Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Ludmila Veselovsk
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................................ 4
Working with this text................................................................................................................................ 4
The Topics and Background Philosophy.................................................................................................. 5
1
CLAUSE .................................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1
MODELS OF PREDICATION (CLAUSE STRUCTURE) ............................................................................ 1
1.1.1
Relation between Subject and Predicate..................................................................................... 1
1.2
OTHER SENTENCE MEMBERS............................................................................................................. 3
SUBCATEGORISATION ...................................................................................................................... 4
2.1.1
Lexical items: Subcategorization ................................................................................................ 4
2.1.2
Hierarchies of semantic roles and grammatical functions......................................................... 5
2.1.3
English Verbs with respect to their syntactic subcategorization................................................. 6
2.2
COMPLEMENTS AND ADJUNCTS ...................................................................................................... 7
2.2.1
Defining Complements and Adjuncts .......................................................................................... 7
2.2.2
Adjuncts: Verbal and Sentential Adverbs ('Scope')..................................................................... 8
2.3
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 10
OBJECTS .............................................................................................................................................. 14
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
PASSIVIZATION ................................................................................................................................. 18
4.1
4.1.1
4.1.2
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3
4.4
5.3
5.4
6
SUBJECT............................................................................................................................................... 31
6.1
6.2
6.2.1
6.2.2
6.2.3
6.3
6.4
MEDIOPASSIVE ............................................................................................................................... 28
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 28
7.1.2
Locatives / Directional structures............................................................................................. 38
7.1.3
Raising to Subject ..................................................................................................................... 39
7.2
EXERCISES ...................................................................................................................................... 40
8
ATTRIBUTE ......................................................................................................................................... 42
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
NEGATION ........................................................................................................................................... 47
9.1
9.1.1
9.1.2
9.2
9.3
9.4
9.5
9.5.1
9.5.2
9.6
9.7
10
11
12
12.4
13
RELATIVE CLAUSES......................................................................................................................... 69
13.1.1
13.1.2
13.1.3
13.1.3.1
INTRODUCTION
Working with this text
This text has been written to assist students of English in their work in the course of
English Syntax in the programme of English philology. It assumes a solid knowledge of
English grammar, especially of morpho-syntactic properties of English parts of speech and
their grammatical categories. The latter topics are listed and covered in the Course in
English Morphology and Morphosyntax (Veselovsk 2008). Some data and phenomena
discussed in that volume are repeated here and analyzed from a distinct perspective.
This text, however, is in no way intended to replace any textbook specified in a
course description, nor does the amount of material cover all of what students need to read
for their exams. Instead, it provides syllabi for the lectures with many schemes and
examples commented and discussed in the course. Without a commentary some of them
may be difficult to understand and the students are strongly encouraged to make their own
notes and remarks during the classes. Enough space is given between the paragraphs and on
the margins so that such additions were possible. Some students may still have problems
with English terminology and structuring of their study - this text should also provide them
with the main terms used, and the sections basically follow a pattern that can be used in
preparing for English grammar exams, though not all topics are covered to the same extend
and some require more individual reading.
Apart from syllabi, the following text also contains a number of exercises. The
function of the exercises is twofold. First, they introduce some new Aspects or problems of
the proposed analyses not mentioned in detail during the lectures. Second, they allow
students to test their understanding of the topics under discussion. For some suggested
problems, naturally, there is no generally agreed solution and the exercise provides more
data for discussion of alternatives than simple minded test of a knowledge.
CLAUSE
H&P (2002) pp. 235-243 ; QGLS (2004) pp. 717-770; Dukov (1994) pp.401-422;
H&P (2005) pp.11-28, pp. 63-66; G&Q (1991) pp. 204-230;
1.1
Clause:
(a)
(b)
(1)
Revising terminology
(I) SIMPLE
(II) NON-SIMPLE (A) COMPLEX = one main + 1-x subordinate clause(s)
(B) COMPOUND
(C) COMPLEX COMPOUND
= more than one main + some subordinated clause(s)
(III) SEMI-CLAUSE = infinite Predicate
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(2)
reads a book.
PREDICATE
Verb +complementation
PREDICATION =
The relation between the
SUBJECT and the
PREDICATE
(4)
Verb as the main memeber of the structure. Typical for all kinds of valency models.
XP
(Subject)
left valency
John
My little sister Barbara
(5)
YP
(Object?)
right valency
reads
couldn't have given
a book
the bunch of flowers to her boy-friend.
(a)
(b)
categorial labels
syntactic relations
S
NP
[Subject]
John
Mod/Aux (NEG)
VP
[Predicate]
will
V
read
XP
[V-complementation]
a book
Immediate constituent analysis captures also the fact that the clause consists of more
complex units (phrases) which can be further divided into smaller units. The tree can be
therefore enlarged to the level of individual words (heads).
(6)
(a)
(b)
NP
Det
the
PP
NP
AP
new
NP
N
book
(7)
P
of
NP
Q
some
PP
of some folk stories
NP
N(P?)
folk
N
stories
SUBJ
John
Aux/Mod (NEG) V
does
(not) read
will
can
/-s
+ YP
the book
1.2
The clausal structure is a hierarchy build of binary relations. These relations = functions =
syntagmas have usually two members (one higher/superordinate) and the other dependent
(subordinate). The sentence members are therefore relational terms.
(8)
(a)
(b)
(c)
similarly
a flower
a sister
a widow
(d)
(e)
(independent expression)
(assumes/requires the existence of a brother or sister)
(assumes merriage and the death of the partner.
Noun
Subject
(9)
(a)
(b)
(10)
Our Mary is
(a) NP
(b) a Subject of arrived
Subject
Predicate
Object
Adverbial
Attribute
Complement
(related to Predicate)
(related to Subject)
(related to Verb or Preposition)
(related to Verb)
(related to Noun)
(related to both Verb and Noun)
John arrived.
Bill slept.
(to) see/ about Mary
(to) arrive late/in the afternoon
big Ben, brother of mine
John arrived tired
(d)
(d)
(e)
my tired brother
My brother came back tired.
SUBCATEGORISATION
H&P (2002) pp. 213-319, pp. 663-784; QGLS (2004) pp. 740-754; pp. 1147-1234;
Dukov (1994) pp. 349-367; H&P (2005) pp.63-81; G&Q (1991) pp. 336-362;
In the scheme in (5) on page 2 above, the Subject is labeled as NP (which it often is) and
the right hand verbal complementation is labeled as XP. What is it the XP (i.e. what follows
the V, creating VP/Predicate? Notice that some of these XPs are obligatory.
(1)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
1st participant
(Agent)
(3)
(a)
(b)
Peter/He
Petr/On
complementary conditions
(Manner/Place/Time)
2nd participant
(Patient)
sent
poslal
3rd participant
(Recipient/Beneficiary)
Verbal subcategorization states the (form of) complementation required by the Verbs.
(4)
(5)
Formal/Syntactic subcategorisation
of the Verb hit :
Agent
Subject (usually)
Nominative/pre-Verbal, etc. .
The semantic roles are the properties of a specific lexical Verb ("follow from its
meaning"), they form a hierarchy. Also the sentence functions (sentence members) form a
hierarchy. The two hierarchies (semantic and grammatical) are related/matched, which
results in the semantic interpretation of the grammatical functions.
(7)
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
Agent
Patient/Goal
Recipient/Beneficiary
Direction/Manner/etc.
A 1 ....................
A 2 ....................
A 3 ....................
A 4 ....................
Formal hierarchy
(Sentence Functions/Members)
SF 1
SF 2
SF 3
SF 4
= / Subject
= / Direct Object
= / Indirect Object / PP
= / PP / Adv
The two hierarchies cannot be unified into one, because the relation between them depends
on many factors and can be language/speaker specific (especially with Verbs of nontypical
semantic roles). The formal hierarchy is language specific and the semantic hierarchy
depends on a specific lexical item and can be to some extend modified by the speakers
analysis of the event.
(8)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(9)
I like John.
Jan se mi lb.
semantic definition (what does the word mean, e.g. borrow = get temporarily...)
phonetic information (how does it sound, e.g. borrow = ['boru])
syntactic information
i.) which category is it (e.g. borrow is a Verb)
ii) subcategorization (borrow requires Complement)
*Peter wrote.
