058:0160

Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Chapter 1
1

058:160
Intermediate Mechanics of Fluids

Class Notes
Fall 2013
Prepared by:
Professor Fred Stern
Typed by:
Derek Schnabel (Fall 2004)
Nobuaki Sakamoto (Fall 2006)
Hamid Sadat-Hosseini (Fall 2006)
Maysam Mousaviraad (Fall 2006)
Corrected by:
Jun Shao (Fall 2004)
Mani Kandasamy (Fall 2005)
Tao Xing, Hyun Se Yoon (Fall 2006)
Hamid Sadat-Hosseini (Fall 2007-2010)
Maysam Mousaviraad (Fall 2013-2014)

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Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

Chapter 1: Introduction
Definition of a fluid:
A fluid cannot resist an applied shear stress and
remain at rest, whereas a non-fluid (i.e., solid) can.
Solids resist shear by static deformation up to an
elastic limit of the material, after which they undergo
fracture.

Fluids deform continuously (undergo motion) when

subjected to shear stress. Consider a fluid between two
parallel plates, with the lower one fixed and the upper
moving at speed U, which is an example of Couette flow
(i.e, wall/shear driven flows)
y

V = u(y)
u=U
h

1-D flow velocity

profile

u(y)
x

u=0

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Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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No slip condition:
Length scale of molecular mean free path () << length
scale of fluid motion (); therefore, macroscopically there
is no relative motion or temperature between the solid and
fluid in contact.
Knudsen number = Kn = / << 1
Exceptions are rarefied gases and gas/liquid contact line.
Newtonian fluids:

Rate of Strain:
(u+uy dy)dt
y
y

u+uydy
dy

dy
u

d = tan-1 uydt

x
x
u dt

Fluid element with sides parallel to the

coordinate axes at time t=0.

Fluid element deformation at

time t + dt

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Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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tan d =

d .
= = uy
dt

u y dydt
dy

du
= =
dy
.

(rate of strain = velocity gradient)

For 3D flow, rate of strain is a second order symmetric
ij
=
tensor:

1 ui u j
+

2 x j
xi

= ji

Diagonal terms are elongation/contraction in x,y,z and off

diagonal terms are shear in (x,y), (x,z), and (y,z).
Liquids vs. Gases:
Liquids
Gases
Closely spaced with large
Widely spaced with small
intermolecular cohesive
intermolecular cohesive
forces
forces
Retain volume but take
Take volume and shape of
shape of container
container
<< 1
>> 1
~ constant
= (p,T)
Where = coefficient of compressibility =change in
volume/density with external pressure
1 1
=
=
p p

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Chapter 1
5

p
p 1
=

=
=
K

Bulk modulus

Recall p-v-T diagram from thermodynamics:

Single phase, two phase, triple point (point at which solid,
liquid, and vapor are all in equilibrium), critical point
(maximum pressure at which liquid and vapor are both in
equilibrium).
Liquid, gases, and two-phase liquid-vapor behave as
fluids.

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

Continuum Hypothesis
Fluids are composed of molecules in constant motion and
collision; however, in most cases, molecular motion can
be disregarded and the assumption is made that the fluid
behaves as a continuum, i.e., the number of molecules
within the smallest region of interest (a point) are
sufficient that all fluid properties are point functions
(single valued at a point).
For example:
Consider definition of density of a fluid
(x , t ) =

M
lim
V V * V

x = position vector = xi + yj + zk
t = time
M=mass

V* = limiting volume below which molecular variations

may be important and above which macroscopic
variations may be important
V* 10-9 mm3 for all liquids and for gases at
atmospheric pressure
10-9 mm3 air (at standard conditions, 20C and 1 atm)
contains 3x107 molecules such that M/V = constant =

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Professor Fred Stern

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Exception: rarefied gas flow

Note that typical smallest measurement volumes are
about 10-3 100 mm3 >> and that the scale of
macroscopic variations are very problem dependent.
*

