damage
to, scour countermeasures
protecting
the foundations
(riprap,
guidebanks (spur dikes), sheet piling,
sills, etc.):
2. Floodplain flow patterns

(Does flow
overtop road and/or return to main
channel?);
3. changes in streambed
foundations (undermining
exposure of piles); and
3. Existence and adequacy of waterway

opening of relief bridges (If relief bridges
are obstructed,
they will affect flow
paftems at the main channel bridge):
elevation at
of footings.
4. changes in streambed cross section at

bridge including location and depth of
scour holes.
4. Extent of fioodplain development and

any obstruction to flows approaching
the bridge and its approaches: and
In order to note the conditions of the foundations, the

inspector should take cross sections of the stream,
noting location and condition of stream banks. Careful
measurements should be made of scour holes at piers
and abutments including probing soft material in scour
holes to determine the location of firm bottom.
5.. Evidence of overtopping approach roads

(debris, erosion of embankment slopes,
damage to riprap or pavement, etc).
57
Other Feature8
Existence of upstream
tributaries, bridges dams, or other features,
that may affect flow COnditiOns
at bridge.
1. evidence
abutment;
2. Existence of islands, bars, debris, cattle

guards, fences that may affect flow;
floodplain;
8.
a.
Main Channel
__I ,,-. ;:
1. Evidence
Debriq
channel.
The following items should be considered in inspecting

the present condition of bridge foundations
and
adjacent conditions.
1. Clear and open with good approach

flow conditions,
or meandering
or
braided with main channel at an angle
to the orientation of the bridge;
C.
d.
b.
Suoerstructure
approach roads regularly overtopped7

If
Waterway opening i9 inadequate, does this
augment the scour potential at bridge
foundations?.
of- overtopping
by
Evidence
floodwaters
(Is
superstructure
a?chored to substructure to prevent
displacement durjng,f!oods?);
Obstruction
to flood flows
collect debris or present
surface to the flow?); and
(Does it
a large
Channel
Protection
Counrermeasures
and
Conditiorq
Downstream
conditions
a.
Design (ts superstructure vulnerable to

coilapse in the event of foundation
movement as are simple spans and
non-redundant
designs
for load
transfer?).
c.
mwnstream
b.
2. Guidebanks
(spur
dikes).
(Are
guidebanks in place? Have they been
damaged by scour and erosion?); and
3.. Stream and Streambed (Is main current
striking the piers and abutments at an
angle; is there evidence of scour and
erosion of streambed
and, banks,
especially
adjacent
to piers and
abutments?
Has stream cross section
chang& since last measurement?
If
so, in what wafl).
d.
Natural vegetation, trees, bank

stabilization measures such as
riprap, paving, gabions, channel
stabilization measures such as
dikes and groins.
2. Unstable
I. Riprap (Is riprap adequately toed-in or

is it being undermined
and washed
away? Is riprap pier protection intact,
or has riprap been removed and
replaced by bed load material? Can
displaced riprap be s&n in streambed
below bridge?);
include:
Banks
1. Stab4e
Scour
to be obser&
Bank sloughing, undermining,

evidemeof lateral mwement,
damage
to. stream
stabilization installations, etc.
Main Channej
1. Clear and
coixfitians
with bends,
and fences
open with good getaway

or meandering or braided
islands, bars. cattle guards,
that retard and obstruct flow.
2. Aggrading
or degrading
streambed.
3. Evidence of downstream movement of

channel with respect to the bridge (make
sketches and take pictures.)
c
Fiooddain
1. Clear and open so that contracted flow
at bridge will return smoothly
to
floodpiain, or restricted and Mocked by
dikes, developments, trees, debris, or
other obstructions;
Watelwav Area
Does waterway area.
appear small in relation to stream and its
floodplain?
Is there evidence of scour
across a large portion of the streambed at
the bridge? Do bars, islands, vegetation.
and debris constrict flow and concentrate
it in. one section of the bridge or causeit to
Do the
attack piers and abutments?
superstructure,
piers, abutments, fences,
etc. collect debris and constrict flow? Are
2. Evidence of scour and erosion dueto

downstream turbulence. .
d
58
gther Feature
Downstream dams or
confluences with larger stream which may
cause variable tailwater depths. (This may

create conditions for high veMty flow
through bridge)
is SUsPended in the water. a sendingirececving device.

and a recording chart whit! displays the depth on
paper (Fig. 6-9). High frequency sound waves
Perhaps the single most Important aspect of inspecting

the bridge for actual of potential damage from scour is
the taking and plotting of measurements of stream
bottom elevations in relation to the bridge foundations.
SECTION 5. SOUNDINGS
65.1
Equipment
The most common equipment used to make soundings

are black and white recording type chart fathometers
(depth sounders), sounding poles, and lead lines. In
small, slow moving streams lead lines can be used to
take soundings from the bridge deck, but generally,
soundings are taken from a boat to permit making
measurements
under the bridge and at distances
upstream and downstream of the bridge. In addiIion,
soundings are difficult to take in fast moving streams
with lines and poles, and may not reflect bottom
conditions if not taken at very close intervals.
Figure b9
Fathometer
transducer
in a small boat. Note

mounted on gunnel.
3. B!ack a.?d White Fathometer.

A black and white
recording fathometer is the most efficient way of
recording depths (Fig. 6-8). The units are compact
and easy to use. They consist of a transducer, which
Figure &8
Fathometer
(Depth sounder).
Figure 610
Typical fathometer
record.
generally in the range of 200 kHt, emitted from the

transducer travel throughthe water until they strike
the channel bottom and are reflected back tO the
transducer.
The fathometer
measures
the time it
takes the sound waves to return to-the transducer
and converts that time to depths of Mter which are
displayed on a graphic recorder in the form of a
continuous plot of the channel bottom (Fig. 6-10).
Most fathometers are readily portable, weighing 5 to
10 pounds including the transducer
and hardware.
They will operate from a boats battery, lantern
batteries, or a self-contained battery pack. They can
be used in large boats, or are easily attached and
detached from small boats.
Most devices have
controls to mark the paper so depths at particular
locations can be designated.
When using one of these devices it is common
practice to verify its operation with a lead line or by
suspending
a calibration
target
beneath
the
transducer prior to sounding the entire bridge.
Although the best time
scour is during a flood,
of the danger involved.
after a flood is also very
can make this difficult.
Figure
6-l 1 Color fathometer.
One of the drawbacks of the color fathometer is that

hard copy
cannot be obtained.
The data can,
however, be stored on video tape and, some models
have direct connections for this purpose.
to obtain the true depth of

this is rarely done because
Data obtained immediately
helpful. Logistics, however,
64.2
The fathometer
provides a profile of the channel
bottom.
It also gives a good indication of scour
activity at piers and abutments.
While it does not
indicate the nature of sub-bottom
material it is
helpful in the interpretation
of data from devices
which do provide sub-bottom
data..
Data Presentation
A common way of performing

and presenting
soundings is in a grid format (Fig. 6-12). Soundings
are taken on lines parallel to the faces of then bridge
and along both sides of the biridge piers. This pattern
Sy using transducers
with different beam angles,
either a small or large area can be monitored at one
time. These units also can locate large submerged
objects, such as barges and trees, which could
influence scour.
b. Color Fathometer.
Color fathometers
are also
available which provide a good representation
of the
channel bottom, and some penetration
into the
substrata (Fig. 6-?l). Materials of diffgrent
densities are displayed as different corers. Studies
by the U.S. Geological
Survey and the Federal
Highway Administration
show that in some soils a
color fathometer candetect
infilling of scour holes,
data impossible
to get with a black and white
fathometer.
Figure 612
60
Sounding
plan showing typical grid.
on the channel upstream a&i

of the bridge, and around each pier. It
provides enough information to plot spot elevations
and contours of the channel bottom at each pier.
Soundings should be taken continuously along these
must be carefully interpreted.

Stepped footings
which extend from the face of the snaft. or jecris
piled against the pier, may suggest that :he channel
bottom is much higher than it really is.
will provide information
downstream
lines.
,.
The soundings can also be presented as char;nel

bottom profiles with the foundation plotted on them
(Fig. 6-13). These provide graphic evidence for
To take soundings on the lines transverse to the

channei, a target system should be established on
shore and used to align the boat. With two targets on
the same shore, the boatman can position the boat so
that the targets are in line. This is usually easier than
trying to stay in position between targets on opposite
banks. If key bridge dimensions are determined before
the soundings are begun, transverse reference with the
bridge can be maintained by siting on floorbeams and
truss panel points.
reports.
SECTION
bb. 1 Visurl
During an underwater
inspection, the diver should
note bottom conditions
adjacent to submerged
foundation elements.
Local scour can generally be
identified by the presence of scour holes near the
upstream end of the unit and a build-up of soil at the
downstream end. He should also note the presence
of debris which can cause local scour.
A much more precise method of locating the soundings

is by use of a transit reading stadia or an electronic
distance
measuring
(EDM) device each time a
This method is, however,
sounding is to be made.
significantly more costly, and the precision obtained is
generally not warranted for this type of work.
The diver should note the type of bottom material

and the presence, location, and size of riprap. The
height of the exposed footing and any undermining
should also be reported. If piles under a footing are
exposed; Ahey should be examined.
In making soundings around the piers, the ends of the

piers and the floorbeams above are used as reference
points. When working close to the piers, the soundings
64.2
rConslruction
6. DIVER INSPECTION
Join?
Tools
The diver may be able to determine if riprap has

been covered over by bottom material by probing
1.he bottom with a steel rod, such as a piece of
reinforcing steel.
The presence of buried riprap and subsoil conditions
can be checked by removing overlying soil. This
may most easily be done with an airlift, a steel or
plastic,pipe,
usually 3 to 8 inches in diameter, with
a !-inch air hose cbnnected near the bottom of the
pipe.
Compressed
air introduced
into the pipe
reduces the density of water as, the air expands. The
rising air and water creates .suction at the bottom of
the pipe which removes the soil; Thee:pense
of the
equipment and manpower required may, however,
make it impractical for most situations.
Figure 613 Profile showing channel bottom relative to

the foundation.
61
SECTIOPJ 7. GEOPHYSlCAL
The color fathometer

has been described above.
Soil borings, gfOund penetrating
radar, and tuned
transducer are described below. A matrix comparing
the geophysical equipment and the black and white
fathometer is shown in Figure 6- 17.
INSPECTION
Scour is most prevalent during a flood, which is the

time when monitoring is most. difficult.
Obtaining
scour measurements
from the .bridge or by boat
during peak flood flows is not recommended
because of the hazardous conditions, complex flow
patterns, presence of drift and debris, and problems
getting personnel to the bridge site.
67.1
Borings
Soil borings can help identify the effects of long-term

scour, the extent of aggradation, degradation, stress
shifting, and contraction scour. Borings also provide
samples which may be tested,
Borings can be
obtained from a barge or, in some cases, the bridge
deck.
After a flood, the stream velocity decreases resulting

in the sediment being redeposited in the scour hole.
The redisposition
is also referred to as infilling.
Since infill material often has a different density than
the adjacent unscoured channel bottom material, the
true ex:snt of scour can be measured by determining
the interface where the density change occurs.
Methods for determining
this include soil borings
with standard testing, cone penetrometerexploration,
and geophysical techniques.
While soil borings can
be accurate they are expensive, time consuming and
do not provide a continuous profile. Less expensive
geophysical methods are available, however, which
,will provide continuous subsurface profiles.
6-7.2
Ground
Penetrating
Radar
Ground penetrating
radar (GPR) can be used to
obtain high resolution,
continuous,
subsurface
profiles on land or in relatively shallow water (less
than 25 feet). This device transmits short, 80 to 1000
MHz, electromagnetic
pulses into thesubsufiace
and
measures the two way travel time for the signal to
return to the receiver.
When the electromagnetic
energy reaches an interface between two materials
with differing physical properties. a portion of the
energy is reflected back to the surface, while some
of it is attenuated and a portion is transmitted to
deeper layers.
The penetration
depth of GPR is
dependent
upon the electrical properties of the
material through which the signal is transmitted and
the frequency of the signal transmitted.
Three geophysical
tools which can be used to
measure scour after infilling occurs are: ground
penetrating radar; tuned transducer or low frequency
sonar: and color fathometer.
Each of these methods
has advantages and limitations.
Highly conductive (low resistivity) materials such as

day materials severely attenuate
radar signals,
Similarly, sediments saturated with or overlain by salt
water will yield poor radar results. Fresh water also
, attenuates the radar signal and limits the use of radar
to sites with less than 25 feet of water. The lower
frequency
signals yield better penetration
but
reducecfresolution,whereashigherfrequencysignals
yield higher resolution and less penetration.
Ground
penetrating
radar
systems
which
include
a
transmitter, receiver, high density tape recorder and
player for storage of records. and antenr,; cost
between $50,000 and S60,oOO (Fig. 6-14).
Figure
6-14
Ground
penetrating
radar equipment.
Figure 6-15 shows a cross section generated by a

. ground penetrating radar signal upstream of a bridge
62
I
ElOBItOYtAL
Figure 615
Typical ground
record.
penetrating
DISTANCI,
Tuned
IN lttt
(A,?BOXIMATX)
of sub-bottom material and when there is a change

in accoustical impedance between two layers. The
major difference
between this device and the
fathometer is frequency. the tuned .transducer uses
lower frequency,signals
(3.5-14 kHt) which yield
better penetration at the expense of resolution (Fig.
6-16). High frequency fathometers
(200 kHz) have
good resolution with little or no penetration.
In fine
grained materials up to 100 feet of penetration can
Transducer
The tuned transducer, or low frequency sonar, is a

seismic
system
which
operates
through
the
transmission and reception of acoustic waves. The
low frequency sonar system consists of a transmitter,
a transducer tewed alongside the boat, a receiver,
and a graphic recorder. The transmitter produces a
sound wave which is directed toward the channel
bottom by the transducer.
A port&: Jf the sound
wave will be reflected back to the transducer by the
channel bottom surface: and a portion of that signal
will penetrate into the sub-bottom material. Portions
of the signal will also be reflected by various layers
1 f
radar
pier.
A scour hole located
at the pier is
approximately
7 feet deeper than the river bottom
base level and 60 to 70 feet wide. Two different
infilled layers can be observed at this location. The
apparent thickness of the infiiled material at the
center of the hole is 3 feet to the first interface and
6 feet to the second interface. Thus, the total depth
of the scour hole, at least at one time, was about 16
feet, not 7 feet as soundings would have indicated.
6-7.3
Figure
6-16 Tuned transducer

receiver. .
transmitter
and
. 8
:
5:
.
.--.m
0
L
be
I
8011~011AL
Figure 617
Typical tuned transducer record
VC~TICAL
10
I@@
I
Dll?A.l(Ct.
I
18
ttlt
srraotartlow x8
,be obtained with a 3 to 7 kHz transducer, while in more

coarse material subsurface penetration may be limited to
a few feet. The tuned transducersystem costs between
S20,OOOand SO,OOO.
Figure
above shcws a cross section record provided
by a
kHz tuned transducer. Thai is the same lo&ion
as the GPR record in Figure 6-15. This record shcws 6
feet of infikd material. The two layers which could be
seen on the radar record are not evident on the tuned
transducer record.
s-17
14
Figure 6-16, fdlowing this page, summarizes the

ctwacteristics and capabilities d the types d scour
investigation equipmentdiscus&
in thii chapter.
64
METHOD:
COl.OR
F---JHO~EJtJ??
-.--_-..
FREOUENCY:
ZO-
TUNED
100 KHz
3.8 -
Mhlmum
ralr
depth 01 6 f-t.
WOIII pondrot*
goao+#l**y
wgankr
Yutllplo rdtootlonomay obyw.
dola.
Dow not protide o hard oopy fund
Llttlr pn&oUon
h cqahed
molutd.
Goodde(hltlal or l oulnmt/ulltu
APPROXlMAl?I
COST:
NOTE:
htmfocr
Accwat*
-mmmt
dapth.
Lwy to laprote.
4 hard copy ol doto
abtohad
ot wtu
h
MOO-UOOO
UUheo 0 amdl trmdlcr
(0 for
h 4anetr)
to Irmmtt
ht@
*eqmcy
aootk
pde*
and
radwe
*de
reflrtd
at
hlufoue
botwm
km
ff
obJwto
.I dfffuhg
oonuoUod
pcop-
f3RlDCE SCOUR
STUDIES:
ENVIRONMENT
8RlDCE SCOUR
STUDIES:
EXPECTED
RESULTS
00 --_
Ahnhchw
UMITATIONS:
ADVANTAGES:
I4 Ktlx
0 - M hot depmdhg
Q) Wqumoy
md ad-bottan
mot~rld.
wu*
pm4uollon
h Cow
gmh.Ll
mulrtal.
PENETRATION:
RESOLUTION:
GROUND
EilbLMJ!L
IEANSQucfB;
May penetrate
anducttw
motutdh
Vdllble
h~acy.
t&y be uud to d&w
w&-bottom
molwlda
and tiatlgophy.
Good h &cp
801~.
May hdkota
aam. ph&.d
popullw
ot wdhlmtr
(I* 4mdty.
pwdt)r
mah Jz.).
Uay pawbut
o~dllcttw
molrlda.
VorkAllo llqualnc~
Uoy br und ta dstie
sub-b&cm
matubla
and 8Cotlgraphy.
Good h &up watr.
A hwd copy of the data Ir obtohti
mm
s2o.wo - uo.ooo
opratw
Cmrllucu
May
dofhe
ahthg
PopOf
Figure 618
wlrn
(chd
0 butable
4 h&w
kequmcy
In 610.)
*hIdI
trollmlto
oowruc
pulw
md
mc&oe
UI. rellutd
e@td from
htutacu
bet*Imv
Q ohm
01 dlttulng
aoauatkd
prop&k
Coaotte
rwxsdhg@
of data-moy
bo
obtahd.
In >S foot
Aauato
wm
of rater.
cpuatw
rlth 0 vorlabk
hDq4oncy
(&out
4 hchr
h da.)
*hkh
trmmlta
acwwtk
puloa and
rcdvw
th. rdoctd
ek#ad fawn
htducoa
ootwm
la
-*k=Q
ol dlttatng
acoudk or ptoptilr.
Cggtt
mwdhgr
01 dolo may 09
trmubcr
In >5 hot of rotr.
hdr
meauuna3t.
-__I---
Matrix
Comparlng
Geophysical
Methods,
from
The
Use of Surface
Gaophplcol
Methods
in Studying
Rlvcrbed
Scour
at Three
Connecticut
River
Brldg,es
In Hartford.
Conneclicul.
Corin,S.H.
ond Hoeni,F.P..
U.S.
Ceologicol
Survey
In cooperotlon
with
the
Federal
Hlghwoy
Admlnlstratlon.
1988.
1.000
PENETRATING
Ylil
CHAPTER
REPAlR:OF
SECTION
7-1.1
UNDERWATER
MEMBERS
time may be requiredsince underwater

done on a smaller scale.
? - INTRODUCTION
construction
is
General
Maintenance
and repair of underwater
bridge
elements, like underwater inspection, has often been
neglected in the past. This, however, is changing as
the number
of underwater
inspections
being
conducted increases.
._
VII
SECTION 2. CONCRETE
7-2.1
- The second option is to use underwater

repair
methods which eliminate the need for -a cofferdam.
The disadvantages of this method are that the quality
of repairs isdifficuli to maintain, quality assurance
inspections must be conducted by a diver, and more
of DiWeaa
Prevention of deterioration and damage

more desirable than repair, dnd begins
and. cpnstruction
of the bridge.
construction inspection, in particular,
future maintenance costs.
Almost any repairs that can be accomplished above

water, can also be made below water, but the work
can be much more expensive and time consuming,
and require specialized equipment.
it is. therefore,
most important before performing repairs that one
fi.rst understand
the causes of the distress.. The
cause of the damage or deterioration may not always
be apparent,
and further investigation
may be
required to determine the cause.
Sometimes far
reaching studies of changes in channel configuration,
testing of samples or changes in the environment
may be necessary.
There are two options for performing repairs: in the

dry, or the wet. For the first option, a cofferdam can
be driven around the pier and dewatered, and the
-.., repair Sjork performed in fhedry. The advantagesof
this method are that conventional above-water repair
procedures can be used and construction inspection
is easier. The major disadvantage is the high cost of
building the cofferdam.
Prevention
is, of course,
during design
Conscientious
can minimize
C&&y control of materials used and careful attention

to construction procedures can help ensure long term
serviceability. Aggregates should be free of -chlorides
and reinforcing steel should have adequate cover.
Concrete with a low permeability, such as high strength
concrete,
is desirable,
but the mix must be
proportioned to reduce shrinkage cracking. Protective
coatings applied to piles can contrd permeability, but
the durabiiity of these coatings in some environments
is questionable.
s - kfany piobiems associated with concrete are caused
by corrosion of reinforcing steel. Using epoxy coated
reinforcing steel can alleviate this problem in many
situations. Special care should be taken when handling
the bars to prevent damage to the coating. Cut ends
and holidays should be touched-up.in
the field with
liquid epoxy.
Precast concrete piles can be damaged during
construction. Rough handling oroverdriving can result
in scars or cracks which allow water to penetrate.
67
Common
Minor deterioralian d concrete surfaces may not be

significant in it&, but it provide$ a pat9 for oxygen ad
moisture to reach the krtaMr of the member where more
serious deterioration can occur.
preparation
7-2.2
Repair of Cracks
The area should be cleaned of all marine
(2)
Loose and broken
(4)
growth.
concrete
should
removed to sound material.

Missing or reduced
reinforcing
should be restored.
The concrete
shouid
be restored
least the original contours.
be
steel
to at
Quick setting cement mortars have been used to repair

small areas. The material is mixed with fresh water and
is then carried by or conveyed to a diver who hand
packs the material in place. Epoxy mortar can also be
used to patch small voids. A typical mortar consists of
one part epoxy binder and one part silica sand The
mixture has the consistency of putty and can be placed
by gloved hands or trowels above or Wow water. One
consideration in using this mortar is its relatively short
pot life. No more should be mixed that can be
immediately used.
Cracks can be repaired with epoxy injections bath above
and below water. The area around and

should be rhoroughiy deaned.
A high
blaster is very effective for this deaning.
the crack should then be sealed with a
trowel-applied epoxy grout and injection
IS the type of surface
(1)
(3)
Cracks in concrete can indicate Severe damage has

occurred 01 may lead to severe detedoratti,
if rot
repaired. When water enters the cracks, spaiiing and
scaling damage can be acceierated.
to all these methods

required:
within the crack

pressure water
The outside d
handappiied or
ports pbced at
regular intervals in the epoxy along the crack. After the

epoxy seal is allowed to harden, epoxy is injected through
the ports working from one port to the next.
7-2.4
Repsir
of Irrge
Voids
For the repair of large void areas in concrete members,

the use of cement and epoxy grouts is generally #lot
economical.
Larger voids must be formed and the
member recast to the original cross section with
concrete piaced underwater
(Fig. 7-2).
Forming
methods indude conventional wood and sted forms.
steel sheeting, and a number of proprietary rigid and
flexible forming systems.
Figure
7-l
Injecting epoxy into a crack

UdgtPA@tW.
Generally, cracks ;p to l/4 inch are filled Mth epoxy

-+3n. For larger cracks, a fine aggregate is added to the
epoxy as a filler.
7-2.3
Repair 0; Small Voids

Figure 7-2
Voids caused by spalling, scaling or other distress

mechanisms can be repaired by several fIWhOdS.
68
Damaged concrete pile; ail

reinforcing steel exposed.
.
Several methods can be used to @ace concrete

underwater. The primary concern in placing Concrete
below water is to prevent washout of the cement. The
unhardened concrete should be kept Out of direct

contact with the water to the ,exIent possible, and
protected against fast flowing water. A number of
methods have been developed to accomplish this. Five
methods, tremie concr&e, preplaced aggregate, the
bottom opening bucket, pumped concrete, and bagged
concrete are described below.
b. Predated
Aaarwate.
The prep(aced aggregate
method consists of packing forms with coarse
aggregate and injecting the iement mortar or grout
into the mass. The aggregate is packed around tubes
through which mortar is injected. This method has
advantages underwater if @acement of concrete by
conventional
methods would result in segregation
because it allows the larger aggregate to be placed. by
hand if necessary, and permits pumping of the monar
to fill the voids.
a. Ttemie Concrete. In the tremie method, concrete is

delivered through a ve&.@ pipe, 6 or 8 inches in
diameter. A funnel shaped hopper is attached at the
top of the pipe through which the concrete is fed (Fig.
7-3). The concrete that is used in this method must
have a high slump so that it flows easily. The bottom
In order to achieve quality concrete. the aggregate

must be w#l graded, high quality and dean. The grout
must be fluid to ensure proper coverage and be able
to develop good strength.
The grout should be
pumped from the lowest point upwards using a smooth
and uninterrupted operation.
i
4/
of the tremie is maintained below the top surface of the

fresh concrete so that the concr$te,ex.iting the bottom
of the tremie forces the previously placed concrete
upward, displacing the water in the form. It is essential
that a sufficient head be maintainecj on the concrete in
the tremie to raise the surface of the fresh concrete.
As the level of the concrete rises, the tremie pipe is
moved upward, but always kept in the fresh concrete.
At the beginning of the pour, the end
plugged to prevent water from entering
placement is started. it must continue
form is filled. Even short delays can
in the pipe.
of the tremie is
the pipe. Once
until the entire
cause Mockage
---+
Figure 7-3 Placing concrete underwater

tremie.
wtih d
Figure 74
69
Drawing of i&tom
opening. bucket.
.
c. Bottom Ooenina Bucket. Special buckets (Fig. 74) covered at the top to protect the concrete are also
used to place concrete underwater.
The bucket is
lowered into place by crane and the bottom opened
to place the concrete. These b.uck,ets usually have
a skirt around the outside of the bucket that is
Lowered to protect the concrete during placement.
7-2.5
Jacketing
Piles
Deteriorated
concrete piles can be repaired by
encasing the pile in concrete; that is, by jacketing, In
this method, the pile is first cleaned of marine growth;
broken and loose concrete is removed; reinforcing steel
on the pile is cleaned to bright metal; additional steer
is added, tf necessary; and forms are installed.
Conventional wood and sted forms can be used; figld
plastic forms to match a variety of pile configurations
are available; and flexible fabric forms can be sewn to
fft most situations.
d. Pumoed Concrete.
Pumped concrete is widely
used in above water construction.
One of the
advantages
of using it below water is that the
placement work is less dependent on highly skilled
workers than other underwater placement methods.
For repair of minor defects, forms only slightly, larger

than the original pile can be used, and the small
defects filled with a thin cement or epoxy grout.
Concrete can be pumped through pipes or hoses.

