John Locke

For other people named John Locke, see John Locke (dis- self through a continuity of consciousness. He postulated
ambiguation).
that, at birth, the mind was a blank slate or tabula rasa.
John Locke FRS (/lk/; 29 August 1632 28 Octo- Contrary to Cartesian philosophy based on pre-existing
concepts, he maintained that we are born without innate
ideas, and that knowledge is instead determined only by
experience derived from sense perception.[6]

1 Biography
Lockes father, also called John, was a country lawyer and
clerk to the Justices of the Peace in Chew Magna,[7] who
had served as a captain of cavalry for the Parliamentarian
forces during the early part of the English Civil War. His
mother was Agnes Keene. Both parents were Puritans.
Locke was born on 29 August 1632, in a small thatched
cottage by the church in Wrington, Somerset, about
twelve miles from Bristol. He was baptised the same day.
Soon after Lockes birth, the family moved to the market
town of Pensford, about seven miles south of Bristol,
where Locke grew up in a rural Tudor house in Belluton.
In 1647, Locke was sent to the prestigious Westminster
School in London under the sponsorship of Alexander
Popham, a member of Parliament and his fathers former commander. After completing his studies there, he
was admitted to Christ Church, Oxford. The dean of the
college at the time was John Owen, vice-chancellor of
the university. Although a capable student, Locke was
irritated by the undergraduate curriculum of the time.
He found the works of modern philosophers, such as
Ren Descartes, more interesting than the classical material taught at the university. Through his friend Richard
Lower, whom he knew from the Westminster School,
Locke was introduced to medicine and the experimental
philosophy being pursued at other universities and in the
Royal Society, of which he eventually became a member.

John Lockes Kit-cat portrait by Godfrey Kneller, National Portrait Gallery, London

ber 1704), was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most inuential of Enlightenment
thinkers and known as the Father of Classical Liberalism".[2][3][4] Considered one of the rst of the British
empiricists, following the tradition of Francis Bacon, he
is equally important to social contract theory. His work
greatly aected the development of epistemology and
political philosophy. His writings inuenced Voltaire and
Rousseau, many Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well
as the American revolutionaries. His contributions to
classical republicanism and liberal theory are reected in
the United States Declaration of Independence.[5]

Locke was awarded a bachelors degree in 1656 and a

masters degree in 1658. He obtained a bachelor of
medicine in 1674, having studied medicine extensively
during his time at Oxford and worked with such noted
scientists and thinkers as Robert Boyle, Thomas Willis,
Robert Hooke and Richard Lower. In 1666, he met Lord
Anthony Ashley Cooper, 1st Earl of Shaftesbury, who
had come to Oxford seeking treatment for a liver infecLockes theory of mind is often cited as the origin of mod- tion. Cooper was impressed with Locke and persuaded
ern conceptions of identity and the self, guring promi- him to become part of his retinue.
nently in the work of later philosophers such as Hume, Locke had been looking for a career and in 1667 moved
Rousseau, and Kant. Locke was the rst to dene the into Shaftesburys home at Exeter House in London, to
1

2
serve as Lord Ashleys personal physician. In London,
Locke resumed his medical studies under the tutelage of
Thomas Sydenham. Sydenham had a major eect on
Lockes natural philosophical thinking an eect that
would become evident in An Essay Concerning Human
Understanding.

1 BIOGRAPHY
was once thought that Locke wrote the Treatises to defend the Glorious Revolution of 1688, recent scholarship
has shown that the work was composed well before this
date.[9] The work is now viewed as a more general argument against absolute monarchy (particularly as espoused
by Robert Filmer and Thomas Hobbes) and for individual consent as the basis of political legitimacy. Though
Locke was associated with the inuential Whigs, his ideas
about natural rights and government are today considered
quite revolutionary for that period in English history.