A point in a fluid is equivalently used to define a fluid

particle or infinitesimal material element used in defining
the governing differential equations of fluid dynamics.
At a more advanced level, the Knudsen number is used to
quantify the separation of molecular and fluid motion
length scales:
Kn =

= molecular length scale

l = fluid motion length scale

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Chapter 1
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Molecular scales:
Air atmosphere conditions:
= 6 108 m = mean free path
t =10-10 s = time between collisions
Smallest fluid motion scales:
= 0.1 mm = 10-4 m
Umax ~ 100 m/s
incompressible flow M a 0.3
t = 10-6 s
Thus Kn~10-3 << 1, and scales larger than 3 order of
magnitude scales.
An intermediate scale is used to define a fluid particle
<< * <<
And continuum fluid properties are an average over
3

* = l * 10 9 mm 3 l * = 10 3 mm = 10 6 m
Previously given smallest fluid motion scales are rough
estimates for incompressible flow. Estimates are VERY
conservative for laminar flow since for laminar flow, l is
usually taken as smallest characteristic length of the flow
domain and Umax can not exceed Re restriction imposed
by transition from laminar to turbulent flow.
For turbulent flow, the smallest fluid motion scales are
estimated by the Kolmogorov scales, which define the

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Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

length, velocity, and time scales at which viscous

dissipation takes place i.e. at which turbulent kinetic
energy is destroyed.

= ( )
u = ( )
= ( )
= kinematic viscosity; =dissipation rate
3

12

14

14

= u02 / 0 = u03 / l0

is determined by largest scales but occurs at smallest

scales and is independent on v.
Kolmogorov scales can also be written:

l0 Re 3 / 4
u u0 Re 1/ 4

l0 L
u0l0 UL
Re 0 =

= 0 Re 1 2
Which even for large Re of interest given

>> l *
For example:
100 watt mixer in 1 kg water:

100
watt kg 100 m 2 s 3
=
= 106 m 2 s for water
= 10 2 mm > l *

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Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

The smallest fluid motion scales for ship and airplane:

U(m/s)
Ship
(Container:
ALIANCA MAUA)
Airplane
(Airbus A300)

L(m) v (m2/s)

Re

(m) u (m/s) (s)

11.8 ( 23.3 272

knots)

9.76E-7

3.3E09 2E-5

0.05

4E-4

216.8
56.2
(Ma=0.64)

3.7E-5
0.3E09 2.3E-5 1.64
(z=10Km)

1.4E5

Fluid Properties:

(1) Kinematic: linear (V) angular (/2) velocity, rate

of strain (ij), vorticity (), and acceleration (a).

(2) Transport: viscosity (), thermal conductivity (k),

and mass diffusivity (D).
pressure (p), density (),
temperature (T), internal energy (), enthalpy
(h = + p/), entropy (s), specific heat (Cv, Cp, =
Cp/ Cv, etc).

(3) Thermodynamic:

(4) Miscellaneous: surface tension (), vapor pressure

(pv), etc.

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Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

(1) Kinematic Properties:

Kinematics refers to the description of the flow
pattern without consideration of forces and moments,
whereas dynamics refers to descriptions of F and M.
Lagrangian vs. Eulerian description of velocity and
acceleration:

(a) Lagrangian approach focuses

individual fixed particles.

on

tracking

(b) Eulerian approach focuses on fixed points in

space.