Pipes are preferred since resistance to the concrete
is lower and they will not kink. Hoses are better
suited for operations where flexibility is required.
The pipelines should be of a material which does not
react With concrete. For this reason aluminum pipes
are generally not used.
Concrete pumped underwater
should start at the
bottom of a form and progress upwards.
The
concrete shoul,d not be allowed to free-fall through
the water.
e. Baaaed Concrete.
Concrete can also be placed
in jute or porous synthetic bags. Th& begs should
be small enough to be handled by a diver. They are
filled with dry cement and aggregate, and are placed
in contact with each other to allow bonding.
The
surrounding water starts the hydration process, and
the bags harden in place.
Another method is to fit nylon bags with injection
ports for mortar or grout. The bags can be sewn to
any size to fit cavities to be filled. The bags are
placed below water and the mortar is pumped into
them from the surface.
This method has an
advahtage over the hand placed small bags in that
the bags can be pumped to completely fill a void
under an existing structure.
Figure 7-S Open fabric form on a concrete pile.

SECnON
74.1
3. STEEL
Prevention
of Distress
The majority of structural steel used for bridge

substructures consists of H-piles and pipe piles with
concrete pile caps, or piles driven to suppon a pier.
In general, piles in seawater or brackish w%f have
higher ritteS of corrosion than thOS8 in fresh Water.
Polluted fresh water, however, can also cause severe
corrosion.
Three means of protecting
steel are
coatings, cathodic protection, and concrete jackets.
These bagged concrete methods czn-also be used

to construct a riprap blanket to prevent scour at
piers. Additionally,
both small, hand-placed
bags
and pumped, s8wn bags, can be placed or pumped
around the perimeter of a footing to act as a form for
a tremie concrete repair.
70
a. ih&SlS
Coatings Can Preve,nt s~~~~~;,(Corro~~~~~.~~~~~:~~,~~(~~~~~~,~
by the corrosion Process. The Impressed
by separating the steel from the m%ine environment.
&rent
bakes the structure cathodic and ejlminates
COrrOSiOn Of the steel. A d.c. power source, anodes,
Nbmerous coatings are available for Steel piling,
reference electrode and negative return clrcult from
incfuding paint, epoxy, bituminous
and, Coal-tar
the StrUCtUre
to the power supply are needed to
materials, and plastic shrinkiwraps.
,.
operate this system.
Surface preparation
for most types of coatings
consists of near white blast cleaning or pickling.
The advantages of the impressed current system are
Solvents, hand tools, and power tools can also be
that it can regulate and provide current according to
used to remove heavy deposits of rust and any
requirements
of the environment
and that one
grease prior to blasting or pickling.
installation can protect a large area.
Coatings are applied either by brush, roller, spraying
or wrapping. Applications are best made in a shop,
but can be accomplished
in the field with suitable
protection during the application and curing,of the
coating.
Care should be taken not to damage the
coating during installation.
c. Concrete Jackets. Concrete jackets are used to

inhibit further corrosion
of existing piles. When
properly installed they can be very effective.
The concrete used for jacketing must be of high
quality, be relatively impermeable
and have good
bonding characteristics.
Jacketing of steel piles is
similar to jacketing concrete piles as described in
Article 7-2.
b. Cathodic Protection.
Cathodic protection can be
used to protect steel in seawater, freshwater and soil.
Refer to Article 3-3 for a discussion of corrosion as
an electrochemical
process. There are two systems
of cathodic
protection;
galvanic
anode
and
impressed current.
Jackets should extend from several feet above the

high water line into the mudline.
It had previously
been considered
only necessary to protect the
portion of the pile in the tidal zone. It has been
observed, however, that exposed areas of steel
between the mudline and encasement
can be
susceptible to rapid and severe corrosion, especially
if the length of exposed steel is relatively short. This
is because a galvanic ceil is created. This same type
of corrosion
hag also been observed when the
encasement ends at the mudline.
In the galvanic anode system, sacrificial anodes,

which are more active than the steel piles, are
attached to piles at regular intervals. The anodes of
zinc, aluminum alloys and magnesium, which have
high negative potentials, eliminate Jocal corrosion
cells on the piling by sacrificing
themselves.
Periodically, the sacrificed anodes must be replaced.
The galvanic anode system has several advantages.
It does not require an exterrial power source:
installation is easy: it can be installed prior to driving
a pile; and maintenance is negligible over the life of
the anode. The disadvantages of the galvanic anode
system are that it requires an electrolyte, of low
resistance, and many anodes may be needed to
protect a large structure.
After the system is
installed, a coirosion survey of the structure should
be made to ensure that the system is effective.
One disadvantage to concrete jackets is that they are

rigid and ca? deveiop
cracks due to bridge
movement or vessel impact.
They can, however.
greatly extend the life of piling.
7-3.2
The repair of steel sections underwater is generally

accomplished
by encasing the deteriorated
section
in concrete as described in the preceding section.
Repair of steel sections
by bolted or welded
replacement
underwater
is generally
not costeffective, but it can be done if necessary.
Quaiity
control of underwater repair, especially welding, is
quite difficult.
The impressed current system uses iron and graphite

anodes which are suspended in wa!er qdjacent to
the piles. The anodes are connected to a direct
Sufficient current,
current (d.c.) power source.
usually low in voltage, is impressed on the structure
system in opposition
to the current flow. that is
71
Repair
caated with prsservative. Standards for timber treatment

are avsliable through the American Wo5d ?reserv&
Asdation.
SECTION 4. TlMBER
?-Ut
h&r
Prevention
of Dfdme
decay. Timber immer&
b. Protective Pilmq Piings in existiq structures can be

protected against rkne borer attack by wng
them
in a protective jacket The purpose d the jacket is to
create an anaerobic envim
which is hthi to the
borers. To be effective the jacket must M tightly around
the pie with no breaks in the jacket which would allow
oxygen to ecder. Jackets are not recommended for use
in areas where abrash may occur.
against
in salt Waer additionally needs
immersed in fwshwtff
protection against damage
tis
fkcbdon
from marine borers.
Two
types of pm&on
which have proven effec%ive are
matives
and flexible barTiers.
a Preservatives. Presehatives, in use for many years,
are appiied to timbers under pressure irr order t0
irqmgnate the wood calls.
Onetsystemax@sk3donelayerdPVCandonehyer
d polyethylene she&q.
A layer d prueaive film, PVC
(Pdyvinyi chloride) sheets, 30 mls thick, is prwed
M
land. Thesheetiswrappedtightfyaroundthepileand
fastened with aluminum or nylon straps and aluminum
Ms. A layer d p~lyethyiti
sheeting, 6 mils thick, is
placed between the PVC and timber to prevent the
creowte from sdtening the PVC. Piles are generally
encased from several feet above the high waterline to the
mudline.
r
Many types of presemtlves are in usa today v&h the

most widely used being coal-tar creosote. The American
Wood Presewers institute defines coal-tar creOsote as a
preservath/e oil obtained by distillation d coal-tar
produced
by high temperature
carbonization
of
bauninous coal: it consists principally d liquid and solid
aromatic hydrocarbons
and contains appreciable
qrrantitks d tar acids and tar bases; it is heavier than
water; and it has a continuous boiling range d at least
126 degrees Centigrade, beginning at about 200 degrees
Centigrade.
7-4.2 Repair
C&-tar creosote effectivety protects timber immersed in

fre&uater against fungal attack. In saltw&r, it protects
against t&do,
but is ineffectfve against limnoria.
Protecting timber against both types d borers requires
dual treatments. The timber is first treated ,with a watersoluble compound toxic to limnoria; the wmpound
becomes insdude after impregnation. The wood is then
treated with coal-tar creosote.
There are No processes for treatment:
the full&l
process and empty cell process. In the fullcell process,
the timber is placed in a dumber and air is removed to
create a vacuum. Preservathe is then *ntroducad into the
&amber, without Mtlng air into the chamber, and
pces%re is applied untt the timber has a&orbed the
proper amount Of w.
A vacuum may be applied
after the chamber is emptied to remove dripping
preservative. The full&i
prqcess alIzhe largest
retention of preservative.
In the empty cell process, timber is placed
and pressure treated with preservative.
initially applied. After required absorption
chamber is emptied. The resutt is that the
in the chamber
No vaCuum is
is obtained, the
timber cells are
a. Marine Boferq
Damage from marine borers can
generallybehaft&,whensectionlossislessthan15
percent, by installation of a protedve film. If damage is
mofe sevefe, it may be necessary to replace the
damaged section or rep&c-e the entire pile.
When the loss Of cross-sectional area is greater than
about 20 percent it is generally recommended that piie
be encased in a reinforced concrete jacket. A flexible
or rigid jacket form can be placed around the pile and
concrete placed by tremie or pumping similar to the
methods as described for concrete piles in Article 7-2.
Care shou!d be taken to ensure the concrete is evenly
distributed around the pile.
b. Sv.
Split piles can be repaired by
installing compression rings around the damaged area.
The rings consist of two semi-circular, rectangular steel
bars. The steel,is placed around the split and joined
together by boltsnat the en& of the ring halves. Splits
can also be bolted together using one or more bolts
with washers.
In both cases, the area should be
protected against further deterioration with a protective
. film.
72
CHAPTER
MANAGEMEtiT
SECTION
8-1.1
VIII ~
OF UNDERWATER
confo&ce
with the federal, state and local
prescribed practices and procedures.
It is important,
however, for procurement personnel to be aware that
special requirements peculiar to underwater operations,
must also be addressed. Technical staff may have to
provide guidance to procurement personnel to ensure
that all technical aspects of the work are adequately
covered
in the procurement
and contractual
documents.
In some instances, because underwater
inspections have not been conducted on a wide scale,
the technical staff may have to work ciosely with
procurement personnel to ensure that administrative
requirements
peculiar to this work are included.
Underwater inspection contracts are hybrid contracts
involving aspects of professional service contracts. and
provisions which are normally a part of maintenance
and construction contracts.
1. INTROOUCTION
General
This chapter provides guidance for procuring and

monitoring professional services for underwater bridge
While the. information
is primarily
inspection.
concerned with securing outside services, this chapter
should also aid in the planning, execution and
management of inspections by in-house dive teams.
Local agencies are responsible for the overall adequacy
of their underwater inspection programs.
While the
FHWA and state departments of transportation
may
issue guidelines
and regulations
for minimum
standards, the local agencies must ensure that those
minimum standards are adapted and expanded as
necessary to ensure the structural safety of bridges
located in water within their area
. -.. of responsibility.
Development of a comprehensive
scope of work is
critical to obtaining all desired inspection information,
and can aid greatly in obtaining a safe and costeffective underwater
investigation.
Underwater
inspection work, while similar to other professional
services, requires special contractual provisions to
address the unique hazards and costs wsodated with
it. Contractual provisions alone, however, cannot
ensure quality &water
bridge inspections. Training
of underwater inspectors, and managers of underwater
inspection programs is essential.
II-cl.2 Procurernenl
CONTRACTS
The acquisition of underwater

inspection services
has been considered a maintenance department
contract
by some agencies and a professional
.engineering services contract by other agencies. As
a result, procurement
procedures will vary.
The 1988 Surface Transportation

Act (P.L. 100-l 7)
and the Brooks Act (P.L. 92482).contain
provisions
requiring that when Federal funds are used for a
project, either directly by a federal agency or
through
a local agency,
the procurement
of
engineering services must be based on qualifications
rather than on low bid unless a state has passed
contrary legislation.
Undemater inspection procurements,
because ofthe
need for fully qualified diver-inspectors,
evaluations
of structural conditions, and recommendations
for
repair, often are recognized
by agencies -as
professional engineering services.
Regulrtionr
The solicitation and subsequent management

of an
underwater bridge inspection contract must be, In
'73
SECTION 2. SCOPE of
WORK
to the safety of the structure, more extensive Level 11

and/or Level III inspections must be made.
For other than normally scheduled inspections, such as
when specific problems are suspected, more extensive
cleaning, measuring, and nondestructive
testing may
In determining
the number of NOT
be needed.
measurements to require, it is important to gather
sufficient data to achieve certainty of results, and In this
area,, reference to statistical survey methods may be
useful.
S-2.1 Cenetai
The scope of work should define the extent of the
required inspection; establish minimum standards for
inspection personnel; describe the report format
expected; and outline any known dataor constraints
which may affect the inspection. A scope of work or
standard should be developed for in-house inspections
as well as outside contract services to ensure there is
a unity of objectives and agency-wide understanding
of the work requirements.
A sample scope of work is
included in the Appendix.
8-2.2
Structure
Often, prior to initiating a routine inspection, it wiil be

appereot thet an irrspection based on the minimum
requirements Wu not yield s@cient data to make a
determination v&h wrlainty of the structural integrity of
the bridge; make major economic decisions regarding
the future d the structure; or orepare detailed repair
piarts. In such caeee, it is genemlfy more cost-effective
to initblfy include more Level II examinations, and include
Level Ill BwminBtiohs. Some owners routinely specify
that5percentddlundematermembersreceiveLevelIII
inspedions.
For sted stmctures this could indude
ultrasonic mmwemmb
of the remaining thickness of the
members, and for timber strumres this could indude
boring and probir~ coring, or &rasonic testing. Initially
including t&vd ill inspectkrw or cdlection of other
detaiied data as m of the routine inspection can reduce
the overall inspection coet for a structure, by eliminating
theuxitofasecondmoMiition.
Description
A complete
description
of the bridge and its
substructure should be provided. This should include
the bridge configuration,
location, length, type and
number of. substructure units in water, construction
materials, past repairs or maintenance, name of the
watercourse, maximum water depth, and water quality.
Current velocity should also be included, if known. The
special requirements
discussed in Section 8-9, if
applicable, should also be included.
8-2.3
Level of Inspection
The scope d work shoold indude a dear definition of

what is required for each level of inspection.
The
definItiona dthe levels of inspection presented in Chapter
1 of this manual are gene& definitions and as such
indude #ems whiti are nc4 appkable to each bridge.
lndusion of *happlicable requirements can also increase
thecoadthework-ruy.
The level of inspection to be to be performed should be

FHWA has established minimum
cleariy defined.
guidelines for routine undetwater
inspection
as
including the following:
Level I -
V&al and tattle inspection of 100

percent of underwater members.
Level II -
De&led examination with deaning

and measurement of 10 percent
of underwater members.
It shoUd deo be recognized that the minimum inspection

requiaitea lied above may not identify every defect, since
Level II examir@ons are tiy a sampling.
Inspection of channel bottom and sides

for scour: cros&sections
of alluvial
channels and bottom probes of loose
sediments.
The physhi
limita for the inspection d underwater
members shdd
lie dearly defined.
Genemfly, the
mudline is the lower limit, but in some cases, probing or
excavation be& the present channel bottom may be
warranted.
If these m+mum inspection requirements for a routine

inspection
; not permit a conclusive determination as
For the @per limii d the inspection; the waterline: some

&mail distance above the WaterMe such as 3 feet; or the
74
and, ate 50 fWt. 100 feet and 200 feet upstream and
downstream
of the bridge.
Additional soundings
top of the entire element such as the pie!,cjlrf$?e Pile

may be specified. including the entire element, both
above and below water, as part of the underwater
It eliminates
inspection
has some advantages.
coordinarion problems between above and bbwwater
inspectors in recording
data -and evaluating the
substructure unit; it reduces the cost of the inspection
by eliminating the need for a second inSpeCtOr
to gain
water
access to the element for inspection above, but
near, the waterline; and the inspecrors report will
sumn.arize all inspection data together.
8-2.4
should be made as necessary to determine significant

bottom features in the area. It is advantageous when
reviewing soundings, particularly over a period of years,
to have soundings made in a consistent pattern for all
bridges under an agencys jurisdiction (Fig. 8-1).
8-2.5
type and extent of documentation

of field
conditions required should be clearly defined, as it Can
have significant effect on the cost of conducting an
underwater investigation.
The
Soundings
Soundings should be made to provide a record of the

bottom profile. Unless the water is too shallow for a
boat, soundings should be taken using a continuous
recording fathometer.
The fathometer
should be
adjusted to account for the depth of the transducer
below the water surface. Soundings, at least during the
field work, will be referenced to the waterline at the
time of the inspection. Later they may be adjusted to
some
other datum such as Mean Low Water in tidal
. areas or Normal Pool Elevation in reservoirs and
Detailed field notes shouid always be required.

Documentation should include detailed notes of defects
with location, height, width, and penetration.
These
notes should be sufficiently
detailed to permit
evaluation of the structure and preparation of repair
documents and cost estimates.
controlled rivers. The water surface at the time of the

inspection should be referenced to a point of known
elevation on the bridge or to a local benchmark.
Soundings should be taken around all element! in

water and along lines parallel to the bridge at the
fascia. The pattern of soundings to be taken at a
bridge will vary depending upon the channel size, flow
characteristics and configuration of the bridge. Except
for very small bridges, generally tt would also include
soundings along lines parallel to the face of the bridge,
PIER
i
PER
,,,,I
PIER
PER
.,
4
0
1, \
I
200
Figure 8-l
-20
-60
Ff 0OWNSTREAM
Comparison
Underwater color still photographs generally should

be required showing both defective and sound areas
of the structure. Still photography in clear, calm water
is relatively inexpensive. In darker water where a clear
water box must be used, or in high current, the cost
increases.
Pictures, however, can be extremely
valuable to illustrate conditions in order to obtain
funding, and to assist in the preparation of repair
documents. The additional cost, for most inspections,
is relatively small.
Typical conditions should be
photographed,
but not every defect.
A minimum
number of pictures should be required at each bridge.
such as at least two per pier, but there should be
flexibility in the scope of work to permit reducing the
number of pictures of good conditions if there is a
corresponding increase in the number of photographs
of defects.
Underwater
video tape may be specified
as
documentation either alone or in combination with still
photography.
video taping requires more diving time
than still photography, as well as time !o edit the tapes.
This makes it particularly important to use ,video tape
selectively. A competent trained diver-inspector should
be able to judge those areas requiring taping during
the investigation.
When use must be made of an
inspector who is inexperienced or not fully qualified to
of soundings
75
Documentation
(1)
conduct bridge inspections, full video taping may be

justified, but it must be emphasized that the value of
the video is limited by the ability of the diver to
recognize significant conditions and to point the
camera at all such areas Even under ideai CorditiOnS,
video quality cannot match the human eye, and many
variations of color and depth cannot be perceived when
viewing a video tape. The video system shoufd record
both the divers comments,
and questions and
comments of on-site obsewers. Later editing may also
be used to add to or clarify these comments.
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
Report
SECTION
Though the length may vary, all reports should include

the following sections:
(I) Description of the bridge (and appurtenant
structures)
(2) Method of inveatfgation
3) Documentation
of existing conditions
(4) Evaluation of conditions
(5) Recommendations
sections
which
OF
INSPECllON
It is the responsibility of the agency in charge of

conducting underwater bridge inspections to establish
the minimum qualifications
for underwater bridge
inspectordivers
for each bridge where diving is
required.
The underwater inspection team should
consist of a team leader and additional inspectors as
required by the project scope and time frame, and
safety considerations.
Divers performing underwater
inspections and evaluations should be fully qualified by
training ,and experience in evaluating the types of
degenerative underwater structurai conditions that can
exist at a given bridge. It is even more important for
divers to be qualified to inspect bridges underwater
than it is for above water inspectors. Above water, an
area of concern can be more fully inspected by more
than one person. Below water, the diver will usually be
the only one to inspect a critical area. The inspector, diver must also be able to judge his own limitations, in
evaluating structual conditions.
If he encounters a
situation which exceeds his qualifications, he must be
able to recognize that fact and request better qualified
assistance.
Requirements
report
3. QUALIFICATIONS
PERSONNEL
S3.1 Gened
The scope of work should state the type and number

of copies of the report required. Since the report can
range from a two or three page letter to a bound
voiume, costs of report preparation can vary widely.
Factors which may influence the choice of report
format and detail include agency standards, the size
and importance
of the bridge, anticipated bridge
condition. prior inspection reports, the anticipated use
of the final reports and the potential for litigation as
would be present in an inspection following ship
coiiision damage.
Additional
in&de:
for
Drafts of inspection reports should generally be

submitted to the owner for review and comment.
Finally, the completed underwater inspection report
should bear the signature and seal of a Registered
Professional Engineer.
In video taping, there is mudh meaningless material

recorded: staning; stopping; moving from substructure
unit to substructure
unit: adjusting lighting; and
malfunctions. If an inspector is to review hours of tape,
he will quickly become bored and inattentive. Video
tapes should be edited to remove as much
meaningless tape as possible. video tapes should also
be provided with an on-screen clock or counter, and
tiles to aid in reviewing the tape and finding specific
units.
&2.6
Cost estimates
Details of equipment
and procedures
special testing
Appendices
C&r photographs (not photocopies)
Drawings
Sounding plans and sections
Additional inspection forms
Some
bridges,
because
of their complexity,
substructure and superstructure interaction, or other
site conditions, require a diver who is fully qualified as
a bridge inspection team leader. For other bridges, a
may be required
76
SECTION 4 INSURANCE RE0UlPEMENl-S
diver who is not a team leader might @ Used if tfiat

diver is fully trained and experienced in the structure
and bed conditions
at given bridge locations.
Inspections made by divers not fully qualified as bridge
inspectors or bridge inspection team Uders should be
limited to specifii bridge situations where simple
underwater
measurements.
verbal
descriptions,
photography, etc. can provide conclusive evidence of
underwater conditions to an on-site, fully qualified
bridge inspection team leader.
8-3.2
8-4.1 General
Insurance requirements
for underwater inspection
contracts should be contained in the solicitation and
normally
will be consistent
with the agencys
standard contracting
procedures.
In addition to
several coverages which are unique to underwater or
marine work, underwater
inspections
may affect
those Insurance requirements considered standard.
Since the need to obtain some insurance coverages
in specific instances may be open to question. legal
counsel should be consulted
in developing
final
contract requirements.
Term Leader
The underwater bridge inspection team leader should

meat the NBS requirements for a bridge inspectiorr team
leader. Heshouldalsobecertifiedasad~erbyoneof
the several nationally recognized diver certification
organizations or a commercial dive schod so that, if
nv,
he can verily or evaluate conditions reported
by underwater inspectors. The team leader should be onsite at all times and pedm
a representative portion of
the inspection since he must evaluate the structure. This
Individual will have ovetall responsibility for the inspection
and shodd be experienced in planning and conducting
diving operations.
SC.3 Additional
14.2 horkars Compensation