(b)
(c)
(d)
Example
Traditional term
Modal
Copula
linking Verb
1.
2.
3.
4.
V, [--]
V, [--NP]
V, [-- PP]
V, [-- AP]
V, [-- NP NP]
V, [-- NP PP]
V, [-- NP PP/Adv]
V, [-- NP NP]
V, [--NP AP]
intransitive V
monotransitive V
V of movement
ditransitive V
<Patient, Beneficiary>
<Patient, Location>
complex trans. V
(14) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2.2
Compare the distinction between the way a language signals the grammatical function:
- in Czech it is mainly the Case (i.e. morphology),
- in English it is the word order (constituent order w.r.t. the Predicate).
(1)
(a)
(b)
(a')
(b')
In English many Czech "Objects" have Prepositions. How shall we call the underlined
constituents? Do "Objects" have Prepositions?
(2)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
The traditional (Latin based) concept of Object depends to large extend on morphology.
The term can become vague when applied on analytic English. In English therefore a
distinct terminology is sometimes used, namely Complement (approx.Object) and Adjunct
(approx. Adverbial).
2.2.1 Defining Complements and Adjuncts
The distinctions between Complements and Adjuncts can be illustrated in both semantic
and formal level. The terms, however, are primarily syntactic.
A.
(3)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
B.
-
Formal obligatoriness
OBLIGATORY complementation of a Verb is called Complement.
OPTIONAL complementation of a Verb is called Adjunct.
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
C.
(5)
(a)
(b)
D.
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Adverbials modify some other element. They "take scope" over it.
The SCOPE of the Adverb
We can define the Complements/Adjuncts/Disjuncts also w.r.t. to the scope they take. The
terminology is related to the size/level/projection of the verbal phrase: elements take scope
over the constituent which they adjoin.
(8)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
minimal VP
VP
VP
Predicate
sentence
sentence
sentence
(9)
Sentence
DISJUNCT (s)
Of course,
VP
Subj. NP
He
Mod/Aux+NEG
will (not/never)
VP
VP
minimal VP
V
speak
(10) a.
b.
d.
COMPLEMENT
English
COMPLEMENTS are closest to the Verb, they are internal the minimal VP.
(i) The students [VP read books ].
(ii) I want to [VP see Jill].
(i)
(ii)
c.
ADJUNCT (Time)
now
ADJUNCT (Place)
here
ADJUNCT(Manner)
well
CONJUNCTS are not related to VP, they modify (= take scope over) some
other sentence member).
(i)
(ii)
2.3
Exercises
its category
(part of speech)
its function
(sentence
member
the other
memeber of the
santagma
I
several
Hemingway's
novels
several
Hemingway's
(14) EXERCISE ===========================================
Explain the grammaticality judgments for the following examples
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
?? He killed a stone.
?? He killed the rabbit (??which then ran away.)
He killed a rabbit hungry/in the forest.
*He killed hungry/to the forest.
?? The stone murdered a rabbit.
10
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
NP
Aux/Mod
VP
V
NP
Aux/Mod
Our Mary
The camera
will
can
must
should
SEE
ARRIVE
BE
XP
XP
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
see
arrive
be
a.
1.
2.
3.
.....................................
.....................................
.....................................
.................
.............
.................
11
b.
1.
2.
3.
.............
.............
.............
c.
1.
2.
3.
.................
.............
.................
Hugo sleeps.
Hugo sleeps in his bed.
sleep:
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
*Hugo sent.
Hugo sent a letter.
* Hugo sent to Bill.
Hugo sent a letter - to Bill.
sent:
a letter:
(to) Bill:
....
play
deliver
elect
paint
give
tell
say
put
start
order
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
.................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
..................................................................................
.................................
.................................
.................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
................................
Mod/Aux (NEG)
VP
[Predicate]
V
XP
12
V, [_ NP PP]
(a)
V, [_NP,NP]
(9)
13
OBJECTS
H&P (2002) pp. 244-250; QGLS (2004) pp. 717-754; Dukov (1994) pp. 423-444;
H&P (2005) pp.63-81;
In spite of the fact that many modern English grammars use the terminology of
Complements vs. Adjuncts/Disjuncts etc., the traditional terms of the sentence functions
(e.g. 'Object') appear as well (e.g. in Dukov, 1994).
Characteristics of Object (1)
(2)
3.1
The most general semantic role related to the function of Object is Patient/Affected Object.
The Object semantic role, however, is most closely related to the meaning of the Verb and
it is therefore infinitely varied. The roles of some Objects can be otherwise typical for other
functions (Agentive, Possession, Instrument, Location).
(1)
3.2
(a)
(b)
Affected Object
Patient
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Cause
Result of the action
Locative
Agentive
Possession
Instrument
I love JOHN
He wrote A BOOK.
John climbed MOUNT EVEREST.
The room dances TWENTY COUPLES easily.
We (have) got MANY LETTERS.
They threw STONES
(a)
(b)
-->
-->
(c)
(d)
(e)
(3)
(a)
(b)
I saw/introduced/met him/her/them.
We were talking about/with him/her/them.
personal pronouns
interrogatives
relative pronouns
reflexive pronouns
14
3.3
Objects are phrasal constituents, i.e. can be bare, but also very complex.
The category (part of sppech) related to Object function is Noun, i.e. NP (and its varieties)
and clause (semiclause).
Distribution: position with respect to (w.r.t.) other sentence members... see examples
(3)/(4)/(5) and above all in (6) on page 8 above, showing that Object immediately follows
the Verb. There is, however, another standard position of Objects: initial
- in WH questions (followed by Aux/Mod)
- in relative clauses, when Object is a relative pronoun (followed by Subject)
- in Topicalization structures (followed by Subject)
(4)
(5)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(This is the men) who Mary loves most. OBJ - SUBJ - Mod/Aux - V
Syntax I hate.
Summary
The canonical / standard / unmarked 'direct Object'
(1)
semantic role
(2)
(a) morphology
(b) syntax
- The Summary above shows several criteria, not all of which are always atestable.
- English and Czech are typologically distinct (analytic vs. syntetic language) and therefore
distinct criteria may be accentuated.
(6)
(a)
The direct Object in English is defined above all syntactically. = Object is the the
nominal complex which immediately follows the Verb, i.e. it is the POSITION
(= constituent order) that defines the structural Object.
(b)
There are consequencies of the distinct definition of Object in Czech and English. Some
will be mentioned discussing the process of passivization in Chapter 5 on page 23 below.
15
3.4
Exercises
(7)
EXERCISE ===========================================
Which kind of semantic roles do the Objects in the sentence below represent?
EXERCISE ===========================================
(9)
EXERCISE ===========================================
In the following examples, underline the Verbs and discuss the category / constituent
of the Objects (mark the left border bracket with a categorial label as in (a)).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
16
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(ii)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(d)
(d')
(e)
(e')
(f)
(f')
17
PASSIVIZATION
H&P (2002) pp. 1427-1441 ; QGLS (2004) pp.159-171;Dukov (1994) pp. 249-272;
H&P (2005) pp.217-222;
Passivisation is a process typical for structural (direct) Objects. Elements which can
passivize are syntactic Objects of the Verb (in English they can also follow the
Preposition).
(1)
(2)
JOHN
Subject
Agent
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
a BOOK
Object
Patient
the BOOK
Subject
Patient
was
WRITT-EN
Predicate
by JOHN
PP Object
Agent
(a)
(b)
(c)
4.1
(4)
Agent is
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(i)
general
(ii)
author
(iii) hidden
It is believed...
It can't be explained.
As has been stated before...
This was studied in detail.
The team was beaten.
18
(iv) none
(f)
(g)
(h)
In Czech, Subjects can be partially demoted by dropping, but the deagentization is not full
and therefore this kind of passivization appears, too (especially to rhematize/focus
instrument or some Adverbial).
(5)
(a)
(b)
The realization of the Subject of the active sentence depends also on its semantic role. True
Agents are canonically realised with the Preposition by.
(7)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(8)
(a)
(b)
(9)
(=Agent)
(=Agent?)
(=Instrument?)
In Czech, Subject can be rhematized by the change of word order, which seems
'simpler/easier' than passive transformation. Therefore this kind of passive structures are not
used often, unless stylistic reasons make them more plausible (especially with very long
and complex Subjects).