Lockes medical knowledge was put to the test when

Shaftesburys liver infection became life-threatening.
Locke coordinated the advice of several physicians and
was probably instrumental in persuading Shaftesbury to
undergo an operation (then life-threatening itself) to re- Locke ed to the Netherlands in 1683, under strong susmove the cyst. Shaftesbury survived and prospered, cred- picion of involvement in the Rye House Plot, although
iting Locke with saving his life.
there is little evidence to suggest that he was directly
It was in Shaftesburys household, during 1671, that the involved in the scheme. The philosopher and novelist
meeting took place, described in the Epistle to the reader Rebecca Newberger Goldstein argues that during his ve
of the Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which years in Holland, Locke chose his friends from among
inspired the Essay. Two extant drafts still survive from the same freethinking members of dissenting Protesthis period. Also during this time, Locke served as Sec- tant groups as Spinozas small group of loyal condants.
retary of the Board of Trade and Plantations and Secre- [Baruch Spinoza had died in 1677.] Locke almost certary to the Lords Proprietor of Carolina, which helped to tainly met men in Amsterdam who spoke of the ideas of
that renegade Jew who... insisted on identifying himself
shape his ideas on international trade and economics.
through his religion of reason alone. While she says that
Lockes strong empiricist tendencies would have disinclined him to read a grandly metaphysical work such
as Spinozas Ethics (book), in other ways he was deeply
receptive to Spinozas ideas, most particularly to the rationalists well thought out argument for political and religious tolerance and the necessity of the separation of
church and state.[10]
In the Netherlands, Locke had time to return to his writing, spending a great deal of time re-working the Essay
and composing the Letter on Toleration. Locke did not return home until after the Glorious Revolution. Locke accompanied William of Orange's wife back to England in
1688. The bulk of Lockes publishing took place upon his
return from exile his aforementioned Essay Concerning
Human Understanding, the Two Treatises of Civil Government and A Letter Concerning Toleration all appearing
in quick succession.
Lockes close friend Lady Masham invited him to join
her at the Mashams country house in Essex. Although
his time there was marked by variable health from asthma
attacks, he nevertheless became an intellectual hero of the
Whigs. During this period he discussed matters with such
gures as John Dryden and Isaac Newton.
He died on 28 October 1704, and is buried in the churchyard of the village of High Laver,[11] east of Harlow in
Shaftesbury, as a founder of the Whig movement, ex- Essex, where he had lived in the household of Sir Franerted great inuence on Lockes political ideas. Locke be- cis Masham since 1691. Locke never married nor had
came involved in politics when Shaftesbury became Lord children.
Chancellor in 1672. Following Shaftesburys fall from
Events that happened during Lockes lifetime include the
favour in 1675, Locke spent some time travelling across
[8] English Restoration, the Great Plague of London and the
France as tutor and medical attendant to Caleb Banks.
Great Fire of London. He did not quite see the Act of
He returned to England in 1679 when Shaftesburys politUnion of 1707, though the thrones of England and Scotical fortunes took a brief positive turn. Around this time,
land were held in personal union throughout his lifetime.
most likely at Shaftesburys prompting, Locke composed
Constitutional monarchy and parliamentary democracy
the bulk of the Two Treatises of Government. While it
John Locke

2.1

Theories of religious tolerance

were in their infancy during Lockes time.

Inuence

In the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries,

Lockes Two Treatises were not frequently cited. The
historian Julian Hoppit has claimed that the book, except among some Whigs, even as a contribution to the intense debate of the 1690s it made little impression and
was generally ignored until 1703 (though in Oxford in
1695 it was reported to have made 'a great noise')".[12]
John Kenyon in his study of British political debate from
1689 to 1720, has remarked that Lockes theories were
mentioned so rarely in the early stages of the [Glorious]
Revolution, up to 1692, and even less thereafter, unless it
was to heap abuse on them and that no one, including
most Whigs, [were] ready for the idea of a notional or abstract contract of the kind adumbrated by Locke.[13] In
contrast, Kenyon adds that Algernon Sidney's Discourses
Concerning Government were certainly much more inuential than Lockes Two Treatises".[14]
In the fty years after Queen Annes death in 1714, the
Two Treatises were reprinted only once (apart from in
the collected works of Locke). However with the rise of
American resistance to British attempts to tax them, the
Second Treatise gained a new readership; it was frequently
cited in the debates in both America and Britain. The rst
American printing occurred in 1773 in Boston.[15]
Locke exercised a profound inuence on political philosophy, in particular on modern liberalism. Michael Zuckert has argued that Locke launched liberalism by tempering Hobbesian absolutism and clearly separating the
realms of Church and State. He had a strong inuence
on Voltaire who called him le sage Locke. His arguments concerning liberty and the social contract later inuenced the written works of Alexander Hamilton, James
Madison, Thomas Jeerson, and other Founding Fathers
of the United States. In fact, one passage from the
Second Treatise is reproduced verbatim in the Declaration of Independence, the reference to a long train of
abuses. Such was Lockes inuence that Thomas Jeerson wrote: "Bacon, Locke and Newton... I consider them
as the three greatest men that have ever lived, without
any exception, and as having laid the foundation of those
superstructures which have been raised in the Physical
and Moral sciences.[16][17][18] Today, most contemporary libertarians claim Locke as an inuence.
But Lockes inuence may have been even more profound in the realm of epistemology. Locke redened
subjectivity, or self, and intellectual historians such as
Charles Taylor and Jerrold Seigel argue that Lockes An
Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) marks
the beginning of the modern Western conception of the
self.[19][20]

