Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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Chapter
I
D r il l in g P r o b l e m s a n d t h e ir R e m e d y
II
Rig M ud H ydraulics
59
*
HI
81
IV
94
159
References
200
C h a pter 1
Introduction
Problems associated with the drilling o f oil and gas wells are largely due to the
disturbance of earth stresses around the borehole caused by the creation of the hole itself and
by drilling mud/formation interaction. Earth stresses, together with formation (pore) pressure,
attempt to re-establish previous equilibrium by forcing strata to move toward the borehole.
Thus, a hole is kept open (or stable) by maintaining a balance between earth stresses and pore
pressure on one side and well- bore mud pressure and mud chemical composition on the other
side. Any time this balance is disturbed, hole problems may be encountered. Hole problems
can be classified under three types of drilling wells, namely:
v <
1. Vertical well drilling.
2. Deviated or directional well drilling,
3. Horizontal well drilling.
1.2
are:
1. Ix>st circulation of drilling fluid.
3. Sticking and torquing pipe.
5. Sloughing or caving shales.
7. Twist-off.
9. Vertical well drilling.
11. Strapping pipe to get accurate tally.
1.3
Lost circulation is defined as the partial oi complete loss of drilling fluid during
drilling, circulating or running casing or loss o f cement during cementing. Lost circulation
occurs when the hydrostatic pressure of mud exceeds the breaking strength o f the formation,
which creates cracks along which the fluid will flow. For lost circulation to occur, the size of
the pore openings o f the induced fractures must be larger than the size o f the mud particles. In
practice, the size o f openings that can cause lost circulation is in the range 0.1 1.0 mm.
However, circulation may be lost if;
1. The total pressure exerted on a formation exceeds the formation pressure.
2. The openings in the formation are about three limes as large as the biggest particles
present in the mud in substantial quantity.
7,
Accordingly, the formations where lost circulation may occur can be subdivided into three*
categories:
.......
............................
- w,
.
.
"C
1.
2.
3.
Chapter I
Prevention Measures
2.
If despite the preventive measures taken circulation is lost, some simple methods may
be tried to restore circulation before other more radical methods are used. These methods are
as fellows:
:
<
1.
Waiting period: is one of the best methods, which can be recommended in all instances.
The well should be left quiet for 6 8 hours. This allows the hole to heal itself. Solids
present in the mud probably enter the thief zone, filtration cake is deposited and mud
gellation takes place. All these factors contribute to restore the circulation. The bit should
be pulled to a point before the well is left quiet.
2. Reduction o f mud density: by diluting with water or by adding oil that decreases pressure
of the mud column and may be sufficient to restore circulation,
3. Deliberate mud gellation: by treatment with lime, cement, gypsum or even salt may help
to restore circulation in case it is lost in shallow coarse permeable sands or gravels.
4. Reduction of pump pressure by decreasing the rate ,of circulation or chemical treatment to
cut down mud yield point may restore circulation due to the corresponding decrease of
pressure losses in the annult space.
Drilling Problems
R easons
If circulation is not restored by these measures, the more radical ones,, should be
applied. However before taking further steps the lost circulation zone should be located as
accurately as possible and evaluated.
1.3.3
Usually when losses occur during drilling, lost circulation material is spotted across
the suspect zone to combat fluid losses. However, in severe lost circulation cases the location
of the thief (or lost circulation) zone must be deteimined prior to combating fluid losses. _
There are a number of established methods used for this purpose, including temperature
survey, radioactive trace survey and spinner survey.
Dr. M.S. Farobat
Chapter /
Before taking any corrective measures the type of the loss and the verity should be
determined. The type of the thief zone can be best determined from lithology although some
features may help to identify the type of loss.
1. A circulation loss to unconsolidated formations is accompanied with gradual lowering of
mud level in pits. If drilling is continued the loss may become complete.
2. Circulation lost to formations with natural fractures is evidenced by gradual lowering of
mud in pits. If drilling is continued and more fractures are exposed, complete loss of
returns may be experienced.
Dr. M.S.Farahat
Drilling Problems
3. Circulation loss to induced fractures may occur in any type rock. However it would be
expected in formation with characteristically weak planes. This types o f lost returns is
more likely to happen if the density of mud exceeds 1.25 gm/cc.
;
4. Lost circulation to cavernous formations is normally occurring in limestone sections.
Circulation may be lost suddenly and completely Before circulation is lost drilling may be
rough and the bit may drop from several centimeters to several meters just proceeding
the loss.
The severity of the loss is best determined by the amount of loss and the static level of
the mud column in the well.
One of the classifications of lost circulation zones by severity of the loss subdivides
them into five categories:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Several methods of restoring circulation exist and can be used. However a technique
selected to combat lost circulation should be correlated to severity of the loss otherwise if an
improper technique is selected it will result only in wasting materials, time and money.
1,3.5
~V-' - "if
1, Reducing mud weight until the hydrostatic pressure o f mud is equal to the/formation
pressure.
2.
Spotting of a pill of mud containing a high concentration of bridging materials against the
thief zone. Bridging or lost circulation material s may also be used as additives in the
circulating mud during drilling of formations susceptible to loss of circulation.
Lost circulation materials can classified as fibers, flakes, granular material, and a
mixture of all three. The fibers include plant fibers (such as hay or wood shavings), glass
fibers, mineral fibers and leather. The flakes include cellophane, mica, cotton seed hulls,
nut hulls, etc. Granular material includes ground rubber tyres, crushed rock, ground
asphalt, asbestos, etc.
The fibers and flakes were found to be effective with low mud weight, while
granular materials are best suited to weighted muds. Blends of mica and cellophane, and
fibrous, flaky or ground materials are particularly effective a gradation of size which can
build up an effective seal.
Lost circulation material is normally mixed with a sufficient quantity of mud to
prepare a pill which can be pumped to the lost circulation zone. The pill is spotted againstthe thief zone and gradually squeezed into the formation while the mud level in the
annulus is continuously observed, if the mud level is still falling when the complete pill is
Dr. M.S, Farah.it
Chapter /
squeezed into the zone, another pill is prepared and the procedure is repeated until the '
loss of circulation is stopped.
For severe lost circulation, the bridging materials form part of the mud additives
and must, therefore, be capable of being pumped through the hole without causing severe
pressure losses.
The severity of any lost circulation problem is related to the width and length of
fractures created by the excessive hydrostatic pressure. Thus, for lost circulation to be
cured, the openings or the fractures must be tightly packed with lost circulation materials.
This can be achieved only if the lost circulation material contains a gradation of size such
that large particles form bridges through the pore or fractures and small particles pack off
the spaces between the large particles. Such a size distribution will produce an effective
seal.
The performance oflost circulation materials is pressure-dependent; a good seal at
1000-psi differential pressure may fail at a higher pressure of, say 2000 psi.
When lost circulation materials are used as part of the circulating mud additives,
the shale shakers should be by-passed, to prevent the loss of these materials through the
shakers.
>
3.
Spotting of bentonite-diesel oil or cement-diesel oil plugs across the thief zones. Several
plugs may be required in die case of bentonite plugs loss of circulation is spotting.
When spotting cement plugs, a wait-on-cement (WOC) time must be allowed for
prior to resuming drilling, to permit the cement to set and Seal the pore and fracture space
of the thief zone. Cement plugs are normally spotted as a last resort when everything else
fails. Bentonite or cement plugs are spotted with an open-ended drill pipe (OEDP).
4.
Adoption of special drilling methods such as blind drilling, drilling with uirldertralance or
drilling with air. Blind drilling refers to drilling without returns at the surface, soithat the
generated cuttings are used to seal off the fractures o f the thief zone. The hydraulic
programme must be adjusted so that the cuttings have sufficient annular velocity to reach
the thief zones. For this technique to be effective, a plentiful supply of water is required to
replace the mud lost to the formation.
Example 1.1
During drilling of an 8-1/2 in hole at 8000 ft, a complete loss of circulation was
observed. Drilling was stopped and the mud level in the annulus was observed to fall rapidly.
The well was filled with water o f 62 pcf density until the annular level remained stationary. If
the volume of water used was 65.7 bbl and mud density 75 pcf, determine the formation
pressure and the new mud weight required to balance the formation pressure. Assume the
intermediate casing to be 9-5/8 in, 40 # set at 6000 ft drillpipe is Grade E, 5 in OD.
Solution
Capacity of annulus between 5 in drillpipe and 9 5/8 in casing = 0515 bbl/ft.
Height of water column
~ 1276 H
.0515 '
M. "U* i " - - . . . .
ft
When the well is balanced, we have
Formation pressure = pressure due to mud column + pressure due to water column
Dr. M.S. Farabat
Drilling Problems
75 *(8000-1276) 6:2*1276
.
= ----- ----------- - + ----------- = 4051 psi
144
144
^
(Note: Hole depth = 8000 ft, of which 1276 ft is filled with water and 6724 ft with mud.)
144 *4051
Re quired mud weight =
= 72.9 = 73p c i
Practically, lost circulation is a very expensive problem to deal with. To cure most
zones, lost circulation material (LCM) is added to the mud.
When a drill bit penetrates a lost circulation zone, the usual procedure is to pull the bit
one foot off the bottom and reduce the pump strokes to about one - half normal operation.
This will reduce the equivalent circulating density (LCD) and allow time for LCM to be
mixed. Lost circulation material must be mixed sv/iftly to solve the downhole problem. A
quick calculation can be made to determine how fast the LCM will hit the lost circulation
zone.
Assuming there is lost circulation at the bottom of the wellbore; the Surface-to-BU
time (in minutes) is calculated by the formula:
Si oB
DP = drill pipe
DC = drill collar
Example 1.2
At 8,000 ft with a 4.5 in. XO drill pipe weighting 16.6 lb/ft to 7,408 ft, the capacity
can be found from the cement book to be 0.01422 bbl/ft with a BHS o f 592 ft and a capacity
of 0.01776 bbl/ft. calculating 0.09 barrels per stroke and 60 strokes per minute, we get:
(0.1422 bbl! ./?)(7,408 ft) + (0,1776 bbl! /?)(592 ft)
(0.09 bbl! stroke){60 strokes! min)
105.34 +10.51 _ 115*5
S to B 5.4
54
S t o B - 21.45 min
S toB =
As calculated, in 21.45 minutes the LCM w 11 hit bottom. So after a short circulating
time, the problem should be solved. If the problem is serious, the shale shaker can be
bypassed to keep from losing the LCM. Once the mud pits stop showing a loss, drilling may
be resumed, but must be watched closely (Figure 1.2 ).
It is also important when fighting lost circulation to keep the pipe moving, since>the ?
pipe could become stuck due to the permeability of the hole and the possible heaving of 4hey
formation. The pipe should be rotated for five minutes and then the kelly lifted and reaped >
back down. Lost circulation is dangerous and should not be taken lightly.
Many blowouts have resulted from mud going into the formation and gas coming back
up the hole (see Figure 1.3). When liquid mud is available, the consultant should have it sent
to location so he doesnt run out of mud. Always remember to reduce the pump to one half
normal operation range to give you more time to mix the LCM with the mud.