Workers
Compensation
insurance
covers
a
contractors
employees for lost time and medical
expenses as a result of job related injuries. Specific
requirements for Workers Compensation
insurance
coverage and benefits are set by each stare. In
some states, the coverage must be purchased from
a state agency. Because commercial diving activities
are considered as high risks by insurance firms, rates
for Workers Compensation
insurance for diving
activities are very high, frequently approaching
fifty
percent of salary.
inspectors
Additional inspectors used for the project should be fully

trained and experienced to satisfy the requirements d the
NBS for bridge inspection team members, and she@ be
certified divers trained by a nationally recognized
organization. They should be able to document their
training and experience in similar inspections and diving
situations.
8-3.4 ddditional
8-4.3
and Harbor
Insurance
Workers
This coverage is similar to Workers Compensation,

but covers work performed
over and adjacent to
Benefits provided under Longshoremens
water.
insurance are usually greater than those provided by
Workers Compensation,
and either an endorsement
to a Wbrkeis Compensation
policy or a separate
policy is necessary
to secure Longshoremans
coverage.
Because underwater operations involve
work both below and above water, if an accident
ocours there could be a dispute over which coverage
applies.
Partty for this reason, Longshoremens
insurance should be a requirement for all underwater
inspection contracts.
Considaratlocr~
Employi& must ma&ii

rtis
of m&al examiktions
asrequiredbyOSHAregu&ions
Copiesdtheseshould
besubmittedtotheagencyasshouldcopiesddiver
D certlfltitlon and taining records. .The soMation for underwater inspection se&es shorrld
de&y state the required quali8cations d 61 members d
ths inspection team.
77
Longshoremens
Compensation
S-4.4 Jonea
Act of Maritimi
SECTION
Insurance
This insurance covers the crews of boats against

occupational
injuries.
A requirement
for such
coverage where a small boat, particularly
in nonnavigabie waters, is involved is debatable.
In cases
where, larger boats are required, where work is to be
performed in areas of commercial boat traffic, when
diving is routinely done from a vessel or where
separate hiring of a boat and crew is anticipated, this
coverage may be required.
8-4.5
General
Liability
and Property
Damage
Provision of this coverage is normally a requirement

of government and private agencies for all contracts.
General Liability and Property Damage Insurance
provides coverage against suits brought by third
parties, i.e., parties other than the bridge owner or
diving contractor,
for bodily injury and property
damage.
Some General Liability/Property
Daniage policiesdo
not extend coverage for work performed within a
specified
distance
of a railroad, 200 feet, for
example. In these cases, Railroad Protective Liability
Insurance may be required.
The need for this
Railroad Protective
Liability coverage,
however,
shoutd be carefully evaluated with the railroad since
it can be very expensive, and inspection activities
should have minimal, if any, impact on adjacent rail
operations.
8-4.6
Professional
Liability
Sometimes termederrors
and omissions insurance,
this coverage is provided routinely by consulting
firms in engineering and other professional fields. It
provides liability coverage against malpractice suits
brought for negligent services or failure- to provide
?.ch services, such as might be brought by persons
rnlured as the result of the failure of an underwater
inspector to properly identify conditions which led to
a bridge collap,se. Professional liability coverage is
required
by many, states in above-water
and
underwater inspection contracts.
5. SCHEDULING
8-S. 1 Genorrl
Underwater inspections should be correlated with the
agencys overall bridge inspection program. Within
that framework,
economies
may be realized by
allowing the inspectors latitude for scheduling their
field work.
b6.2
Weather
Climatic conditions, especially in northern areas, affect

schedules. While inspections can be conducted in cdd
weather and frozen rivers, such inspections are more
costly because of reduced efficiency. Not only is it
difficult for the diver to concentrate on the inspection,
but topside support personnel are also hampered. In
addition, while it is possible to break ice to provide
access to the water for the diver, ke may,cover large
areas of the stNcture at the waterline where detailed
inspection is important.
Where the divers must wear dry suits and full
helmets, such as in polluted water, hot weather may
also be a ,hindrance.
The diver must be dressed
quickly and cooled by immersion, and then unsuited
at the end of the inspection to prevent overheating.
Whenever
scheduled
possible,
therefore,
for mild weather.
work
should
be
River flows may vary with the season, generally being

greatest in the spring and lowest in late summer or
early fall. Inspections conducted during low flows
Where a biidge crosses a
can reduce costs.
particularly
deep river or a reservoir, it may be
possible to eliminate the need for special deep diving
techniqutis,
such as decompression
diving, by
scheduling the underwater inspection for a period of
minimum depth.
The clarity of water varies over the year, generally
being poorest in the spring. Eroded material. @ant
life, and marine orianisms
can all kontiibute
t0
reduced visibility.
8-5.3
mind that seasonal

;..,G:
,:~.J/.wvr~.~~*.,?
11 :.+*$
Other Factors
ln special cases, environmental

constraints such as
fish spawning and glacial runoff may need t0 be
considered in establishing schedules.
SECTION
A
8-7.3
standard
form
should
be developed
for
summarizing the results of the underwater inspection
for inclusion in the agencys data bank and for
providing input for the NBIS Inventory.
This report
should be completed by the inspector and submitted
with the underwater inspection report.
8-7.1
7. REQUIREMENTS
SllBMlTTAL
The scope
8-8.1
provided
in a request for
proposals for underwater bridge inspection services
should indicate the minimum requirements
for the
proposers submittal.
Sufficient information should
be requested. to allow the bridge owner agency to
assure itself that a competent firm will be selected at
a reasonable fee.
8-7.2
Contractual
SECTION
FOR PROPOSAL
of work
Riquiiemento
ihe submittal will no!mally requite the contractor to

complete various standaid
agieements
and forms
required by the agencys standard contracting
and
solicitation procedu,res,. Such documents should be
completed in full and bear authorized SignatUreS as
8. CONTRACTOR
SELECTION
General
Many firms have both the technical and diving

expertise
to
provide
competent
underwater
inspections.
Broqdly speaking, the firms fall into two
categories.
The first, is a diving contractor who
provides
underwater
construction
as well as
inspection services. The second is an engineering
consulting
firm
which
provides
services
in
underwater
inspection using its own staff, but does
not perform construction.
Both types of firms may
have the qualifications
for a particular project. and
th6 bridgi owner must evaluate the responding firms
to determine which ones meet the agencys minimum
requirements,
and which one best meets those
needs.
Solicitation for underwater inspection servicds may
utilize a prequalification
list developed
by the
agency, as well as advertisements
in publications
such as the Commerce
Business Daily (CBD).
required..
The length of time the proposal must
remain valid should be ciearly stated, keeping in
79
Technical Requirements
d.
b. Samole Re.
The submittal should include
one or more sample reports similar in format to those
required by the contracting
agency.
This is of
particuiar importanceif iio specific repbrt format has
been specified in the Scope of Work.
in greater detail
General
affec:
a. lnsoection
Procedure.
The co&actor
should
submit an inspection execution plan or p?ocedures
indicating how he will undertake the work, eq.uipment
to be used, documentation
techniques,
and any
special requirements.
Repon forms for a system-wide

program generally
require that a numerical condition rating be assigned
to each underwater
substructure
unit. Provisions
should also be made to accqmmod$e
comments.
SECTION
can slgniiican:iy
inspection.
General information on the firm and its personnel

should be submitted unless the firm has previously
been prequalified
by the agency for underwater
inspection
work.
Documentation
of available
insurance coverages including those in Section 8-4
should be provided.
6.. REPORT FORMS
Various report forms are discussed

in Chapter IX.
changes
the costs of an underwater
Engineering News Record (ENR), local construction

publications,
and newspapers.
The use of such
publications
assures wide dissemination
of the
announcement
and response
by a number
of
qualified firms.
..
8-8.2
Personnel
Experience
The experience of the inspection personnel is the

single most important evaluation factor in selecting
art inspection contractor, whether for underwater or
above water projects.
Project team members must
meet agency requirements
for both technical and
diving expenise. and experience.
Resumes should be required for all proposed project
personnel.
Specific experience
in underwater
inspections
and diving certification
should be
included for team leaders and all diver-inspectors.
The submittal should include a breakdown of the
proposed project team indicating their duties and
qualifications.
A statement, or copies of records, indicating
divers meet OSHA requirements
for training
medical examinations should be provided.
that
and
Underwater inspections ere often performed in poor

visibility,
fast-moving
rivers,
and
potentially
hazardous
surroundings.
Divers should have
Divers who dive
experience
in simiiar projects.
infrequently and must concentrate
more on diving,
aspects of the work may not be able to devote their
full attention to the inspection effort, panicuiarly in
adverse conditions.
While the individual inspector
must be a competent diver, it should be emphasized
that the sole purpose of his diving is to secure
inspection data. The finest diver is of no value if he
is not a technically competent inspector.
When specialized
testing is to be utilized, the
proposed
personnel
should have demonstrated
experience in its proper use and interpretation of the
data obtained.
8-8.3 Firm Stability

Considerable time may elapse between submission
of a proposal
and the actual conduct
of an
inspection. The owner agency should feel confident

that the prOPOSed inspection personnel will still be
with the firm selected at the time of inspection, or
that additional qualified personnel will be avaIlable.
A review of the proposed staffs resumes should
indicate if the same personnel have been with the
firm for an extended length of time, if there is high
turnover, or if the staff moves from firm to firm as
jobs end.
An additlonal advantage of firm stabiiity and staff
retention is the ability of the owner to ask questions
of a panlcular inspector at some time in the future.
This requirement
frequently
occurs during the
preparation of repair drawings.
O-8.4 Conflict of Interort

Some agencies, in order to eliminate any appearance
of bias, preclude an inspection firm from submitting
bids to complete any subsequent repairs. This may
limit the interest
and choice
of underwater
contracting firms in providing inspection services.
Any appearance
of a biased report may be a
problem where an attempt is made to secure
funding, or potential litigation is involved, as in a ship
collision.
8-8.5
OSHA Requirementa
All divers proposed

for a project must satisfy
requirements for training and medical examinations.
.OSHA requires the firm to maintain a Safe Dive
Practices Manual. The agency should request and
review this document as it.is one indication of the
care a firm takes in safely conducting its operations.
The agency should emphasize, however, that the
request for this document
in no way limits the
contractors
responsibility for methods and safety.
8-8.6
Reforrncrr
A list of references for similar inspection p;OjeCtScompleted by the contractor should be required and
carefully reviewed. These projects should indude
work in similar conditions of water depth. visibility,
move a nodecompression
dive Into the deczrcression
range Or require additional staff ati equipment Figure
8-3 illustrates the effect of altitude on a prolect. The
altitude of the dive site should be included in a request
for proposal for sites over 1000 feet above sea level
current. and substructure type. The list should also

include names, addresses and phone numbers of past
client representatives who are familiar with the work of
the firm on specific projects.
SECTION 9. SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS

8-9.l
General
In soliciting underwater inspection services, special

situations sometimes arise which can significantly affect
the effort, support equipment.
and cost of the
inspection.
Some of these are difficult to foresee.
Several more common considerations are addressed
in the following paragraphs. The contract administrator
should be alert to these conditions and provide any
available information concerning special requirements
in the request for proposal.
8-9.2
Decompression
Portable Recompression
8-9.4
Penetration
Chamber
Diver
Where screens or debris are present which prevent or

delay access and egress, they must be removed prior
to diving. The party responsible for this removal work
should be stated.in the contract. and adequate funds
provided to accomplish the removal.
Because a diver in distress cannot usually ascend to
the surface in penetration dives, additional precautions
and a larger dive team are usually needed. In addition
to surface dive tenders, a diver-tender
must be
qtatkned .-,,
at _the
point
of
entry
to
a
confined
space
such
*v
as a submerged culvert mouth.
a-9.5
High Altitude
Pollution
While many waters are becoming cleaner, there is

increased awareness of potential harmful effects of
waters polluted with a variety of chemicals and wastes,
even in very small amounts. Any available information
on water quality should be stipplied with a request for
proposals. Some states are now claSsif+lg water
As the altitude at which a diving operation is conducted

increases, the air pressure on the diver on the surface
decreases.
At altitudes above 1,000 feet mean see
level, modified decompression tables inust be used to
account for this change in ambient pressure. Theeffect
of higher altitude is similar to increasing the depth of
the dive. The effect of the altitude correc!ion can be tCj
._
81
8-i
When divers are used to inspect flooded culverts or

culverts with minimal available headroom
where
contaminated
air may be present, safety must be
carefully considered.
Dives
The amount of time a diver can spend at a given depth

is dependent on various physiological factors. For
deeper dives, or where prolonged bottom times are
in water decompression
or chamber
required.
When
may
be
required.
decompression
decompression dives are required, additional cost must
be expected for a recompression chamber, suppon
equipment, and larger crew. When dives are made to
depths greater than 100 feet of sea water or 6utside the
no-decompression
limits, a recompression chamber
must be at the dive loCation for safety reasons whether
or not a chamber decompression is anticipated. As a
vev general guideline, water depths greater then sixty
feet should alert the contract administrator to ,the
possibility of recompression requirements.
8-9.3
Piiuro
QtAMPLE
Task:
OF ALTH-UDE
EFFECTS
Inspection of Pier in 90 Feet of Water
Location 1
Elev 800
Location 2
Elev. HIOO
Maximum Dive Depth
90.
So
Maximum effective Dive Depth

(Altitude corrected)
90
112
Maximum Bottom lime without Decompression

(Per 24 hour period)
30 min.
30 min.
Dive Team Size:

Surface-Supplied
SCUBA
3
3
4
4
Not required
Required on Site
Decompression
Air
Chamber
Figure 6-3 Example of altitude effects.

quality at all bridge sites as part of their bridge record
keeping process, and this is recommended
for all
agencies.
8-9.6
periods, thus avoiding high currents. It is sometimes

possible to reduce fl.ows by temporary changes in the
operation of an upstream dam. flow data is generally
available from several government agencies including
the local office of the Corps of Engineers and state
hydrologic survey agencies.
High Currents
Diving operations become increasingly difficult as

currents increase.
Currents above approximately
1
knot require the use of safety lines. In addition, heavy
weights and other means may be needed so the diver
can main!ain his position during the inspection. In
some cases, temporary diversion shields or walls may
be required. These activities increase inspection time
and cost.
SECTION
8-l 0.1
10.
QUALITY CONTROL OF
UNDERWATER
INSPECTIONS
Gonorrl
Because those areas inspected during an underwater

investigation
are only accessible by persons with
speciklited training and equipment, quality control of
the inspection is not easily based on random checks
of previously inspected areas. this method h-s been
used, however, by som& states which utilize a
combination
of contract and in-house underwater
inspection teams. In many cases, the agency will
have to rely on an evaluation
of above water
River flows vary through the seasons and year.

Whenever possible, ample time should be allowed in
the contract for scheduling toallow inspection at low
flow. At times, it is impossible to inspect at low flow
Dive team size must be determined in consideration
of job factors, safety, and applicable governmental
regulations.
82
procedures
inspection.
and a crltical review of the
Contractor
810.2
product
Of
the
R~ponsibility
tt is the responsibility d the diving inspection team leader

to assure the quality d his inspection &fort The quality
control program should indude the fdlowing:
(a) Assignment
members.
qualified
inspection
team
(b)
EstaMishment and adherence

inspection procedures.
to standard
(c)
Development and use of standard inspection

forms and checklists for recording inspection
data.
(d)
Preparation of reports, using an estabkhed,

comprehensive format.
(e)
In-house,
repons.
&lo.3
independent
review of inspection
Report Review
Agency technical staff should criti@ly review the

contractors inspection report and compare it with
previous repons when available. Any unusual findings
should be discussed with the inspection team leader and
the inspectordiver.
Conditions which are not verifiable,
not documentable,
of not consist8nt with normal
conditions may indicate an insuffioient or inaccurate
inspection requiring further action to Confirm COrlditii.
SECTION
8-11.1
11. CONTRACTOR
CDORDINATION
Genenl
MONITORING
dates. %r
by kidge
sutmission
inspection
b-11.2
CoordifWon
WRh Above Water Inspection
When kr abtwe water inspection d a bridge is

undertaken, schedUring d the underwater inspection at
the same time staid be ccmsidefd.
Performing both
inspectionssim my
encourages communication to
est,aMsh common points d reference. If the complete
inspection d the sub&nxture unit, both above and wow
water, ie ncrl done by the underwater inspection
coclttactor, It also helps guard against misinterpretations
of where one inspector stops and the other starts.
611.3
ob+snntlon
rnd Monitoring
Some agencies
prcwkie an o&sewer on-site during

underwater inspections. In some cases the obsen+ may
view podons of the underwater stnxture by means of a
video camea with a rea+me surface monitor. This may
be necessary if the diver conducting the inspection is not
fully qualified.
If the obeefver is recording the inspection
notes, as
reported by the diver, the diver shoukl review the notes
. immediatJy upon surfacing, verify their content, and anesf
to their compkteness by initiiling or signing them.
When the owner age&y

provides
an. on-site
representative, his funqtion should be limited to facilitating
the inspection effm by providjng any needed agency
support and observing the inspection effort to assure that
cxmtactual obligations are met. All responsibility for the
inepect& itself, induding notes and sketches, should be
retained by the inspector.
This should not hinder a
competent inspection team and will &minate any question
d responsibility, should a later question arise as to the
accuracy and compkteness d the inspection or the
AND
inepection nc4es.
The type and extent of contacl

monitoring and
coordination required dep&s
on the scope d the
underwater inspection effoR When a singfe small kid@
is invdved, coordination may simply invdve notification d
the owner by the inspector of the proposed inspection
03
contracts for mwe 1f-m me Sedge. a Mge

schedule my be esbbilshed that requires
of periodic pIogres reports and compreted
rm
in a predetermined sequence.
Q-1.2 Notebook
repair. Note that ratings 0. 1,. 2. 3, 4, and 6.

apply only to major components and elements. A
suggested rating system is as fdlows:
Format
The notebook format Is often used for unique Or

complex structures. information should be recorded
systematically.
The fdiowing summq
describes a
suggested content outline.
. : .
a. Title Pa@. The title page should contain the name
of the structure, the structure identif!cation number,
the road section identification number, and the name
of the crossing. The back of the title, page should be
used
to note the names of the members of the
inspection party, the person in charge of the party, the
type of inspection, and the dates on which the
inspection was made.
b. General Format. The left-hand page should contain

the name of the member being inspected,
its
components, the evaluation of thsit member and its
components, and an appropriate space for comments.
The right-hand page should be reserved for sketches
or drawings of the member.
The format of each
section of the notebook shouid be arranged so as to
proceed from the general to specific, i.e., from a
general lay-out of the substrudture
to individual
drawings of the individual substructure units to the
components of the substructure units.
92.3
(4
9 * Excellent condition.
04
.8. Very good condition.
Cc)
(4
. 6 . - Satisfactory
condition.
Structural
elements show some minor deterioration.
(d
Fair condition.
All primary structural
elements are sound but may have minor
section loss, cracking, spalling or scour.
Serious condition. Loss of section,

deterioration, spaliing or scour have
seriously affected primary structural
components.
Looal failures are possible.
Fatigue cracks in stee4 or shear cracks in
concrete may be present.
(h)
Critical condition.
Advanced
deterioration of primary structural
elements. Fatigue cracks in steel
or shear cracks in concrete may be
present or scour may have removed
Unless closely
substructure support.
monitored it may be necessary to close
the bridge until corrective action is taken.
0)
imminent failure condition. Major

deterioration
or section loss
present
in critical structural
componentsorobviousvertical
or
horizontal movement
affecting
structural stability.
Bridge is
closed to tratfic but. corrective
action may put back in light
service.
In most cases, it Will be possible to insert reproductions

of ponions of the plans in the notebook.
in some
instances, it will be necessary to draw the sketches.
Sketches or drawings of each substructure unit should
be included. in many cases it will be sufficient to draw
typical units which identify the principal elements of
the substructure.
Each of the elements of a
substructure unit should be annotated so that it can
be cross-referenced to the information appearing on
the data page on the left-hand side of the sketch.
&ems to be numbered include piling, footings, vertical
suppons, lateral bracing of members, and caps.
Failed condition. Out of service. beyond

corrective action.,
Evrlwtion
Numerica! ratings of bridge components are useful for

ihe e;/aluati& of the bridge. Some agencies require
the individual inspector to make numerical ratings of
the bridge components.
Other agencies prefer to
assign numerical ratings in the office based on the
detailed notes provided by the field inspector.
The
following system rates bridges on a 0 to 9 system
with 9 being new condition and 0 being beyond
Not applicable.
92.5
Standard
Forms
On large or compiex bridges, the notebook format

must be used to record inspection results. For smail
86
Some minor problems.
Poor condition. Advanced section

loss, deterioration, spalling oi scour.
Sketches
Q-2.4 Numerical
- Good condition.
No problems noted.
INSPECTION
SECTION
91.1
REPORTS
1. INTRODUCTION
Method of investigation (Scuba, surface

supplied, wading, visual inspection, NGT
testing, etc.).
General
,Inspection
findings
including
the
physical condition of the substructure.
channel
bottom
conditions,
and
watemay observations.
Drawings,
photographs
and soundings may be
required.
Inspection
reports provide information
which is
essential to ensure the safety of public bridges.
Reports supply information that allows evaluation of the
current condition of the bridge, and the basis for
determining future maintenance costs, scheduling and
manpower requirements. Reports may also be used in
litigation where damage has been caused by an outside
party, or persons have been injured or property
damaged as a consequence of bridge condition.
Conclusions as to how defects and

conditions
found have affected the
substructure. This may include an
analysis of the structure.
Reports should consist of written descriptions, with

sketches as necessary.to identify areas of damage and
distress.
Agencies also assign numerical values
conditions or degrees of deterioration.
entered into a computer
which can
summarize
the condition
of all the
throughout the state. Figures g-1,9-2, and
typical forms used by three states to record
inspection information.
91.2
Requirements
of Inspection
for various
The data is
store and
structures
9-3 illustrate
underwater
Information about the configuration and

construction of the structure (e.g., pier
founded on piles or soil, pile lengths,
etc.). This information is contained in
design or as-built pians and previous
reports. -
(b) Any repairs made to the structure.
Signature of bridge inspection team

leader. Many states may require this to
be a registered professional engineer
attesting 16 the repons accuracy,
completeness and sufficiency.
SECTlON
Forms
In order to be of value, an inspection report must be

clear and complete.
A report should include the
following:
(a)
Recommendations
for repair, future
maintenance or further inspection.
92.1
2. RECORDING
INSPECTION
NOTES
Generrl
Notes can be recorded in a notebook format. on

standard forms or a combination of these. In order to
make the notes clear, sketches should be drawn and
photographs taken as needed.
--
DAILY DlVlk
-..-______
REPORT
NSFECTCR:
BRINE
DATE.
1
NO.
BRIDGE
NAME:
WEATHER:
BRIDGE NPE:
Y.
DIVING OPERATION
TYPE OF OPERATIbN:
SCUBA
G SURFACE SUPPLIED AIR
0 OTHER:
0
c]
HARD HAT
SUBMARINE
PERSONNEL:
TIME OUT OF WATER
TiME IN WATER:
WATER&AY
NAME:
TIDAL FLOW:
HIGH
c]
LOW
/J
EBB
STfiEAM
FAST
MODERATE
SLOW
V!SISlL!N:
f-J
GOOD
c]
FAIR
I-J
POOR
SURFACE
ELEVATION:
FLOW:
POINT EL. TAKEN:
ELEMENTS
INSPECTED:
REMARKS:
DOT Form 234415 r&06

Figure S - Typical Form A
DATUM:
and simple bridges, however, it may be more

Whep using
convenient to usa standard forms.
standard forms, the evaluation numbers and comments
may be recorded exactly as described in the section for
notebooks. The reverse side of the forms can be used
for drawing sketches and for additional Comments.
If available, standard sketches should be attached to
the forms with the coding of all members indicated.
Where sketches and narrative descriptions cannot fully
describe the deficiency or defect, photographs should
be taken, and should be referred to appropriately in the
narrative. All items on the forms may not always be
filled out.
Prior to the inspection, it should be
determined which items are not applicable for the
particular bridge to be inspected.
87
a
a
C-
i.
Brldgt lnspecllon Rtpl
-4
UNDERWATER
/NSPEC~(J~#S
CBLLlNS
srsri3ls
1 - 25
m.
EXAMPLE
Con/.
DRIDGE- INSPECTION
ENGINEERS
INSP. DATE (cwm:)