(10) Compare the availability of the structures below (which constituent is in the
rhematic/final position).
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Pacient nepeil, pestoe operace byla provedena tmi opravdu nejlepmi chirurgy
naeho oddlen za asti genilnho doktora Hause a jeho t ambiciznch
asistent.
(a')
(b')
(c')
19
4.2
Restrictions on passivization
Passivization is a very productive, general and universal transformation, still, not all
V-Objects can be passivised. Some cannot be passivised because of formal reasons, other
beacuse of some semantic restriction, some are simply idiosyncratic.
4.2.1 Categorial incompatibility
recall that passivization targets direct Objects, and those are cannonically NPs.
Object, however, can be expressed with other constituents as well, some of which do not
tolerate passivization. See below
(11) *Reflexive pronouns/*Infinitives/?Gerunds/?Clauses
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
He excused himself.
They hate each other.
Children love to read.
He admitted reading it.
(e)
Some sematic factors can disallow the pasivization completely, though it is not very clear
which, how and why. (Object, to passivise, 'requires to be affected' by the transitive Verb).
(13) some Verbs meaning 'possession' do not passivise, but not all (and not always)
(a)
(b)
(c)
20
BUT (d)
(e)
4.3
There is a high level of similarity between the passive participle (a Verb following the Aux
be) and an adjective derived from V (which can follow the Copula be). In Czech the
distinction can be seen in morphology n/n.
(15) (a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
(d)
... Verb
...Verb / Adjective
... Adjective / * Verb
Adjective is characterised by :
(a)
(a')
(b)
(c)
activity reading
(i.e. can be perceived as progressive)
ability to contain by- phrase
active counterpart
(b')
(c')
(d')
stative reading
(when progressive, than temporary)
no by-phrase
concrete modification
gradability
process (=V)
temporary state (=Adj)
(a')
(b')
we got served
she got blamed
21
(c)
(d)
Modification, by-phrase
(19)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d')
(e')
(f')
(20) Gradability
(a)
(b)
(c)
I am very/rather/more tired/exhausted/surprised/irritated
this very/rather/more is unexpected/unjustified/clear-cut/widespread
the car is *very/*rather/*more repaired
4.4
Exercises
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(fi)
(g)
22
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(ii) Try to find out what the distinction between (a) and (b) above is.
(Describe the so called "Topicalisation" (of object). How does the form changes? What are
the pragmatic consequeneces? Give more examples.)
H&P (2002) pp. 14271441 QGLS (2004) pp.159-171;Dukov (1994) pp. 249-272;
H&P (2005) pp.217-222;
The process of passivisation in English and Czech seems very similar, though some
distinctions w.r.t. frequency and usage were already mentioned in (and above) (5) and
(10) on page 19. The following discussion concentrates on the formal distinctions.
(1)
(a)
(b)
In both English and Czech the passivization targets the 'direct Object'.
(2)
John
5.1
/ HE
Mary / SHE
introduced
Mary / HER
was introduced
(by John/him).
Recall the definition of Object in section 3.3, esp. (6) on page 15.
Following the definition (6) on page 15, the Czech sentences (a/b) in (3) have identical
direct Object, since the same NP is in Accusative. Assuming Object in English is the NP
immediately following the Verb, there are distinct candidates for Objecthood in the
English translation (c/d).
(3)
(a)
(b)
23
(c)
(d)
The claim is supported by the process of passivisation: Structural direct Objects can be
passivised. In English the candidates are both the NP following the Verb, in Czech it is only
the NP in Accusative (DAT cannot passivise)
(4)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
The process of passivisation in the double Object structures (see (3)/(4) above)
can be described as follows:
(5)
English double Object structures are complex phenomena and remain theoretically
chalenging, but they cannot be explained by their Czech translation (not all English
speakers speak Czech). To perceive the distinction between English and Czech in a way
suggested in (5) is superior to saying "in English Dative Object can passivise", because
(i) English has no Dative morphology,
(ii) not all Czech Datives can passivise in English (Chce se mi spt).
I. Not all English 'double Objects' have the alternation [NP,PP] [NP,NP] . The so called
'datives' with Preposition to are most likely, however some for 'datives' are also possible.
(6)
(a)
(b)
II. Most of the structures which allow alternation, [NP,NP] vs. [NP,PP] have also 2 passive
structures, but not all. The Preposition to/for seems to make the distinction.
(7)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Some 'direct Object' passive structures are also marginally acceptable without the
Preposition to.
(8)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
24
5.2
Recall the definition of Object according to (6) on page 15: Direct Object in English is the
NP immediately following the Verb/Predicate. It follows that to recognise the Object, we
have to recognise the Verb, at least to be able to find the right edge of the Verb.
(9)
+ Object
In analytic language this structure need not be so transparent because of the presence of
Prepositions or some other 'words' between the Verb and the potential Object.
In the following example the verb 'look' is followed by a 'preposition' (Or is the preposition
'a part of ' the verb?)
(10) (a)
(b)
(c)
I look at John.
I lool forward to John.
I look for John.
(a')
(b')
(c')
Dvm se na Jana.
Tm se na Jana.
Hledm Jana.
(b)
Pohldl na obrzekACC.
(12) (a)
(On)
He
pohldl
looked
VERB
I.
na
at
+
obrzek
the picture
PREPOSITION
II.
+ NOUN PHRASE
III.
In a sentence the Verb is often followed by a PP, i.e. a Preposition (and a NP). When we
accept binary system, the Preposition must be grouped with the Verb or with the NP.
The languages can differ w.r.t. the posibility of grouping of (some) Prepositions with
another element.
(A)
I.
(B)
either
I. + II.
(C)
or
I.
II.
III.
III.
II. + III.
Assuming the example in (A/a), in (B/b) the grouping is V + [P+NP], and in (C/c) it is
[V+P] + NP. The (C/c) grouping is very non-intuitive for Czechs, but typical for modern
English ("the preposition/particle becomes a part of the ('phrasal') verb")
(b)
On
He
pohldl
looks
VERB
na obrzek
at the picture
+
PREPOSITIONAL phrase
25
(c)
On
He
pohldl na
looks at
VERB+PREPOSITION +
obrzek
the picture
NOUN PHRASE = OBJECT
(b)
(c)
Not all [V+P] combinations can be 'restructured' in English, i.e. not all Ps can be stranded.
- Some [V+P] combinations are synchronically unified (so called phrasal Verbs),
- some [V+P] combinations can be optionally restructured (V+adjacent/Complement PP),
- some [V+P] combinations cannot ever be restructured (V+nonadjacent/Adjunct PP).
(14) (a)
(b)
(15) (a)
(b)
(c)
(17)
People
took
VERB
ADVANTAGE
+ OBJECT
of his mistake.
PP (= P + NP)
'advantage' follows the Verb take, therefore it is its Object and can be passivized.
PASS
26
(18)
took
Liz
advantage of
HIS MISTAKE.
OBJECT
'his mistakes' follows the complex Verb take an advantage of , therefore it is its Object
His mistake was taken advantage of.
PASS
The verbonominal complex 'take advantage of' allows the enalysis for two direct Objects.
We can prove it using the existence of (i) two passive structures and also (ii) two WH
questions for Object.
(19) (a)
(b)
5.2.2.1
An advantage.
His mistakes.
V+N Compounds
In English, we must distinguish Objects from the 'Object-like' parts of a complex verbal
form. Appart from the verbonominal complexes, English has also Verbal compounds in the
form of V + N.
(20) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
The V+N compounds are semantically opaque expressions, i.e. they create a "semantic
unit" and they are also formally unified.
The process of compounding (V+N) is, however, subject to diachronic change. When the
process is finished, the compound become inert w.r.t. syntactic operations: compounds do
not allow passivization (or questioning) of the items which may look like direct Object.
Compare the properties of the Verb + Noun (Phrase) complex w.r.t. two properties:
(i) questioning and (ii) passivization of the N(P), which show to which extend is the N(P)
independent on the Verb and to which extend they are compounded.
(21) WH question on Object
He took a book/a nap/courage. - What did he take?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(22)
(a)
(b)
(c)
- A book.
- % A nap.
- * (A) Courage.