Dr. M.S. Faraliat
Chapter I
Drilling Problems
channels. The bridging material, and mud solids may form plugs in the channels and stop the
flow of mud into the loss zone. Bridging or lost circulation materials can be classified into
three main group:
- 6
Any granulated fibrous or flake which enters the channels in the thief formation can
bridge the channels if the sizes of lost circulation material particles correspond to the sizes of
channels. The bridging material, and mud solids may form plugs in the channels and stop the
flow of mud into the loss zone. Bridging or lost circulation materials can be classified into
three main group:
1. Granulated materials: nut shells, fruits pits, rubber, perlite etc.
2. Fibrous materials: cane, hay, straw, cotton, wood, leather, asbestos fibers.
3. Flake material: cellophane, mica, cotton seed hul'ls, sunflower seed hulls etc.
Efficiency of lost circulation materials does not depend very much on the
concentration of it in mud but rather on the size of particles and the proportion between the
amounts of particles of various sizes.
High content of a coarse bridging agent results in forming a plug on the wall of the
hole. Such plug cannot provide good seal as it is easily destroyed by the drill string and the bit.
A lack in coarse bridging agent can make it impossible to obtain a seal as fine particles
will easily pass into the formation without any plugging effect. The proper proportion between
Dr. M.S. Farahat
10
Chapter /
lost circulation materials of different types and the proper proportion between coarse and fine
particles will provide the best result. The lost circulation zone will be successfully plugged.
1.3.6.3 Application o f lost circulation materials.
Two methods can be used to cure lost circulation with bridging agents.
1. Adding bridging agents to the entire mud system,
2. Adding bridging agent to a portion of mud, which will deliver the agents to the loss
zone and subsequent squeezing them into the formation.
1.3.6.4 Addition o f lost circulation materials to the entire mud system.
This method can be recommended only for fine lost circulation materials. Application
of coarse bridging agents to the whole mud system is not economical by the following
reasons:
^ Some materials lose strength and the ability to seal.
ts. The shale shaker should be by passed and this results in solids content increase and mud
density build up,
*. Pressure losses increase due to the presence of bridging agents in the mud,
The bit may plugged,
t*. The turbodrill may be plugged,
"a. It is difficult to get tools to bottom,
a . Large amounts of lost circulation materials are required.
a
1.3.6.5 Application o f bridging material in spotting slurries
It is more economical to mix lost circulation materials to some volume pf the mud,
which was in use at the time of circulation loss. Usually the volume o f the mud and bridging
agent mixture rringes ffbm 15 to 80 m \ The mixture may contain about 40 - 50 kg/m5 of
coarse granulated material, about 15 kg/m3 of coarse to medium fibrous materials, about 15
kg/m3 of medium to fine fibers, and about 15 kg/m3of a flake material.
The plug should be placed through the open - ended drill pipe opposite the thief zone.
The mixture is pumped slowly, at the rate of 2.5 - 3 L/sec until the materials stop the loss.
When the level of mud reached the top of the well, preventers should be closed and the
plugging material squeezed carefully into the loss zone at the pressure 3.5 kg/m2 on the
annular space. Such pressure should be maintained for 30 minuts.
If the hole does not fill the procedure should be repeated once again. In case of a
failure to restore circulation with this technique the high water loss slurry squeeze should be
used.
1.3.6.6 High water loss slurry squeeze.
This method can be used to combat not seeping losses but partial and not very severe
complete losses.
This method uses high water loss slurries containing an appropriate amount of
properly selected mixture of various lost circulation materials. Bridging material which is
present in the slurry forms a screen in the channels of the rock. Fast filtration of the liquid
phase of the sluny through such screen results in quick depositing of the filter cake inside the
channels of the thief zone, plugging the channels and restoration of circulation.
There are slight differences in application of the jnethod to lost circulation zones of
different severity. However the main distinction is an increase is an increase of the size of
bridging agent as losses become more sever.
One of possible composition of a high water loss slurry for combating seeping losses is
as follows:
Dr. M.S. Farahat
11
Attapulhite 2 8 - 5 7 kg/m3.
Diatomaseous earth 140 kg/m3.
Fine nut shell 14 kg/m3.
Shredded leather 3 kg/m3.
The slurry should be pumped to the thief zone through the open end drill string, and
then carefully displaced and squeezed into the loss zone at closed preventer and opened mud
gun.
.
1.3.6.7 Partial circulation losses.
Method to combat partial losses are similar to those applied in case o f seeping losses:
plugging with bridging material in mud and squeezing with high water loss slurries. As partial
losses occur in formation which have larger openings bridging material o f larger" size is
required.
1.3,6.8 Complete losses with the static mud level at 6 0 - ISO m.
Several methods of restoring circulation can secure good results: plugging with
bridging material in mud, squeezing with high water loss slurries, containing granulated flake
and fibrous lost circulation material of large size ( V* - V i'). If the channels in the formation
are so large as they cannot be plugging with lost circulation material the lost circulation zone
should be isolated with one of the cement containing mixtures.
- ,
1.3.6.9 Sealing o ff lost circulation zones with cement.
Cement is a-material which, being mixed with water, is able to solidify and turn into a
high strength stone.
If cement enters the channels in the formation, fills them and gets solid it will plug the
channels and stop circulation loss.
Cement can be used alone (neat cement) or in combination with some other materials
which improve the sealing ability of cement.
Neat cement is often used for plugging lost circulation zones because this material is
usually available at any drilling rig. However neat cement cannot be considered as a good
sealing material because: is has a long setting time, cement slurry has poor thyxotropic
properties and a small angle of repose. For these reasons slurry mixed of neat cement Cab flow
deep into the thief zone without plugging it. Such slurry, while it remains liquid,- can be
diluted and washed away with water present in the los.s zone.
Sealing ability of cement can be considembly improved by adding bentonite or
gilsonite to cement
1.3.6.10 Bentonite or gel cement
Bentonite cement is formed by adding cement to a suspension o f pie-hydrated
bentonite. Concentration of bentonite constitutes usually 4 - 8 % by weight o f dry cement.
Where strength of the plug is not important the amount of bentonite maybe increased up to 25
%. When cement is added to a suspension of pre-hydrated bentonite the resulting slurry has
lower density, higher gel strength and higher set strength compare to a slurry obtained by
mixing dry cement and bentonite with water.
A mixture o f cement with bentonite has an ability to develop the gel structure rapidly.
Very high gel strength is responsible for a high angle of repose of the slurry and a good
sealing ability of it.
12
Chapter l
As the setting time of bentonite - cement slurries is rather long, this mixture can be
successfully used if there is no water flow in the loss zone. Water, flowing through the thief
zone, can easily wash the slurry away before it sets.
1.3.6.11 Gilsonite - cement slurry
Gilsonite is a light density material which resembles asphalt in colour. Being added to
a cement slurry gilsonite reduces its density and acts as a bridging agent. Both of these
functions help to keep the slurry in the vicinity of the well bore. The concentration of gilsonite
in cement slurry usually ranges from 25 to 100 % by weight of dry cement.
. Not only gel cement or gilsonite cement slurries can be used for sealing off lost
circulation zones. Any other mixture prepared on the basis of cement can be used.
A cement slurry is brought to a lost circulation zones through the drill string equipped
with a cementing sub. The slurry should be pumped and displaced out of the drill string
carefully so the pressure balance between formation and hydrostatic pressures was maintained
tti avoid a break of the mud or formation fluid through the cement plug squeezed into the loss
zone.
, r.fit:
'ol :>!
O'
T"
li I.*
.Vftj
.1
|;
I* a mixture of cement bentonite and diesel oil there is no interaction between the
components. Such mixtures can remain liquid for indefinitely long time. However, as soon as
such slurry comes to a contact with water or mud it forms a plug of stiff consistency. If the
contact of the slurry takes place in the well near the thief zone and in the thief zone itself the
plug squeezed into the formation channels will seal them and restore circulation.
' Solid components o f the slurry are usually added to diesel oil in the folloVing
proportion: 300 kg of cement and 300 kg of bentonite per 1 m ^of diesel oil. The slurry is
brought to a loss zone through the open end drill string. 1-1.5 m3 of water free diesel oil
should be pumped ahead and behind the slurry to prevent1anycontact of the slurry with mud
inside the drill string. When the first diesel oil cushiorl teaches the end of the drill string
preventors should be closed and mud should'be pumped into the annular spaces. The ratio of
the slurry and mud volumes should 'be maintained at the level of 2:1. The plugging paste
which isi formed near the end of the drill string is squeezed into the thief zone and left there
for setting. It seals the fractures and caverns and helps to restore circulation.
...
i.
1.3.6.13 Partial or complete losses to deep induced fractures
If induced fractures are the reason of lost circulation soft plugs may be the best remedy
to restore circulation. Soft plugs arc formed of materials, which being mixed with water or
special aetivators, turn into strong gels. Such gels fill the channels in formations, seal a thief
zone off and help to restore normal circulation.
'/If!
*f H'
n
''
t-\r
Drilling Frobiems
13
increase the strength of the set clay cement, and a retarder is used to increase the pumping
time of the slurry during placement.
Initial slurry properties, thickening time, final set strength are primarily functions of
concentration of clay cement solids and the temperaiure encountered.
Form A Plug must penetrate the loss zone a sufficient distance to offer resistance to
movement after the strength of its gel has developed.
The method of applying closely resembles a cementing operation. Form A Plug can
be mixed with fresh water using the jet hopper. After mixing it is pumped directly into the
drill string and then displaced to the loss zone with drilling mud pumped simultaneously into
the drill pipe and the annular space. When almost all the slurry is displaced out of the drill
string the preventor is closed and the slurry squeeze d into the thief zone, by careful pumping
the mud into the annulus. The well is then shut in and held under squeeze pressure for 8 hours.
The slurry set in the well and inside he loss zone will seal it and circulation may be restored. If
the first operation is a failure the procedure should be repeated with larger amounts of Fotm
A Plug
......
* r :i
1.3.6.15 Down hole mixed soft plug
A common feature of all soft plugs mixed down hole is that mixing and interaction of
components which form the plug takes place near or inside the loss zone. Close attention
should be paid to bridging the right amounts of components and mixing them near the thief
zone, as the proportion of the components determines the success of the plugging operation.
There are several compositions used for soft plugs mixed down hole.
v
1.3.6.16 Diesel oil-bentonite soft plug
The solids to liquid ratio in the slurry is similar to that of the diesel oil bentonite
cement slurry. The diesel oil bentonite slurry is prepared by mixing 600 kgs o f bentonite with
lm 3 of diesel oil. The slurry is pumped and displaced to the loss zone through the drill string,
white mud is simultaneously pumped to the thief zone through the annular space. Coming into
contact with mud the mixture of bentonite and diesel oil the latter turns into a phste which
being squeezed into the loss zone plugs the channels in the formation and restores circulation.
1.3.6.17 Bengum Bentonite Diesel oil plug
Bengum No. 1 is a natural gum mixed with a preservative and a complexing agent.
Bengum is used with bentonite in proportion 1:9. The mixture of dry materials is mixed with
diesel oil. (1 m3 diesel oil - 800,925 kg bengum - bentonite).
; '
Because o f organic compounds it contains, this mixture sets harder than the dieseT oil
bentonite combination particularly when it is mixed in salt water or mud. The used for the
diesel oil bentonite of the plugging material into the loss zone is similar to that used for the
diesel oil bentonite plug.
1.3.6.18 Mil-Squeeze soft plug
Milchems mil -Squeeze is a two compound system consisting of copolymer slurry
and 15 volume % of an activator or setting fluid. Ifre activator is placed in the drill with a
spaces of crude or diesel oil. The activator is separated from the mud and slurry with a spacer
crude or diesel oil. The materials are pumped to the loss zone through the drill string. As they
leave the pipe they mix in the well bore and in the thief zone and flow a highly galled mass.