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Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Chapter 1
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(u,v,w) = V(x,t) are velocity components in (x,y,z)

directions.
dV =
( x, t )

V
V
dt +
dxi
t
xi

However, dxi and dt are not independent since deriviative

is assumed to follow a fluid particle i.e.
dxi = ui dt

dV ( x, t ) V V
=
+
ui
dt
t xi

In fluid mechanics special notation is used to define

substantial/material derivative, which follows a fluid
particle:
DV V V
V
V
w
u+
v+
+
=
Dt
z
y
t x

DV V
j+ k
=
+ (V )V , = gradient = i +
x y
z
Dt
t
D
= + V = substantial/material derivative = derivative
Dt t

following motion of particle

DV
Dt = Lagrangian time rate of change of velocity

V
+ V V = local & convective acceleration in terms of
t

Eulerian derivatives

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Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

a = axi + a y j + az k
u
u
u
u
+u
+v
+w
t
x
y
z
v
v
v
v
+u
+v
+w
ay =
t
x
y
z
w
w
w
w
+u
+v
+w
az =
t
x
y
z
ax =

The Eulerian approach is more convenient since we are

seldom interested in simultaneous time history of
individual fluid particles, but rather time history of fluid
motion (and F, M) in fixed regions in space (control
volumes). However, three fundamental laws of fluid
mechanics (i.e. conservation of mass, momentum, and
energy) are formulated for systems (i.e. particles) and not
control volumes (i.e. regions) and therefore must be
converted from system to CV (Reynolds Transport
Theorem).
V(x,t) is a vector field. Vector operators divergence and
curl lead to other kinematics properties:
V = divergence V =

u v w
+
+
x y z

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Chapter 1
14

M = ( = volume of fluid particle)

1 D
1 D
dM = d + d = 0

Dt (1)
Dt

d d

D
1 D
V
V
+

=
0

Continuty: Dt
Dt (2)
1 D
1 D
=

V
(1) and (2): Dt
Dt

rate of change per unit = - rate of change per unit

For incompressible fluids, = constant

V = 0

i.e. fluid particles have constant , but not

necessarily shape

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Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

V = curl V = = x i + y j + z k
= vorticity = 2 * angular velocity of fluid particle

=
x
u

y
v

z
w

w v w u v u
=
i
j + k
y z x z
x y

For irrotational flow V = 0

+ vj + wk = i + j + k
V
=

=
u
i

i.e.
y
z
x

and for = constant,

.V = = 2 = 0

Potential Flow Theory

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

Other useful kinematic properties include volume and

mass flow-rate (Q, m ), average velocity ( V ), and
circulation ()

Q = V n dA

where Q = volume of fluid per unit time

through A ( flux of Vn through A

bounded by S:flux generally used to
mean surface integral of variable)

m = V n dA

where m = mass of fluid per unit time

through A

V = Q/A

where V = average velocity through A

A = dA

where A = surface area

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

= V ds = V dA
S

Chapter 1
17

(Stokes theorem - relates line

and area integrals)

line integral for tangential
velocity component

=
=

n dA
A

flux (surface integral) of

normal vorticity
component

Kutta-Joukowski Theorem: lift (L) per unit span for an

aribitrary 2D cylinder in uniform stream U with density
is L = U, with direction of L perpendicular to U.

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Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

(2) Transport Properties

There is a close analogy between momentum, heat, and
mass transport; therefore, coefficient of viscosity (),
thermal conductivity (k), and mass diffusivity (D) are
referred to as transport properties.
Heat Flux:
J
q =k T 2
m s

Fouriers Law:

(rate of heat flux is proportional to the temperature

gradient per unit area; flux is from higher to lower T)
W
k
mK

f(x,y,z)
=

constant

solid
liquid {isotropic}

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

Mass Flux:
kg
q = DC 2
m s

Ficks Law:

(rate of mas flux is proportional to concentration (C)

gradient per unit area; flux is from higher to lower C)

m2

s

Momentum Flux:
du N
Newtonian Fluid:
1D flow
=
2
dy m
(rate of momentum flux/shear stress is proportional to the
velocity gradient per unit area, which tends to smooth out
the velocity profile)

Ns kg
=
2
ms
m
For 3D flow, the shear/rate of strain relationship is more
complex, as will be shown later in the derivation of the
momentum equation.
u i u j
+ ij V
ij = p ij +
+

x j xi
Where ui = ( u , v, w ) , xi = ( x, y, z )

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

= 2nd coefficient of viscosity

For heat and mass, transported quantities are scalars and
flux is a vector; whereas for momentum, transported
quantity is a vector and flux is a tensor. Also, all three
laws are phenomenological (i.e. based on empirical
evidence: experience and experiments).