Passivisation
27
(23) (a)
(b)
(c)
5.3
take a book
take a nap
take courage
always V + NP Object
% marginal [V+NP] compound
only [V+NP] compound
Mediopassive
(a')
(b')
Dvee se zavely.
The door closed.
Exercises
(i)
(ii)
(b)
(i)
(ii)
Marie vidlaPetra
Petra vidla Marie.
(c)
28
(c)
(d)
(b)
PASS: ......................................................................................................................
He blamed [his failure][ON his teacher].
(c)
PASS: ......................................................................................................................
Adam entrusted [a task] [TO Mary].
(d)
PASS: ......................................................................................................................
Adam entrusted [Mary] [WITH this task].
PASS: ......................................................................................................................
29
(a)
PASS (b)
PASS? (c)
(d)
PASS:... .
The terrorist attack put an end to the hope of a better future.
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
PASS:.. .
Theodor sent the paper to his teacher. PASS:
Theodor sent his teacher the paper.
PASS:
Mary looked forward to Bill.
PASS:
PASS:
James slept in that bed.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(ii)
(a)
(b)
(c)
30
SUBJECT
(1)
Notice that semantic subcategorization < Agent, Patient > mentions two semantic
arguments: (i) A1, Agent (i.e. usually Subject) and (ii) A2, Patient (i.e. usually Object). The
syntactic subcategorization V, [-- NP] refers to the right hand complementation only. It is
because only that element can be specific w.r.t. the Verb. The form of Subjects depends on
the type of the sentence, not on the Verb.
(2)
(a)
(b)
The function of Subject standardly realises the (highest) semantic role of Agent.
(3)
(a)
(b)
MARY
heard GEORGE/the WIND hit the WINDOW (with STONES).
Experiencer
Agent /Force
Patient/Goal
(Instrument)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
31
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(8)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
It is raining/snowing.
It is late.
It seems that John arrived late.
It is outrageous that nobody helped you.
It is easy for me to go.
Conclusion: The examples above showed that Subject is a fromal concept not directly
related to the interpretation. Subject is a necessary part of each sentence, although
(i) the semantic role of the function of Subject can vary cross-language,
(ii) the semantic role is neither necessary nor sufficient for the function of Subject,
6.2
The formal characteristics (morphologic and syntactic) are similar in both Czech and
English, but the hierarchy between them is distinct
Czech
1.
2.
Case/Agreement
Word order
English:
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(9)
English
1.
2.
Word order
Case/Agreement
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
32
In non-2nd person imperatives and with infinitives the Nominative does not appear at all.
(11)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
I left.
They were helping...
It rains.
Help yourself, will you!
33
6.3
(a)
(b)
Idiosyncratic
Imperative:
(c)
Diary style:
Thank you.
(i) Open the window, will you? Help yourself!
(ii) Let's go, shall we?
Came back soon. Made a dinner and watched TV....
Recall the pragmatic Aspects of the discourse which are related to the distinction between
"old" and "new" information and to the stress the speaker wants to make. Those are often
expressed with a constituent-order (i.e. linearity). The position of Subject is often initial,
and therefore Subjects have a strong tendency to be the "Topic/Theme" of the proposition.
(17) Discourse order, sentence dynamism, Functional Sentence Perspective
THEME / OLD /TOPIC
SUBJECT
(a')
(b')
(c')
There is a preference in all languages to identify Subject with the Agent and the Topic but
this tendency is weaker in English than in Czech. There is also a strong tendency to repeat
parallel structures, when Subjects "tend" to remain Subjects unless marked otherwise).
(20)
6.4
catch
say
have
believe
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
34
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
read
bear
appear
sell
seem
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Jude
[
The key
[
Martin
[
Hannah
[
The stone [
The enemy [
Benjamin [
The book [
Debora
[
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
]
(d)
(e)
(f)
Let's go!
Open the window, I beg you!
Went back. Met Jessica.
(b)
(d)
on =
on/ten =
.................................
.................................
35
(c)
(d)
(he) =
HE =
.................................
.................................
(b)
(d)
(f)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
VP
V
YP
36
c)
(2)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(3)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(4)
Summary
The canonical / standard / unmarked 'Subject'
(1)
(2)
semantic roles
(a) morphology
(b) syntax
7.1
Linking it
37
B.
(5)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(7)
SUBJECTFFFOOORRRM
M
A
L
m
M
O
R
H
O
L
O
G
C
A
L
MA
AL
L - the rest of the clause ] [ SUBJECTSSSeeem
maaannntttiiiccc///M
MO
OR
RPPPH
HO
OL
LO
OG
GIIIC
CA
AL
L
Expletive
associate
In the following sentences the expletive is not it but there. There serves as a syntactic
Subject, while the associate NP controlls the verbal agreement and provides the semantic
content.
Subject has two parts
(8)
(9)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
the associate (=indefinite NP) is in the same clause as the expletive there
the expletive there is not able to stay without the associate
SUBJECTFFFOOORRRM
M
A
L
m
M
O
R
H
O
L
O
G
C
A
L
MA
AL
L - Vcopula - SUBJECTSSSeeem
maaannntttiiiccc///M
MO
OR
RPPPH
HO
OL
LO
OG
GIIIC
CA
AL
L - LOCATION
Expletive
associate
7.1.2 Locatives / Directional structures
The existencial structures (See above in section 7.1.1.) devoleped from the
locative/directional structures. Recall that Old English had a free constituent order.
(1)
Locative PPs
(a)
(b)
38
Directional PPs
(2)
(a)
(b)
Petr se zd bt unaven.
Raising to Subject: some argument (Agent or Patient) of infinitive rises to the position of
the formal Subject of a finite (agentless) Verb or 'impersonal' structure.
(4)
Peter is
(i)
(ii)
Subject of seem
Agent of read
Consider the semantic roles of IT and JOHN and notice, how far can 'Raising' go.
(5)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(7)
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
English
(a)
(b)
(8)
(a)
(b)
(a')
(b')
Dvee se zavely.
Zd se, e Jan te knihu.
39
7.2
(9)
Exercises
EXERCISE ===========================================
Discuss what is the Subject of the following sentences. Following the table0on page
40 give all possible semantic, morphological (Case, agreement) and syntactic (word order
and syntactic processes) reasons for your analysis. If necessary, use substitution.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(k)
(l)
(m)
(n)
(c)
(d)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
40
The boy
(a)
NP
(b)
Agent
(c)
SUBJECT
(d)
Theme/TOPIC
Aux/Mod
VP
must
YP
read
a book.
NP
CZ (Agent = Subject)
Patient
OBJECT
EN (Subject = Topic)
Rheme / Focus
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
Imperative
Ellipsis
Diary style
Weather werbs
Existential/locative structures
Raising to Object (amalgamate)
Passivization
Raising to Subject
Mediopassive
Passivization
Expletive/Linking it
41
ATTRIBUTE
H&P (2002) pp. 526-561, QGLS (2004) pp. 402-437; Dukov (1994) pp. 484-517;
H&P (2005) pp.112-121;
(1)
(2)
the/my
favorite
hairy
specific Det/Poss/APs
shepard
dogs
-N-
The scope of adjective covers all elements within NP au to the head N. The initial modifiers
are therefore the most specific.
(3)
(a)
(b)
8.1
Prenominal Attributes
(1)
DETERMINERS
(c)
(d)
a/the book
* that some book
takov njak kniha
each/every/any/some/no man
which/what man
(a)
(b)
(2)
POSSESSIVE NPs
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(3)
AP PREMODIFIERS
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
42
(4)
'DERIVED/SECONDARY ADJECTIVES'
(morphological Nouns (in productive compounds))
(f)
exercise book
steel wire
corrosion immunity
the UEFA Cup
three act play
* three acts play
heat-resistant glass lamp shades
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(5)
ADVERBS
(a)
(b)
(6)
PARTICIPLES
(a)
(b)
a forgotten artist
an entertaining person
(7)
QUOTATIONAL COMPOUNDS
(a) a take-me-as-I-am smile
(b) an after-dinner cigar
8.2
Postnominal Attributes
(8)
POSTNOMINAL ADJECTIVES
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Romance A's
idiosyncratic A's
A's follow pronouns
complex (postmodified) A's
(9)
PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(f)
(10) INFINITIVES
(a)
(b)
a promise to help
a man to talk to
(a)
(b)
(12) CLAUSES
(a)
(b)
43
(13) APPOSITION
(a)
(b)
8.3
(a)
(b)
(c)
(15)
(a)
(b)
(16)
(a)
(b)
While verbal semantic roles are usually clear and arguments are realized w.r.t. their
interpreation, semantic roles related to Nouns are often ambiguous and their interpretation
depends of context.