When the well fills the preventor is closed and the plugging material; is carefully squeezd into
the loss zone. The plugging mixture will fill the fractures and stop the flow of mud>into>flie
formation.
Dr. M.S. Farahat
14
Chapter I
1.4
.' F,.
Controlling hole deviation will not be a major problem if some simple rules are
followed. First, you should take survey every 500 to 700 ft while drilling. In the shallow part
of the well a wireline survey can be run, but at the well gets deeper a drop survey will need
to be run at the end of each bit run. (Most bit runs will be under 500 ft) This will give a good
picture of the hole while drilling. A deviation chart (see Figure 1.5) should be kept on the hole
for a clear picture and for locating dog legs and keyseats.
The following is an example of what steps might be taken as the survey information is
gathered. '
' !
Drilling Problems
15
Example 1.3
For the first 6000 ft the deviation is
between 0.5, and 1 which is accepted.
Then the bit deviates 1.5, and must be
brought back on the right track. The first
step is to take weight off the bit by reducing
the weight to about 25000 lb. pump strokes
are increased eight strokes per minute,
raising the pressure about 200 psi. this in
turn increases the RPM about ten turns say, from 90 to 98 RPM.
1000 I.
Chapter /
16
J*
ts
Figure
The main thing to remember in hole deviation is that reducing the weight and increasing
the RPM will solve the problem in most cases.
111
1.5
-- ------------------------------------------------
----------- -
"
Drill pipe sticking is the phenomenon, when due to one or another reason the drill
string cannot be pulled out of the bore hole at an overpull equal to the tensile strength o f the
drill pipe.
Stuck pipe is one of common problems encountered in drilling. It results in loss of
time due to necessity to free the drill string. If attempts to free the drill string are failure stuck
pipe requires fishing which may take long time and be insuccess fill. In the latter case a part of
the drill string is lost and it should be sidetracked: that is a part of the bore hole should be
drilled again.
1
.'
Drill pipe sticking may occur due to several various reasons. The following factors
may cause sticking:
ur. r o a m r r a H T------ - -
-----------
17
D rilling Problems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Pressure differential.
Thick filter cake and narrowing the bore hole.
Balling the bit, tool joints, and drill collars.
Shale sloughing.
Accumulation o f cavings and cuttings in the annular space.
Key seats.
Mud thickening.
Carelessness o f personnel.
Also, some definition for condition that causes sticking pipe those a re ;.
i-.
v
*
. .
th e hole sloughing in and around the bit or drill collars - Most hole sloughing can be
prevented by adding gel and be weighting-up some. If shale is sloughing in the hole, the
mud can be treated with an asphalt-base chemical that will prevent water in the hole from
getting behind the shale and pushing it into the wellbore or causing the shale to swell up
and push out the wellbore
tak The m ud not cleaning the hole properly - In most cases gel will improve this problem
by adding viscosity and bridging up the cuttings.
'ss. A dog leg - .th is may
cause
dragging
or
torquing problems that
could
lead,
to the
. formation tearing up and
sticking at the collars or
around
the bit. (See
Figure 1 7).
Keyseating - this is
caused
by the pipe
wearing into the side o f
the wellbore so that the
string gets stuck as it is
pulled
through
the
keyseat. Normally a three
- to six - point roller
reamer will solve the
problem by wiping the
hole every trip. Also the
stabilizer will help greatly
in wiping the hole.
Ssk Drill collars - these can
stick if there is a washout
above the bit. If there is a
washout,
the
pump
pressure will decrease
slightly until the washout
gets
bigger. The bit
should
be pulled off
bottom and the system
checked for leaks. If none
Chapter /
18
WASHOUT OM PIPS
TH HOLLINO FLUID
IS SSCAFWO
s*
FILL COVSMNO TH S W T,
M C A U S I OF A D MVMUW UCS
Figura
Flo-
( 1- 1 )
Drilling Problems
19
Pf = formation pressure.
Area o f contact thickness ofpermeable one * thickness o f filter cake
- h * t.
(1~2)
The friction factor (which will be denoted by f) is used to allow for variation m the
magnitude of contact between steel and filter cakes o f different composition.
Substituting Equation 2 in Equation 1 yields:
Differential force DF = (Hs - Pjj * (h * t) * f
( 1- 3 )
J
;( 1 - 4 )
The magnitude of the differential force is very sensitive to changes in the values of the
contact area and the friction factor. Which are both ti me-dependent. As the time in which the
pipe is left motionless increases, the thickness of the filter cake increases. Also, the friction
factor increases by virtue of more water being filtered out of the filter cake.
The differential force is also extremely sensitive to changes in differentijal pressure (H,
- Pf). In normal drilling operations an overbalance of between 100 and 200 psi is maintained.
Excessive overbalance may arise as a result of the following situations: (a) sudden increases in
mud density resulting in an increase in the hydrostatic pressure of the mud and* in turn, in the
value of the overbalance; )b) drilling through depleted reservoirs and pressure regressions.
Pressure regression is encountered in deep drilling when the formation pressure
gradient is recorded.
Figure 1.11 gives a possible picture of the situation at the start ofdiftfcrential sticking
and after several hours.
Rfl.,
l it Development of differential sticking with time: (a) initial; (b) after several hours.
Example 1.4
Determine the magnitude of the differential sticking force across a permeable zone of
30 ft in thickness using the following data: differential pressure ~ 1000 psi; thickness of filter
cake = Vi in; friction factor = 0.1.
Solution
From Equation (4):
DF
= 12 (Hs - Pf) * h * t * f.
= 12*1000 psi * 30 ft *'A in *0.1 = 18 0001b.
F ar ah ai
Yl/Si:
20
..........
....
1
*1'
Chapter /
11,11
11
"'
Solution
...
v,
v.
489.5 J
= 234.394 lb
(b) Hook load including differential force = 234.394 + 108000 = 342.394,
() This part can best be illustrated in tabular form, as follows:
,l '
Grade
E
X
G
S
Weight
Lbm/ft
19.5 *
19.5
19.5
19.5
...
* ib ,- '
M OP
Yield strength - hook toad
Lb
-30854
52206
93756
218366
Thus, for the existing conditions, Grade E gives a negative MOP, implying that the pipe
will part if the required force o f 342 394 lb is applied to free the pipe. Only grades X, G, and S
can be used in this type o f well, where the magnitude o f the differential force is 108 000 lb
21 >
Drilling Problems
; 4 '
produced, resulting in an excessive increase in mud density and, an excessive increase
in the value of the differential pressure, Hs - Pf.
2. Reducing the contact area, h * t. Since the thickness, h, of the porous formation cannot
be physically changed, the contact area can only be decreased by reducing the thickness
of the filter cake, t.
This, in effect, means reducing the solids in mud to a minimum and using a mud o f
low water loss.
''T
The friction factor, f, is directly related to the rate of water loss, and its value should be
kept to a minimum muds appear to be ideal for drilling formations susceptible to*
differential sticking, if conditions allow.
r:
'Vrjr.yM
The contact area is also related to the area of pipe steel in contact with the permeable
formation. Most pipe sticking problems are associated with drill collars, and the ideal
solution is to use drill collars with minimum surface area. A spirally grooved drill collar
has 50 % less area than a smooth drill collar and consequently, produces half as much
differential sticking force. The reduction in surface area of drill collars reduces the weight
by only 4 - 7 % and, if extra weight is required, additional drill collars can be used.
The contact area can also be reduced by using stabilizers, which centralize the drill
collars within the hole.
'?:>>"
3. Since both contact area and friction factor increase with time, a reduction in the time
during which the drill string is kept stationary directly results in less chance o f severe
differential sticking.^
4. Oil and walnut hulls can be used to reduce the friction factor, f, when drilling
formations with potential differential sticking problems.
/. 5.1.2 Freeing differentially stuck pipe
If, despite the above precautions, the pipe does become stuck, a number of methods
can be used to free the stuck pipe.
The most commonly used methods include: (a) hydrostatic reduction; (b)r spotting
fluids; (c) back-off operations; (d) DST (for recovering the fish); and (e) fishing. Only
methods a - c will be discussed here.
1.5.1.2.1 Hydrostatic reduction
The normal method used to reduce the
hydrostatic pressure of mud is the U-tube
method. The drill string and annulus can be
thought of as a U-tube, with the drill bit
connecting the two limbs, as shown in Figure
1.12.
Surfact
22
...... -
^ Chapter I
.... '
r . :I
'
Example 1.6
'
Calculate the volume o f Diesel oil required to reduce the hydrostatic pressure in a well
by 500 psi using the following data;
Mud weight
- lOppg.
Hole depth
= 9843 ft.
Drillpipe
= OD/ID Sin / 4.276 in.
Hole size
12.25 in.
Speeific gravity of oil = 0 . 8 .
S olution
Initial hydrostatic pressure = (10 * 7.48 * 9843 ) / 144 = 5113 psi.
Required hydrostatic pressure = 5113 500 = 4613 psi.
Thus,
blew hydrostatic pressure = pressure due to (mud and oil) in drillpipe
= [10 * 7.48 * Y/144]mud + [0.8 * 62.3 (9843-Y)/144]oih
Where
Y * height of mud in drillpipe. Therefore, (Y = 6959 ft).
Hence,
Height of oil = 9843 - 6959 = 2884 ft
Volume of oil = capacity of drillpipe * height
r = (n/4) (4.276)2 * (1/144) * 2884
287.61ft3.
!" !
= 51.2 bbl.
23
Drilling Problems
Note that when the required volume o f diesel oil is pumped inside the drillpipe, the
hydrostatic pressure at the drillpipe shoe becomes 4613 psi. while the hydrostatic pressure in
the annulus is still 5113 psi. This difference in the pressure of the two limbs o f the well causes
a back-pressure on the drillpipe which is the driving force for removing the diesel oil from the
drillpipe and reducing the level of mud in the annulus. It is only when the annulus level
decreases that the hydrostatic pressure against the formation is reduced.
When formation pressure is unknown, it is customary to reduce the hydrostatic
pressure of mud in small increments by the U - tube technique until the pipe is free.
A variation of the U-tube method is to pump water into both the annulus and the
drillpipe to reduce hydrostatic pressure to a value equal to or just greater than die formation
pressure. This method is best illustrated by an example.
E x a m p le 1.7
The following data refer to a differentially stuck pipe at 11 400 ft:
Formation pressure =5840 psi.
Intermediate casing = 95/8 in, 40# at 10 600 ft.
Drillpipe
= OD 5 in/ID 4.276 in
Mud density
= 92 pcf.
It is required to reduce the hydrostatic pressure in the drillpipe and the annulus so that
both are equal to the formation pressure.
Calculate the volume of water req u ir^
that the density o f saltwater = 65 pcf.
Solution
..
K= 7696 ft.
Required volume of water in annulus
= Annulus capacity between drillpipe and 9 5/8 in casing * height o f water.
= 0.0515 (bbl/ft)* 7696 ft = 396.3 bbl.
Hence, pump 396.3 bbl of water in the annulus to reduce the hydrostatic pressure in
the annulus to 5840 psi at the stuck point. When 396.3 bbl of water is pumped *nto the
annulus, the drillpipe is still filled with the original mud of 92 pcf having a hydrostatic
pressure at the stuck point (92 * 51 400) / 144 = 7283 psi. Thus, a back pressu^ equivalent to
7283 -5840 = 1443 psi will be acting on the annulus and will be attempting to equalize
pressure by back-flowing water from the annulus.