12.24
TS. /PIERS/BENTS
ABUT
NO.
ABUT
N.0.
13.
-
4
3
6.
7
8
1.0.1
l-0.7
-1.0.8
*-
Q
$
t
2.01
2.07
2.08
;
;
PILING
SQJML
SBME
NQT
MlN0R
MIN0R
8f3
NAME
IN@Wl/
LAKE
rNNEL
077N8888NN
-a
At354RR4C4
877N8BR8N-i?-
, GENE
---
EXPBSLO
AND
ERBSIBN
AT
Fl?EEEE-THAW
ASSUMED
BBTTPIM
DAMAGE
#&: Above ccuuilllon rollqs shall. OS

opplkoblt, bt rtprestnled rn Ilents 60, 61 C 71.
IO-93
_..
..H
-T-I I I I I m---f--
6.
B
UNIT DESCRIPTION
s
I
lo-!I-
FEATURE
:ONDlTION RA T
-h
2
S-TAUCTURE
hQ.IAll~l
SUPFYEMENT
---
INC.
MILEPOST
7s of 7
--.--
TO BE ItJ G0BD
C0NDlTl0N
0F SLBPE
PAVING
TO
SL0FE
PAVING
c
0
E
0
I-
,
I
Figure 9-3 Typical Form C
5ubport
I-Commorciol
Oporafionr
Diving
AuruorcTv
SWh
4. 6 Il. <hulmllonai
tiafriy
snn Ii~alllI
AC1 Id i97II I29 IJS(!.
653. 655 6Slr.
SW107. t'w~trarl
WuriI
iiours awi safl*ly SlalMtar<l~ AC1 c<'orlstruc~
lmn Sahtv
ArO (40 \JS(:
3.131. .SrC 41.
ir,l,ysl,or~~lnc.ll
L aiwt iiarbw
Wurhcts
cum.
~wnsaI,<>~, Aa.1 ~15 ti.SC.
94th Srr11'1arY
d
iabu
s 0rdtT
NO I-16 141 PR 25059l or 9-
83 I48 )N 35136). PI l ppJwAwc.
29 C)N
I91 I
Souac-c
ulherwcsr
42 PR 3X00.
nocvd
July
IXL
22. 1917. unless
GENERAL
fi 110. WI
.%aIpe and appliraikm.
(a) Scope.
1 I I This
subpsrl
lslurdord) appllts
to every
pIaCe of cmploymen1 wIlhin
lhe walers
of Lhe United
Starts.
tar wirhln
any SLaW.
the Dia:tricl
oi Columbia.
Ihr Commonwesllh
of Puerto
Hro.
Ihc
Virgin
Islands.
AmerIcaI
Samoa.
Guam.
(he
TrIIsl
Territory
of the Pacific
lslsn&.
Wake
lalmd.
Johnston
Island.
the
Cs~l
m.
or wllhln
Lhe OuLtr
ConClnenlsl
Shelf
lsnds
sa dcflnrd
In lhe Outer
ConlfntntSl
Shelf
Imds
AcC (67 Bhl.
462. 43 U.S.C.
1331). where
dlvlng
and
rtfskd
rupporL
operalioda
are
per-
formtd.
(2) This stmu.lard

spplies
lo dlvlry
end
relsred.
support
operalIons
condw&d
In conneeUon
wilh
sll LYpca of
work
and employments.
lncludlna
I(enl ral fnduslry.
corWrucUon.
ship
reshlpbreaklna
palrlns.
shlpbulldlnlf,
u
lowshorIng.
However.
lhls standsrd does nol spply
lo SnY dlvin8
operSllon:
(f) performed
solely
for InsCrucLlonal
using
open-clrcuk
cornVU-.
ljred.slr
SCUBA
snd
conducted
wf(hln
the no-decompresslon
lfmk
(11)
performed
solely
for
search.
rmue,
or related
public
safety
purposca by or under
lhe conlrol
Of a EoverninenlSl
agency;
or
(111) Governed
by 45 CFR
Part
46
(protectton
of Human
Stlbjwb.
US.
&parLmenl of Health. Educalion.
and
Welfare)
or equlvalcnl
rules or regulanona
eslsbllahed
by another
federal
bgeney.
which
reffulatc
rPSear&
de.
yelopmenl.
or related
purposes
invulv.lng human
subjccls.
(lv1 Dellned
as scicnlifIc
dlvlna
aIId
which
Is under
lhc dirrcllon
and ~11
lrol of a dlvlng
program
~ontalnlIIIf
at
Iput
Lhe fullowlnrr
el~n~1L~.
(A) Dlvitlg
safely
ruanua~
whkh
ItI.
eludes
aI a tnlnimum.
lroccdurrs
Cov-
crlng
SLI dlvlng
opersilons
specrlflc
to
lhe prowam;
procedures
for cmergen.
cy care.
lncludlng
rcc:onIpressiorI
and
evscusrlon:
and criteria
fur diver
train.
lng and cerllficalion.
f Bl Dlvlng
control
(safety)
board.
wllh
lhe
majority
of
11s metnbcrs
belnll
sktlve
divers.
whkh
shall
aL a
mlnlmum
have
lhe aulhurity
LO: myprove
snd
monlLor
diving
projects;
revlcw
and
rcvlsc
lhe
diving
safely
msnual;
assure
complianre
will1
Lhe
manual;
cerlify
Lhe depths
10 which
a
dlvcr
hss
been
Lrsined;
Lake dlsclpllnsry
s&Ion
for unssfe
prac(lces;
and.
saaurt
adherence
to the buddy
system
(a dlvtr
la sccompanied
by and ls in
COnWWoua
contscl
wtlh
snolher
diver
in lht wslerl
for SCUBA
diving.
fbl Applicofion
in emergencies.
An
tmPlOYtr
may
deviate
from
Ihe
reqIIlremenls
01 dhis
slsndard
Lo Lhe
trltnl
necessary
lo prevent
or mlnlmtze
a sltusClon
which
la tlktly
(o
csuae
dcslh.
aerloux
physleal
harm.
or
major
envlronmen~al
damage.
provldcd lhat Ihe employer:
(I l Nolifles
the Area Direclor.
Dccupallonsl
SsfeLy
and Heallh
AdmInis1raLlon
wlLhln
II3 hours
of the onset
of
Lhe emergency
slUmLion
indlcallng
the
nature
of Lhe emergency
and cxlenl
of
the devis(lon
from
Lhe prescribed
reg.
ulatlons;
snd
(2) Upon
request
from
Iht
Ares
Dlrector.
submits
such
LnformaLlon
In
wrlling.
tc) Employer
obfigafion.
The
employtr
shall
be ,rcsponsIble
for compllsnct
wlLh:
( I ) All provlslons
01 thls standard
01
general
spplicablllly;
snd
(2)
All requjremeII@s
PWlslnW
lo
spPclfk
dlvlnff
modes
lo the
exknl
diving
operations
in such
modes
sre
conducled.
142 Fit 3NiO& July 22. 1977. a~ amended
41 F-R 51565. Nov. 26. 1982 1
0 iw.402
at
fkfinitirnn.
As used
In Chls standard.
lhe Ilsled
terms
sre defined
ps follows:
Acfm:
Actual
cubic
feel
per
minute.
ASME
Code or eqIIivalrn1:
ASME
(Amerlcsn
SocIely
of Mechanical
Enginceis)
Boiler
and
Pressure
Vessel
Code,
Seclion
VIII.
)r an cqulvalent
code
whkh
lhc employer
car1 demurI.
slrak
to be equally
rfferllve.
ATA:
ALrnosphc*re
absolule.
Bell:
An cnciuacd
compsrlmenl.
prrssurlred
tclused
bell1 or IIlIPre~ur-
.izcd toPen bell). which

allows
the dlvcr
10 bf2 ~rarwortcd
to aid fro111 the IuIderwaler
work
area and WIIICI~ IMY IK
used
as a Lemporary
rcfu&e
during
diving
operallorIs.
Bollom
Lime:
The
lotal
elasprcl
lime
measured
In nIuIutI:s
from
lhc
lime wher1 the diver
leaves
ihe surface
h descent
lo the lIttIe
ltlal lhe dwcr
beglm
~erll.
Bursting
pressure:
The pressure
a(
which
a pressure
contaIIIment
dcvke
would
fsll slructurally.
Cylinder:
A pressure
VCSSCI for the
slorssr
of eases.
Decompression
chamber:
A presLure veaael for liuman
occtrpancy
such
ss s aurfsct
decomprcsalon
cham&r.
closed
bell. or deep diving
system
used
to decompreaa
dlvera
and lo treat
decompreaalon
akkncaa.
Decompresslori
sickness.:
A condlllon wllh s varlcly
of symptoms
which
may resull
from
gss or bubbles
In lhe
&sues
of divers
sfltr
pressure
rcduc.
llon
Decompreaslon
lsble:
-A prof lie or
aeC of profllea
of depHI~llme
relaLlonrhlpa
for sscenl
rsles
and breslhlng
mlxlurts
lo be followed
sfler
a speclfk
depth-lime
exposure
or exposures.
Dive
locollon:
A surface
or vessrl
from
whkh
a dlvlng
operallon
IS con.
dueled.
reserve
Dlvt-locallon
breslhlng
asa: A rupply
syslcm
of air or mIxedgsa (sa spproprlsle)
al Lhe dive
loca.
LIon which
ts Independent
of the yri.
msry
supply
sy&m
and suffrclenl
lo
support
divers
during
lhe planned
de.
comgrwfon,
Dive
ploytes
Including
charge.
Dlvcr:
lesn1:
involved
lht
An
Divers
and supporl
emIn a dlvlng
operation.
dcslgnsled
person
III.
employee
working
In
ws1er
IWhIff
undcrwa1er
appararus
which
l upplles
compressed
brca~hfng
gas St lhe lmblenl
pressure.
Dlvcr-carried
reserve
brealhlng
gsa:
A diver csrrlcd
supply
of air or
mlxed
ass tas l pproprlale)
sufflcler~l
under
alandard
upcrallng
rundlllons
l o sllow
lhe dlvcr
to reach
lhe eurfacc.
or sIIolher
source
of breaihuIg
gas. ur
Lo bc rcarhrd
by a slandi~y
clIva*r
Dlvh~g
~nocie:
A type ul dtvu~g
requlring
sper~flc
equipment.
procrdurcs
snd lechtuqires
ISCUBA.
sI1rfac.r
aup
plied air or uIlxrd
RP?il.
Ww:
Feel 0f seawaler
(or cqulva
lcnl rlslic
pressure
head).
1Ilvcr
worn
deep sea
Heavy
year:
dress
In&ld~ng hehnr~.
brraslpla(,..
SW and used as an air, reservoir.

Working
pra5surc:
The
maximum
p,fsstrrc(0 wh~rh
a prv53ure
containmrnL
device
may
be exposed
under
slandard
opetallnu
condllions.
waler
in Ihe
plalfnrm
waler.
whIrli
*uppurls
a dtvcr
Mlxrd
gas diving:
A diving
mode ii1
u1hic.h
llle
diver
is supphed
in Ihe
waler
wllh a brealhing
gas olhet
lhan
air
The
No drrompreshion
Limits:
d~*plhlimc
hmils
of lhe
no-derompression
hmrts
and
tcprlilive
dtive
group
designation
table
for no.dcroin.
presslon
sic dives.
U S Navy
Diving
ManuaL
or equrvalenl
limiis
which
lhe
employer
can demonstrate
lo be equally cf feclive.
Psi(g):
POUlC~i
pet
square
inch
(gauge).
Sclenllflc
diving
means
diving
per.
formed
solely
as a necessary par1 of a
scienliflc.
research.
or educational
aclivily
by employees
whose
sole putpose for diving
Is lo perform
scienlific
research
tasks.
Scientrfic
diving
does
not include
performing
any (asks
USU+lly associated
wilh commercial
diving
surh
as: Placrng
or removing
hrivy
ob~KLS underwater:
inspection
of pipelines and similar
objecls:
conslruclion;
dcmolilion;
culling
or ~clding.
or the
use of explosives.
SCUBA
diving:
A diving
mode
hdependenl
of surface
supply
in which
the diver
uses
open
circuil
seif-conlained
underwaler
btealhing
aPParP1U.S.
Slandby.divct:
lo&lion
available
the waler.
A diver
lo assist
al lhe dive
a diver in
Surface-supplted
air
diving:
A
diving
mode
in which
the dlvct
Ln lhe
waler
Is syg>plied
from
lhc dive kc*
lion
wilh
compressed air for btealhlng.
Ttealmenl
lable:
A deplh-llme
and brealhing
gu
profile
designed
lo
lreal decomprcsslon
sickness.
Umbilical:
The
composlle
hose
bundle
belween
a dive localion
and a
dlvet
or bell, or belween
a diver and a
bell. which
supplies
lhe diver
or bell
with
brealhing
gas. communications.
power.
of hear
as l pptopriale
lo ihe
divmg
mode
or condilions.
and
inch~tles
a safely
line berween
(he diver
aud I he dive localton.
Volumr
lank:
A pressure
Vt6.d
connecled
lo lhe ou(lrl
of a compres-
I42 FR 37001. July 22. 197?. as l mradrd

47 I.74 53305. Nov. 20. 18821
shall
have
lhc* conducl
cralio81.
CiENrRAL
at
(a)
Ccncrof.
IIt
Each
dive
learn
mrmbcr
shail
have
Ihc experience
Or
(raining
necessary
lo prrfoml
assigned
tasks
in a safe and healthful
manner.
(2)
Each
dlve
team
member
shall
have erperience
or training
in (he following:
(it The
use of loots.
equipment
and
ryslems relevanl lo asslgned lasks;

(II) Techniques
of
lhe
assigned
dlvlng mode: and
(111, Divln# operations anh emergency procedurea.
(3) All dive (cam members
shall
be
ltalned Ln cardlopulmonaty
tesuscilalion and fhal l Ld (Ametkan Red Cross
l Uru#ard course or equivalent).
(4) Dlvc learn members who ate exposed Lo or control lhe exposure of
olhen lo hypertirk
condiLlons ahall
be lralned Ln divin -relaled physics
f
and physiology.
(b) Assfgnmenfs. (1) Each dive feam
member ahall be aaalgned la&x in accordance wilh lhe employees erperlence or lrafnlng. excepl lhal Smiled
addlliormi La&a may be assigned lo an
employee undetgolng
lraining provlded lhal lheae laaka ate performed
under the ditecl ruperviaion of an LXperienced dive team member.
(2) The employer ahall noL requite a
dive leam member lo be exposed lo
hype&ark
condllloru
agahaal &he employeea rlll. cxcepl when neeeasaty lo
complele decompreulon
or lteatmenl
procedurea.
(3) The employer ahall no1 perrnll a
dlve team member le dive or be olherwise exposed f.u hyperbaric condillons
for lhe dutxllon
of any temporary
phyakal
fmpairmcnt
or
u-mdlllon
which
fa known
lo lhe
employer
and
Ia
likely Lo l ffecl adversely lhe safely or

health of a dive leam member.
tc) fkriunofcd
perron-ln-charge.
f 1)
The employer or an employee destgnated by the employer shall be al lhe
dlve locallon In charge of all aspects of
lhe diving
operation
affecllng
lhe
safely
bers.
(2)
and
The
heallh
dtalgnalcd
of
dive
learn
pcr+on-In-charge
mem-
6 1SlO~I20
experience
and
01 the ax.lgued
OIWIATIONS
Safe prarllcra
lralnlng
d.vmg
in
op.
PaoCCDUflCS
manual.
tat General.
The
employer
shall
devolop
and
mainlaIn
a safe
practLres
manua1
which
shall
be made available
al the dive location
lo each dive (earn
member.
lb) Confcnfs.
(It The safe ptaclices
manual
shall
conLain
a copy
of this
slandard
and
lhc employers
policies
for implemrnling
lhe requiremenls
of
lhls slandard.
(2) Pot each dlvlng
mode engaged
In.
the
safe
ptacllces
manual
shall
include:
(it Safely
procedures
and checkllsls
for diving
opetrllona;
(IO Assignments
and teaponalbllllles
of lhe dhe learn memberr;

(111) Equlpmenl
procedurea
checkllsfa; and
(Iv)
Emergency
equIpmen
Iallure.
menial condlllons.
and InJury.
procedurea
adverse
and medkrl
for
and
flte.
envltonllfnesa
tThe
InformalIon
collecllon
requIrementa
-contaIned
In paryrapb
tb) were twrovtd
by the Olfkt
01 Manratmenl
and BuQec
under conlrol
number
lila-OMfU
(42 PR 378U. July 21. la77. Y amtndcd
al
0 FR 1.295. Apt. 50. 1960
I WIL4ZI
Pre-dlvc
prettdutta
(a) CJencmL
The employer
ahall
comply wflh &he followlng
requitementx ptlot lo each diving operallon.
unleu
OlheNke l peclfled.
fb) Bmerocncg old. A Hal ahall be
kept
al lhe dive tocallon of the Lekphone or call numbers of lhe followIng:
(1) An operaltonal
decompreaalon
chamber (if no1 at the dive LocallonR
(2)
(3)
(4)
lion;
(5)
Rescue
Acceaalble
hoapltals;
Avallable
physklans;
Available
meana
of Lranaportaand
The
nearCaL
U.S.
Coast
Ouard
Coordlnatlon
Cenlet.
fc) Ffraf
ofd ruppffcr.
(I ) A firsl
aid
k11 l ppCoprlate
for
lhc
dlvlng
opecallon
and
approved
by 6 phyrlclan
ahall be available
al the dive localIon.
(2) When
used
In a decomprcsslon
chamber
or bell. Lhe flrsl
ald hI1 shall
be sullable
for use under
hyperbaric
condlllona.
(3) In addlllon
Lo any olher
flrsl
ald
PII
Amrrlran
Ned
Cro.us
~supplies.
slamlard
flrsl
aid handbook
or rymva.
Irni.
aiid a bag lype
mammal
resusc.~la
lor wrllr
lraibpareul
m&A and lubu~g
al~sll be nvallnble
et Ilw dove locallw~.
td) tluna~r~y
orrd u~scrsrnenf
Hen
nlng
of a d~vlog
opt~ralum
shall
111
elude a11 cwsrtimrnl
of Ihe safely
elul
Iu%ll~h U~Wc(s
of UN! followm(t:
4 I ) Ihvlng
mode;
(2) Sutfacc
and
underwaler
comll
lions and hazards;
(3) Ihealhlug
gas supply
(inciudorg
reserves).
(4) Thermal
yrobxllon.
(5) Divlirg
cquipmenl
and ayslems.
(6) Dive Learn rssignmenls
and physlcal Illness
of dlve learn
members
tin
eluding
any linpqirrnenl
III~OWII lo lI1e
employer
);
(7) Wepelillve
dive designallon
or residual
lnetl
gas 68alus
of dive
learn
members;
IfI)
Decompreaslon
and
treatment
procedures
IincludIng
allllude
corrections).
aud
(0) Emergency
procedures.
te)
Hazardotu
acfiu:fics.
To
mlnimke hazards
Co the dfve (earn.
diving
operalions
shall
be coordinated
wlih
olhet acLlviLies
In (he vicinity
which
are likely
lo LnLerfete
wllh
Lhc diving
operallon.
(I) Employee
bricltng.
(1) Dive
Learn
members
ahalt be britfed
on:
(1) The tasks
lo be underlaken;
(Ii) Safely procedures
for the diving
mode;
(iii) Any unusual
hazards
or envirorlmenLal
condltlons
likely
lo affccl
the
safely
of lhe dlvlng operalIon;
aud
(iv)
Any
modlficallonr
lo operaO1~q
procedurea
necessitated
by (he speclflc
dlvlng
operalion.
(2) Prior lo making individual
dlve
learn
member
assigllmenlss.
the
et,\player
ahall Inquire
in10 lhe dlve team
members
currenl
slale
of physlcal
fitness.
and
Indlcale
Lo (he dive seam
member the procedure
for reportlug
physlcai
problems
or adverse
physlologlcal
effects
during
and
l fltr
the
dlve.
Equipmen
inJptcl:on
The
(I)
brealhlns:
(lu supply
ryrltm
lncludlna
reserve
brralhlng
gas suypllcs.
masks.
heimels.
lhermal
prolccliou.
l ud bell
handling
mechanism
twhrn
apyr~orl
l le) shall
be inspecled
prior
Lo each
dlVe.
ttrl
Wamtng
stgnof.
When
dlvlng
from
surlacer
other
Ihart
vessel3
In
areas
capable
of supportlug
marluc
Iraffic.
a rlgld
rcpllca
of the Inlcrna.
llotml
codv fI.1~
in height
~hallbr
IcMxtlorl
round
rl h-w1
displayrd
a n\an,ur
vislbdily..
cd during
a OlO.J22
III
iughl
and
clivu~g
Yrorclurco
WhlCll
sl~all
one mrlrr
al 111~ dtve
allows
nil.
be ~llun~~n~l-
ol~,~rall,ura
during
dive.
1ai
mneraf.
The
employer
shall
compIy
wlih
lhe
followln~
rcqulrcme&s
which
ate
appiicablc
lo each
diving
operalion
unless
olhcrwlse
specified.
1bi
Waf,,,r
anfry
and
uif.
11) A
means
capa~dc
of supporting
lhe diver
ahall be provided
for enlerlng
and eIlilng lhe waler.
(2) The
means
provldrd
for exlllng
lhe
waler
shall
erlend
below
Lhe
waler
surface.
13) A means
shall
be provlded
io
&islsl
a41 injured
diver
from
lhe waler
6r In10 a bell.
1ci Communicaltonr.
(1) An oper.
l ilonai lwo.w8y
voice
comntunlcalion
sys1em
shall
be used between:
1l)
Epch
surface-supplled
air
or
mlred.gas
diver
and
a dive
learn
member
al lhe dive
locallon
or beil
(when
provlded
or requlredi;
and.
tii) The bell and lhe dlve location.
12) An operalional.
lwo-way
communlcalion
sys1em
shall
be nvallable
aI
ihe dive localion
lo oblaln
emergency
asstslance.
(d)
Decompression
fobkt.
&COlW
pression.
repelilive.
and no.decompres* sIon tibia
1~s approprlatci
shall
be al
the dfve loca(lon.
te) Dlur
pro/llcr.
A depth-lime
profllc.
lncfudlns
when
l pproprlrlt
anY
breathlna
@as changer.
shall
be malnbined
for each diver
during
lhe dive
Includln#
decomprcsslon.
(I) Hand.hcld
po(ocr
loafs and &JvlPmenc
(Ii
Hand-held
clec1rlcaI
1001~
and cqulpmenl
shall
be de-encraised
before
being
placed
Inlo
or rr1rirved
from 1he waler.
12) Iland-held
power
tools shall
Ito1
be supplied
wl1h power
from
lhe dtvc
localIon
unill
reyuesled
by lhe diver.
((11 Wcldtnq
and burning.
(1) A current
supply
switch
lo Inlcrrupl
1he
currenl
flow 10 Ihe weldlny
or burnInK
eleclrode
shall be:
11, T~nrled
hv a dive leam
member
In
volcr
communicalion
wilh
lhe
diver
performlng
lhr
wcldmg
or burninK.
8ncf
111) Kepl
In lhe open pnsillon
rxcrpl
when
1he dlvcr
iS WeidruK
or burnmy.
(2) The welding
machlnc
frame
shall
be grounded
13) Weldihy
and burning
cables.
eleclrode
holders.
and connec1ions
shall
be capable
of carrying
lhc maximum
currenl
repulrcd
by
lhe
work.
and
shall be properly
lnsuloled.
14) Insulated
cloves
si~ali be provldcd to divers
performlng
weidlng
and
burning
operalions.
15) Frlor
lo welding
or burning
on
cl&
c0mpar1meni.s.
tlruclures
or
plpea.
which
conlaln
a flammable
vapor
or in which
a flammable
vapor
may
be generaled
bX the work.
lhcy
ahall
be venled.
flooded.
or purged
wllh
a mlrlure
of eases which
wlii no1
support
combustion.
thi
EX~~OJ~LWJ.
11) Employers
shall
lruammrl.
store.
and use erpioslves
in
accordance
with
lhls
secllon
and the
l pplkable
provIsIons
of 5 I010.100
and
,I lI24LSI2
of Tllie
29 of lhc Code
of
kderaf
Regulations.
12) ElecLrlcaI
conllnuily
of explosive
clrcul&a
ahail
no1 be lerled
unlli
lhe
diver
fs oul of lhc waler.
(3) Exploslvcs
shail
no1 be delonaled
while
the dlvcr
ls In lhe water.
(1) Tennhallon
ofdiw.
The workIn
inlerval
of a dive shall
be Ccrmlnaled
when:
(Ii A diver
request+
lerminailon;
12) A diver
falls lo respomj
correclly
Lo communica1fop.s
or slynais
from
a
dlve team member;
(3) Communicallo~
are iosl and can
no1 be qulckiy
re-eslabllshed
belween
lhe diver
and a dlve learn
member
a1
(he dive localion.
and belween
the dcslanated
Person-In-charge
and
r&
p4!rson
conlrolling
lhe
vessel
In ilveboallng
opersllons;
or
14) A diver
begins
lo use dlver.carrled reserve
brealhlng
gas or lhe dive.
location
reserve
brenthing
pas.
S 1910.423
i%wl.&c
prwvdur4..
1a)
General.
The
employer
shall
comply
wllh
lhe
followlny
requlremeIlLs
which
are apphrable
l f1er eacib
diviny
operallon.
unless
olherwlse
specified.
1bi Precauf~ons.
11) Af1er
the comPlelfon
of any
dive.
1i1e employer
shall:
11) Check
lhe physlcsi
condllion
of
lhe diver;
tlli Inslrucl
ihe dlvrr
lo reDor
&ny
physlcal
problems
or adverse
physioioolcai
effecls
Including
SYI~~COI~~~
of
decompression
slc*kne.u;
(iii) Advise
lhe diver
of lhc loca1lun
of a dccompresslun
ciramtir
WIJI~)~
4s
reedy
for use. and
1lvi Aierl
lhe diver
LO 1he potrntlal
hazards
of flying
afler dlvlng.
(2) For any dive oulside
Ihe no-deComPressIon
ilmlls.
deeper
lhan
100
fsW or using
mlxed
gas as a brealhlng
mlxlure.
1he employer
shall
lnslrucl
1he diver
10 remain
awake
and III the
vicinity
of 1he decompresslon
chamber
which
Is al lhe dive
iocallon
for ai
leas1 one hour
l fler lhe dlve 1Includ.
lncl: decompresslon
or lrealmenl
as apProprlNei.
(cl ftecomPreJJfon
capabifffy.
(1) A
decompression
chamber
capable
of re.
compresslnr
the dlver
al lhe surface
to a mlnlmum
of 165 fsw (8 ATAi
shall
be avalinble
al lhe dive locatlon
for:
11) Surface-supplled
air
dlvlng
to.
dcplhr
deeper
khan
100 fsw and ah&lower
lhan 220 fsw;
111) Mixed
gas dlvlng
shnliower
lhan
300 fsw; or
(ill)
Diving
outside
the
no-decompresslon
llmlis
sh8ilower
lhan
300 I&.
12) A decompression
chamber
capable of recompressing
lhe diver
a1 lhe
Surface
lo lhe maxlmum
de&h
of 1he
dive rhmll be avaIlable
al lhr dive @alion for dives deeper
lhan 200 fsw.
(3)
The
decompresslon
chamber
shall be:
(Ii Dual-lock;
(11) Muillpiace;
and
(ilii facatcd
within
I mlnules
of the
dive locallon.
14)
The
decompression
chamber
rhail
be equipped
wllh:
(ii A pressure
gauge
for each
pressurlsed
compartment
deslaned
for
human
occupancy;
1lli A bulil-in-brealhing+.yslent
wllii
a mlnlmum
of one mask
per uccupan1;
1111) A lwo.woy
voice CommUnlcallon
ays1em
belween
occupanb
and a dive
learn member
al tire dlvc location;
1Iv i A vlewporl;
and
tvi lilumlnallon
capabillly
lo llghl
lhe inlerlor.
. (5) irealmenl
lables.
trealmenl
gas
l pproprlale
lo lhe dlvrua
mode.
and
aufficlenl
60s
to conduct
lrealmr~d
shafi
be avallable
al lire dlve It~alltm
(g) A dive
tram
mrrub~*r
alball
be
avaIlable
and for
al
al
lht
dlvc
loral,on
duru,g
leas1 one ilour