(17)
(a)
(b)
Maruin obrzek.
Obrzek na Maruky.
8.4
(a)
(b)
Exercises
44
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
........................................................................................................................................
city towers
down town
new hospital building
English history teacher
The book.
The blue book
The book of his.
The three boys.
All the three boys.
Those nice intelligent energetic boys.
famous Italian actor
(a')
(d')
(d')
(d')
(d')
(d')
(g')
*Blue book.
*Blue the book.
*The his book.
*Three the boys.
*The all three boys.
?Those nice energetic intelligent boys.
??Italian famous actor
45
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
(ii) what is the Czech equivalent of English PP postmodifiers
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
(ii) what is the order of the postnominal modifiers
..................................................................................................................................................
..................................................................................................................................................
(24) EXERCISE ===========================================
Discuss the properties of the underlined elements. What is their category? Give
reasons for your claim. What is it 'bracketing paradox'?
(a)
(b)
bare AP [AP A]
.
AP with premodified A, [AP -- A]
AP with postmodified A [AP A -- ]
AP with both pre- and post-modified A
....intelligent...
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
a/b/c/d
(b)......................................................(c)....................................................................................
Postmodifying Attribute
a/b/c/d
(b)......................................................(c)....................................................................................
Nominal Predicate after Copula a / b / c / d
(b)......................................................(c)....................................................................................
Subject Complement
a/b/c/d
(b)......................................................(c)....................................................................................
Object Complement
a/b/c/d
(b)......................................................(c)....................................................................................
46
NEGATION
H&P (2002) pp.785-850, QGLS (2004) pp. 775-799; Dukov (1994) pp.336-348;
H&P (2005) pp.149-158; G &Q (1991) pp. 223-230;
9.1
Kinds of Negation
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
good
day
friend
mother
vs.
vs.
vs.
vs.
bad
night
enemy
father
Lexical negation
(a)
(b)
It is il-logical.
(a)
(b)
Phrasal Negation
The particle not negates the whole phrase (usually some existing sentence member)
(a)
(b)
(c)
The negated phrase can be also the VP. To negate the whole clause, we must negate the
sentence modality (the Predicate).
47
9.2
Sentence negation
CLAUSAL NEGATION (propositional, 'grammatical') negates the clause, i.e. the whole
proposition. In English it is done by a particle not added to the Mod/Aux or by a negative
polarity item with a scope over the Predicate.
(5)
(a)
(b)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(particle not)
(negative quantifier in ADV)
(negative quantifier in SUBJ)
(negative quantifier in OBJ)
(partial negation?)
(partial negation?)
Partial (lexical and phrasal) negation can combine with the clausal negation.
(6)
(a)
(b)
(c)
It is impossible.
It is not possible.
It is not impossible.
(positive clause)
(negative clause)
(negative clause (positive meaning))
(7)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(positive clause)
(negative clause)
(negative clause (positive meaning))
(8)
(9)
It is true.
It is easy.
He is tall.
She is beautiful.
It is not true.
It is not easy.
He is not tall.
She is not beautiful.
It is false.
It is difficult.
He is short.
She is ugly.
INTENSIFICATION:
... at all, no X whatever, not one ...
(a)
(b)
(c)
9.3
A negative sentence can contain more negative operators (constituents denoting empty
sets). In fact any sentence member can be a negative operator. Compare the following
examples.
SUBJ, ADV, OBJ,
(10)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
OBJ,
(11)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(d)
NEGATIVE/POSITIVE QUANTIFIERS
no-, not any- / some- + -body/-thing/-where/-time/-how...
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
As early as possible / as short as possible... Negative polarity items any MUST be in the
scope of negation. (also ever, at all, etc).
9.5
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
49
(15)
David
SUBJECT
can
NOT
- - - read
will
might
is (-ing)
'does'
never
just
phonologically empty
nonemphatic do becomes lexicalised
to 'provide DO-support'
for the NOT particle
Mod/Aux
NEG
- - - VERB
The importance of the POSITION, the first phonetically present Mod/Aux distinct from
other Auxs and VLEX. This element precedes the particle not (bound morpheme -n't).
(The only exception is the Copula/lexical Verb be.)
(16)
(a) read
(b) look
(c) take
at / for
care (of)
functional level
lexical level.
NEGATION
(not/never/+NEG)
9.5.2 Negative Questions
ad (i)
Inversion: Recall which element (how many of them) inverts with a Subject?
(17)
(a)
(b)
ad (ii)
(c)
(d)
Consider the categorial status of English not and its morpho-phonetic contraction -n't
as signalled by the grammaticality judgements below. It shows that -n't is a bound
morpheme, while not is a particle: requires the presence of Mod/Aux but is not
morphologically unified with it.
(18) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a')
(b')
(c')
(d')
50
9.6
The distinctions between not and never can be stated as a distinction between a
grammatical morpheme (not) and lexical morpheme (never: Adverb: mayor open class
category). In a sentence this distinction results is signalled by distinct behaviour.
A.
(19)
C.
(21)
D.
(22)
Recall that b/f are similar, in both cases the structure is ungrammatical because more than
one "word" is inverted with Subject. (*Does often he read such books?)
E.
(23)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(24)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
51
F.
(25)
G.
(26)
Usage in Separation
Will he read?
(a)
(b)
- Never!
- *Not. / *N't. / No.
Interferring inflection
(a)
(b)
The categorial status of English never, not and -n't can be expressed in the terms of the
distinction between
grammatical elements
lexical element
free morpheme
-n't
9.7
not
never
Exercises
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(a)
(c)
(e)
(g)
(d)
Je inteligentn.
Nen inteligentn.
Mm hodn neptel.
Nemm hodn neptel
Mm v Praze jenom jednoho kamarda.
(b)
(d)
(f)
(c)
(e)
Je hloup.
Mm hodn ptel.
Nemm hodn ptel.
Nemm v Praze dnho kamarda.
Znm v Praze st vc ne 5 lid.
52
Petr je mj ptel.
Ta cesta je bezpen.
Nov fakta jsou relevantn.
Maminka dnes spchala do koly...
Pijdu dnes.
Stran m bav pracovat.
Pikzal mu odpovdat celou vtou.
Sed v kuchyni.
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
Which part of the sentence is to be negated in Czech, to get a clausal negation? What
is the morpheme? Consider the following sentences.
Translate the sentences to English and do the same.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
J chodm do koly.
J jsem chodila do koly.
J budu chodit do koly.
J bych chodila do koly.
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
53
Czech
Nbody / thing / where
ANY - .....................................................................................................................................
................................................................................................................................................
(36) EXERCISE ===========================================
Which kind of negation can you find in the following examples? Discuss the STYLE!
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
54
10
H&P (2002) pp.785-850, QGLS (2004) pp. 775-799; Dukov (1994) pp.336-348;
H&P (2005) pp.149-158; G &Q (1991) pp. 223-230;
The domain in which the polarity item any gets negative interpretation.
In English it is usually a simple clause. The following examples show that the scope is not
enlarged to other clause in a complex/compound sentences.
(1)
(a) Main-Subord.
(b) Subord.-Main
(c) Main-Main
I did not bring anything but [ you can take any of those.
= free choice / * negative
The scope of negation is signaled by the interpretation of the negative polarity any- .
(In the above examples any is a free choice and not negative, which signals that the
negative operator has a scope over one simple clause only.)
10.1 Shortening the scope of NEG
Though negation takes scope over the whole simple clause, sometimes it is necessary to
restrict it (e.g. to get general, non-negative interpretation of the any- element)
(2)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(3)
(a)
(b)
(c)
he is NOT here.
(a)
I think
(b)
subordinate clause
NEG Transportation: The shift/move of NEG from the embedded clause to the main
clause, the interpretation does not change in (a) and (b), but formally, the scope of the
negation covers both main and subordinate clauses in (b).