Non Newtonian fluids follow nonlinear shear/rate of

strain relationships
ijn

n<1
n=1
n>1

pseudoplastic
Newtonian
dilatant

(and k) are also thermodynamic properties:

= (gas or liquid, T, p)

Fig. 1.7 Textbook

For both gases and liquids, increases with p, but is

small and usually neglected. For gases increases with
T, whereas for liquids decreases with T. For gases,
momentum transport and are roughly proportional to T
similarly as to random thermal speed. For liquids, shear
stress is due to intermolecular cohesive forces more than
thermal molecular motions, which decrease with T.

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

Kinematic viscosity:
m2
= / s

arises in equations as
diffusion coefficient

Reynolds Number:
Re =

UL

UL

U = velocity scale,
L = length scale

The Reynolds number is an important nondimensional

parameter
(ratio
inertia/viscous
forces)
which
characterizes fluid flow.
(3) Thermodynamic Properties
Classical Thermodynamics: the study of equilibrium
states of matter, in which properties are assumed uniform
in space and time.

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Chapter 1
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Thermodynamic system = fixed mass separated from

surroundings by boundary through which heat and work
are exchanged (but not mass). Properties are state
functions (i.e. depend on current state only and not path),
whereas heat transfer and work are path functions.
A classical thermodynamic system is assumed static,
whereas fluids are often in motion; however, if the
relaxation time (time it takes material to adjust to a new
state) is small compared to the time scale of fluid motion,
an assumption is made that thermodynamic properties are
point functions and that laws and state relations of static
equilibrium thermodynamics are valid. In gases and
liquids at normal pressure, relaxation time is very small;
hence, only a few molecular collisions are needed for
adjustment. Exceptions are rarefied gases, chemically
reacting flows, sudden changes such as shock waves, etc.
For single-phase pure substances, only two properties are
independent and all others follow through equations of
state, which are determined experimentally or
theoretically. Some mixtures, such as air, can also be
considered a pure substance, whereas others such as salt
water cannot and require additional numbers of
independent properties, e.g., sea water requires three
(salinity, T and p)

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Pressure
Temperature
Density
Internal Energy
Enthalpy
Entropy
= (p,T)

Chapter 1
23

p
T

h = + p/
s

= (p,T)

[N/m2]
[K]
[kg/m3]
[Nm/kg] = [J/kg]
[Nm/kg] = [J/kg]
[J/kg K]

h = h(p,T)

s = s(p,T)

Specific weight

= g [N/m3]

air = 1.205 kg/m3

water = 1000 kg/m3
mercury = 13580 kg/m3

air = 11.8 N/m3

water = 9790 N/m3
mercury = 132,948 N/m3

gas
gas
=
air 1.205 kg m3
liquid
liquid
SGliquid =
=
water (4 C ) 1000 kg m3
SG=
gas

SGHg = 13.6

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Chapter 1
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Total stored energy per unit mass (e):

e = + 1/2V2 + gz
= energy due to molecular activity and bonding
forces
1/2V2 = work required to change speed of mass from
0 to V per unit mass
gz = work required to move mass from 0 to
r = xi + yj + zk against g = gk per unit mass
( mg r / m)
(4) Miscellaneous Properties
Surface Tension:
Two non-mixing liquids or liquids and gases form an
interface across which there is a discontinuity in
density. The interface behaves like a stretched
membrane under tension. The tension originates due
to strong intermolecular cohesive forces in the liquid
that are unbalanced at the interface due to loss of
neighbors, i.e., liquid molecules near the interface
pull the molecules on the interface inward; resulting
in contraction of the interface called surface tension
per unit length.
= coefficient of surface tension N/m