af1er
1he
dive
lo operale
lhe
decompressum
chamber
(when
requlrrd
or provldrd).
td) Record
o/ drue. ( I) The following
InformalIon
rnau,tained
(II
Nnrncs
shall
be
rerordc.tl
a~~cf
#*actI d~vlng opt-# ai Tut
of dive teanr
nu*n,h,.,
:. ,a,
for
eluding
dcsignalcd
pcrsoo
III ~II;,I
(II) I)ak.
lu,~.
and I,~c.a(h)1,.
(rii) f)lvlng
mod,-s
uscbd.
6~.
(Iv)
Cienerul
nalurc
of
work
*,+I
for mrd.
(VI
Approxlmale
underwal*.t
Htltl
surface
condltlous
(vlarbrll(
y.
~.llC~l
l~~mperolure
and current).
a1811
tvl)
Manlmum
depU1
ontl
~HIII~~I~,
Lime for each drver.
42) For each dive outslde
the IIO I,.
comprrsrlon
%mlts.
deeper
Ihell
too
fsw or usmg
mlred
girs. lhe folh~~~~
addlltonal
Inforrnalion
shail
be IQ, 01 ,I
cd and malnlalned.
(4) Oeplh-lime
and
brealhlns
a.~
proflies:
111) DecompressIon
(able
desiKrra114,11
1Includlne
modlficallor~~.
and
(Iii) Elapsed
lime since
1as1 prc~~r,.
exposure
If less lhan
24 hours
01 I,
peltlive
dlue
deslgrlalior1
lot
ASHY),
dlvcr.
i
13) For each
dlve
In whlCh
drc-UIU
preulon
sickness
Is l uspecled
or cymp
lams
are evldcnl.
the followulna
ad&
llonai
Informalton
shall
b(:;ret)u#~icd
and malnlalned.
,I 7
(I)
Descrlpllon
of
decomprcsuiou
6lrkncss
symploms
(mcludinu
~C~,III
and Lime of onscl);
and
(II) llrscriptton
and results
ot Irish
menl.
te) DtCOmPreJJlOn
procedure
US~C~~
menf. The employer
shall:
1 I) invesllgale
and evalualc
CYVII I,,
cldenl
of decompression
slckne%
ba~~f
on lhe recorded
InformalIon.
C~IC,I,I,~I
allon
of lhe pas1 performance
01 ,te
compresslon
fable used. and irrdi~id~tri
susccpllblllty;
4 2)
Take
approprlalc
corr~1
IV,.
actlon
lo reduce
lhe probabllliy
01 at
currcncc
of decornpresslon
SI~~IK\~,
and
(3) prepare
a wrlllen
cvaluuic~~~
of
Llie decon1presslon
prucedurc
LLW-U
mrnl.
lncludlng
l IIY corrrcllvr
II, IIWB
taken.
wllhln
45 days
of the IIN LCIC~~I
of decumpressto:r
sickness
::
g
-I
.a
~,i
$
$
,
.<<
4
s,
-SC
i
$
*
SCIJBA
dlvlng
shall
comply
wllh
lhe
following
rcquiremrnls.
unless
ofherwrse sprclfled.
tb) Ltmfs.
SCUBA
drvlng
shall
nof
be conducfed:
f I ) Al drpfhs
deeper
than
130 fsw;
(2) Al drnfhs
derper
lhan
IO0 fsw or
oufsitde
the
no.drbcompresslon
lhnlfs
unlrss
a decompresslon
chamber
is
ready
for use;
(3) Againsl
currents
exceeding
one
r I J knot
unless
line-lended;
(4) In enclosed
or physfeally
ing spaces
unless
ilne-lend&
( c ) Proccdu
FCJ.
or
confln-
(I ) A slandby
dlvtr
shall be avaIlsbIt
while a diver ls in lhc waltr.
(2) A diver shxli
be line-ftndtd
from
the aurhct.
or accompanied
by gnother
diver in lht waler
in conlinuous
V~SU~I conmct
during
the diving
opcrl lioM.
(3) A diver rh8il
be 8loliontd
al lht
underwater
polnl of l nlry
when dlvlng
b conducted
In enclosed
or physlcaily
conflnlng
apaces.
(4) A dlver.carried
reserve
brealhlng
gas supply
shall be provided
for each
dlvtr
consisfing
of:
(I) A murual
reserve
tJ v8lveJ; or
fiiJ An independent
restrve
cylinder
wllh a sep8rafe
reguialor
or connected
io lht
underwater
brcalhing
l pv8ra.
LUI.
(5) The valve
of lhe reserve
brealhing gur supply
sh8ll
be In lhe closed
position
prior
LO lht dive.
(8) Generd.
Employers
engagfPh;;
diving
ah
aurface-supplled
comply
w&h
lhe
following
rtguiremen&
unless olhtnise
rpccifitd.
fb) Lfarfs.
f I J Surface-suppfitd
l ir
dlvlng
shall
no1
bt
eonducltd
lk
deplhs
dttptr
than
IW
fsw. eretP1
lhat
divts
wilh
bollom
limes
of 30
minutes
or fess m8y be condrrcltd
Lo
deplhs
of 220 fsw.
(2) A dtcomprtssfon
chamber
shall
be rudy
for use at the dive Io~aliOn
for any dive oufslde
lhe no-decompruslon limlfs or deeper
lhan 100 fsw.
(3) A bell shall be used for dlves wllh
an inwater
dtcomprtssion
lime greater
lhan
120 mlnutes.
l xctpl
when heavy
gear fs worn or dlving
is conducted
in
physkally
confinlng
spaces.
fcJ Procedures.
(1) Each
diver
shall
be conllnuously
fended
whlie
In lhe
waler.
(2) A dlver shall be srarloned

underwaler
poinl of entry
when
fs conducled
In enclosed
al the
dlvlng
or phYSlrallY
conflnlng
(3)
Each
a vrlm8ry
spaces.
dlvlng
brealhlng
operallon
gas
clenl
lo supporl
divers
llon of lhe PlaNled
dive
comyresalon.
shall
(4) For dives deeper

than
oulslde
lhe no-decomyresslon
(1) A separale
shall fend each
(11) A slandby
supply
for lhe
lncludhrg
have
suffl-
durade.
100 fsw
Ilm~ts:
learn
member
diver
In lhe wafer;
diver
6hall
be avall-
or
dlve
8bfc while a diver is In the wafer;

(Ii0
A dlver.csrrled
reserve
brealh.
ing gas sufrpf~
shall
be provlded
for
each diver
except
when
heavy
gear is
worn: and
fivJ A dive4ocollon
reserve
bre8lhlng
gss supply
ah811 be provlded.
(5) For
heavygear
dlvlng
deeper
lhan
100 law or oubide
lhe no-decom
Pression
ilmifs:
flJ An exlr8
brealhing
gas hose capable of supplylng
brealhlng
g8s lo lhe
diver
In lhe waler
shall be avallable
ro
lhe standby
dlvtr.
(II) An Inwaler
slage sh8li be provldcd Lo divers
in lhe waler.
(6) Excepl
when
heavy
ge8r is worn
or where
physlc8l
space does no1
permit.
a dlverc8rrled
reserve
bre8lhlng gas supply
sh8li bt provided
whenever lhe diver is prevtnfed
by the configuration
of lhe dive are8
from
ascending
dlrtcliy
lo lht surfpct.
a IOlO.425
Mlrd.gas
diving.
(a) General.
Employers
engaged
In
mixed-gu
divlng
shall
comply
wllh
lht
following
requirementa.
unless
olherwist
speelfled.
rb) Limits.
Mixed-gas
diving
ah811 be
eondueled
only when:
(I)
A decompression
chamber
Is
ready
for use al lht dive locatlon;
and
411 A bell is used at deplhs
grealtr
lh8n 220 fsw or when lhe dive Involves
Inwakr
decompression
llmt of gre8ler
than
120 mlnults.
except
when
he8vy
gear is worn
or when
dlvlng
in physically conflnlng
spaces; or
ill) A closed
bell is used 81 depths
greater
lhan
300 fsw. excepl
when
divlng
is conducled
In physlcally
con
fining
spaces.
(c) Procedures.
(1) A separale
dive
learn member
shall lend each diver
in
lhe water.
(2) A slandby
diver shall be 8vallable
while 8 dlvcr
is in lhe waler.
(3) A diver ahall be slalloned
al lhe
underwaler
polnl of entry
whtn
dlvlng
la conducled
In enclosed
conflnlns
svacea
(4) Each dlvlng
opcrallon
or ptryslcally
rhall
h8ve
a vclmrry
brealhlng
uaa suoolv
suffl.
Clenl
Lo suyporl
divers
for lhe duralion of lhe plarrned
dlve Lncludlng
de.
compression.
(5) E~cII dlvlng

operatlon
shah
a dive locallon.
reserve
brealhlng
SWVlY.
(6) When
(1) An extra
heavy
gear
brealhlng
Is worn:
gas hose
have
gas
capa-
chargP
and lhe person
conlrolllnlr
the
vessel
shall
be avallable
wtule
lhe
diver Is III lhe waler.
r 4 r A slandhy
diver shall
be avallable
while a diver
Is In lhe waler.
(5) A diver carried
reserve
bre8ttrln.g
&as supply
shall
be carried
by each
diver
engagrd
In
Ilveboallng
opcr
allorw.
ble of supplylng
brealhlns
gas lo lhe
diver
In the waler rhall be avaliable
lo
lhe standby
diver; and
.(I)) An inwater
r&age shall
cd Lo divers
In lhe waler.
be provld-
(7) An lnwaler
slage shall be provldcd for divers
wllhoul
access lo 8 bell
for dlves deeper
fhan
IO0 fsw or oulside lhe no-decompresslon
Iimlb.
fgJ When
a closed
bell Is used. one
dlve team member
in lhe bell shall be
l v8lJ8ble
8nd lend
lhe diver
in lhe
water.
(0) Exeepl
when
heavy ge8r is worn
or where
physlcal
spsce
does
no1
permit.
s dlverc8rrlcd
restrve
bre8Lhlng gas supply
sh8ll
be provldtd
for
each diver:
flJ Dlving
deeper
lhan
100 fsw or
oufside
lht
no-decompression
Ilmlla;
or
(II) Prevenltd
by, lhe configuralion
of lht dive 8re8 from
dlreclly
ucending Lo the surface.
I.ir&Eaflag.
(a) General.
Employers
l ng8ged In
diving
operalIons
Lnvoivlng
ilveboallng
shall
comply
wllh
lhe following
rtquirements.
(b) Umllr.
Diving
operallons
invofving Ilveboallng
shah no1 be conductid:
f IJ .WIlh
8n lnw8ltr
decompresslon
lime of greater
lhan 120 mlnules;
(2)
Using
surface-supplled
ah
al
deplhs
deepcr
than
IW fsw. exceP1
lhal
dives
wilh
bollom
limes
of 30
minu&s
or less may be conducled
Lo
depths
of 220 few;
(3) Using
mlxed
gas al depths
greater than 220 fsw;
(0 In rough
seas which
slgnlflcanlly
lnpede
diver
mobllily
or work
funclion; or
(5) In olher
lhan dryllght
hours.
g l210.422
fc) Proredurer.
lhe vessel
shall
diver
(1) The
be sfopped
propeller
before
enters
or exlfa the waler.
A device
shall
be used
of
lhe
(2)
which
mlnlmlaes
the posslblllly
of enlangle~
men1 of lhe dlvers.
huse 11~ lhc proprlier of lhe vessel.
(3)
Two w8y
voice
comniunlcallon
befween
lhe
deslgnaled
person
In
0 1910.430
Equipmeal,
(a)
C;cnerol.
comply
wllh
merits.
t2J
repalr.
nance
means
unless
Each
(1)
lhe
All employers
followlng
olhenvlae
equlpmenl
shall
l freclfled.
require
modlflc8llon.
feel.
cahbraflon
or
malnlel ervlce shall
be recorded
by
of a lagglng
or IogghV
l ysfem.
and Include
lhe dale
and nature
of
work performed;
and lhe name or lnllials
of lhe
person
pcrformlng
lhe
work.
fbJ Air compressor
rysfcm
(1) ComPremon
ustd lo supply
air Lo lhe dlver
shall
be equipped
wllh a volume
lank
w.ilh a check
valve
on lhe Inlet side. a
pressure
gauge.
a relief
valve.
and a
draln
v8ive.
(2) Air compressor
InWes
shall
be
loc8led
8w8y
from
areas
confalnlng
exhaust
or olher
conlamlnan(r.
43) Resplrrble
air supplled
lo a diver
rh8ll no1 conlaln:
-(I) A level of carbon
monoxlde
(CO)
greaser
lhan 10 p/m;
(II) A level of carbon
dioxide
(CO.)
greater
lhan l.fJOfJ p/m;
(IIIJ A level of oil mbl greater
lhan b
mllllgr8ms
per cubic meler;
or
(Iv) A noxious
or pronounced
odor.
r 4 r The oulpul
of ah compressor
syslems
shall
be rested
for
8lr purify
every
8 monlha
by means
oil samples
18ken al lhe connectlon
to lhe dlslrlbuflon
syslem.
except
lhsl
non oll lubrlcaled
compressora
need
not
be
rested for oil mbl.
(c) Breafhinv
f7OJ JUppfU
h0~eJ.
(1)
Breathing
(1) Have
gas supply
trosea
ahall:
a working
preuure
at leas1
equal fo fhc worklng
pressure
of Lhc
Lola1 brealhlng
gas system;
(II) Have a r,aled bursllng
pressure
l r
leral
equal
lo 4 limes
lhe
worklns
pressure;
tlll) Be tealed
at leut
annually
lo 1.5
llmer
lhelr
worklng
pressure;
and
(Iv)
Have
lhelr
open
en&
taped.
capped
or plugged
when no1 In use.
42,
ntclon
fbealhlng
ahell:
gu
supply
hose
con-
(1) Be
malerlals.
of
corro~lot:
rcslsla~tl
working
t:re?r9,tre
al Irh\l
equal
Lo Ilw
working
IWc~\llil~
01 till:
l:ose 10 wtu~~l~ Il:cy
ar, alla lt,*d. atlcl
1111) He reslstanl
lo acCt,l,*,ll~~l
CltS~ttgagrmut:l.
0) Umbtlirals
shall:
(I1 Be marked
10 1O.N. it:cretnrnls
to
100 feel begfnnfug
al lhe dtvcrs
el,d.
xnd In 50 fL. incremen(r
lhereaflrr:
(It) Be made of kink-reslslxnt
materlxls; xttd
(Ill) Have a worklng
pressure
grexler
lhxn
Lhe presxure
cpttlrxlenl
lo the
mxxlmum
deplh
of the dive trel8Llve
lo the supply
source)
phtx 100 psl.
(d) BUO~IIC~
corfrof.
t 1) Helmcfs
or
m&x
cottnecled
dlrcclly
lo lhc
dry
other
bttoyutcychxttgln8
rull
or
equlpmenl
shxll
be equlpped
wllh
xn
exhxtul
valve.
(2) A dry
sulr
or olher
buoyancvchxnglng
equlpmenl
no1 dlreclly
conoeclcd
lo lhe hclmeL
or muk
rhxll
be
equlppcd
wllh an l xhxusl
valve.
(2) When
used for SCUBA
dlvlng.
x
buoyancy
compcnsxlor
shall
hxve
xn
lnflatlon
xource
wpxrxle
from
lhe
brexlhlng
gxx xuppl~.
(4) A&Inflatable
flolallon
devke
cgp&le
of malnLxlnlrtg
the diver
xl Ihe
rurfacc
Ln x face-up
poslllon.
hxvlng
x
marntally
xclivaled
lnflxllon
source
Independenl
of Lhe brexlhlng
supply.
xn
oral
Inflxtlon
devke.
and xn exhaust
valve
xhall
be urcd
for SCUBA
dlvlng.
tc) CompreJJed
@or cldindcrr.
COIW
, prcncd
sag cylinders
shall:
4 I)
Be derlgned.
conslrucLcd
and
trtxlnlalned
In accordxnce
with
the l pplkabk
provlalotts
of 29 CFR
I010.101
,+utd 1910.109
lhrou@h
1810.111.
- (2) Be xlored
In a venlllxled
uex
xnd
prolcctcd
from excesxlve
heal;
(2) ik xecurcd
from
fxlllng:
xnd
(4)
Have
shttl-off
vxlvex
receucd
I &to Lhe cylinder
or prtiled
by x cx~.
exapl
when
In use or murlfolded.
or
when wd
for SCUBA
dlvlna.
(I)
,.kCOmprcJJfOtt
cftamberr.
11 I
Erh
dccomprc%slon
chamber
manufaclured
rfLer
lhe
effecllve
Cole
of
lhlg rmdxrd.
rhtll
be bull1 xnd mxlttj Wned
In xccordxnce
wllh
lhe ASME
Code or .e.rtulvalc+.
(II)
made
Hew
121 Each
drrotnprrsslon
mamtfa,
Lured
pr:or
lo the
dale
of lhls
slnndsrd
shall
tatned
In cot:fortnlly
u/III, Hte
wlrrinmts
IO wltleh
11 was
,*1ulval,~t&
3)
lQ+rll
tl,*cotn1)ressn.m
shall b,. equ~f,f,rcf
~111:.
chamber
effecllve
be mall,
co&
re
bulll,
or
c1ta:nba.r
III
Mrans
IO mainlaln
the
atmoaplllw
b,~low
a I,%V*l of 25 tJc1cctr1.
oxy$y,r
by vol:lt:t,.
IO Mufflers
ot1 lt~lak,~
and rxtK3llSl
IIIIV~. whtc~l: bllall II,* r,*gula, ly lnsil,~,l
Vd alll Ilrallllaln~l.
1111) S:tc1:on
guards
on c*nl:ausl
Ilt,c~
u(:twl:l~s.
and
, :v 1 A means
for exllngulshlng
fuc.
and st:all
I~,* n:at,rla:tt~,l
to tn:nlnt:~,~
sources
of ignllton
and
combusllble
malrrtal.
1g1 (;uuper
and ~tnwkcrptng
decw(s
I I I (;aug,*s
lncbcal1t:g
divrr
deplh
whirl:
cam: be read al lhe dtve localion
shall
be used
for
all dives
encriB
SCUHA.
(2) Each deplh
gauge
shall
be deadweight
lesled
or callbroled
l gaLns1 a
every
6
reference
wwe
mxsler
monlhs.
and when
there
Is a discrepancy
grcaler
than
two pcrccnL
(2 percenlt
of full
wale
between
any
lwo
cqulvalenl
g8ugcs.
(3) A cylinder
pressure
gauge
C~PPble of being
monllorcd
by the
diver
during
Lhe dlvc shall
be worn
by each
SCUBA
dlvcr.
(4)
A Umekeeplng
device
shall
be
avaIlable
xL ckch
dive locxllon.
thl MoJkJ
and hrfmctr.
f 1) Surfacesupplled
air and mlxed.gas
masks
at:d
hclmcls
shall have:
tl) A non-relurn
valve
al the l tlachmen1
polnl
bcLwecn
hctmel
or mask
and hose which
shall close readily
and
poslllvc!y;
and
(II) An exhaust
valve.
(2) Surface-suppllcd
xlr m&u
and
helmet8
shall
have a mlnlmum
vcnllkllon ralc cxpxblflly
of 4.5 xcfm
xl any
dcpCh
al which
they
arc operated
or
lhc
capablllly
of
malnlalnlng
(he
divers
Inspired
carbon
dloxlde
@arllal
pressure
below
0.02
ATA
when
Ihc
diver
Is producing
carbon
dlorldc
al
the
rile
of
1.0 standard
lltcrr
per
minute.
(II
Ormn
Jq/efy.
(1)
EqulpmcnC
used wllh oxygen
or mlxturcs
conlalnIng
over
forty
percenl
(40%)
by
volrrme
oxygen
sl:all
be ,lcs:gnc~,l
for
oxygen
service.
(2) Componenls
trxcrltl
umblhcalsl
exposed
lo oaygrtt
or mlxlurcs
con.
lalnlng
over
forty
(:erc~~~l
t4O%l
by
volume
oxygen
shall
be cleaned
of
flammable
maler~als
belore
uafl
13) htyKt!li
Sy.~l~l:lS
ov,r
I25 1,stg
l rtd rompressrd
atr sysl~ms
over
500
F.)K shall
have .slow ,,,,,,U,,:
blllll off
valv,*s
scntl,ly
oopablc. 01 cllllrk
,Vhsc.
12) Excr~l~l
wlrcn
I:,.avy
KVH~ is worn
or In SCIlItA
cllvtnx.
cac.1: ,hver
sl,;tll
wear a snf,~ly
I,ur,i,*ss
wullll
1:) A po>lI~vr
buckling
~,*vIc,;
(ill An allarlunr~t~l
1,olnl for lhr utn
bllical
lo 1br,*vct,l
s1ra:lt
on 111~ ma4k
or 1,rln:c.L. and
11111 A lifIu:g
f),:ml
Lo ,ltslr:l:ule
111~
pull force
of Llre line over
ltte d:drl:.
body.
,ltrc
InformalIon
co41rrUun
requlrrmrntr
conlatned
In I)araJravh
,atcZl
were LV.
yroved
by lhr Olllcc
ut Mar~ayrmrnl
a~,d
Hudnel under co:,lrfi#l ,:un:bct
1218 UOCY)
I39 tli 23502. June 21. 1974. as amended a:
49 tH 1g295. Aor 30. 19n4. 51 )I1 33033.
sey1. II. lS16l
RECORDKEEPING
Ia) lRcscrvcdl
(2) The
employer
shall
record
Lhe
occurrcttcc
of
diving-related
any
Injury
or Illness
which
requires
any
dive lexm
member
lo be hospllal(zed
for 24 hours
or more.
specifying
1t:e
circumstances
of lhe lncidenl
and Ihe
extenL
of any Injuries
or Illnesses.
fbl Auatlobtftfy
o/ records.
(I) Upon
the request
of the AsslsCatrl
Secrelary
of Labor
for OccupxLlonal
Safely
and
Hexlth.
or Ihc
DIrector.
NatIonal
11:.
slllulc
for Occupallonal
Safely.
and
Health.
Deparlmenl
of Health.
EducaLion and
Welfare
of IheIr
designees.
lhc employer
shall make
avallable
for
InspccUon
and copying
any record
or
documcnL
rcqulred
by Lhls slandard.
12) Records
xnd documenls
rcqulred
by this
slandard
shall
be provided
upon requcsl
Lo employees.
deslgnnled
represenlallvcs.
nttd Lhc Assislanl
Secrclary
ln accordance
wllh
29 CPH
lSlO.iO
(al-tcl
and 1gl 111 Safe prac.
ficrs
manuals
11 1810.4201.
deyH:-(Ime
proflles
18 1810.422l.
recordlngJ
of
d:ves
14 lSl0 423:. decompressIon
Prorvaluatlotu
wrssmenl
cedurc
1s 1910.423l.
and records
of l:osp1lalIralions
,I IYIO 4401 shall
be 1)rovldcd
I:: 1l:r satne n:a,:ner
ti rnrt,loyee
rxposure
records
or analyses
using
PXPO
sure or med:cal
records
lGtultm~et,l
In
s1,,~rl:o:1s
and
lcs111:g
rr,.or,ls
wluch
pcrlaut
lo rm1~loy~rs
,( 1910 4301 shall
also be t~rov~~l~,l
~1801~ rtqursl
lo en,ployws
and
:l~tr
,l,~s~x~~atcd
teyre
wntafwc*s
t3t Hecurds
at:d ~~H.U:II~,IU
rrqulred
by 1hls slamlard
sl:all
be rclartted
by
tlte employrr
for lhe follow:ng
pertod
cl,rcllc-al
III
Dive
tram
mrmbcr
records
11~l:yslctai:
5
reportsI
ct 1910411:
5 years;
1~raclnGs
ll.Llllltl
Sat,.
I1 IYIO 420:
,,,,-,ll
cluc~lrlnlrlll
IIlllY.
(Ill) D(1~lll
t1,ne tXof,lr
(1 lirl,l
42l
rr111ll con11~1~tl~~ci
ol 1l:e rc,o1 ,IIII*
01
chve. or u,trl ,XBnljIlrl,o,l
01 II,? *111&o<-\
ulr,cl
sl,:
ptocrdurc
a5bPxml(0l
1l:ere
has been a:: tt~ltlrr~l
01 a11.1(~11~
prt%lon
blckt:es;
11~1 Hecording
of dive 1( 1910 iZJ:
I
year.
except
5 years
where
I l8c.1~. 1~:.
been
an incidenl
of
deconlt~lrtilu~~
slckncss;
, v I Decompresston
procedu,
v tit=
tnenl evalualiotrs
14 lSLO.423t
5 ycarb
1~11 Equlp:nrnl
Insyecllo,tJ
YII,I te>l
trig records
1# 1910 430)
currrnl
c,:tr)
or tag.
or unlll
equlymetrt
Is wltl~
drawtt
from service;
hospltall~.all,~na
,,_
cvilt
Records
of
Ii lS10.44Ol-5
years.
G
14) After
the explratlon
of the rclcrl
p
Lion perlod
of any record
req,tl,ed
1,~ :,
be kept
for five 151 years.
the rnrt,loy
,r
cr shall
forward
such
records
Lo 1111 +s.
NaHonal
InsUtulc
for
Occu1)a11o,1a1
zj
Safely
and
)Ieallh.
Deparltr,et:t
OI ~4
Heallh
and Human
Servl&s
Ihc cm .h;
player
shall
also comply
w.:lh atiy ad ?&
dlllonal
requlremenb
se1 ,forlh
a( 2u;$
CFlt
lB10.201hL
- .g
15) In Lhc eve::1 1t:e employer
CCLSC> ,$
Lo do business:
:A
tll The successor
cmployer
shall
re $
celve and relaln
all dive and cnryl,,ycc
;$
medlcal
records
rcqulrcd
by LItIs SI l ,ld ;$
ard: or
till If lherc
Is no successor
emtri,~yer
+?
dlvc
and
emulovee
medlcai
rrc,,,d,s
rhall
bc forwarded
Co Lhe Nallo:~rl
Iti
xtllule
for
Occupallonal
Safrt
y a,il
Hexllh.
Depxrttnen(.
of Health.
~:d~r~r
Hon. and Welfare.
0,)
IApproved
by :hc Offlcc
ul M~II~~CIIITW~~
and Budget
under
roncrul
r:umb~,
IXIIJ
8031)
142 FR 37ggg. July 22. 1977 u .,,,*,,.I,
,I .t
43 FR 35201. May 23. tOgo. 47 )I, ,.'I,,,,
Apr g. IOJZ. 51 tX 34502. Srpt 29 t*,n,,i
6 1910.441
Thls
EfYcctlrr
4mw
stattdsrd
shall
be rll~trvr
01
Oclober
20. 1877. exccpl
Ihat
118, l,tts
VIJIUN
ahere
decompresslo,,
K~IUI,,I,C.I
or bells are rrqulrrd
attd SIKII ,-,t,,tt,
metrC Is not yet avallablr.
rct11,l,,),
4
shall comply
u. soon as yoli\lbl,.
t IIC.I~
after
bul
In no case
lo1rr
ll,*t,
monlhs
afler
Iltr rffrcllve
dat*. ,#I 111,
clottdard
AWENDI
I( A
C:xrwrr.cs
ot Co~ot rtom:.
WHICH
M&V
ktC.STllCT
0
8.lwl
EXPOSURE
TO MVrcramac
!.UNUI
TlOIlS
The lollawlne
rhkurdrrs
may rcstrkt
or
Ilmll occupallonaL
erposurc
lo hywrbtirlc
condlllons
dcpcndlns
on aevcrlly.
presence
of rcrldual
effecta.
,c~poruc
lo theraw.
number
of occurrcncwi.
dlvln#
mode.
or
dtartt
end duration
of lwlellon.
Hbtory
al S&WC
d&order
olher
lhrn
early lebrdt convulalons.
U~l!ewwler
tullve)
unlerr
treated
and
rllhoul
recurrence
for 5 yrs.
Chronic
Inablllty
to ~UJtxe
etnua mad/or
mlddlc ear breuure.
cyr1rc ui eavltuy
-of
the lunle.
Jmpalrcd
orean lw&tea
utued
8~ @CO.
hol or drua uee.
Conditiona
reaulrtru
mntlnuouv
me&cmtlon lor controltc.cl~.~~UhklMlneb.
atcr016. bublturbta.
numdaltMn#
drwr.
or
Inrullnl
i%%sllt~k..
Dbetructlvc
or ratrktlve
hang dkeuc.
Vutlbtdu
end oraan deatructka
Pneumnthoraa.
Cudlu
rbnorme
lllka
tt.8.. patho@kal
heat
block. vaWdu
dbew.
tntrwenlrku~
hr tonduclbm
kkck
other
than kokted
rl#hl bundle brnnch
bto&. analna ueclorb.
urhylhmla.
COT-~
utery
dkucl.
Junta-utkukr
oeteowcroeh.
Am&i
B--ClUIDU.UtU
Bc~umr~c
Dwrna
MI
Thk
Wuendla
contalru
8uldellm
theI
Will
k
used
In
conJunctIon
*Ill
5 1W0.401Wl1)o~I
Lo dctennl~e
lhae rkn
tlfk
dlvlrq
progmnu
whkh
are crcmpl
from
the
requlremente
for
commercml
dlr~.
The #ulrkllnea
are Y 6llorr:
I. The Dlv(w
Control
Board eorutste of .
maJorlty
ol actlvc
wkntllk
dlvere end hu
U~OI)O(DOW
and l budule
eulhorlty
over
the rkntllk
dlvln# prwreme
operatbru.
1. The purpose 01 lhc twoJec1 uln# ulenllflc dlvln# b the edvuucmenl
01 ecknce;
therefore.
lnlormatlon
and data ruulUw
lrom the twoJec1 are nowprowktwy.
3. The tuke of rknltlk
Pver UC thoee
of an otmerver
and data gatherer.
ConstrucUon and trouble-rhootlw
tuke tradlllonslly
uaoclaled
rlth
commercial
4lvlaw WC not
Included rlthln
ackntllk
dlvlne.
t. &kntllk
dlren.
baaed on ihe nalurc of
thclr actlvltkr.
mwl use rkntlfk
caperMe
In rludyl~
the underwater
envlronmenl
and. theretore.
UC rlcnllate
or scknllsts
In
traInIns.
I.
This statement
of work is intended to describe
t:?e scope of
work of the Firm in providing
the engineering
and inspection
for the preparation
of underwater
Bridge Inspection
services
It also provides
Reoorts for the structures
listed
herein.
schedules for the different
tasks,
and other contractual
obligations
oI.F the Firm and the Agency.
II.
?+oject
Underwater
Locz';ion
III.
Bridge
Inspections
for,
25 bridges,
agency wide.
and Description
The project
consists
of 25 bridges,
listed
on the attached
the Agencie's
area
"Exhibit
A", located in regions throughout
These bridges.are
owned and maintai2e3
by
of responsibility.
the Agency.
IV.
Scope of Work
All work performed under this contract
shall be in accordance
with the National
Bridge Inspection
Standard and the Manual
for'>laintsnance
Inspection
of 3ridges
issued by AASHTO. All
diving operations
shall be conducted in conformance with the
requirements
of Subpart T, Commercial Diving Operations,
The
Occupational
Safety and Health Administration
Standards.
Firm shall supply at his ovn expense, all equipment,
labor,
and insurance
necessary for the compiltion
licenses,
permits,
of this contract.
V.
Underwater
A.
Inspection
- Ths Firm shall perform a thorough