In order to contain the 396.3 bbl of water in the annulus, th* drillpipe must contain a
column of water equal in height to that in the annulus.
Thus,
Volume o f water required in drillpipe to prevent back flow from annulus
= Capacity of drillpipe * height o f water
v
=0.0178 *7696= 137 bbl.
-v
. .
!>
24
Chapter /
Balancing of the columns of water in the driHpipe and the annulus can be achieved as
follows: (a) circulate 396.3 bbl o f water down the annulus; (b) displace 137 bbl of water down
the annulus; (c) circulate 137 bbl of water in the drillpipe to remove 137 bbl of water from the
annulus and to reduce the hydrostatic pressure in the drillpipe to 5840 psi.
If the well should kick during the operation, reverse-circulate down the annulus using
the 92 pcf, mud to recover all the water from the drillpipe. Then circulate in the normal way
through the drillpipe, using 92 pcf mud until all the water is removed from the annulus.
/. 5. L2.2 pottine organic fluids
Organic fluids are normally spotted across the stuck zone to reduce the filter cake
thickness and the friction factor. A mixture of surfactant and diesel oil is by far the most
widely used fluid, owing to its ability to wet the circumference of the pipe, thereby creating a
thin layer between pipe and mud cake. This action decreases the value of the coefficient of
friction, thereby increasing the effectiveness of mechanical attempts to pull free. The normal
procedure is to pump the organic fluid into the drillpipe and gradually pump small volumes
into the annulus until the entire stuck zone is covered. The pipe should be worked
continuously during the spotting of organic fluid. The success of this operation is dependent
on the volume of organic fluid used, the characteristics of the mud cake, the magnitude o f the
differential force and spotting the fluid against the correct zone. For effective freeing of stuck
pipe, a minimum volume of 150 bbl for organic fluid is suggested. The fluid should be left for
a minimum of 8 hrs to work through the filter cake properly. An organic solution may also be
added to the mud used to drill formations, which are amenable to differential sticking. [The use
of oil will produce a reduction in the hydrostatic pressure of mud, and weighting materials can
be used to compensate for the loss of pressure gradient. This is most important in wells
potentials kick problems.
f. 5.1.2.3 Back - o ff operations
if none of the above mentioned methods are successful in freeing th pipe, back- off
operations are a final solution.
Back-off operations involve the removal of the free portion of drill string from the
hole. This effectively means parting the drill string at or above the stuck zone and removing
the free portion from the hole. The remaining portion of the drill string (the fish) can then be
removed by using either DST tools or washover tools. Alternatively, the hole may be plugged
backed and side tracked.
(
Before a back off operation can be attempted, the position of the stuck pipe should be
determined as accurately as possible Two methods are normally used: (1) the pipe stretch
method using surface observations, (2) the pipe stretch method using specialized strain tools,
. commonly known as free point indicators.
Surface measurement o f pipe stretch Brouse details the method for estimating the
position of the stuck zone from surface measurements as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Pull to normal hook load and mark the position above the rotary table a stick, say XI.
Pull an additional 20 000 lb and release slowly until the weight indicator reads the
hook load again. Mark the new position as X2.
Note the average distance between XI and X2 as : Y1 = (XI * X2)/2.
Increase tension load to 40 000 lb and mark position X3 above the rotary table.
Increase tension to 60 000 lb above hook load and release until the weight indicator
reads HL + 40 000 lb. Mark the new position as X4.
Note the average distance between X3 and X4 as : Y2 = (X3 * X4)/2.
The pipe stretch is then measured as the difference between Y2 and Y1.
Dr. M.S. Farahat
Drilling Problems
25
E=
FI A
e! L
_ AEe
is
Where
e = Yz - Y |
F = (HL + 40 0 0 0 ) - HL
Therefore,
L A 5 (y -y )
or F = 40 000 lb.
(1-5)
Equation (5) can be simplified by replacing the cross-sectional area by the weight per
unit length, using the relation
A=
Hi
3.4
3.4
, I ) x
a( .in*----v
12in)
F
(1-6)
if V.'
1=
WL x ax E
40.8 F
d-7)
The drillpipe stretch measurements do not account for drill collars or heavy-wall
drillpipe stretch. Pipe stretch will also be influenced by hole conditions such as dog-legs, hole
angle, drag force, etc.
The above procedure can be normally applied in the field in the following simplified
version:
c...
1. Pull drill string to normal hook load and mark position XI.
2. Pull additional 40 000 - 60 000 lb and mark a new position X2.
3. The difference between X2 and XI is the stretch due to additional pull.
Hence,
U ~
ync a--
"
, AEe AE(X2 - Xt)
L = ------= ----- -----------F
F
%,
[
2S
Chapter I
e~~fl
isr
( 1- 8 )
6_= ____9,
L~
L.
l
x103rv/100p
E* A
Dr M S. Farahat
( 1 9)
VJi
TA
27
Drilling Problems
Where subscript 1 refers to first section of drill string, subscript 2 refers to second
section o f drill string; Esx = modulus of elasticity in shear for section under consideration;
Jx = polar moment o f inertia for section under applied at the surface.
Once again, by comparing the measured angular strain with the calculated angular
strain from Equation (9), the percentage o f free pipe in tension can be determined (Figure
1.14).
The pipe stretch and pipe torsion data are used to construct a graph o f percentage of
free pipe (in both tension and torsion) against depth.
Sub-surface probe: A sub-surface probe is, like the strain gauge tool, run on wire line and
positioned against the drill string while tension is being applied. The instrument consists of
an oscillator, which sends a high-frequency current, and a receiver.
The principle o f operation of this tool is that, during tensioning, the molecular
structure o f the pipe changes, which alters the high-frequency signal. The change in the
signal is proportional to the degree of pipe distortion. The frequency change o f the signal
is picked up by the receiver and transmitted to a surface display unit. The frequency
change is then converted to strain reading by use o f calibration charts.
This instrument is not capable o f producing readings unless it is positioned against a
free portion o f pipe which can stretch under tension. The tool is normally run to hole
bottom and gradually pulled up until a reading is obtained.
Back - o ff procedure: A back-off
shot is positioned against a
drillpipe tool joint that is found to
be free in both tension and torsion
(point A in Figure 1.14) point A
is described as the back-off'point
A left-hand torque and a slight
positive tension above the back off weight (pre-stuck hook load
minus stuck pipe weight are
applied at the back-off point, and
the back-off shot is detonated
The pipe should come free, which
wilt be indicated by a sudden
decrease in hook load. The pipe is
rotated to the left and picked up
to confirm back-off
The portion
o f stuck
drillpipe, drill collars and bit that
are left in the hole are described
as fish. Fishing operations
attempt to remove the equipment
from the open hole.
1.5.2
teay of Schlumberger)
a
A pipe can become mechanically stuck when: (a) drill cuttings or sloughing formations
pack off the annular space around the drill strings, (b) a drill string is run too fast, such that it
hits a bridge or tight spot or the bottom o f the hole; or (c) pulling into a key seat.
Tight spot can result from drilling undersized (under gauged) holes due to use o f worn
drill bits or undersized diamond coring bits. Tight spots can normally be recognized during
Dr M.S. Farahat
28
Chapter I
':
.V:V= \
tripping out as extra overpull (i.e. load in excess o f the buoyant weight o f the string). To
prevent mechanical sticking, tight spots should be reamed prior to drilling new sections o f hole.
The usual method used to free a mechanically stuck pipe is to work the drill string
either by rotating and pulling it or by activating a drilling jar, if the latter is used. If this method
is unsuccessful, an organic fluid should be spotted and the above procedure repeated.
If everything else fails, then drill string should be freed by use o f back-off operations as
previously discussed
1.5.3' Kev - seatine
In
a
dog-legged
hole
containing soft formations, a drillpipe
tool joint can drill an extra hole or a
key-seat in addition to the major hole
created by the bit, as shown in Figure
1.15.
During drilling, the drillpipe is
always kept in tension and as it passes
through
a dos-leg, it tries to
straighten, thereby creating a lateral
force as depicted in Figure 115 This
lateral force causes the drillpipe joint
to dig into the formation at the dog
leg bow, creating a new hole as the
drill string is rotated The new hole is
Twvtion
described as a keyseat .
A key seat can only be formed
------Rafort tohotaclMttopod by tool joint
if the formation drilled is soft and the
Fig. ( ^Development ot a key-seat* (After Wilson,'
hanging weight below the dog-leg is
large enough to create a substantial
lateral force.
The problem o f key seating can be diagnosed when the drill string can be moved
downwards but not upwards. Other symptoms include increased drag, increased noise at the
rotary table and the ability to have full circulation.
To remove a keyseat, the hole should be reamed, and if a jar is used, an upward jarring
actio* should be applied. Organic fluids can be spotted to reduce friction round the key seat,
thus facilitating the working o f the pipe
Key seating can be prevented by drilling straight hole or avoiding sudden changes in
hole inclination and/or direction in deviated wells
The width o f a key seat usually corresponds to the size o f tool joints used. Therefore
elements o f the drill string which have considerably larger diameter compare to the tool joints
pass by easily the key seats occurring in the well. However if in the drill string there is an
element which diameter is only slightly bigger than the width o f the key seat, such element can
be stuck in the key seat. For instance, 5 !/2 drill pipe will be very likely stuck in a key seat
made by 4 Vi drill pipes.
<
'
If a key seat pipe sticking happens the drill string can easily go down and rotates freely.
Circulation is restored without any difficulties.
</;.
Preventive measures against this type o f pipe sticking can be easily formulated, prevent
dog-legs and dont include in the drill string such elements which can be stuck in key seats. If
key seats appear they should be reamed.
, rri
D r M.S. Farahat
Drilling Problems
1.5.4
29
Drill Pipe Sticking due to Thick Filter Cake and Narrowing the Bore Hole
Excessive buildup o f fitter cake on permeable formations may be the season o f drill'pipe
sticking. Hole diameter decreases due to thick filter cake. The hole may become still more
narrow if at low velocity o f mud in the annular space cuttings stick to the cake. Hydration o f
shale cuttings and high adhesion properties o f filter cake promote such sticking.
The thick filter cake with cuttings deposited is scrapped off the wall o f the hole by the
bit, drill collars, and tool joints The sticky material accumulated above the bit, drill collars or
tool joints may jam the drill string in the hole.
*'<Usually if this type o f pipe sticking happens circulation cannot be restored? The
principal preventive measures against such type o f sticking are as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Troublesome sections o f the bpre hole should be periodically calibrated by running the
bit and reaming.
1.5.5
Pipe Sticking due to Balling the Bit, D rill Collars. and Tool Joints
This type o f pipe sticking happens while drilling plastic shales at inadequate circulation
rate. When the drill string is pulled up the balled elements o f the drilling string scrape the filter
cake off the wall of the bore hole Gummy material accumulated in the annulus causes drill
string jamming.
Preventive measures against pipe sticking should be directed towards eliminating of
minimizing the reason o f sticking the balling up.
It is advisable to use drag bits to drill plastic shales. Bailing up can be minimized by
application o f oil emulsion muds. Minimum solids content and low w ater loss should be
maintained to keep should be provided If it is not possible it is advisable to limit the
penetration rate.