55
(5)
(a)
(b)
I do NOT think [[ that Mary will help any-body/*some- body /*no- body at all.
In (a) the underlined main clause is positive. The negative particle not is in the
second/subordinate clause and the second/subordinate is negative, as signalled by the
negative interpretation of any-body and the presence of 'at all'
In (b) the main clause contains the negative particle not (although it is probably not
interpreted as negative, it still is formally marked as negative). The second/subordinate
clause does not contain any negative particle, but the negative interpretation of any-body
and 'at all' signal its negative polarity. The scope is thus enlarged into both cluases.
(6)
(a)
(b)
(8)
(9)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(c)
56
(10) (a)
(b)
(c)
(11) (a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(a)
only NEG
a single N (US)
either
?at all (US)
lift a finger,
spend a red cent
spend a penny,
Only Q
Never NEG
whether, how
already, too
sort of, kind of
10.5 Exercises
(13) EXERCISE ===========================================
(i) Explain the process of NEG-transportation and show what signals the scope of
NEG in the folowing English examples
(a)
(b)
(ii) Write Czech equivalents of the above sentences and check the scope of
negation. Underline the elements which show the polarity of the Czech sentences. Is the
process of NEG transportation the same in Czech as in English?
(a) ..........................................................................................................................................
(b) ..........................................................................................................................................
(14) EXERCISE ===========================================
(i) Explain what signals the presence of NEG scope in the following examples. Why
are the Adverbs like hardly/scarcely etc. called (partially) negative?
(a)
(b)
(c)
(ii) Write Czech equivalents of the above sentences and check the scope of
negation. Underline the elements which show the polarity of the Czech sentences. Assuming
57
that 'partial' negation can refer to interpretation and formal characteristics, to which
extend can the Adverbs like hardly/st be called 'negative' in English/Czech?
(a) ..........................................................................................................................................
(b) ..........................................................................................................................................
(c) ..........................................................................................................................................
(15) EXERCISE ===========================================
Explain the (un)grammaticality of the following examples.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
(j)
(ii) Assuming that Adjuncts can be fronted in English, what do the following examples
say about the place from which the Adjuncts are moved (which of them trigger Aux-Subj.
inversion?)
58
(c)
(d)
(iii) Clausal negation in English, can result also from structures with negated Object or
Adverbial, though esp. the latter structures remain often ambiguous between (i) the clausal
and (ii) partial negation.
(e)
(f)
I have no friends.
= I do not have any friend.
I will do it in no time. = (i) I will not ever do it.
(ii) I will do it [ in short time].
Recall that if the negative adverb negates the whole clause, and if such an adverb is
fronted, it triggers inversion. The contrast between (g) and (h) should help you to explain
the distinct interpretation of (i) and (j).
(g)
(i)
(h)
(j)
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
.......................................................................
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
59
11
M/A
(Modal/aux.)
"VP"
'Verb'
V-complementation
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
11.1.1
Negation
Forming a clausal negation in English, where is the position of negation (particle "n't/not")?
Consult the examples and define the position precisely with respect to the elements
(columns) in the above table. Mark the relevant line dividing the relevant columns.
(5)
(6)
(7)
11.1.2
Polar Questions:
Polar question in English are formed by inversion/fronting. Study the examples and define
the fronted element precisely with respect to the elements (columns) in the above table.
Circle the relevant column and mark by arrow the process of inversion/fronting.
(8) Will Henry sleep?
(9) Is the boy reading a novel?
(10) Is the most beautiful girl walking around our school every day around 5 oclock?
60
Assuming that the position of negation and the question inversion are the two main criteria
for dividing the English Predicate field, distribute also the constituents in the following
structures into the table below.
(11) Henry will be sleeping well.
(12) The new boy will look for you tomorrow.
(13) She may have been having shower for more than two hours.
fronting in
questions
position of NOT
S
(subjekt)
M/A
(Modal/aux.)
'Verb'
"V VP"
V-complementation
(11)
(12)
(13)
Analytic Predicate in English
The above data illustrate what is called analytic Predicate = a Predicate which can be
divided into several parts. Such a Predicate is characteristic of Modern English (contrary to
Czech which has a synthetic Predicate). Notice (check/show) that the English word order
expressed as S-V-O, would not be able to capture with clarity neither the position of
negation nor the question inversion (and it presuposes the presence of Object, which is not
always present). Therefore we will replace it by S M/A V (O), where M/A +V
represent the two main parts of the English analytic Predicate.
11.1.3
Apparent exceptions: There are cases which seem distinct from S M/A V (O)
The Verb be
Consider the following examples with "be". Locate the Verb "be" in the table below using
the position of negation and the question inversion. Try to make some meaningful
generalizations.
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
M/A
"V-VP"
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)
61
(18)
(19)
(20)
Conclusion: the Verb "be" (Auxiliary/Copula/existential but not Modal) is special, because
it can be a V, but in the absence of Modal/Auxiliary it takes its position leaving V empty.
(Is there any distinction between "be" when (i) Aux, (ii) Copula, (iii) existential, (iv) Mod?)
'Lexical' Verbs
In English, the 'lexical' Verb is often preceded by an Auxiliary or modal element, but
sometimes such a Verb appears alone. Assuming our division between A/M and V, fill into
the slots in the table the constituents in the following examples. Take into account the
criteria we have been using i.e. the position of negation and the question inversion.
(How do we call the "do" in (24) , (25), (26)?)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
M/A
"V-VP"
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26)
DO-Support (Covert Auxiliary DO)
To keep the idea of English constituent order as general as possible, we can claim that
English Predicate is always analytic and assume that in non-emphatic positive declarative
clause the Auxiliary DO remains covered (phonetically unrealized). It becomes overt when
needed (e.g. emphatic context, questions, and negative particle not > require do-support)
11.1.4
The word/constituent order in English has a grammatical function. We must state the
order oc constituents in a clause right to be able to discuss main types of sentences, state
properly the position of negation, the process of inversion and also other processes.
'SVO' does not mean, that "the first word is a Subject."
Remember:
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
v)
62
VERB
Question tags
Short answers
Yes, he will.
Yes, she does.
No, he is not.
Questions of surprise
Will he?
Did she?
Isnt he?
/*Will Henry?
/*Walked she?
Negative questions
Stating the rule for question inversion in English in (27), negative questions show the
importance of the size of the inverting element. Consider the following examples and
explain the ungrammaticality. (Underline the inverting element. How many words invert?)
(37) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(38) (a)
(b)
(c)
63
11.2
WH questions
What is the constituent order in the WH question in English? Compare the (a) examples in
(39)/(40) with the (b) examples and try to generalize the changes.
(39) (a)
(b)
(40) (a)
(b)
(39)
(39)
(40)
(40)
M/A
"V-VP"
a
b
a
b
There are some other structures which suggest that the fronting of some constituent is a
more general phenomena. Consider the similarity of the following examples.
(49) When/Where/how will Henry read the novel?
(50) Never will Henry read the novel.
(51) Never did she help me.
Fronted operators (negative/interrogative constituents with special reference)
can trigger the inversion.
OPERATOR -
Mod/Aux
SUBJECT
- - - VERB
SUBJ-Mod/Aux Inversion
64
11.2.1
There are some special WH questions which show characteristics more/less distinct from
those we stated above. Compare the following structures with the "standard" in (39)/(40),
i.e. concentrating on (a) the presence of inversion, (b) the position of the WH element.
Indirect WH questions
(52) He asks what intelligent students can learn at school every day.
(53) He asks which facts intelligent students can learn at school every day.
(54) He asks whether intelligent students can learn a lot of exciting facts at school.
Indirect WH questions are special because they .
Echo questions
(55)
(56)
(57)
(58)
What is the distinction between (a) and (b) in the following example? Explain the
ungramaticality of (d).
(60) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
65
12
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
H&P (2002) pp. 851-1096 ; QGLS (2004) pp.985-1146; Dukov (1994) pp. 588-647;
H&P (2005) pp.159-194; G &Quirk (1991) pp.262-335;
12.1 Classification of Subordinate Clauses
Consider the sentence functions of the bold elements.
(1)
A
(a) EVELYNE
(b) EVELNA
gave
podala
B
C
A PROPOSAL to the commitee
NVRH
pedsednictvu
A.