visual and tactile
inspection
of each structure
listed
,on
-,Exhibit
A, and identify
the substructure
and foundation
atid the need for any indepth inspections
deficiencies,
Underwater
that
Inspection
may be required
of suspected
by visual/tactile
Ten percent of the structure
elements shall
'ins'pection.
any
marine
growth
to
facilitate
th+
be well cleaned of
Piles
shall
be
cleaned
in
bands
inspection.
approximately
one foot wide at the waterline,
mudline ani
abutments,
etc. shall have one foot
Piers,
nidheight.
square areas cleaned at the nose, sides and tail
at the
In-depth
waterline,
mudline and midheight.
:investigations
are not part of this contract.'
Onc'e .~
a separate contrac t inay be developed to
identified,
address these. needs.
deficiencies
that
as a result
cannot
97
be identified
a.
The inspection
of substructure
and foundation
elements
shall extend from the waterline
to the mudline and
include,
but.not
be limited
to the following:
.'
Concrete Pile and/or Solid
for erosion,
wear, abrasion,
exp0sur.e and deterioration
steel,
and all cracking.
b.
Steel Pile and/or Steel Encased Piers:

Check a11
steel for corrosion,
misalignment,
and loss of
section.
C.
d.
C.
Piers:
Check all concrete
scaling,
spalling,
of
any exposed reinforcing
a.
Timber Pile and/or Crib Piers:

Check all timber for
vermin such as marine borer,
shipworm attack,
and powder-post
beetles,
etc.;
for evidence
termites,
of fungus decay: for damage by collision
or
overstressing;
and for excessive
weathering.
All
timber shall be sounded and probed with a heavy duty
6 inch (min.) blade iceplck
or awl.
Dolphins and Fenders:
as substructure
units.
Examine for
same deterioration
The inspection
shall include depth soundings around each
pier,
along the fascia,
and at 100' and ,200' intervals
Soundings shall be obtained
upstream and downstream.
using a continuous
reading strip
chart
fathometer
unless
water conditions
preclude use of a boat, in which case
sounding poles or lead lines may be utilized.
Elevations
shall be referenced
to a point of know elevations,
such as
a bridge se.at.
The channel bottom, particularly
around piers or
shall be probed dnd the presence,
size
abutments,
condition
of any riprap
shall be noted.
0.
E.
Still
color
photography
underwater conditions.
available
on site for
photographs.
shall
be utilized
R "clear
use if
and
to document
be
water" box shall

needed to secure
If,
in the opinion of the Inspection
Team Leader, a
dangerous or critical
situation
exists,
he shall
, Bridge Engineer,
at
immediately
notify
, of the situation
and follow
up with an . .
accurate written
report.
VI.
Schedule
The Firm shall-submit
a proposed schedule of inspection .s to
the Agency, at least 5 days prior
to commencement of
inspection
work.
The Firm shall also inform the Agency Of
any changes to the proposed
VII .
schedule.
Personnel
Qualifications
requirements
A.
9.
of inspection
personnel sSal1
of the NBIS and the following:
conform
to the
The Engineer in charge of the inspection

and preparation
of the inspection
report must possess the following
minimum qualifications:
1.
Be a registered
2.
Have a minimum of 5 years experience

in underwater
structure
inspection
assignments
in a responsible
capacity.
3.
Be a certified
where the bridges
professional
engineer
are located.
diver
authority.
by a recognized
in the state
diving
who will
perform the underwater
inspection
meet the qualifications
a,s a bridge Inspector
in
accordance with the NBIS requirements
and be a certified
diver,
with at least two years experience
in underwater
bridge inspection.
T\e diver(s)
shall
The Firm shall submit for

inspection
team member.
approval
a detailed
resume of each
A separate report shall be prepared for each bridge

inspected.
The report shall include a description
of the
condition
of the bridge units inspected
and the adjacent
channel bottom.
Recommendations for repairs
or further
investigations
shall b e included as appropriate.
The report
elevations
Two copies
professional
be submitted.
shgll
include
plots
engineer
responsible
99
of the channel
bottom
a;?9 original
color photographs,
clearly
of the report,
signed by the registered
for
the.inspection,
labeled:
shall
IX.
The inspection
team shall
of bridge ratin-g forms if
,'.
Insurance
also complete appropriate

sections
so furnished
by the Agency,
Before starting
work, the Firm
required
insurance
coverages.
shall
submit
evidence
of the
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Agi, Jerry J., Structural Condition Asseshent Of
Foreshore Marine Facilities, (ASCE POI?S 86
Conference), May, 1966.
Keeney, C.A., ultrasonic lnsbection of Wooden

Waterfront
StructureS,
(Civil
Engineering
Laboratory
Technical
Memorandum,
NO
YO995-01-004-310)
May, 1981.
American Concrete Institute, Concrete Repair and

Restoration, Concrete International: Desian &
Construction, Vol. 2. No. 9, September, 1980.
timberton,
Jr, H.C.. et al., underrate
Inspection and Reoair of Bridae Substructures.
(National
Cooperative
Highway
Research
Program Repon, No. 88.), 1981
Barsky. Steven M., Instructors Gude: ON Suit

Trainlna Course, (Viking America, Irk.), 1988.
Malhotra,
V.M. (ed.),
Environment,
Detroit,
Institute, 1988.
Byrd. Tallamy, MacDonald and Lewis,

. . Twining
Course, lnspxtion
of Fractu e C Cal Bridae
Members: Instruction Guide, Fall: Chu%, VA, 1988.
Department of Labor, Proposed Standards &

;g$ng,
(Commercial Diving Operations, Vd. V),
McGeehan,
Daniel
D., Consideration
for
Administerina
U derwater
Contracts
VAn Virginia
Highway
i
Charlottesville,
Transportation
Research Council, 1984.
Dismuke, Thomas 0. and Cobum, Seymour K, et

al (ads.). Handbook of Conosion Protection for
Steel Pile Stnrctures in Marine Environments.
Washington, D.C.. American Iron & Steel Institute,
Moses F.., et al., Evaluation Procedures

Bridass,
(National
Cooperative
Research Program, No. 299).
1981.
Eslyn. Wallace E. and Clark, Joe W., Wood Bridaes Decav .Insoection
and Control, (Agricutture
Handbook, No. 557), October, .1979.
Powers, James J., and Collins. Thomas J.,

Underwater
Bridge
Inspection,
m
Enaineerina - ASCE, March, 1973.
Fisher, J.W.. et al.. Fatiaue and actu e Eva ua on

fbr Ratinn Riveted Bridng, (Tran&ortatkn Rek$h
Record. No. 302), 1987.
of Fatiaue
for Steel
Highway
Patterson,
Oavid R., et al., Inspection
of
Sub e aed
cS ucuesbvSdeSca
f;i21, r (Off%re
keJh:ology
konfereke).
Federal Highway Administration, Technical Advisory,

Scour at Bridaes, 1988.
Keating, P.S. and Fisher, J.W., &aluatinn

gK]
fet
a
CNationaI Cooperative Highway R&ch
No. 266), 1986.
Marine
Concrete
McAlpine Sea Services Ltd., Classification ano

Identification of Tvoical Blemishes Visible on the
Surface of Concrete
U denwater, (Offshore
Co$rete
in the Oceans
Technology Report:
Technical Report, No. 9), 1985.
Department of Labor, Occupational Safetv and

Health ODerations. CCommercial Diving Operations.
Vol. Ill). 7977.
(National
Synthesis
in
Maryland Department of Transportation,

Safety
a d Sou d ess of Sub e aed Timber Bndae
&,
(*&aye Highway A!ministration
Research
Report, No. AW082-231-046).
June, 1982.
Collins. Thomas J., Underwater

Inspection:
Documentation and Special Testing, Public Works,
Vd. 119, No. 1, January, 1988.
Jones, G., Scour at Bridae Waterwavq

Cooperative I-IQhway Research Program
of Highway Practice, No. S), 1970.
Concrete
American
R. Frank
Busby
Associates,
U derwater
lnsbection I Testina / Monitorina oinOffshore
Structure$ Washington, O.C., U.S. Government
Printing Off ice, 1978.
Revisions to the National Bridae InsPection
Standards
(NBlS\
(U.S.. Oepanment
of
Transportation,
No. TA 5140.20). September.
1988.
Progratk
101
Rissd, MC., et al., Assessment of Deficiencies

and Preservation ai Rridae Substructu 05 6dow
the. Watertine, (Watbnal
Coopefatlvef Highway
Research Program Report, No. 2Sl), October,
. ..
1982.
Sletten. Rune, et al., In-Se&e
lnstxtion
of North
Sea
Structures
(Offshore
Technology
Conference, OTC 29W), May, 1977.
Smith, A.P., underwater Nondes ructbe Testing
gf Concrete: An Evaluation of Techfniaueq, (NCEL
Technical Note), February, 1986.
Strykowski, Joe, ptvers
Corporation), 1974.
and Camera&
(Dacor
Tator, Kenneth B., Protectina Plant Eauioment

from Corrosion
and
Deterioration,
CPlant
Engineering and Maintenance Techniques, (NO.
37b), 1974.
Transportation Research Board, Timber BridaeS
(ITTransportation Research Record, NO. 1053):
1986.
Transportation Research Board, &idae inswction
p d Rehabilitation,
(Transportation
Research
R>ord, No. 899), 1983.
-
Transportation
Research Board, Bridae
eedS,
Des&n,
a d Performance
(%MISpCktiOn
Research RIcord, No. 1 la), i967.
U.S. Coast Guard,
Engineering Technical
August, 1977.
Marine
Report,
Borer% Ccivil
NO. CGb00-2),
U.S. Department
of Transportation,
culvert
Inspection Manual Reoort INO. FHWA-IP-@-a
Springfield, VA, National Technical Information
Sewice, 1986.
U.S. Army Carps of Engineers. @fetv and Health
Reauirements Manual IFM 38!5-l-1L April, 1981.
Vadus, Joseph R. and Busby, R. Frank, &!XQ!Y
Operated
Vehicles.
An Ova W
CNOW
Technical Report, OOES),, December . 1979.
102
A
Abutment.
A substructure unit composed of stone,
concrete, brick, or timber supporting the end of a
single span or the extreme end of a mUltiSpan
superstructure, and, in general, retaining of supporting
the approach embankment placed in contact therewith.
(See also WING WALL.)
Aggregate.
The sand, gravel, broken stone, or

combinations thereof with which the cementing material
is mixed to form a mortar or concrete.
The fine
material used to produce mortar for stone and brick
masonry and for the mortar component of concrete iS
commonly termed fine aggregate while the coarse
material used in concrete only is termed coarse
aggregate.
Anode.
A metallic surface on which oxidation occurs,

giving up electrons with metal ions going into solution
or forming an insoluble compound of the metal.
A waterway bed protection
consisting of
timber, concrete, riprap, paving or other construction
placed adjacent to substructure abutments and piers
to prevent undermining by scour.
Apron.
Ascent Time.
The time interval between leaving the

deepest point of the: dive and returning to the surface
8
Backfill.
Material placed adjacent to an abutment,

pier, retaining wall or other structure or part of a
structure to fill the unoccupied portion of the foundation
excavation.
Soil, usua!!y granular, placed behind and within the
abutment and wingwalls.
Backwater.
The water of a
elevation above its normal level
effect of a condition existing at
such as a flood, an.ice jam or
:
stream retained at an
through the controlling
a downstream location
other obstruction.
The increase in the elevation of the water surface

above normal produced
primarily by the stream
width contraction
beneath a bridge. The wave-like
effect is most pronounced
at and immediately
upstream from an abutment
or pier but extends
downstream
to a lWocation beyond the body of the
substructure
pan.
Base Metal, Structure