1.5.6
If a large volume o f shale falls down the bore hole in which the drill string is placed, the
latter may be jammed by the fallen shales. Heaving of plastic shales may also cause drill pipe
sticking.
To minimize chances o f this pipe sticking type all preventive measures against sh^le
sloughing and heaving should be taken
Falling down of a large mass o f the o f the shale is marked by sharp and considerable
increase o f the pump pressure followed sometimes by lost circulation.
-
1.5.7
Cuttings and cavings, accumulated in the annular space can easily cause a drill pipe
sticking if they are allowed to settle down. Several factors can promote accumulation o f
cuttings and cavings in the annulus:
~
L Caverns and local hole enlargements due to shale cavings. Large cuttings ;ar%:;;-rc
accumulated in the enlarged sections o f the bore hole due to abrupt decreases o f the
velocity o f mud in caves and caverns o f the annulus. When circulation is stopped
cuttings and cavings may fall out o f the cave, form a plug and cause drill pipe sticking.
Dr. M,S. Farahat
30
Chapter I
This can be avoided by preventing shale sloughing with the appropriate measures. If
large caves develop, cutting accumulation can be prevented by cementing the caves.
H. Accumulation o f cuttings in the annulus may result from poor solids control It is
obvious that better solids control may prevent pipe sticking
IIL Drilling without circulation return may result in accumulation o f cuttings in the annulus
if the loss zone does not take all the formations Pipe sticking due to setting of cuttings
remaining I the bore hole can be prevented by careful drilling, with subsequent
isolation o f the thief zone.
IV. Tool joint washouts result in a decrease o f mud velocity in the portion o f the annulus
below the defected tool joints Due to low mud velocity in the annular space cuttings
can be accumulated in he lower portion of the bore hole and cause pipe sticking.
This problem can be easily avoided if tool joints are checked carefully during each round
trip and all damaged tool joints are immediately replaced by new ones or repaired on the spot.
I.
5.8
Some calcium treated muds are able to severely thicken and even solidify if they stay
quit for a substantial time exposed to the effect o f high bottom hole temperature. If the drill
string is left in the bore hole it may be stuck by the thickened mud.
This type o f pipe sticking can be prevented by application o f thermostable mud systems
at high bottom hole temperature.
1.5.9
31
D rilling Problem s
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
A tensile load equaled to the total weight o f the drill string, plus extra 5 tons is
applied. The mark (a) is made on the kelly at the level o f the rotary table or the
preventer stack bell nipple, which is preferable due to higher accuracy.
An additional load o f 5 tons is applied and immediately released. This is necessary to
exclude the influence o f friction in the hoisting system. The mark (b) is made on the
kelly
The interval between the two marks is divided into half and the first main mark (1) is
made on the kelly.
The load is increased by 20 - 25 tons. However, the total load should not exceed the
tensile strength o f the drill string The third mark is made on the kelly.
The overpull is increased by 5 ton and immediately released to the previous
magnitude. The fourth auxiliary mark (d) is made
The second major mark is made just in the midway between the marks (c) & (d). The
distance between the two major marks represented the elongation o f the free portion of
the drill string corresponding to the applied additional tensile Igjld.
. . *
\1
i, VbKO.-.si
litsTjiftib eidm hrvy
s
Expressing A in terms o f weight per one meter o f the drill pipe and the density o f drill pipe
material:
'= A y
And substituting:
w in kg/m; E in kg/cm2; A N in tons; y* in g/cm3; and A L in m.
And substituting, we obtain:
= 0 .2 7 * 1 0 4w ^ , m
AN
This formula is valid only if the drill string consists of the only one size o f drill pipes,
with the same wall thickness (or weight per unit o f length).
If the drill string consists o f two or more sections o f different diameter or different
weight per meter another formula should be derived.
In case a drill string consists o f two different sections each section will have its own
elongation depending upon the length and cross section area o f the pipe.
Elongation o f section I:
ANl
AL = = ^ !
;kV?
'
EAX
Dr M.S. Farahat
32
Chapter /
-****1
AA, = * * *
EA,
Total elongation o f the free o f the drill string:
.4U
A,
, ri
Ar .
AN ( L I L 2 \
AA AA1 + AA2
| ------1------ I
Vyll
Let us assume that the stuck point is situated somewhere within section II. Since the
length o f section I is known the position o f the stuck point can be found by solving the
equation for L2. Expressing the cross section area in terms o f the weight o f unit length we
obtain:
L2 = w2
E AA
y AN
L \W
-1
wl
A2 = 0.27* 104^2 - A l ,m
AN
wl
If the result o f calculations by this formula is a positive one the length o f the free
portion o f the drill string will be
A - A7 < L2
The negative results o f calculations shows that the drill string is stuck in hp region is
section I. Therefore, the position o f the stuck point should be recalculated by thp previous
formula for a uniform drill string. Similar fotmulas can be obtained for drill strings consisting
of three and more different sections
1.5.12 Freeing th e stuck d rill string
If circulation can be restored after the drill pipe was stuck the most popular technique
o f freeing the pipe is spotting oil or oil base mud around the stuck portion o f the drill string
1 5.12.1 Spotting
Oil (diesel or crude) or an oil base mud is pumped into the annulus and left there for
some time. It wets the surface o f drill collars and drill pipes, reduces friction and adhesion
forces between the drill string and the filter cake, reduces clay hydration and makes it easier to
pull the drill string out o f the bore hole.
Oil alone is not as effective as in combination with oil soluble surfactants like pipe lax
, spot-free, Imco-free pipe etc. Oil soluble surfactants promote wetting the pipes with oil
thus improving o f the filtration cake This phenomenon in its turn decreases the contact area
between the cake and the drill string and creates conditions for releasing pressure differential
through the cracks in the cake.
The amount o f the spotted fluid should be sufficient to cover the stuck portion o f the
drill string. It is determined by the capacity o f the annulus and the length o f the stuck part of
the drill string. Some extra volume is required to cover hole enlargements and to make possible
to displace from time to time fresh portions o f the oil solution into the annular space, to keep
the stuek pipes covered with it completely.
The necessary volume o f oil can be calculated by th e following formula:
Voii = a[V adc Ldc + Vap(E ,
A* -5 0 )] + Vt, m3
where
Vfc:
V.p:
capacity o f one m eter o f the annulus in the region o f the drill collars, m3/3
capacity o f one meter of the annulus in the region of the drill pipe, m3/m,
Dr. M.S. Farahat
Drilling Problems___________
U,:
L* :
a :
VI =
'
-i.-
~ ' 33
b?
10
w
iv
V = (VPLP - V * U )
V.
Vt, m-
In this formula:
'
.
Vp : capacity o f one meter o f the drill pipe, nrVm.
Vdc: capacity of one meter o f the drill collars, m3/m.
'
Lp :
length o f the drill pipes, m.
Spotting operation is usually accomplished with a cementing truck which is able to
develop higher circulating pressure and is provided with a calibrated tank for measuring the
volume o f pumped fluid.
!
After displacing the spotting fluid into the annular space the pump is shut down and the
hole left quiet for a while. Then the drill string should be worked:
Working the drill string is fulfilled in the following way. The pipe should be put in
compression, by releasing the hook load by about 5 tons. Then, while still in compression the
Dr. M.S. Farahat
Chapter f
34
drill string should be turned clockwise by approximately 1 Vi revolution per every thousand
meters. Rotation can be accomplished by either the rotary table or tongs. The next step is to
release the torque and to puli up to the original hook load. The cycle should be repeated every
five minutes. Every half hour about 0.1 m3 o f oil should be displaced from the drill string into
the annulus. After several hours o f spotting and working the pipe may be releases. If the
operation does not result in freeing the drill string spotting should be repeated, but in case the
repeated spotting fails to free the string the free portion of the string extracting the stuck part
of the drill string.
:
If a necessary to place the spotted fluid in the middle o f the bore hole appears, spotting
can be accomplished in the following way
A. The necessary volume o f oil is calculated taking into account the capacity o f the annulus
and the length o f the interval to be filled
B. , Mud and oil densities should be measured and the difference in pressure gradients o f both
fluid should be found.
C. The whole volume o f the spotting fluid is pumped into the drill string. Stand pipe pressure
is measured after pumps are shut and the length o f the oil column in the drill string is
calculated by the formula.
where:
L0 = (JOPsp. y - y j, m
;
: stand pipe pressure, kg/cm2
y : density o f m u d , g/cm3.
y0 . density o f the spotted fluid, g/cm3.
'H
,>
jj!
!'f
This step is done to check the volume in the drill pipes against the volume measured
in the suction tank because sometimes the pump is not able to take all the fluid, or
sometimes improper allowance for line fill is taken. T ^ checking is possible only if the
volume o f oil does not exceed the total drill string capacity. If the reverse case is true one
has to rely upon the suction tank measurements o f the oil volume.
D.
E.
F.
The level o f mud in all mud pits should be checked and marked before displacement is
started.
The oil is displaced from the drill string by pumping the amount o f drilling fluid, equaled
to the total capacity o f the drill string. After displacement is completed the pump should
be stopped and preventors closed
Pressure on the annular space should be measured and the length o f the oil column in the
annular space is calculated by the formula:
L = 10 Pa / ( y - y0), m
where:
P :
G.
H.
!.
J.
Oil now occupies the lower portion o f the annular space from the bottom up.
The volume o f mud in the pits should (l?e checked and any decreased in mud volume must
be registered.
Oil should be moved upward in the annulus by pumping the volume o f mud equaled to the
original volume o f oil less any losses in the pits, fly this action the situated after the first
displacement/
....
/,. >
sr
Preventer should be closed again and the annular pressure measured. The length o f oil
column in the annular space is calculated again and the position o f oil determined.
The level o f mud in the pits is checked and any loss o f mud is registered. In case there is a
loss it is assumed that it was oil which was lost in the well. Consequently, to move the Qfl,durrng the next step of displacement from position II to position III it is necessary to
Dr. M.S, Farahat
D rifting P roblem s
35
pump the original volume o f mud less all the losses registered by measuring the mud
volume in the pits.
Displacement o f the spotted fluid is contained as described until the fluid reaches the
desired section o f the annular space. Then the drill string should be worked.
Not only oil or oil base mud are used as spotting fluids. Water can sometimes be useful
in case o f a differential pipe sticking as it decreases hydrostatic pressure and pressure
differential.
Spotting technique can help to free stuck drill string in case o f differential pipe
stucking, sticking due to sloughing shales, thick filter cake and accumulation. o f cuttings
provided that circulation can be restored.
. , ,
It is clear that spotting technique is o f no use for freeing a drill string atuck in akey
seat or due to jamming the bit in the undergauge part of the bore hole.
1 5 12.2 Application o f a drill stem tester fo r freein g a drill string stuck
due to pressure differential
i'L.'ifc.v.'q
'
Application o f a drill stem tester may be effective if a drill string is stuck due to
pressure differential. The main aim o f using this method is to release pressure differential which
keeps the drill stuck.
The free portion o f the drill string should be disconnected from the stuck part of the
drill column. A drill stem test tool with an open ended drill pipe below is ruii into the hole. The
drill pipe is screwed into the fish, drill stem tester packers are set and the tool isopened.
The drill string above the tester is usually run empty. Therefore after the valves o f the
tester are opened the part o f the bore hole below the packers communicates to tbbktmosphere
through the drill string. Hydrostatic pressure which was pressing the pipes agaiilst the wail
does not act any longer. Pressure differential disappears and the stuck part o f the string may be
set free.