B.
C.
D.
Subject
Object
(Prep.) Object
Adverbial
(2)
D
yesterday.
vera.
(B)
(C)
(D) Evelyne gave a proposal to the committee after she introduced herself..
Evelna podala mvrh pedsednictvu
jakmile se pedstavila..
Subordinate clauses have the function of some sentence member of its main clause.
Two kinds of Classification of subordinate clauses
1.
The traditional way: According to the sentence member the clauses replace/realize.
See (1) and (2) above.
2.
Dukov etc.: According to the part of speech which typically occurs in the same
function.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Subject
Object
(Prep.) Object
Adverbial
i)
ii)
iii)
Noun
Noun
Noun
Adverb
66
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
12.2.1
(4)
= Object / Noun
= Object / Nominal Content Clause
= Subject / Noun
= Subject / Nominal Content Clause
Can we get there in time? (a) I hope (that) we can get there in time.
(b) I hope (*that) so
12.2.2
The distinction between the main and subordinate clause can be seen also in the level of
their separate and independent referrence to Time/mood. Some subordinate clause loose
their independence and their form is influenced by some characteristics of the the main
clause (and/or by a Preposition).
(6)
(a)
Indirect speech
(b)
Indirect question:
(c)
Subjunctive:
It is appropriate
essential
necessary
not fitting
67
Place:
(a)
(b)
(8)
Time :
(a)
(b)
(9)
Manner (and condition): There exist many kinds of Adverbials of 'Manner', e.g.
cause, reason, purpose, result, condition, concession... Include also
conditional clauses.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(10) Manner (Grading): Adverbial clauses of Manner can be also related to Adjective or
Adverb (Grading, degree, comparison, etc)
(11)
(a) Mary is more lazy THAN ANYBODY CAN IMAGINE.
(b) He was so stupid THAT I COULD NOT BELIEVE IT.
(c) The airplane got as high AS NOBODY HAD EXPECTED.
12.3.2
Conditional Clauses
(a)
Real
(b)
Unreal
(a)
(b)
(c)
Future
Present
Past
68
(a)
(b)
(14) Unreal
(a)
(b)
(a)
(b)
(16) Unreal
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
(18) Unreal
(a)
(b)
12.4
Relative Clauses
a/the book
my older brother's book
a large green book
exercise book
the book of my brother
the book lying on the table
the way to go
the book which you gave me
69
RELATIVE CLAUSES are used in the function of Attributes, i.e. they modify a nominal
element which is present in the main clause. They are connected with the main clause with
a connecting element: 0, THAT, WH-ELEMENT
12.4.1
(21) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(C)
(22) (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
12.4.2
Compare the content of the (i) two independent propositions and (ii) the complex
sentences with a relative clause in (a) and (b) of 0 and (24).
Mary loves ONE BOY.
(23)
(a)
Mary loves
(b)
THE BOY
the head
of the RC
THE BOY
the head
of the RC
WHO-M
relative
pronoun
Mary loves
is over there .
- original
position
is over there.
70
(24)
THE GIRL
the head
of the RC
(a)
William showed me
(b)
I saw
- - .
Consider the importance of the sentence function of the NP replaced by a relative pronoun
(for the deletion and morphology of the pronoun).
12.4.3
Relative pronoun in English can be deleted if the relative clause is structurally complete
(25) (a)
(b)
Omitting that in (25)(b) would violate the rule about obligatory Subjects in English.
(26) (a)
(b)
Omitting who in (26)(b) would violate the rule about Prepositions [_NP].
(27) (a)
(b)
Attributes whose/of which in (27) are optional and hence non-recoverable. Must be overt.
12.4.3.1 Preposition stranding in Relative clauses
Recall that English has complex (analytic) verbal Predicates and as one of the
consequencies it allows preposition stranding (see section 5.2.1 on page 25).
In the sentence (28) below both the preposition about can be analysed as belonging to
either the verb 'talk about' or as a part of the PP about the girl.
(28)
71
(29)
(a)
(b)
(30)
(31)
(a)
(b)
12.4.4
Discuss the distinction between the element 'heading' the subordinate clause.
+ NOMINAL Content Clause
what you mean.
co m na mysli.
(33)
I can see
Chpu
(*that/*it)
(to)
(34)
I can see
Vidm
n
(the fact)
(to)
(35)
I can see
Vidm
N
the book
(tu) knihu,
+ RELATIVE Clause
that/which John gave me.
kterou mi dal John.
Notice that the distinction is not in the subordinate clause itself. The clauses are classified
in a different way because the element which they are related to is distinct:
(a)
(b)
(c)
72
a nominal content clause in the function of Subject (with and without the linking it)
...................................................................................................................................................
(b) a nominal content clause in the function of Object
...................................................................................................................................................
73
(c)
...................................................................................................................................................
(d) a nominal content clause in the function of Predicate
...................................................................................................................................................
(e) an Adverbial content clauses in the function of Temporal adv. and adv. of Place
...................................................................................................................................................
(f) an Adverbial content clause in the function of Grading
...................................................................................................................................................
(g) an irreal conditional clause in past
...................................................................................................................................................
(h) an Adverbial content clause in the function of Adverbial of Reason
...................................................................................................................................................
(41) EXERCISE ===========================================
(i) Look into the table below and notice that some subcategorized Complements can/must
be expressed by a clause. See the variety of the Complements, add more examples.
(ii)
(iii) What is the distinction between the second NP in (10) and (16)?
VERB
monotransitive
ditransitive V
complex
transitive V
subcategorization
V, [--NP]
V, [-- that-CL]
V, [-- wh-CL]
V, [-- wh-INF]
V, (-- to-INF]
V, [-- ing-CL]
V, [-- NP to-INF]
V, [-- NP ing-CL]
V, [-- NPd PP]
V, [-- NPi NPd]
V, [-- NPi that-CL]
V, [-- NPi wh-CL]
V, [-- NPi wh-INF]
V, (-- NPi to-INF]
V, [-- NPd AP]
V, [-- NPd NP]
V, [-- NPd adv]
V, [-- NPd PP]
V, [-- NPd to-INF]
V, [-- NPd bare-INF]
V, [-- NPd ing-CL]
V, [-- NPd -ed-CL]
example
1. Jane read a diary.
2. I think that we have met.
3. Can you guess what she said?
4. I learned how to sail the boat.
5. We've decided to move to Prague.
6. She enjoys playing squash.
7. They want Jane to help us.
8. I hate Jane shouting.
9. He wrote a letter to Jane.
10. He told Jane a story.
11. They told Jane that I was ill.
12. He asked Jane what time it was.
13. Mary showed Jane what to do.
14. I advised Jane to see the doctor.
15. That music drives Jane mad.
16. They called Jane idiot.
17. I left Jane at home.
18. I put the book on the shelf.
19. They knew Jane to be a spy.
20. I saw Jane leave the room.
21. I heard Jane shouting.
22. They got Jane killed.
74
Mod/Aux (NEG)
VP
[Predicate]
V
XP
75
(c)
(d)
(g)
(e)
(f)
As soon as I see him I will tell him that the work must be done by Friday if he wanted
to leave for a weekend.
(b)
If you want I will show you the building much taller than those you have in Chicago.
(c)
(d)
It is unlikely that John would help you because lately he is very tired when he arrives
home and goes to bed after he finishes his dinner and so I think you will have to finish
the work yourself as quickly as you can because it is sure that the teacher repeated
several times that in this case the deadline is fixed and there will be no excuses and
whoever delivers the assignment late than it is the date written on the web page will
have to repeat the course because he will not give him the credit.
76
13
H&P (2002) pp. 43-70, QGLS (2004) pp. 35-92; H&P (2005) pp. 11-28;
THE FOUR LEVEL SENTENCE ANALYSIS
Each element belongs to a specific
A. PART OF SPEECH (paradigmatic categories).
In a sentence it receives
B. SEMANTIC ROLE
C. SENTENCE FUNCTION (syntagmatic relations),
In the discourse it receives
D. PRAGMATIC FUNCTION
13.1 Parts of speech (word categories)
Part of speech
1. Nouns (common/propper, concrete/abstract,
countable/mass, etc),
2. Adjectives (primary/secondary, central/peripheral),
3. Pronouns (demonstrative, personal, possessive, reflexive,
reciprocal, interrogative, relative, indefinite, negative),
4. Numerals (cardinals, ordinals, etc),
5. Verbs (Auxiliaries, Modals, lexical),
(causatives, ...of sensual perception, ...of movement)
6. Adverbs,
7. Prepositions,
8. Conjunctions (sub/co-ordinate),
9-11. Interjections, Particles, Articles
usual function
Subject / Object
attributes
Subject / Object / Attribute
attribute / Adverbial
Predicate
Adverbial
part of Adverbial, Object
-----
example
(1) John killed a rabbit
(2) John saw a rabbit
(3) The frost killed the rabbit
(4) John sleeps. The boat sung.