Metal, Parent Metal.
The
metal at and closely adjacent to the surface to be
incorporated in a welded joint which will be fused. and
by coalescence and interdiffusion with the weld will
produce a welded joint.
Batter. The inclination of a surface in relation to a
horizontal or venical plane or occasionally in relation
to an inclined plane. Batter is commonly designated
upon bridge detail plans as so many inches to one
fwt.
Batter Pile. A pile driven in an inclined posi:lon to
resist forces which act in other than a vertical direction.
It may be computed to withstand these forces or,
instead, may be used as a subsidiary part or pomon of
a structure to improve its general rigidity.
Bearing
beering.
Top of masonry
supponing
bridge
Bed Load. Sediment that moves by rolling, sliding, or

skipping along the bed and is essentially in contact
with the streambed.
Bed Rock.
(Ledge Rock.) A natural mass formation

of igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock material
either outcropping upon the surface. uncovered in a
foundation excavation, or underlying an accumulation
of unconsolidated
earth material.
Bent. A s@poning unit of a trestle or a viaduct type

structure made up of two or more column or columnlike members connected at their topmost .ends by a
cap, strut, or other .member holding them in their
This connecting
member
is
correct positions.
commonly designed to distribute the superimposed
loads upon the bent, and when combined with a
system of diagonal and horizontal bracing attached to
the columns,
the entire construction
functions
somewhat like a truss distributing its loads into the
foundation.
When piles are used as the column elements, the
entire construction is designated a pile bent and,
correspondingly, when those elements are framed, the
assemblage is termed a frame bent.
Berm. (Berme.) The line, whether straight or curved.
which defines the location where the top surface of an
approach embankment or causeway is intersected by
the surface of the side slope. This term is synonymous
with Roadway Berm?
103
Seat.
A horizontal be&h loc2ded at the toe of slope of an

approach cut, embankment or causeway to strengthen
and secure its underlaying material against sliding or
other displacement into an adjacent ditch, borrow pit,
or other artificial or natural lower lying area.
I Blanket.
A protection against &e&n scour placed
adjacent to abutments and piers, and covering the
streambed
for a distance from these structures
considered adequate for the stream flow and streambed conditions.
The streambed covering commonly
consists of a deposit of stones of varying sizes which,
in combination, will resist the scour forces. A second
type consists of a timber framework so constructed that
it can be ballasted and protected from displacement by
being loaded with stones or with pieces of wrecked
concrete structures or other adaptable ballasting
material.
assemblage.
2.
A retaining wall-like structure
composed Of timber, steel, or reinforced concrete
members
commonly assembled
to form a barrier held
in a vertical or an inclined position by members
interlocking therewith and extending into the restrained
material to obtain the anchorage necessary to prevent
both sliding and overIuming of the entire assemblage.
Butt Weld. A weld joining two abutting surfaces by
depositing weld metal within an intervening space. This
weld serves to unite the abutting surfaces of the
elements of a member or to join members or their
elements abutting upon or against each.other.
C
Cep. (Cap Beam, Cap Piece.) The topmost piece or
member of a viaduct, trestle, or frame bent serving to
distribute the loads upon the columns and to hoid them
in their proper relative positions.
Bottom Time. The total elapsed time measured in

minutes from the time when the diver leaves the
surface in descent to the time that the diver begins
ascent.
The topmost piece or member of a pile bent in a

viaduct or trestle serving to distribute the loads upon
the piles and to hold them in their proper dative
positions.
Bracing.
A system of tension or compression
members, or a combination of these, forming with the
part or parts to be supported or strengthened, a truss
or frame.
It transfers wind, dynamic, impact, and
vibratory stresses to the substructure and gives rigidity
throughout the complete assemblage.
Cepillery Action.
The process by which water is
drawn from a wet area to a dry area through the pores
of a materiel.
Breathing Mixture. Air or a mixture of gases breattied

by a diver which contains a physiologically appropriate
proponion of oxygen.
Capstone.
1. The topmost stone of a masonry pillar,
column or other,structure requiring the use of a single
capping element. 2. One of the stones used in the
construction of a stone parapet to make up-its topmost
or %eethef course. Commonly this course projects
on both the inside and outside beyond the general
surface of the courses below it.
Breast Wall. (Face Wall, Stem.) The portion of an

abutment between the wings and beneath the bridge
seat. The breast wall supports the superstructure
loads, and retains the approach fill.
Cethodo.
A surface that accepts electrons and does
not corrode.
Bridge Pad. The raised, levefled area upn which the

pedestal, shoe, sole, plate or other corresponding
element of the superstructure takes bearing by contact.
Also called Bridge Seat Bearing Area.
Cement Paste. The plastic combination of cement and

water that supplies the cementing action in concrete.
Bridge Seat. The&p surface of an abutment or pier

upon which the superstructure span is placed and
supported.
For an abutment it is the surface forming
the support for the superstructure and from which the
backwall rises. For a pier it isthe entire top surface.
Cement Metrfx. The binding medium in a mortar or

concrete produced by the hardening of the cement
content of the mortar, concrete mixture of inert
aggregates, or hydraulic cement and water.
Channel
Bulkhead. 1. A retaining wall-like structure commonly

composed of driven piles supporting a wall or a barrier
of wooden timbers or reinforced concrete members
functioning as a constraining structure resisting the
thrust of earth or other material bearing against the
Proflie.
Longitudinal
section of a channel.
Cofferdrm.
In general, an open box-like structure
constructed to surround the area to be occupied by an
abutment, pier, retaining wall or other structure and
permit unwatering
of the enclosure so that the
104
excavation for the preparation of a foundation

and
the abutment.
pier, or other COnstrUCtiOn may be
effected in the open air. In its simplest form, the
dam consists of Interlocking steel sheet Piles.
Concrete.
Decompression
Sickness. A condition ~tn a variety
of SymptOmS which may result from the formation of
gas or gas bubbles in the blocd or other trssues of
divers during or subsequent to ascent or other pressure
reduction.
Residual audio-vesticularor neurological
Symptoms
inVdVe
permanent damage to the hearing
or balance system, or to the peripheral or central
nervous system, respectively.
Serious symptoms
involve the sensory
or neurological
systems
significantly, and include numbness, paralysis, v&al
and hearing disturbances,
choking,
shock, and
UnCOnSCiOUSneSS.
Pain-only Symptoms
are liml!ed to
localized joint and muscle pain. minor muscle
weakness and skin itching, tingling, or redness. Painonly symptoms
which
recur during
or after
recompression
therapy are classified as serious
symptoms.
Consolidation.
Debris.
F&y material including
materials and other trash. suspended
load, moved by a Rowing stream.
Commercial
A person
Diver.
for diving activities.
renumeratlon
who
receives
A composite
material
consisting
essentially of a binding medium within which are
embedded oarticles or fragments of a relatively inert
mineral fAier. In ponland
cement concrete, the
binder or matrix, either in the plastic or the hardened
state, is a combination
of portland cement and water.
The filler material, called aggregate,
is generally
graded In size from fine sand to pebbles or stones
which may, in some concrete, be several inches in
diameter.
The time-dependent change in volume

of a soil mass under compressive load caused by porewater slowly escaping from the pores or voids of the
soil. The soil skeleton is unable to support the load by
itself and changes structure, reducing its volume and
usually producing vertical settlements.
Continuous
Spans.
A beam, girder, or truss type

._ ~superstructure designed to extend continuously over
one or more intermediate supports.
Creep. An inelastic deformation
time while the stress is constant.
that increases with
Degradation.
General, progressive
stream channel by erosion.
lowering
of the
Diaphragm Wall (cross wall). A wall built transversely

to the longitudinal centerline of a spandrel arch serving
to tie together and reinforce the spandrel walls together
with providing a support for the floor system in
conjunction with the spandrel walls. To provide means
for the making of inspections the diaphragms of an
arch span may be provided with manholes.
A construction consisting of wooden, .metal

or reinforced concrete units so assembled as to forman open celiuiar-like structure
for supporting
a
superimposed
load or for resisting horizontal or
The division walls of a reinforced concrete caisson

dividing its interior space into compartments
and
reinforcing its walls. A wall sewing to subdivide a boxlike structure or portion of a structure into two or more
compartments, or sections.
Cylinder.
Dike. (Dyke). An earthen embankment constructed

to provide a barrier to the inundation of an adjacent
area which it enctoses entirely or in part.
_ Cribbing.
ovenurning
forces acting against it.
A pressure vessel for the storage of gases.
Decompression.
az$ier,!
The reduction
pressure td atmospheric
Decompression
Chamber.
h;man occupancy such as a
chamber, closed bell, or deep
decompress
divers and to
sickness.
of environmental
pressure.
or
A pressure vessel for

surface decompression
diving system used to
treat decompression
When used in conjunction with a bridge, its functions

are commonly those of preventing stream
erosion
and
localized scour and/or to so direct the stream current
that debris will not accumulate upon bottom land
adjacent to approach embankments, abutments, piers,
towers, or other portions of the structure.
This term is occasionally
misapplied
to
construction used to accomplish a like result.
105
...
crib
Spur Dike. A projecting jetty-like construction placed

adjacent to an abutment et the U, 7, block or arched
type upon the upstream and downstream sides. but
Decompression
Schedule. A @me-depth profile with .
a specified bottom time and depth, whose application
is calculated to reduce the pressure on a diver safety.
floating woody
sediment. or bed
sometimes only on the upstream side, to s8cure a

gradual contraction of the stream width and induce a
free, even flow of water adjacent to, and beneath a
bridge. They may ba construct8d in extension of the
wing wall or a winged abutment.
ElrctrolytO. Moisture Or a liquid carrying ionic current

between tw0 metat Surfaces, . the anode and the
cathode.
Metal Structures. An angle, beam, p/ate or
other rolled. forged or cast piece of metal forming a
part of a built piece. For wooden structures, a board,
plank, joist, or other fabricated piece forming a pan of
a built piece.
Elemrnt.
The common types of construction. used for water

wings are: (1) Wooden cribs filled with stones; (2)
embankments riprapped on the waterway side; and (3)
wooden and metal sheet piling.
Epoxy. A synthetic resin which cures or hardens by

chemical reaction between components
which are
mixed together- shortly before use.
Spur dikes s8Ne to prevent stream scour and

undermining of the abutment foundation, and to relieve
the condition which otherwise would tend to gather and
hold accumulations of stream debris and adjacent to
the upstream side of the abutment.
Erosion.
(Stream)
by flowing water.
Dimension
Stone.
A stone of reiatfvely large
dimensions, the face surfaceof which is either chisel or
margin drafted but otherwise rough and irregular:
commonly called either rock face or quarry face.
F
Factor of Safety.
common
Stones quarried with the dimensions large enough to

provide cut stones with given finished dimensions.
Dry Suit (variable volume), A dlving suit capable of

being infiated for buoyancy or insulation which keeps
-the .divers body essentially dry.
A factor or allowance predicated by

practice upon the failure stress
assumed to exist in a structure or a
engineering
or stresses
member or part thereof. Its purpose is to provide a

margin in the strength, rigidity, deformation
and
endurance of a structure or its component
parts
compensating
for irregularities existing in structural
materials and worl<manship, uncertainties involved in
mathematical analysis and stress distribution. service
deterioration and other unevaluated conditions.
Diver.
An empfoyee
engaged
in work using
underwater apparatus which supplies compressed
breathing gas at ambient pressure from a selfcontained or remote source.
Dolphin. A group or cluster of piles driven in one to
two circles about a center pile and drawn together at
their top ends around the center pile to form a buffer
or guard for the protection of channel span piers or
other portions of a bridge exposed to possibie injury by
collision with waterbound traffic. The tops of the piles
are secured with a wrapping consisting of several plies
of wire, rope, coil, twist link, or stud link anchor chain,
which, by being fastened at its ends only, renders its8lf
taut by the adjustments of the piles resulting from
service contact with ships, barges, or other craft. The
center pile may project above the others to serve as a
bollard for restraining and guiding the movements of
water-borne traffic units. Single steel and concrete
piles of large size may also be used as ddphins.
Wearing away of the streambed
wooden or metal framework

appreciable settlement and
deformation the weight of a structure during the period
of its construction and until it becomes self-supporting.
In general, the arrangement of its details are devised to
Falsework.
A temporav
built to support
without
facilitate the construction

economical
removal
suitable for reus8.
operations
and provide for

of material
and the salvaging
Fascia. An outside, covering member designed on

the basis of architectural effect rather than strength
and rigidity although its function may involve both.
, Fascia Girder. An exposed outermost girder of a span

sometimes
treated architecturally
or otherwise to
provide an attractive appearance.
Fender. 1. A structure placed at an upstream location
adjacent to a pier to protect it from the striking force.
impact and shock of floating stream debris, ice floes,
etc. This structure is sometimes termed an ice guard

in latitudes productive of lake and river i&e to form ice
flows. 2. A structure commonly consisting of dolphins,
capped and braced rows of piles, or wcxoden cribs
either entirely or partially filled with rock ballast,
E
Efflorescence.
A white de*&
on concrete or brick
caused by crystallization of sdubfe salts broughtto the
surface by moisture in the masonry.
106
constructed upstream and downstream from the center

and end piers (or abutments) of a ftxed or movaUe
superstructure span to fend off water-borne traffic from
collision with these substructure parts, and in the case
of a swing span, with the span while in its O@W POSitiOn.
Fender Pier. A pier-like structure which p3dmS the
same sewice as a fender but is mly
more
substantiaily built. These structures may be constructed
entirely of In cart of stone or concrete masonry.
Fill. (Filling.) Material, usually earth, used for the purpose

of raising or changing the surfacecontour of an area,or
for constructing an embankment.
Filler Metal. Metal prepared in wire, rod, electrode or
other adaptable form to be fused with the sVuc!ure metal
in the formation of a weld.
Flange. The part of a roiled l-shaped beam or of a builtup girder extending transversely across the top and
bottom edges of the web. The flanges are considered to
carry the compressive and tensile forces that comprise
the int6mal resisting moment of the mm, and may
consist of angles, plates, or both.
Floating Bridge. In general, this term means the Same
as Pontoon Bridge.
However, its parts providing
buoyancy and supporting power may consist d logs or
squared timbers, held in position by lashing pieces, chains
or ropes, and floored ovar with planks, or the bridge itself
may be of hollow cellular construction.
Flood Frequency. The average time interval in years in
whrch a flow of a given magnitude, taken from an infinite
series, wilt recur.
Footing.
(Footing Course, Plinth.) The enlarged, or
spread-out lower portion of a substructure, which
distributes the structure load either to the earth of to
supporting piles. The most common footing is the
concrete stab. although stone piers also utilize footings.
Plinth refers to stone work as a rule. Footer is a local
term for footing.
XChes Of Other CUrVed Surfaces. especially ahen strips

are used.
Foundation.
The supporting material upon whicn the
substructure portion d a bridge is placed. A foundation
is flatud when, Consisting of Mturai earth, rock or nearrock mated having stability adequate to support the
superimposed loads without lateral displacement or
compaction
entailing
appreciabiesettlement
of
defomration. Also, applied in an imprecise fashion to a
substructure unit.
Pile 01 Piled foundation.
A foundation reinforced by
drtving piles in sufficient number and to a depth adeQuate
to develop the bearing power requiredto suppon the
fo4Jrldation load.
Foundation Grillage. A construction consisting of steel,
timber, or concrete members placed in layers. Each layer
is normal to those above and below it and the members
within a layer are generally parallel, producing a crib or
grid4ike effect. Grillages are usually placed under very
heavy concentrated loads.
Foundation
Lord.
The load resulting from traffic,
superstructure, eubstnroture, approach embankment,
approach Causeway, or other incidental load increment
imposed upon a given foundation area.
Foundation Pile. A pile, whether of wood, reinforced
concrete. 01 metal used to reinforce a foundation and
render lt satisfactoq for the supporting of superimpcsed
loads.
Foundation Seal. A mass of concrete piaced.underwa?er
within a cofferdam for the base portion of an abutment.
pier, retaining wall or other structureto c!ose,or seal the
coffer&m
against incoming water from foundation
springs, fissures,joints or other water carrying channels.
Foundation Stone. The stone or one of the stones of
a course having contact ,wih the foundation. of a
StNcture.
FSW. A foot of *water;
a unit of pressure generally
defined as l/a
of a standard atmosphere, which
represents the pressure exerted by a foot of seawater
having a specific gravityof 1.027, equalto approximately
.445 pounds per square inch.
iorms.
The
(iorm Work. Lagging, Shkring.)
construc!ions. either wooden or metal,. providing means
for receiving, rndding and sustaining in positii
the
plastic mass of concrete placed therein to the dimensions,
outlines and details of surfaces planned for its integral
parts throughout its period of hardening.
..
The terms Yonns and form w*

are !QnonymouS.
The term lagging is commonly app@Cf to the Surface
shaping areas of forms producing the intradoaee d
Grillage.
A platform-like construction or assemblage
used to insure dMributiin of loads upon unconsolidated
soll material.
107
Masonry. A general term applying to abutments. piers,

retaining Wails, arches and allied structures built of
stone, brick or concrete and known correspondingly as
stone, brick or concrete masonry.
Grout. A mortar having a sufficient water content to

render it a free4owing mass, used for filling (giouting)
the interstitiai spaces between the stones or the stone
fragments (spails) ueed in the backing portion of
stone masonry; for fMng anchor bolts and for filling
cored spaces in castings, masonry, ,q other spaces
where water may accumulate.
.
Meander.
xntine
Guard, Pier. (Fender Pier.) A pier4ike stnrcture built

at right angles wrth the alignment of a bridge or at an
angle therewith conforming to the flow of the stream
current and having adequate length, width, and other
provisions to protect the swing span in Its open
position from collision with passing vessels or other
water-borne equipment and materials. It also sewes to
protect the supporting center pier of the swing-span
from injury and may or may not be equipped with a
rest pier upon which .the swing span in its open
position may be latched. The type of construction
varies with navigation and stream conditions from a
simple pile and timber structure or a wooden crib-stone
ballasted structure to a solid masonry one, or to a
combination construction. In locations where ice floes
or other water-borne materials may accumulate upon
the upstream pier end, a cutwater or a starling is an
essential detail.
The tortuous channel that characterizes the

curvature of a slow flowing stream rn a flood
Morw.
An htlrnate mknue, in a plastic condition, d
ceme~, cx &er cernentitious material with fine aggregate
and water. used to bed and bind together the quarried
stones, bdcks, or &her SCM mateds ccqasing
the
ma&
~toprcducea
The induratd jointhq rrMefiaJ filling the interstices
betweenandhcilclinginphcethequarfiedstonesorother
SCM mate&Is of mascfq con8truction. Cocrespondingiy,
this term is applied to the wment coating used to
produce a desired surface condition upon masonry
rxmmdns
and is described as the mortar finish,
rnmar cc&
noated face w suece,
parapet
etc.
lhecomp0nmtdconcretecomposedofcement.or
ether indurating material with sand and water when the
concrete is a mobile mass and correspondingly this same
component after It has attained a rigid conditbn through
hardeningdltscefnmtlngcon8tJtuent8
H-Beam. (H-Pile.) A rolled steel bearing pile having

an H-shaped cross section.
Head. A measure of water pressure expressed in

terms of an equivalent weight or pressure exerted by
a column of ,water. The height of the equivalent
column of water-is the head.
Heavy Gear Diving.

Diving which uses standard
helmet and brass
deep sea dress, including
breastplate,
suit of rubberized canvas, and heavy
weighted shoes.
02
Helmet.
(open-ciicuit
Breathing and prote+tive
the divers head.
Nadecompression
Diving. Ding which invoivesdepths
and times sMlow and short enough so that contrdled
ascent can be made without stops w stages, e,g., dives
within the tim&epth limits d the no-decompression We
in the U.S. Navy Diving Manual.
P
Pkr. A stn~%ure composed d stone, concrete, brick,
steel or wood and buti in sM or block4ike form to
support the ends d the spans of a multi-span
superstructure at an intermediate location beWeen its
abutmen&
su~ccoupplied)
equipment which encloses
and/or
Hyperbaric Cond&onr.
Pressure conditions in excess
2 surface pressure (I ATA).
M
The fdl&q
type8 d piers are adapted to bridge
corWuction.
The first three are functional distinctions.
whle the remaining types are based upon form or &ape
characteti8tJw.
Mask.
(open-circuit
and/of
8urtace=suppli*)
Breathing and protective equipment which covers .a
divers face.
Anchor PW. A pier functioning to re&t an uplifting

force, as for exampie: The end reaction of an anchor
arm d a cantilever bridge. This pier functions as a normal
108
sickness when applied to a diver in a pressure.vessd

for human occupancy as therapy.
Slope.
A term commonly applied to the inclined
surface of an excavated cut or an embankment.
Aiprrp. Brickbats, stones, blocks of concrete or other

protective covering material of like nature deposited
upon river and stream beds and banks, lake, tidal or
other shores to prevent erosion. and scour by water
flow, waves or other movement.
Slope Pwement.
(Slope Protection.)
A thin
surfacing
of stone, concrete
or other material
deposited upon the sloped surface of an approach
cut, embankment
or causeway
to prevent its
disintegration
by rain, wind or other erosive action.
Run-Off. As.app(ied to bridge design, the portion of

the precipitation upon a drainage (catchment) area
which is discharged quickiy by its drainage stream or
streams and which, therefore, t?ecomes a factor in the
design of the effective water discharge area of a bridge.
Run-off is dependent upon soil porosity (varied by
saturated or frozen condition), slope or soil surfaces,
intensity of rainfdll or of meiting snow conditions, and
other peninent factors.
Standby Diver. A diver available

another diver in the water.
Starling. An extension at the upstream end only, or

at both the upstream and downstream ends of a pier
built with surfaces battered thus forming a cutwater
to divide and deflect the stream waters and floating
debris
and,
correspondingly,
when
on. the
downstream
end,
functioning
to
reduce
crosscurrents,
swirl and eddy action which are
productive of depositions of sand, silt and detritus
downstream from the pier.
S
Scour. An erosion of a river, stream, tidal inlet, lake
or other water bed area by a current, wash or other
water in motion, producing a deepening
of the
overlying water, or a widening of the lateral dimension
of the flow area.
Stem.
The vertical wall portion
retaining wall, or solid pier.
Scuba Diving. A diving mode independent of surface

supply in which the diver uses open circuit selfcontained underwater breathing apparatus.
Sheet Piling. (Sheeting.) A general or collective term

used to describe a number of sheet piles taken
-together to form a crib, cofferdam, bulkhead, etc.
of an abutment
Stone Facing.
(Stone Veneer, Brick Veneer.)
A
stone or brick surface covering or sheath laid in
imitation of stone or brick masonry but having a
depth thickness equal to the width dimension of one
stone or brick for stretchers
and the length
dimension for headers. The backing portion of a wall
or the interior portion of a pier may be constructed
of rough stones imbedded in mortar or concrete,
cyclopean concrete, plain or reinforced concrete,
brick bats imbedded in mortar, or even of mortar
alone. The backing and interior material may be
deposited
as the laying of the facing material
progresses to secure interlocking and bonding with
it, or the covering material may be laid upon its
preformed surface.
Sheet Pile Cofferdam.

In general, a wall.like,
watertight or neariy watertight barrier composed of
driven timber or metal sheet piling constructed to
surround the area to be occupied by an abutment, pier,
retaining wall or other structure and permit unwatering
of the enclosure so that the excavation for the
preparation of a foundation and the abutment, pier or
other construction may be produced in the open air.
The alignment of the piles may be facilitated by the use
of walers, struts and ties.
This type of dam is adapted to construction located
in still or slow flowing shallow water. Its watertightness
is sometimes rendered more complete by depositing
earth material against the exterior side of the dam.
to go to the aid of
S.ubstructure.
The abutments,
piers, grillage or
other constructions
built to support the span or
spans of above water or from a bell, with
compressed air for breathing.
Suspended
Load. Sediment that is supported by
the upward components of the turbulent currents in
a stream and that stays for an appreciable length of
.
time.
Silt. Very finely divided siliceous or other hard and

durable rock material ,derived from its mother rook
through attritive or other mechanical action ratherihan
chemical decomposition.
In general, its grain size shall
be that which will pass a Standard No. 200 sieve.
110
pier s:zc:l;re *hen subjec:ed

superstructure loading.
to certain conditions
of
Cylinder Pier. A type of pier produced by sinking a

cyllndrlcal sieel shell to a desired depth and filling it
The foundation
excdvation may be
with concrete.
made by open dredging within the shell and the sinking
of the sh.eil may proceed simultaneously
with the
dredging.
Dumbbell Pier. A pier consisting essentially of two
cylindrcal or rectangular shaped piers joined by a web
constructed integrally with them.
Hammerhead
cylindrical
transverse
Pedestal
Pier.
or rectangular
cap.
Pier.
(Tee Pier.)
A pier with a
shaft, and a relatively long,
A structure
composed
of stone,
concrete or brick built in block-like form--supporting
a
column of a bent or tower of a viaduct. Foundation
conditions or other practical considerations may require
that two or more column supports be placed upon a
To prevent
single base or footing
section.
accumulation of stream debris at periods of high water
or under other conditions the upstream piers may be
constructed with cut-waters and in addition the piers
may be connected by an integrally built web between
them. When composed only of a wide Mock-like form,
it is called a wall or solid pier.
Piie Pier or Bent. A pier composed of driven piles

capped or decked with a timber grillage. concrete cap,
or steel beam; or with a reinforced concrete slab
forming the bridge seat.
Pivot Pier, Center Pier. A term applied to the center
bearing pier supporting a swing span while operating
throughout
an opening-closing
cycle. This pier is
commonly circular in shape but may be hexagonal,
octagonal
or even square in plan.
Rest Pier. A pier supponing the end of a movable

brldse span when in its closed position.
Rigid Frame Pier. Pier with two or more columns
and a horizontal beam on top constructed to act like a
frame.
Pier Cap.
(Pier Top.) The topmost portion of a pier.