'**-
1.5.12.3 Application o fja rs and vibrators fo r freein g stuck drill pipes
If vibration or shocks are applied to a stuck drill pipe they may cause an effect which
helps to free the stuck fish. For this reason special jars and downhole vibrators are provided
The free part o f the drill column is disconnected from the stuck part. A jar or vibrator is
run down the hole on drill pipes It is connected then to the stuck part o f the string and jarring
or vibration is commenced Shocks experienced by the fish may help to set it free.
1.6
Instability o f formations which form the wall o f a bore hole is a very serious and
common problem encountered in drilling practice. Hole instability is not as dangerous as
abnormal pressures, but nevertheless it slows down drilling process and increases drilling cost.
Formation o f two types cause hole stability problems:
a. unconsolidated formations,
b. shales.
When a formation losses its stability it enters the well. The consequences o f tins phenomenon
are as follows:
1. Accumulation o f cavings and cuttings in the hole, increase o f solids content iff the
mud, followed by related shortcomings.
2. Bridging and filling up the bore hole, which necessitate drilling the plugs o f cavings to
reach the bottom. In its turn drilling the cavings results in bit waer, shorter footage per
bit, slower drilling rate, longer rig time.
3. Drill pipe sticking.
Dr. M.S. Farahat
Chapter /
36
;iI
A rock in the earth crust experiences three dimensional compression due to the effect
of the overburden pressure. Besides the compression stresses caused by the overburden
pressure a formation may experience some tectonical stresses resulting from diastrophic
movements o f the earth crust.
In any point o f the earth crust an element o f rock is in the State o f equilibrium. Such
state o f equilibrium exists until the rock is penetrated by a bore hole. An element o f rock oh
the wall o f the wall o f the bore does not have any longer the support o f the rock massive - the
side pressure, which existed before and provided stability Inst a id o f the formation side
pressure the formation on the wall o f the hole experiences hydrostatic pressure o f drilling fluid.
This pressure is lower than the original side pressure o f the rock ma ssive Due to this, stresses
appear on the wall o f the bore hole.
.
Consolidated formations of high strength experiences some elastic deformations, which
do not affect hole stability. Unconsolidated formations as well as shales which have many
microscopic fractures and bedding planes are not strong enough to resist stresses. They start
falling into the bore hole. Some natural and induced fractures usually contribute to the loss o f .
formation stability.
Gravity is the contributing factor to instability o f unconsolidated formations
Fortunately, instability o f unconsolidated formations is not a very series problem as it can be r
rather easily overcome if a good filter cake is formed on the wall o f the bore hole and care is
taken to avoid any mechanical damage o f such formation in the process o f drilling.
1 .6.2
loughin shale
Dr M.S. Farahat
D rillin g Problem s
37
\.6.2. \ M echanicalfactors
Mechanical factors affecting shale sloughing are attribute largely to the.erosion effects
caused by the annular flow o f mud. Erosion o f shale is directly related to the degree of
turbulence in the annulus, and mud viscosity. Most hydraulic programmes are designed with
the object o f providing laminar annular flow.
Other mechanical effects include the breakage o f shale due to impaction by the drill
string and caving due to horizontal movement o f the shale section. The latter effect is due to
the fact that creating a hole in the earth disturbs the local stress system, which leads to dynamic
movement within the shale section. This movement leads to breakage o f the shale bed adjacent
to the well into small fragments which fall into the hole
1 .6.2.2 H ydration factors
A number o f factors are involved in the hydration o f shale. For practical purposes, shale
hydration force and osmotic hydration are recognized and are quantifiable. Shale hydration
force is related to the relief o f compaction on the shale section. Osmotic hydration is related to
the difference in salinity between the drilling mud and formation water o f the shale.........
During sedimentation, the shale section is progressively compacted by the weight o f the
overburden The force o f compaction squeezed out large percentage o f the adsorbed water and
water from the pores o f the shale The compaction force is equal to the matrix stress. The
drilling o f a shale section relieves the compaction force on the borehole face and, as a result, a
shale hydration force is developed. The shale hydration force is a approximately equal to the
matrix stress.
Osmotic hydration occurs when the salinity o f the formation water o f shale, .greater
than that o f the drilling mud In water base muds, the shale surface acts as a semi permeable
membrane, across which osmotic hydration takes place In oil base muds, the semi-permeable
membrane is the oil film and the layer o f emulsifier around the water droplet.
Since osmotic hydration is dependent on the difference in salinity between the
formation water in shale and drilling mud, the process can result in either an adsorption or
desorption force. An adsorption force is developed when the formation water o f sfi&te is more
saline than the drilling mud. A desorption force is produced when the salinity o f drilling mud
is greater than that o f the formation water o f the shale.
v . ...
Adsorption o f water by shale usually leads to dispersion and swelling. Dispersion
occurs when the shale subdivides into small particles and enters the drilling mud as drill solids.
Swelling occurs due to increase in size o f the silicate minerals making up the clay structure,
and if the developed seYwelling pressure increases the hoop stress around the borehole above
the yield strength o f the shale, hole destabilization takes place. Hole destabilization manifests
itself by means o f caving or sloughing shale.
'
1.6 2 3 M iscellaneous factors
Shale sloughing has been correlated with a number o f factors which were found
accelerated the rate o f shale heaving into the well bore.
Dipping shales were found to slough more than horizontally laid shales. This is because
during the adsorption o f water, shale expansion takes place in a direction perpendicular to its
bedding planes, which results in a greater shale heaving when the section is highly dipping.
The process o f heaving in brittle shales containing no active clays is explained by the
penetration o f water between the bedding planes and microfissures o f the break the cohesive
forces between the fracture surfaces causing the shale to fall apart.
38
Chapter l
Potassium chloride polymer muds have also been successful in preventing shale
sloughing. These muds reduce the swelling o f shale duo to the replacement o f sodium ions Na*
(by cationic exchange) by potassium ion K' which allow the clay sheets to be strongly bonded.
Dispersion is also reduced due to encapsulation o f the broken edges o f shaleg by the polymer.
Other types o f mud which have been successful^ reducing sloughing problems include lime
mud, gyp mud, calcium chloride and silicate muds, surfactant mud, polymer muds,
lignosulphonate mud, etc.
Other preventive measures include minimization o f the time for which an open hole
containing a shale section is left uncased.
Hole deviation should be kept to a minimum, and swabbing and surging effects should
be reduced, to avoid fracturing o f the open hole sections.
High annular velocities are also be avoided, to limit hole erosion and shale sloughing by
mechanical action.
1.7
Formation containing gas, oil or water may appear to be the source o f troubles if
reservoir fluid intrusion occurs. Blowouts, uncontrolled flows break normal drilling operations
and make and operator spend additional time and money to bring the well under control.
No problems appear when formations with normal pressure gradients are encountered.
Normal reservoir pressures are easily controlled by the hydrostatic pressure o f un-weighted
drilling fluids. Serious problems occur when formations with abnormally high pressures are
encountered.
Abnormally high pressures are usually encountered in porous and permeable formations
enclosed in thick massive o f shales'
......
t
In the course o f sediments accumulation such shales contained water. Due to great
thickness and low permeability o f shales water could not be squeezed out o f them. This
residual water prevents shale compaction and bears a part o f the weight o f overlying
formations In other words, water in such shales bears a portion o f the overburden pressure.
\
39
D rilling P roblem s
Such shales are not dangerous themselves because o f their very low permeability, but V
any permeable formations enclosed in such massive shales transmit this high pressure and due Wto this they become very dangerous, as fluids tend to flow into the well from such horizons,
v~; .
In the early days o f drilling wells, a gusher was a welcome sight. Earthen dams were,
build around the well so the oil could be reclaimed and sold This was before deeper holes and
high pressure gas, which increase the risk of fire. The drillers drilled into a formation with the
rig until there was either a blowout or a gusher. Today a gusher is a blowout and is definitely ,,
not a welcome slight. An offshore blowout is worse, since it also pollutes the water and s: ,
attracts considerable adverse publicity.
asWell control and blowout prevention have been developed over the years in the oilfield. 5,.
Yet, no one has all the right answer, because blowouts and oilfield fires still occur.
^
An oil well fire is the most dangerous aspect of drilling a well - and it happens all the *,
time. An oil well fire is simply a blowout that catches on fire. It can means death, heavy
financial losses, and bad publicity.
Someday, the drilling business will be safer through the elimination o f blowouts. But
for now, our present technology will have to suffice.
The lack o f skilled crews is the main cause o f blowouts worldwide. The petroleum
industry is growing so fast that many companies do not have the time to properly train their
personnel on how to control kicks, which, if not properly handled, can result in arblowout. If
you ask hands on a rig how to figure kill mud, they will shake their heads They simply have
not been taught. As hard as that statement is to believe, it is true! This is like driving a diesel
truck down the road without knowing how to drive a car Sometime is going to get hurt.
Since blowouts are so common in the oilfield, the US government has assigned the
Minerals Management Service the responsibility o f setting standards for blowout control
schools around the country. These schools have helped tremendously in making the drilling
business safer.
To simplify the business o f well control, let us first examine the world kick. A kick is
the entering into the wellbore o f water, gas, oil, or other fluids associated with the formation.
This occurs when the column o f drilling fluid is lighter than the formation pressure and fluid or
gas enters the wellbore (see Figure 1.20).
If a kick is not controlled, a blowout may occur so it is necessary to notice the signs of
a kick. They are:
?s Rate o f penetration increases.
"a. Change in shape and size o f cuttings.
Increase in rotary torque.
9
"a. Increase in drag.
is Sloughing shale
D
"a. Increase in gas content
is Variation from normal d exponent
i s Increase in flow line temperature.
is. Decrease in shale density.
is Increase in chloride content.
'A drilling break usually indicates entry into a higher formation pressure. When higher
formation pressure is hit, the mud weight becomes under-balanced and the drilling rate
increases, sometimes dramatically, sometimes slightly. The mud logger will be calculated the
rate o f penetration and should notice the difference and report it.
Always keep the mud loggers and drilling shack rigged up with an intercom tareport
any changes in the rate o f penetration (ROP). Quick response with everyone notified cah give*
D
Dr M.S. Farahat
C hapter /
40
SURFACE PIPE
m m raoM arrmNa. b u t m o t
MKftW ENOUGH TO KEEP
OUT TH EG A S INVASION
GAS ZONE
O M H M M K
f o r m a t io n p n e h u h e
HYWNMTXnC
rHESSUHE OF WUO
COLUMN
th an
-J
Fig. 1.19
M IW iW H rttU N O C lM M L A N C W
ANO GAB EKTER# THE WELLBORN
1
'4 B
A gain in the mud pits always indicates a kick is on the way or has entered the
wellbore The pit gain indicator will signal the driller on the floor when a pit gain is
encountered. Have the derrickman record the barrels gained on the worksheet. The sooner the
driller catches a pit gain, the quicker the kick can be controlled. After a pit gain is noted, pull
the kelly up and pull out the bushing until drill pipe is in the annular preventor and then shut
the annular preventor. Shut the pump off and check for flow. A flow indicates formation fluid
or gas entering the wellbore and up the annulus, pushing the mud up the hole. Gas expands as
it rises up the bore, and at the flow line it looks like the pump is on (see Figure 1.21). Shut the
well and start kill operations.