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Line force = F = L
Fluid 1
L

F
Fluid 2

Chapter 1
25

where L = length of cut

through interface
=f (two fluids, T)

Direction of F is normal to
cut

Effects of surface tension:

(1) Pressure jump across curved interfaces

(a) Cylindrical interface

Force Balance:
2L = 2(pi-po)RL
p = /R
pi > po , i.e. pressure is larger on concave vs.
convex side of interface
(b) Spherical interface (droplet)

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

2R = R2 p

p = 2/R

(c) Bubble
2R+2R = R2 p

p = 4/R

(d) General interface

p = (R1-1 + R2-1)
R1,2 = principle radii of curvature
(2) Contact Angle
When the surface of a solid intersects the interface the
contact angle can either be wetting ( < 900) or nonwetting ( > 900). depends on both the two fluids and
the solid surface properties. For clean glass intersecting
an air-water interface =0 (wetting) and an air-mercury
interface =135 (nonwetting).

< 90o
wetting

> 90o
non-wetting

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

(a) Capillary tube

patm

Jump across
boundary
due to

p(z)

Surface Tension Force = Weight of fluid

2R cos = ghR2
2 cos
h R-1 (i.e. larger h for smaller R)
h=
R
patm

patm

patm
Pressure jump
due to

p=patm+h
p(z)

h > 0 = wetting, h < 0 = non-wetting

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Chapter 1
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(b) Parallel plates

For two parallel plates 2R apart with depth b:
Surface Tension Force = Weight of fluid

cos
2b cos = gh2Rb h = R

(c) Pressure jump

dp
= p = z + c = z + patm pat z = h = pz = h patm = h
dz

For general interface:

h>0 (wetting):
p = ( R11 + R21 ) = h < 0 pwater < pair concave
shape

h<0 (non-wetting):
p = ( R11 + R21 ) = h > 0 pwater > pair convex
shape

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

(3) Transformation liquid jet into droplets

(4) Binding of wetted granular material such as sand
(5) Capillary waves
Similar to stretched membrane (string) waves,
surface tension acts as restoring force resulting in
interfacial waves called capillary waves.
Cavitation:
When the pressure in a liquid falls below the vapor
pressure, it will evaporate (i.e. become a gas). If due to
temperature changes alone, the process is called boiling,
whereas if due to liquid velocity, the process is called
cavitation.
p p
Ca =
1 / 2 U
Ca = Cavitation #
pv = vapor pressure
pa = ambient pressure
U = characteristic velocity
a

If the local pressure coefficient Cp

( Cp =

p pa
1/ 2 U 2

) falls

below the cavitation number Ca, the liquid will cavitate.

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Ca = f (liquid/properties, T)
Effects of cavitation:
(1) erosion
(2) vibration
(3) noise

Chapter 1
30

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Fall 2014

Chapter 1
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Flow Classification:
(1) Spatial dimensions: 1D, 2D, 3D

(2) Steady or unsteady: = 0 or 0

t
t
(3) Compressible ( constant) or incompressible ( =
constant)
(4) Inviscid or Viscous: = 0 or 0.
(5) Rotational or Irrotational: 0 or = 0.
(6) Inviscid/Irrotational: potential flow
(7) Viscous, laminar or turbulent: Retrans
(8) Viscous, low Re: Stokes flow
(9) Viscous, high Re external flow: boundary layer
(10) Etc.
Depending
on
flow
classification,
different
approximations can be made to exact governing
differential equations resulting in different forms of
approximate equations and analysis techniques.

058:0160
Professor Fred Stern

Chapter 1
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Fall 2014

Flow Analysis Techniques:

Reality

Fluids Eng. Systems

EFD

UD
=

Components

Idealized

Mathematical Physics Problem Formulation

B2 + P2

UM
AFD

UM

CFD

US
=

2
2
U SM
+ U SN