On rigid frame piers, the term applle$ to the beam
across the column tops. On hammerhead
an$l tee
piers, the cap is a continuous beam.
Pile. A rod or shaft-like linear member of timber, steel,
concrete. or composite materials driven into the eanh
to Carry Structure loads thru weak strata of soli to :~cse

strata capable of supponing such loads. Piles are also
used where loss of earth support due to scour IS
expected.
Sheet Piles. Commonly used in the constrDc:ion of

bulkheads, cofferdams, and cribs to retain eaRh and
prevent the inflow of water, liquid mud, and fine grained
sand with water, are of three general types. v~z.: (I j
Timber composed of a single piece or of two or more
pieces spiked or bolted together
to produce a
compound piece either with a lap or a tongued and
grooved effect.
Reinforced concrete slabs
(2)
constructed
with or without lap or tongued
and
grooved
effect.
(3)
Rolled
provision for rigid interlocking
steel shapej.
of the edges.
with fuil
Pile Cap.
Concrete footings for a pier or abutment

on piles. Also applied to the concrete below
the pile tops when footing reinforcing steel IS qiaced
supporSd
completely
above the piles..
Pile Splice. One of the means of joining one pile upon

the end of another to provide greater penetration
length.
Piling.
(Sheet Piling.)
General terms
assemblages of piles in a construction.
applied
to
Plinth Course.
The course or courses of stone
forming the base poflion of an abutment. pier. parapet
or retaining wall andhaving a projection or eflension
beyond the genqral surface of the main body of the
structure.
.
Pneumofathometer.
A depth measuring device
indicating depth in FSW, cbnsisting of an open-ended
hose fixed to the diver, with the other end connected
to an air supply and pressure gauge at the surface.
Pointing. The operations incident to the compac!ing
of the mortar in the outermost portion of a joint and the
troweling or other treatment of itsexposed surface to
secure water tightness or desired architectural effect or
both.
Pressure. Force per unit of area. In diving, pressure
denotes an exposure greater than surface pressure (I
ATM).
R
Recompression.
Arr increase in pressure which is
calculated to eliminatethe symptoms of decompression
109
,.
t
Tail Water. Water ponded below the outlet of a cuben.
pile. or brtise waterway, thereby reducing the amount of
flow thr3ugh the wate%vay. Tailwater is expressed in
terms of ifs depth.
Toe of Slope. The location defined by the intersection
of the sloped sueace of an approach cut, embankment
or r;ti;seway or other Sroped area with the natural oc an
arzficial gr3uf-d surface existmg at a lower elevation.
Toe Wall. (Fwt\Nall.)
A relatively low retaining wall
piaced near the %x-of-slope location of an approach
embankment or causeway to produce a fixed termination
or to seme as a protection against erosion arid scour or,
perhaps. to prevent the accumulation of stream debris.
stabiiily. and strength.
Waterway.
The available width for !he passage ;i ;::w;r

tidal or other water beneath a bridge. if unocs:ru;:ec 2,;
natural formations or by artificial cons:;iic:lons 3enea:h 3r
do&y adjacent to the stmcture. For a mLi?$e jar:
bridge the available wicfth is the total of the unobs::,cted
waterway lengths of the spans.
Wing Wall. The retaining wall extensccl of ar, azb:zent
intended to restrain and hdd in @ace the side s!ope
mat&iai of an approach causeway or em&ankment.
When flared at an angle with the breast wail it serves aisa
to deflect stream water and floating debris ,nto :he
waterway of the bridge and thus protects the azprxch
embankment against erosion. The general forms Df tiing
walls are:
L
Trestle. A bridge structure consisting of beam, girder of

truss spans scpponed upon bents. The bents may be of
the piled or of the framed type, composed of timber,
reinforced concrete or metal. When of framed timbers,
metal or reinforced concrete they may invdve two or
more tiers in their construction.
Trestle structures are
designated as Lvooden. frame, or framed, metal
concrete, Xvooden pile, concrete pile, etc., depending
upon or corresponding to the mate&l and characteristics
of their princi~l memSers.
U
Umbilical. The composite hose bundle between a dive

locaton and a dker or be!l. or between a diver and a bell,
wnich ski;;; Les the dher or bell with breathing gas,
cc,mm:rlca:ions.
po&er, or heat as appropriate to the
c:.q
mode or co&Sons.
and includes a safety line
5e::;een the dher and the dive location.
V
Volume Tank. A pressure vessel connected to the outlet
of a ccrrpressor and used as an air reservoir.
W
Wale. (Wale-Piece. Waler.) A wooden or metal piece or
an assemblage of pieces placed either inside or outside,
or both inside and outside. the wall portion Of a crib,
cofferdam or similar structure, usually in a horizontal
(1)
Straight-in continuation,of !he breas:

wall of the abutment.
(2)
U-type-placed
parailel
to
the
alignment of the approach roadway.
(3)
Flared--forming an angle with the

alignment Of the abutment breast
wall by receding therefrom.
(4)
Curved-forming
either a conj;ex or
concave
arc flaring from the
aligrlment of the abutment breast
wall.
The footing of a full abutment height wing wall is usualiy

a continuation of the base portion of the breast J;all b~;t
may be stepped to a higher or lower elevation to oS:aln
acceptable foundation conditions.
A stub type of straight wing wall is.sometimes used in
connection with a pier-like or bent-like abutment placed
within the end of an embankment.
This type, serves iO
retain the top portion of the embankment from aboU ?ke
elevation of the briige seat upward to the road\/;a,j
elevation. The top surface is battered to conform wnh the
embankment side slope.
Work Site. A vessel Or @ace structure irum which

dives are supported and/or the underwater location
where work is performed.
111
I_,.*..
.-
INDEX
Abrasion.. ............................................................
..... 19
21
Timber ...........................................................
25
Abutments, ............................................................
14
49
Aggradation ............................................................
Altitude correction.. ...............................................
79
Bacterial degradation. ...........................................

Bankia .....................................................................
Bends.. ....................................................................
Boats. ................................................................... :..
Bottom opentng bucket. .......................................
Fenders
Forms.. ..............................................................
Fungus ..............................................................
Gribbde ..............................................................
Ground penetrating radar.. ............................
25
23
27
42
70
24
14
20
71
Chemical attack ....................................................
18
36
Clearwater box ......................................................
32
Communication ......................................................
Concrete ...............................................................
16
Coring ......................................................................
45
Corrosion., .............................................................
19
Cracking.. .................................................. .............. 16
20
68
72
Creosote .................................................................
72
Culverts .............. .,,.,.,_.,.,.,_~
.................................... 16
44
54
Epoxy injection ,......... ,..,,...,,.......................*..........
68
Ddphins ..................................................................
23
81
49
13
79
85
87
22
24
63
Indepth inspection .........................................

lNpectiorl notes.. ............................................
Inspection @an.. ..............................................
Inspection report.. ...........................................
Inspection tads.. .......................... .,.................
Inspector quab~tions.. .................................
Inspector training.. ...........................................
Insurance.. ........................................................
5
85
Levels d inspection.. ......................................
. timnorie. .............................................................
Low frequency sonar.. ..................................
.
Magnetic pertide testing ................................
Marine bcrers . ..................................................
Masonry ............................................................
.
39
8
46
14
Fathometer. . ... .... .... .... .... ... .... ... .. ... .... ..... ... .... .... .... 59
aI
Natiod Bridge Inspection

Standards (NBS) ............................... .............
Nitrogen ............................................................
Non-scheduled inspections.. .........................
Occupetiod
Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA) ...................................
41
76
33
76
8
77
74
24
63
44.
22
23
72
20
2
27
2
Oxygerr poisoning ...........................................
9
30
33
79
28.
................... *.................................
34
P~og~phY
-1 13
14
Hand took .... ..... .... .... .... ... ... .... .... ..... .... .... ..... ... 34
CaddisiIy. ................................................................
Caissons .................................................................
Cathodic protection, ..............................................
D-meter ...................................................................
Debris .......... ........ ................................................
Decay ......................................................................
Decompression ......................................................
Degradation ............................................................
Dive flags.. ..: ...........................................................
Dher certification.. .......-..........................................
Documentation ......................................................
.............................................................
Fodngs.. ..........................................................
Photography (contd) ............................................

.
.......................................................................
Piers
Pi/e bent ..................................................................
Pije jack@ .............................................................
power tools ........... . ................................................
Prep&~ aggregate.. ..........................................
Preseniatives.. ........................................................
47
Tender. ..............................................................
?=
13
11
THedO
70
Procurement ..........................................................
Pumped concrete.. ................................................
34
69
22
72
73
70
Quality contrd.. .....................................................
82
R-meter ...................................................................
Radiography ...........................................................
Remotely operated vehide (ROV). .....................
Repairs ....................................................................
. . Rot.. .........................................................................
45
44
38
68
23
Routine inspection ................................................
Scaling.. ..................................................................
Scheduled inspection ...........................................
Scheduling. ............................................................
Schimidt hammer ............................................... . ..
Scope of work.. .....................................................
Scour ......................................................................
17
2
78
45
74
11
42
50
51
61
51
56
54
52
50
Contraction scour ........................................

Diver inspection.. ..........................................
General scour ...............................................
Inspection ......................................................
Lateral scour.. ...............................................
Local scour.. .................................................
Total scour ....................................................
SCUBA .................... r!....... ~... ...................................
Equipment.. ...................................................
Shear fence ............................................................
Soundings ..............................................................
Spalling ...................................................................
steel.. .....................................................................
Surfacesupplied air ..............................................
Equipment.. ....................................................
33
...............................................................
Timber.. ..............................................................
Tremie mrete..
.............................................
Tur@tj transducer.. ..........................................
Ultra~ic
measuring devices..
_.
23
21
66
63
. . 44
V-meter ..... ... ....... ... ..... .... ... ... ..... ..._................... 45
Vessel impact . ... ..... ..... ... .... ... .... .... ..... .... ..... ... .. 3
11
vijeo . ..... ..... ..... ... ...._........_................................
37
47
Wading inspection.. .......... . .............................

Wood louse.. ....................................................
2
24
28
31
14
60
75
17
19
29
32
114
APPENDIX C
Template for Level I Inspection Report
Central Railway
Bridge Id and name

Underwater Inspection, Level I of Selected Bridge Components
January 2006
Central Railway
Bridge Id and Name
Underwater Inspection, Level I of Selected Bridge Components

January 2006
Ref
5721063-07_L006_VerF_Level_I_Report_Template.doc
Version
Date
Prepared by
Checked by
Approved by
Rambll Denmark A/S

Bredevej 2
DK-2830 Virum
Denmark
Phone +45 4598 6000
www.ramboll.dk
Table of contents
1.
Method and extent of investigation
2.
2.1
Background Material
Description of the structural components investigated
1
1
3.
Registrations
4.
5.
Appendices
A
Background Material
Selected Drawings
Sketches and Registrations
Photos and video recordings
Ref. 5721063-07_L006_VerF_Level_I_Report_Template.doc
Central Railway
Bridge Id and bridge name
Under water inspection, Level I of selected bridge components
1.

E.g. A close visual examination or a tactile examination using large sweeping motions of the hands where visibility is limited has been performed of x piers and 2
abutments. The inspection has been conducted over the total exterior surface of
each pier and abutments.
In this section it is stated whether a clear water box has been used.
The inspection also comprises limited probing of the substructure and the adjacent
streambed.
2.
2.1
Background Material
under water inspection.
3.
Registrations
reference to the appendices with sketches, photos and video recordings of the observed damage of all the investigated piers and abutments.
Level I inspection:
Visual, tactile inspection. A close visual examination or a tactile examination using
large sweeping motions of the hands where visibility is limited. The inspection must
be detailed enough to detect obvious major damage or deterioration due to overstress or severe deterioration or corrosion. The level I inspection should confirm the
continuity of the full length of all members and detect undermining or exposure of
normally buried elements. The inspection should be conducted over the total exterior
surface of each underwater structure element.
The level I inspection may also include limited probing of the substructure and adjacent streambed.
A clear water box is used if necessary.
During the UWI-field inspection we expect the following results from the level I inspection:
1/6
1/16
Central Railway
4.
Water depth sounding and scour around piers and abutments.

Verification of the continuity of the piers in full length.
Registration of spalling.
Registration of corrosion.
Registration of cracks larger than 0.2 mm.
Registration of severe damage in general.
2/6
2/16
Central Railway
CONDITION RATING
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
OTHER
LOSS OF SECTION
MASONRY
STEEL
CONCRETE
GENERAL
EMBANKMENT EROSION
SCOUR
CONDITION CODE *
CHANNEL
OTHER (BRACHING)
DISPLACEMENT
FOOTINGS
COLUMNS, SHAFTS OR
FACES
PILING
UNIT DESCRIPTION

[m]
UNIT REFERENCE NO.
SUBSTRUCTURE
18
Abutment 1
Pier 1
Pier 2
Pier 3
Pier 4
Pier 5
Pier 6
Pier 7
Pier 8
Pier 9
Pier 10
Abutment 2
Comments:
1/18
Central Railway
Condition rating scale:
5.
9:
8:
7:
6:
5:
4:
3:

2:

1:
back in light service.
0:
N:
Not applicable.
General considerations regarding future maintenance

activities
1/18
Central Railway
APPENDIX A
Background Material
Central Railway
inspection.
Appendix A page 1
Central Railway
APPENDIX B
Selected Drawings
Central Railway
inspection.
Appendix B page 1
Central Railway
APPENDIX C
Central Railway
bridge components included in the underwater inspection.
Appendix C page 1
Central Railway
APPENDIX D
Photos and Video Recordings
Central Railway
Appendix D page 1
Central Railway

Project:
Date:
Inspector:
Subject:
Insert photo
Photo 1:
Insert photo
Photo 2:
Appendix D page 2
Central Railway
APPENDIX E
Central Railway
This appendix includes sounding plan and sections.
Appendix E page 1
APPENDIX D
Template for Level II Inspection Report
Central Railway
Bridge Id and name

Underwater Inspection, Level II of Selected Bridge Components
January 2006
Central Railway
Bridge Id and Name
Underwater Inspection, Level II of Selected Bridge Components

January 2006
Ref
5721063-07_L008_VerB_Level_II_Report_Template.doc
Version
Date
Prepared by
Checked by
Approved by
Rambll Denmark A/S

Bredevej 2
DK-2830 Virum
Denmark
Phone +45 4598 6000
www.ramboll.dk
Table of contents
1.
2.
2.1
Background Material
1
1
3.
Registrations
4.
5.
Appendices
A
Background Material
Selected Drawings
Ref. 5721063-07_L008_VerB_Level_II_Report_Template.doc
Central Railway
Under water inspection, Level II of selected bridge components
1.

2.
2.1
Background Material
under water inspection.
3.
Registrations
reference to the appendices with sketches, photos and video recordings of the observed damage of all the investigated piers and abutments.
Level II inspection:
Detailed inspection, which requires that portions of the structure to be cleaned of
marine growth. The cleaning of the piers and abutments are performed in areas of
app. 0.30 m x 0.30 m in 3 different levels on each face of the element. The thoroughness of cleaning should be govern by what is necessary to discern the condition
of the underlying material. Removal of all biofouling staining is generally not needed.
A clear water box and water jet cleaning equipment is used if necessary.
Damaged areas should be measured and the extent and severity of the damage
should be documented.
During the UWI-field inspection we expect the following results from the level II inspection (carried out as described above):
4.
Registration
Registration
Registration
Registration
of
of
of
of
spalling.
corrosion.
cracks.
severe damage in general.
1/6
1/15
Central Railway
CONDITION RATING
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
OTHER
LOSS OF SECTION
MASONRY
STEEL
CONCRETE
GENERAL
EMBANKMENT EROSION
SCOUR
CONDITION CODE *
CHANNEL
OTHER (BRACHING)
DISPLACEMENT
FOOTINGS
COLUMNS, SHAFTS OR
FACES
PILING
UNIT DESCRIPTION

[m]
UNIT REFERENCE NO.
SUBSTRUCTURE
18
Abutment 1
Pier 1
Pier 2
Pier 3
Pier 4
Pier 5
Pier 6
Pier 7
Pier 8
Pier 9
Pier 10
Abutment 2
Comments:
1/17
Central Railway
Condition rating scale:
5.
9:
8:
7:
6:
5:
4:
3:

2:

1:
back in light service.
0:
N:
Not applicable.
General considerations regarding future maintenance

activities
1/17
Central Railway
APPENDIX A
Background Material
Central Railway
This appendix includes the inventory of the bridge components for the under water
inspection and previous inspection reports which are relevant for the inspection.
Appendix A page 1
Central Railway
APPENDIX B
Selected Drawings
Central Railway
inspection.
Appendix B page 1
Central Railway
APPENDIX C
Central Railway
For each face of the piers and abutments this appendix includes sketches of the areas that have been cleaned for this inspection.
This appendix includes sketches and a detailed description of the registrations of the
bridge components included in the inspection.
Appendix C page 1
Central Railway
APPENDIX D
Central Railway
Appendix D page 1
Central Railway

Project:
Date:
Inspector:
Subject:
Insert photo
Photo 1:
Insert photo
Photo 2:
Appendix D page 2
Central Railway
APPENDIX E
Central Railway
This appendix includes sounding plan and sections.
Appendix E page 1
APPENDIX E
Template for Level III Inspection Report
Central Railway
Bridge Id and name

Underwater Inspection, Level III of Selected Bridge Components
January 2006
Central Railway
Bridge Id and Name
Underwater Inspection, Level III of Selected Bridge Components

January 2006
Ref
5721063-07_L013_VerA_Level_III_Report_Template.doc
Version
Date
Prepared by
Checked by
Approved by
Rambll Denmark A/S

Bredevej 2
DK-2830 Virum
Denmark
Phone +45 4598 6000
www.ramboll.dk
Table of contents
1.
Summary
2.
Motivation of the Level III Inspection
3.
3.1
Background Material
Description of the Structural Components Investigated
1
1
4.
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.4.1
4.4.2
4.5
4.5.1
4.5.2
Registrations
Registration Overview
Visual Inspection
Homogeneous Areas and Damage Hypothesis
NDT-Method no. 1
Result Summery
On-site calibration
NDT-Method no. 2
Result Summery
On-site calibration
1
1
2
2
3
3
3
3
3
3
5.
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
Evaluation of Registrations
Interpretation of the results from NDT-method no. 1
Cause, Extent and Location of Damage
Bridge component no. 1
3
4
4
4
4
4
6.
Appendices
A
Background Material
Selected Drawings
Visual Inspection
NDT-methods No. 1
NDT-method No. 2
Ref. 5721063-07_L013_VerA_Level_III_Report_Template.doc
1.
Summary
The summary must contain all relevant information from the other chapters in a
short form. This chapter must include a comprehensive overview of the registrations
and conclusions on the damage to the bridge components investigated. It must comprise description of the extent of registrations, conclusions on cause and extent of
damage, and a summary of the general considerations regarding future maintenance
strategies. However, the summary should not be more than 1-2 pages in length.
2.
Motivation of the Level III Inspection

This chapter describes why and by whom the inspection is initiated. It tells which
parts of the bridge components are the objects of the inspection and which visible
damage has been registered.
3.
3.1
Background Material
Description of the Structural Components Investigated
underwater inspection.
4.
Registrations
For each of the test methods used, the extent and location is described, and a summary of the results is given.
The detailed record of all registrations is enclosed in the appendices.
4.1
Registration Overview
This section contains a relevant photo and a table listing the investigation methods
which have been used.
Figure 1: Caption text.
1/18
Investigation
Method
Purpose
Quantity
Visual
To form a general view

of the bridge/test areas. Condition rating of
the bridge elements.
All accessible areas.
HCP-measurements
Identification of corrosion of reinforcement

etc..
X grids
App. Y m2.
Table 1: List of investigations carried out in this underwater level III inspection.
4.2
Visual Inspection
Describe the general condition and the condition of the investigated areas of the
bridge components based on visual assessments.
Choose an informative photo
4.3
Homogeneous Areas and Damage Hypothesis

On the basis of the visual inspection (reports from level I and II inspections) and
prior knowledge the structure may be divided into homogeneous areas. A homogenous area is defined as an area where the parameters affecting the deterioration
and the deterioration itself of the structure exhibits only a random variation.
For each of the homogeneous areas a damage hypothesis is prepared. These hypotheses are described in this section.
2/18
4.4
NDT-Method no. 1
Give a short introduction stating when, where and why the NDT-method has been
used.
4.4.1
Result Summery
Description of the registrations from the NDT-method. The detailed information regarding the results is to be enclosed in the appendices.
4.4.2
On-site calibration
This section includes a description of the results from the calibration of the NDTmethod (if any). For instance for HCP-measurements this section includes a description of the registrations from the break-ups made to calibrate the measurements.
4.5
NDT-Method no. 2
Give a short introduction stating when, where and why the NDT-method has been
used.
4.5.1
Result Summery
Description of the registrations from the NDT-method. The detailed information regarding the results are to be enclosed in the appendices.
4.5.2
On-site calibration
This section includes a description of the results from the calibration of the NDTmethod (if any). For instance for HCP-measurements this section includes a description of the registrations from the break-ups made to calibrate the measurements.
5.
Evaluation of Registrations
This chapter includes an interpretation of the test results from the NDTinvestigations.
In this chapter the probable deterioration mechanisms and causes of damage is described based on the registrations. The chapter must include an estimate of the actual damage of the bridge components investigated. It should also include a description of the expected development of damage if no action is taken. It is noted
whether the hypothesis of the cause of damage is confirmed or not.
3/18
5.1

This section includes an interpretation of the test results from NDT-method no. 1.
E.g. for HCP-measurements: do the measurements show areas of corrosion of the
reinforcement.
5.2

This section includes an interpretation of the test results from NDT-method no. 2.
E.g. for chloride-measurements: do the measurements show risk of chloride initiated
corrosion of the reinforcement are the values of the chloride content larger than
the critical chloride content at the depth of reinforcement.
5.3
Cause, Extent and Location of Damage

The damage mechanism should be described in detail.
It is also important to explain the differences in damage appearance: Why are some
piers damaged while others are undamaged etc.
The extent of damage based on the NDT-measurements is described. Thus, this section includes a summary of the interpretations of the test results from all the NDTmethods used in the inspection and the registrations from the visual inspection.
5.3.1
5.3.2
6.
General Considerations Regarding Future Maintenance

Activities
4/18
APPENDIX A
Background Material
inspection and previous inspection reports which are relevant for the inspection.
Appendix A page 1
APPENDIX B
Selected Drawings
inspection.
Appendix B page 1
APPENDIX C
Visual Inspection
For each face of the piers and abutments this appendix includes sketches of the areas that have been cleaned for this level III inspection.
This appendix includes sketches of the registrations of the bridge components included in the inspection.
Photo documentation should be made.
Appendix C page 1
APPENDIX D
Appendix D page 1

Project:
Date:
Inspector:
Subject:
Insert photo
Photo 1:
Insert photo
Photo 2:
Appendix D page 2
APPENDIX E
NDT-method No. 1
Depending on the complexity of the NDT-method a general description of the principles of the method is described in this appendix.
This appendix includes the registrations from one of the NDT-methods used in this
level III inspection. The appendix should include sketches of the areas of measurements and of the measuring grid if used e.g. for HCP, Impact-Echo, Impulse Response (sMASH) etc. The appendix should also include relevant photos related to the
NDT-investigation (of break ups etc.).
Always note the dimensions of the bridge component in question.
Mapping of HCP (Half Cell Potential measurements) readings is shown on sketches.
Mapping of sMASH (impulse response measurements) readings is shown on
sketches.
Mapping of Impact-Echo readings is shown on sketches.
The template for this appendix is copied for all the NDT-methods used in this level
III inspection.
Appendix E page 1

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Central Railway

Underwater Bridge Inspection

Rambll Denmark A/S

Statement of copyright and liability

Level I Inspection overview

Level II Inspection overview

Level III Inspection - overview

Planning of level III inspections including NDT-measurements

Ultrasonic testing of steel structures

Reporting of Level I Inspection

Reporting of Level II Inspection

Reporting of Level III Inspection

Handout of slides from classroom training in UWI-methods

Theory Technical Method Description

Applications and Limitations

Test Planning and Execution of Field Tests

Interpretation and Reporting of Results

Enclosed to this manual are handouts of presentations regarding underwater bridge

Reasons for performing Underwater Bridge Inspection

The condition and sturdiness of the structures.

After unusual floods.

After vessel impact (unless it is obvious that no damage has occurred).

Unusual prop wash from vessels.

In case of settlements or other evidence of scour.

Levels of underwater bridge inspection

Purely visual inspection supplemented by water depth soundings. This

Detailed visual inspection that includes cleaning of selected areas for

Level III: Detailed investigation of specific components using Non Destructive

Non Destructive Testing

the type of damage

the extent of damage

the cause of damage

the expected development in time of damage

Personnel and equipment

Used for structures made of:

Ultrasonic Thickness Gauge

Concrete and steel

Concrete and masonry

Concrete and masonry

Evaluation of Concrete Cores

Crack Measuring Gauge

Concrete and masonry

Impulse Response Equipment

Concrete and masonry

Table 1-1: Test methods.

Level I Inspection overview

All relevant previous reports concerning the bridge (including inventory).

"As built" drawings number and design of piers, piles, etc.

Information on major events during maintenance.

Critical areas of the structure.

Water temperature range.

Atmospheric temperature range.

Pollution / sewage in the water.

Does the visibility require a clear water box.

With the Bridge Engineer.

With other authorities e.g. the local maritime authority.

About accommodations for inspection personnel (diver inspections usually take

Execution of level I inspection

Figure 2-1: Inspection of a pile bent in a spiral motion.

Figure 2-2: Example of inspection pattern for inspection of a pier or abutment.

Method and extent of investigation.

Evaluation of registrations (condition rating of the underwater bridge components).

Need for further inspections (level II or III) if relevant.

In an extended version of the level I inspection a section of General considerations