*: '
D rilling P roblem s
6.
m m f a c i cam nq
42
Chapter 1
The pressures have been recorded and everyone notified; the-next step is to determine
which method to use to kill the kick. There are three methods in the.oil patch.
1. Drillers method.
2. Wait and weight method
3; Circulate and weight method
1 7 11 D rillers m ethod
The drillers method is normally used on land rigs. It is an old method o f controlling a
well. It is not recommended by all U K blowout schools and is not taught, but material on the
method is included in the handbook at blowout schools. The method is widely used and taught
in Canada.
The method involved circulating the kick out o f the hole, then a second and third
circulation o f kill weight mud It is used on drilling rigs where crews are shorthanded and
mixing facilities are slow. The only problem is the higher casing pressures The method is
simple, and it is easy for one or two men to do.
The procedures are as follows:
< Shut the well in after a
kick is recognized.
< Record the shut in drill
pipe arid shut in casing
pressures.
'V Circulate the kick out
o f the hole.
< Shut the well in a
second time to build
the mud weight.
turn
< Circulate the well the
second time with the
heavier mud
1 7 1 2 Wait and Weight m ethod
The
wait and
weight is widely used in
hand
rock areas and
overseas. On the Gulf
Coast and in some sandy
areas, it can in some cases,
get you in trouble by
causing lost circulation
and formation breakdown
This will be explained
later Wait and weight
requires
only
one
circulation to control the
kick, which saves time and
money In hard rock areas,
it is the best method to
use where pore pressures
and formation breakdown
pressures are greater (see
Figure 1.22).
N W MUD K H P S
(M S O U T o r HOC*
43
D rillin g P roblem s
. Wg
fe e t
p s i a t ________
p s i a t ________
b a rre ls
b a r r e ls
b a iro ls /s tro k e s
*P*
si*
D r i l l S tr in g Vol f (
1 b a r r e ls
P m p O u tp u t?
) Barra la /S tr o k e
D r i l l S t r in g S tro k e s
_______________ strofcen
KICK DATA
SIDPP
SICP
P i t Gain
T rue V e r tic a l Depth
p si
psi
b a rre ls
T m r r t O S r S T
(
PUXP PRESSURE
) ppg k i n id w i g h t
hapter /
44
S to B time
= 681 / 30 spm = 22.7 min
This also is recorded on the chart
Next, calculate the killing mud weight, fV2, as
follows:
W2 = [SID PP/ (0.052*depth)] + W,
where
Wi = old mud weight.
S1DPP - shut in drill pipe pressure psi.
W2 = new mud weight.
W2 * [300 / (.052*9000)] + 10 5 = 1114
(round off to 11.2 ppg)
The initial circulating pressure (1CP) will be the
shut in drill pressure plus the kill rate pump
pressure
ICP = SIDPP + KRPP
When the new mud is added, it is heavy enough to
replace the shut in pressure
The FCP is the kill rate pump pressure
(KRPP) times the kill mud weight (KMW). divided
by the present mud weight (PMW):
FCP = KRPP * KMW +PM W
This method is basically the same as the wait and weight method except you start
mixing and pumping at the same time, instead o f building mud weight, then pumping it down.
This method is very good in highly porous zones, since too much weight can cause lost
circulation, which leads to more problems. By bringing up the weight two or three points at a
time, you can feel your way to the right mud weight. Many times you will find the kick is
controlled without reaching the kill weight This is important because the less mud weight in
the hole, the better the drilling rate will be and also the less pressure on the surface casing
shoe.
,
Anytime there is a kick, the casing shoe is in danger. For example: if the casing shoe is
at 3000 ft and you tested to a 13.5 EMW, then the maximum psi you can put on the shoe is
determined by the following:
^
j,
13 5 * 0 052 * 3000 ft =-2 106 psi
So if the mud weight is at 13 ppg. the maximum pressure you can hold on the casing
while handling the kick is;
i' ; ;
fit. [M S. Farahat
45
D rillin g P roblem s
'
46
Chapter I
____ __
Due to increase o f the overburden pressure there is a general trend for shales to
increase their compaction and density with depth, if water was squeezed away from them. But
if water was not squeezed away it prevents shale compaction aftd causes a decrease break the
normal shale density. Therefore, such high pressure, under compaction and water containing
shales break the
normal shale density increase trend. This change o f the conventional trend is used for locating
shale pressure zones.
Presence o f formation with abnormally high reservoir pressures in the geological
column can be predicted from data obtained in the process o f seismograph survey. The method
is based on the phenomenon o f decreasing the velocity o f compression waves in under
compacted formations.
Normally, the velocity o f compression waves increase with depth as formation at larger
depths are more compacted due to greater overburden pressure. Therefore, travel time, which
is reciprocal o f velocity, normally decreases with depth. However, in under compacted shales,
which have abnormal pressure, travel time increases. Such inversions define zones o f abnormal
pressure. The degree o f departure from the normal
travel time depth line is directly proportional to the abnormal pressure.
Other sources formation; paleontological data, log plots o f nearly wells, regional
geology and drilling experience in the area can be useful for predicting high pressures.
More precisely, formations with abnormally high reservoir pressures can be located in
the process o f drilling.
One o f the indications o f approaching a high pressure zone is slow, consistent increase
in penetration rate that will occur as formation pressure increases and reduces the differential
between formation and hydrostatic pressure
Usually, there is a transition zone between the normal and the ultrahigh pressures so
that a trouble can be avoided if drilling is stopped in the transition zone.
When the trend toward increased penetration rate is noticed an electric resistivity log
and a sonic log should be run. Interpretation o f these logs also can indicate whether the well
reached the top o f a high pressure zone Shale density log is a good tool to locate abnormal
pressure too.
Dr M.S. Farahat
s h * la d e n * ity
5G
Fig. 126 v
D rilling P roblem s
47
A sample o f about 25 grams is takenrand weighed. Then the bulk volume o f the sample
is measured with the help o f a mercury volumetric pump.
The density o f shale cuttings is obtained by division o f the known weight over the
known bulk volume.
Shale density is plotted versus the depth. The deviation o f the shale density from the
normal trend indicates the presence o f under compacted abnormally high pressure formations
and the depth where abnormally high pressure formations are located.
*
.
'
Compaction o o rraap o n d in g
t o th e overburden p re s s a r e e t H]
F lu id un d er a o r t a l r a a a r r o i r p re * u ra,
G reeted by th e w eig h t a t y in e r a l lie d "
e n t e r of 1,0 7 g /o n ? d e n s ity .
Compaction c o rresp o n d in g
t o o rerb u rd e n p re s s u re a t
H, d e p th n A d e r nortoal cood i t i o o e . P a r t of f l u i d
aq u eeied away from p o re s .
Hydrostatic pressure o f the mud column is the principle measure for formation pressure
control. Mud hydrostatic head depends upon the height o f the mud column and the mud
density Therefore, proper selection o f the mud density is vital for high formation pressure
control.
Shale density and shale resistivity logs can be used to determine the density of mud
necessary to balance formation pressure encountered.
Let us assume that shale density deviated from the normal compaction trend line and
decreased at a depth H2. At the depth H2 shales have the same compaction as those at the
depth H I.
Normally at the depth H2 shales should be more compacted and have lower porosity.
But due to low permeability of shales fluid was not squeezed away and still remains in their
pores. Under normal compaction conditions fluid in formation pores at the depth H2 would
bear only the weight o f salt water column, extending from H2 to the surface.
Actually, fluid in the undercompacted shales supports both the weight o f salt water and
the weight o f formations laying in the interval H I, H2 while the skeleton o f the shales supports
only the weight o f rocks laying in the interval from the surface to H I .
Assuming that 2 34 g/cnr is the average bulk density o f formation (porosity is taken
into account) we may write the equation which expresses the pressure experienced by
formation fluid in the undercompacted shales at the depth H2
0.1 y H 2 = P>bn = 0.1 [ 1.07 H2 + 2.34 (H2-H1)], kg/cra2.
Mud density which is necessary to balance this pressure can be found from the equation:
yB = 10 Pbo/H2 = 3.41 - 2.34 (H1/H2), g/cc.
D r. M-S. Farahat
48
Chapter /
-sC;
In the process o f drilling fluid circulation the total pressure, applied to fo rm a tio n ^ ^
consists o f two components: hydrostatic pressure o f mud column and pressure losses in the
annular space along the interval from the high pressure zone up to the top o f the well.
P m = P + APa
Pressure losses in the annular space can be expressed by the following formula:
S B 2 6 K (Db - D ) \ D b - D f
H,
where:
X, :
Db
D :
Q :
circulation rate, l/sec;
OD o f he drill pipe, cm.
i
i .; 2. Swabbing effect
When the drill string is pulled out o f the well it acts somewhat like a piston and causes
a temporary reduction in pressure applied to formations while the pipe is moving.
The magnitude o f the pressure drop caused by pipe movement is greater if: .
is Mud viscosity is high,
is. Wall cake is thick,
is Clearance is small,
i s The bit is balled.
is There is a back pressure valve on the string.
Dr. M.S. Farahat
49
D rilling Problem s
1.7.5
Blowout Preventors
In case an operator fails to apply preventive measures he must have a possibility to put
the well under control. For this purpose the wells drilled are equipped'with blowout
preventors.
A blowout preventor is a unit which is attached to the casing string or to some unit of
well head equipment installed on the casing string. The function o f a preventor is control o f
pressure in the annular space between the casing and some inner string o f pipe during shilling
and completion operations.
-
50
Chapter / _________________
)
A set o f blowout preventors installed on the casing string allows to shut the well both
when the drill string is in and when it is out A preventor stack should allow to move the drill
string in and out, to rotate it while keeping the well closed with the pressure on the annulus.
All these functions can not be fulfilled by the only types of preventor, therefore, several
types o f blowout preventors are used Common practice is equip a well with a combination of
different preventors.
The following types o f preventors are known:
Oi
1. Ram type preventors [Blind (blank) ram preventors, Pipe ram preventors].
2. Annular type preventors.
3. Rotating preventors.
4. Pack off or stripper type preventors.
<
5. Inside preventors.
6, Wire line preventors.
U
1 .7 5 1 Ram type preventors
i uh
Ram type preventors close the space between their inside walls and the pipe in the hole
by moving the ram from the retracted position into the position where they close around the
pipe A ram is a part o f a blowout preventor which moves in and out o f the bore o f the
preventor Ram type preventors are supplied with pairs o f rams, which seal the space below
them when they are closed.
Two kinds o f ram type preventors are available:
Blind ram preventors are equipped with rams, which can close the bore hole when the drftf
-i
string is removed from it.
,-:^i
Pipe ram preventors
. have a pair ,of rams, providing a circular opening for the drill pipe, so ,,that such preventors can seal a well while the drill string is in it.
Very often blind rams and pipes rams are mounted in two corresponding compartments
o f the same body, so that both kinds o f ram type preventors are combined in one unit. Ram '
type preventors have a string steel body with the vertical cylindrical opening for passing the
drill string or casing strings. Horizontal compartments on both sides o f the body provide space
for rams, which can be moved out to steel the vertical opening and taken back into the
compartments to provide free passage for drilling fluid. Modem ram type preventors are
hydraulically operated, though in case o f emergency they can be closed by hand
Ram type preventors arc popular because o f simple design, and high degree of
confinement These preventors can hold hot chemically active fluids at maximum operating
pressures for infinite time. Most of them can support pipes against pressure, which tends to
blow them out o f the hole.