(5) John killed the rabbit
(6) He overturned the chair.
(7) I love John.
(8) He wrote a book.
(9) John climbed Mount Everest.
(10) The room dances two couples easily.
(11) We (have) got many letters.
(12) They threw stones.
(13) I read the book to/for Mary
(14) I gave Mary the book
realization
SUBJECT
direct OBJECT
indirect OBJECT
77
SPACE
TIME
Process
Respect
Contingency (cause,
reason, purpose, result,
condition, concession)
Modality
Degree
Modification
Determination
Intensification
(15)
(16)
(17)
(18)
(19)
(20)
(21)
(22)
ADJUNCTS Adverbials
(a)
(b)
(c)
(a)
(b)
nominal Predicate
Subject Complement
Object Complement
Grading subjunct
example
(a) John was sleeping.
(b) little John
(c) the book
(d) three boys
(e) to read the book to John
to read John a book
(f) to go to school quickly, every day, at
five o' clock
(g) He is an idiot / handsome / at school
(h) John came back tired
(i) to paint the door green
(j) very tired, very quickly, as big as he,
much bigger than me
current (be, seem, appear, feel, look, sound, taste), (ii) resulting (become, get, grow, turn, prove)
78
semantic roles
(a) morphology
(b) syntax
semantic roles
(a) morphology
(b) syntax
Non-thematic
THEMATIC
TRANSITIONAL
RHEMATIC
TRANSITION transition
proper
RHEME
THEME
Proper
DiaTheme
RHEME
propper
(3)
XP
Aux/Mod
VP
V
This lady
can
help
XP
your son.
(a)
NP
(b)
Agent
CZ (Agent = Subject)
Patient
(c)
Subject
EN (Subject = Topic)
Object
(d)
Theme/TOPIC
non-dynamic
NP
Rheme/FOCUS
dynamic
79
Example
Parts of speech
Sentence
functions
Semantic Roles
Mary
NOUN PHRASE
NP: Noun phrase
Pronoun
Noun
(possessive) (propper)
SUBJECT
Subject
Attribute
bare
Subject
will
read
Verbal complex
Verb
Verb
(Modal) (lexical)
Predicate
Modification
(possessive)
Agent
Action
Our
Mary
will read
the
new
book
on
Tuesday
Simple clause
VERB PHRASE
NP: Noun phrase
PP: Prepositional phrase
Article
Adjective
Noun
preposition
Noun
(definite)
(common)
(propper)
PREDICATE
Object (direct)
Attribute
Attribute
bare
Object
Determination Modification
the
new
Adverbial Adjunct
of Time
Patient
Temporal frame
book
On Tuesday
80
TOPICS TO DISCUSS
At the end of the course the students are expected to be able to discuss some basic grammatical concepts: to
show understanding of the main terminology and to provide relevant English examples illustrating their
classication and theoretical claims. The following topics are more or less similar to those which appear at the
final state exam (in the part concerning English language - grammar).
1.
Nouns. Explain how and why words are classified into parts of speech/word classes.
Describe in detail the category of Noun: give its classifications related to (i) semantics
(proper vs. common, abstract vs. concrete), (ii) morphology (derivational morphemes,
inflectional paradigms related to Countability/Number, Animacy/Gender, Case), and (iii)
syntax (the structure of NPs and their functions). Demonstrate each phenomenon with
prototypical examples and standard exceptions.
2.
Pronouns. Provide a classification of English pronouns, giving examples of each
group. Concentrate on properties of personal pronouns with respect to (i)
meaning/semantics, (ii) form/morphology and (iii) usage/distribution/syntax. Mention the
notion of anaphor (discourse and syntactic), and demonstrate this contrast showing the
distinction between English personal and reflexive/reciprocal pronouns.
3.
Verbs. Explain how and why words are classified into parts of speech/word classes.
Describe in detail the category of verbs in English: give its classifications related to (i)
semantics (dynamic vs. stative verbs), (ii) morphology (esp. inflectional paradigm related to
Tense, Aspect, Voice), and (iii) syntax (Auxiliary/Modal/Lexical verbs, and classification
based on verbal subcategorisation). Demonstrate each phenomenon with both prototypical
examples and standard exceptions.
4.
Clause structure. Start with the logical structure of a clause, demonstrating the
concept of verbal event, and its participants (classification of the main semantic roles).
Demonstrate for both active and passive patterns how the logical structure is formally
realised in English into a clause (i.e. show the variety of frequent correlations between
semantic roles and sentence members).
5.
Subjects. Explain briefly but generally the concept and classification of syntagmatic
relations/sentence members/functions. Demonstrate in more detail the function of Subject
in English. Describe its (i) semantics (semantic role(s)), (ii) morphology (Subject Case and
Agreement) and (iii) syntax (position in declarative, interrogative and imperative clausal
patterns). Explain with examples the function of English expletive subjects (there and it).
6.
Objects. Explain briefly and generally the concept and classification of syntagmatic
relations/ sentence members/ functions. Demonstrate in more detail the function of Object
in English. Describe its (i) semantics (semantic role(s)), (ii) morphology (Object Case) and
(iii) syntax (i.e. position with respect to the verb and to adjuncts). Describe the process of
passivisation, mentioning in detail the distinction between active and passive structures.
7.
Clausal word order. Demonstrate distinct sentence patterns in English. First, explain
the concept of operator (the first Modal/ Auxiliary), provide the orders for declaratives and
interrogatives and for affirmative and negated patterns. Then describe in more detail the
post-verbal part of a clause related to verbal subcategorisation (transitive vs. intransitive,
double objects, the order of object(s) and adverbials, etc.).
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RELATED LITERATURE
The list A below gives practical manuals of English grammar which can help students not
fully familiar with the pratical usage of the structures discussed. The working knowledge of
this manuals is assumed for the course.
The list B provides bibliography for the more theoretical manuals covering the topics in
more detail. They provide some discussion of the phenomena, provide much more data and
demonstrate alternative terminologies and analyses.
The list C provides bibliography for the cited works and some additional literature related
to the topics discussed in the course.
A.
PRACTICAL MANUALS
Alexander, L.G. (1993): Longman Advanced Grammar. Reference and Practice. Longman.
Hewings, Martin (2005): Advanced Grammar in Use (2nd edition) with answers and CD
ROM. CUP.
Jones, Leo (1991): Cambridge Advanced English. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.
Leech, Geoffrey & Svartvik, Jan (1975) A Communicative Grammar of English.
Longman, London.
Murphy, Raymond (2004): English Grammar in Use With Answers and CD ROM : A
Self-Study Reference and Practice Book for Intermediate Students of English. 3rd
edition. CUP.
Svoboda, Ale (2004) Lectures on English Syntax. Filozofick fakulta Ostravsk
univerzity, Ostrava.
B.
THEORETICAL MANUALS
Dukov, Libue (1994) Mluvnice souasn anglitiny na pozad etiny. Academia Praha,
Prague.
Huddleston, Rodney and Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2002) The Cambridge Grammar of the
English Language. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Huddleston, Rodney and Pullum, Geoffrey K. (2005): A Students Introduction to English
Grammar. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Leech, Geoffrey (1971) Meaning and the English Verb. 3rd edition. Longman, London
2004.
Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G. & Svartvik, J. (2004) A Comprehensive Grammar
of the English Language. Longman, London
Quirk, R., and Greenbaum, S. (1991): A Students Grammar of the English language.
Longman1991.
C.
Akmajian, A., Demers, R.A., Farmer, A.K. & Harnish, R.M. (1990) Linguistics: An
Introduction to Language and Communication. MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass.
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