Along with the above mentioned advantages ram type preventors have certain
drawbacks inherent to their structure. Ram type preventors do not allow to move tool joints in
or out o f the well. If excessive pressure is applied to the front packing elements o f the rams
they can be easily warn away if the operator moves the pipe through the rams.
1.7.5.2 Annular type Preventors
Annular type preventors have a ring shaped packing element made o f rubber. In the
relaxed state the packing element has the opening which is o f the same inside diameter as tlje
preventor stack. Being compressed in the vertical direction the packing, element is substantially
expanded in the horizontal direction due to its elasticity, and seal the annular space between
the drill string and the body o f the preventor.
Since the rubber packer can alter its shape considerably these preventors can be closed
practically around any element o f the drill string except the bit, reamers, and stabilizers. The
shape o f the drill string element does not make any difference for such preventors. The packing
4N.
Dr. M.S. Farahat
D rillin g Problem s
$1
element can seal the space around square or hexagonal Kellies, round pipes, and even around a
wire line.
Annular type preventors are not intended for sealing open holes, but in case Of
emergency the operator can close the preventors on an open hole too.
These preventors are designed for hydraulic operation and can ot be closed manually.
Most o f annular type preventors are supplied with pressure regulators, which allow the
operator to alter the pressure applied by the packer. These regulators used properly let the
operator move tool joints in and out of the hole.
1.7.5.3 Rotating preventors and strippers
Rotating heads are used to seal off a well while the drill string is rotated and moved in
or out o f the hole. They can keep the well under pressure control in the process o f drilling.
These preventors are not used as primary blowout prevention equipment. Rotating heads are
used for some special purpose like air and gas drilling, where they prevent a fog o f dust and
fluids from forming around the rotary table. Rotating preventors are necessary for reverse
circulation in which drilling fluid is pumped down through the annulus and returns to the
surface through the drill string.
Rotating preventors have a rotating packing assembly mounted on thrust and radial
bearings in the sleeve a special seal prevents drilling fluid from leaking between the packing
assembly and the sleeve.
The rubber packer is designed to close the well while the Kelley is in it. Rotating
preventors are used in combination with ram type preventors. They work without any outside
power and are kept closed by the pressure o f the drilling fluid, that pushes the rubber packing
element upward and against the Kelley
1.7.5.4 P ack-off o r stripper type preventors
These preventors are used in combination with the ram type preventors to secure the
possibility to move the drill string with the pressure on the annulus. Utilization o f pack off
preventors helps to secure rams against undesirable wear in case o f the necessity to move the
drill string in a sealed well.
There are two types o f pack-off assemblies, strippers and warp around. A stripper
allows passage o f tool joints and collars. A warp around pack off permits the drill string to be
rotated or raised and lowered between tool joints to prevent sticking. With a pack-off
preventor an operator can run the drill string down to bottom without putting ram type
preventors into operations.
1.7.5.5 Inside preventors
Inside preventors or internal preventors are modifications o f check valves which are
placed between two adjacent drill pipes These preventors block the flow o f any fluid upward
through the inside of the drill string Inside preventors give little resistance to normal
circulation.
v-
: 1 C h apter /
52
type preventors, a drilling spool, a choke and flow manifold, a kill line and a bed nipple with a
fill line. The stack is used to control any flow o f drilling o r formation fluids which can not be
controlled by the drilling fluid hydrostatic pressure.
The number o f blowout preventors, the blow out preveritor stack differ from one well
to another the following element listed from top to bottom, the bell nipple, the annual
preventor, the ram type preventor with blind rams, the drilling spool, the ram type preventer
with drill pipe rams, and the casing head The kill line and the choke and flow manifold are
attached to the drilling spool The fill line enters the dell nipple
With the items mentioned above some variations in the position o f the blind ram
preventor and the location o f the choke and flow manifold and the kilfline are possible. The
blind ram preventor can be placed either between the annular type preventor and the pipe ram
preventor or at the bottom o f the stack. Correspondingly the drilling spool with the kill line and
choke manifold attached may be positioned either between the two ram type preventors or
below the blind ram preventor.
'-.r
This preventor stack allows closing the well with the drill string in the hole and without
the pipe being in the hole. Circulation with back pressure can be maintained through the choke
and flow line. Formation pressure can be subdued by pumping the mud into the well through
the kill line.
1.7,7
* -
.?.
Several techniques can be used to control high pressure if a kick occurs. The choice o f
a technique depends on the equipment available and personnel experience
A method o f kick control which can be used with adjacent chokes is described here
below
Vf
Iv
b e ll
2,
annular preventer
n ip p le
3, M in d ram p r e v e n te r
Fig. 1.28
: When the thread o f a blowout has realized it is necessary:
I. To shut down pumps,
II. To close preventors, after these steps have been taken an operator should.
III. Take the reading o f the pressure gauge on the stand pipe and register it, P^, kg/cm3.
Dr. M,S. Farahat
S3
D rilling P roblem s
IV. Take the reading o f the pressure gauge on the well annular space, and register it, Pc,
kg/cm3.
V. Register the increase o f mud volume in the pit, AV, m3.
On the basis o f these data it a possible to determine the magnitude o f the encountered
reservoir pressure, the density of mud necessary to keep thf. well under control and estimate
the nature o f the formation fluid intruding the well.
In a closed well the formation pressure is balanced pressure supported by sure o f the
, mud inside the drill string and some additional pressure supported by the valves o f the pumps.
This additional pressure can be read on the stand pipe pressure gauge.
I
Therefore, the formation pressure may be calculated from the following equation:
ns
P / = 0.1 H y + Psp, kg/cm2
where,
The mud density which is necessary to just balance the formation pressure encountered can be
found from the equation:
Q.l H yh= P /= ^ 0.1 H y + Psp, kg/cm2
.
.
A
4
[ -
As it was discussed previously a safety allowance for sufficient, overbalance should be added:
Yi = Yb + (20 APa/H) - y 4 (10 Psp/H) + (20APa/H),
or,
5 4 ______
_____jr
'L * AV Va, m
k
The formula for calculating the density o f the intruding fluid is obtained by substituting
for L in the previous formula:
Yf = Y- 110(PCS-"Psp) Va/AV]
If Yf 1.08 - 1.20 g/cc, there is a flow o f salt water into the well,
If Yf
0 . 12 - 0.36 g/cc the fluid intruding the well is gas.
To put the well under control it is necessary first o f all to remove the formation fluid,
which entered the annular space out o f the well
For this the adjustable choke should be opened and pumping resumed, to prevent any
additional flow o f formation fluid into the well a sufficient back pressure should be applied to
the annular space and consequently to the high pressure zone itself. Therefore the choke
should be adjusted so that the pressure gauge on the annular space slowed the pressure by
approximately 15 kg/cm2 higher than the initial closed annular pressure:
Pete = Pcs + IS kg/cm2
After the choke was initially adjusted the volume o f mud in the pit should be watched closely.
If the volume does not increase the applied back pressure is sufficient. If mud volume increases
the back pressure is not adequate and should be increased by a corresponding adjustment o f
the choke size
When the necessary back pressure is established the number o f pump strokes per
minute and the circulating pressure on the stand pipe gauge should reregistered The
established pump rate should be maintained until the formation fluid is circulated out the well.
The back pressure should also be maintained.
During circulation the mud cut with formation fluid will go out o f the well and the
pressure on the annulus, as well as pressure applied to the high pressure zone, may tend to
change. No change o f .the back pressure should be allowed. The choke should be readjusted
immediately when any change o f the stand pipe circulating pressure, Pp is noticed.
Circulation should be continued for the period necessary for removing all the mud
which was originally in the annular space,
The circulating time from bottom can be calculated by the following formula:
Per :
D ri lling Problem s
It is known that pressure losses in the circulating system is proportional f6 the mud
density, consequently:
'
P 'c r - P c r M ,
where y: anerage density o f the mud being weighted on some stage of the weighting process.
Static stand pipe pressure can be expressed in terms o f the mud densities and reservoir
pressure:
P \p c ~ P \p - 0.1 H y
The reservoir pressure in its turn can be expressed in terms o f the mud density which is
necessary just to balance the formation pressure:
Pf - 0.1 H n
Substituting for P f we obtain:
P ,p - O .l H f o - y d
And finally:
P\pc = 0. ! H (Yb-Yi) + Per (Y2- Y).
. ,
This formula is valid at y2 < yb. when the density o f the weighted mud exceeds yb the
circulating stand pipe pressure should be determined by the following formula:
P s p c-P e rfrM
The density o f m ud is to be increased fro y2 to y l . It is necessary to calculate the
magnitudes o f the circulating stand pipe pressure for some intermediate values o f mud density:
y < y2 < yl . In the process o f mud weighting the choke should be adjusted maintain the
calculated magnitudes o f the stand pipe circulating pressure.
When the density o f mud reaches yb, and the mud of such density starts coming out of
the annular space the annular pressure will drop down to near zero because the formation
pressure will be entirely balanced by the hydrostatic pressure o f the column.
After the casing string pressure drops the well can be opened and the process of
weighting containing till the desirable density yr is achieved.
The time of total mud cycle (from surface to total depth and back to the surface) is
calculated by the formula:
Tc = 16.7 (Vp + Va/Q), min
Vp : the capacity o f the drill string, m \
1.8
Drilling bits are designed to function for a given period o f time without failure;
however, sometimes when the bit is placed on bottom it will not operate properly The
penetration rate may be slow, or torquing may occur after only a short time. It will be obvious
that something is wrong.
To find the problem check all possible sources. For example, if the torque gauge shows
that torque has been released, it may be that there is a key seat or that the hole is not cleaning
properly If the pressure does not drop, it is not likely that a washout is causing the problem.
If the penetration rate slows considerably, then the bit is bad. It should be pulled and
checked Defective bits are rare, but they can be real tVouble markers. Refuse to allow the
operator to pay for a defective bit, since it has caused lost rig time, headaches, and great loss
o f money. Advise the bit company that if they charge for the bit, their bits will not be used in
the future. As in any commercial business, including the oil business, a customer is entitled to a
replacement o f a refund for defective products.
Equipment failure is usually caused by poor maintenance or by using worn out
equipment that should have been retired. When the oil business is booming, it is harder to find
' /C hapter /
56
good shape When the consultant gets on location, he should look for problems and ask the
tool pusher to have them fixed before the well is drilled too deep. Most problems involve
engines, pumps, draw works, brakes, old lines, etc., and most o f these things can be repaired
quickly. However, if the rig goes down it is the contractors representative records all
downtime. Most rigs are allowed a given amount of downtime per month, and an unrecorded
hour here and there could cost the operator money Some tool pushers Some tool pushers try
to cover downtime if the consultant is in town or asleep. The geolograph will give the first
indication that the rig was down, but some older drillers cover up the geolograph so the
consultant must watch it closely
Downhole tool failure is not difficult to prevent All that is necessary is a record of the
hours on the tool. By checking with the suppliers on the standard hours o f operation, you can
keep an accurate rotating hour chart on any tool in the hole, including drilling jars, shock tools,
and stabilizers, in operating condition Remind the pusher to check tools and replace them if
necessary. Always check the elevators and slips If their conditions are borderline, demand they
be changed or repaired. It is better to wait on replacements than to have to account for
downtime
1.9
B ridging
.slu m :
Figure t - f t t ridging.
D rilling P roblem s
U1
57
T he T w ist-O ff
j)8
Chapter /