2.1 Theories of religious tolerance

Locke, writing his Letters Concerning Toleration (1689
92) in the aftermath of the European wars of religion, formulated a classic reasoning for religious tolerance. Three
arguments are central: (1) Earthly judges, the state in particular, and human beings generally, cannot dependably
evaluate the truth-claims of competing religious standpoints; (2) Even if they could, enforcing a single true
religion would not have the desired eect, because belief cannot be compelled by violence; (3) Coercing religious uniformity would lead to more social disorder than
allowing diversity.[21]
With regard to his position on religious tolerance, Locke
was inuenced by Baptist theologians like John Smyth
and Thomas Helwys, who had published tracts demanding freedom of conscience in the early seventeenth
century.[22][23][24] Baptist theologian Roger Williams
founded the colony Rhode Island in 1636, where he combined a democratic constitution with unlimited religious
freedom. His tract The Bloody Tenent of Persecution for
Cause of Conscience (1644), which was widely read in
the mother country, was a passionate plea for absolute
religious freedom and the total separation of church and
state.[25] Freedom of conscience had had high priority on
the theological, philosophical and political agenda, since
Martin Luther refused to recant his beliefs before the Diet
of the Holy Roman Empire at Worms in 1521, unless he
would be proved false by the Bible.[26] Locke was part of
this Protestant tradition. He was also inuenced by the
liberal ideas of Presbyterian politician and famous poet
John Milton, who was a staunch advocate of freedom in
all its forms.[27] As assistant to Oliver Cromwell, Milton
took part in drafting a constitution of the Independents
(Agreement of the People; 1647) that strongly stressed the
equality of all humans as a consequence of democratic
tendencies.[28]

2.2 Constitution of Carolina

Appraisals of Locke have often been tied to appraisals
of liberalism in general, and also to appraisals of the
United States. Detractors note that (in 1671) he was
a major investor in the English slave-trade through the
Royal African Company. In addition, he participated in
drafting the Fundamental Constitutions of Carolina while
Shaftesbury's secretary, which established a feudal aristocracy and gave a master absolute power over his slaves.
For example, Martin Cohen notes that Locke, as a secretary to the Council of Trade and Plantations (16734)
and a member of the Board of Trade (16961700), was
in fact, one of just half a dozen men who created and
supervised both the colonies and their iniquitous systems
of servitude.[29] Some see his statements on unenclosed
property as having been intended to justify the displacement of the Native Americans.[30][31] Because of his opposition to aristocracy and slavery in his major writings,

2 INFLUENCE

he is accused of hypocrisy and racism, or of caring only to have profound inuence on the Declaration of Indefor the liberty of English capitalists.[32]
pendence and the Constitution of the United States.

2.3

Theory of value and property

2.4.1 Limits to accumulation

Locke uses the word property in both broad and narrow See also: Lockean proviso
senses. In a broad sense, it covers a wide range of human interests and aspirations; more narrowly, it refers to
property is waste and an
material goods. He argues that property is a natural right According to Locke, unused
[38]
oence
against
nature,
but,
with the introduction of
and it is derived from labour.
durable goods, men could exchange their excessive perIn Chapter V of his Second Treatise, Locke argues that the ishable goods for goods that would last longer and thus
individual ownership of goods and property is justied not oend the natural law. In his view, the introduction
by the labour exerted to produce those goods or utilise of money marks the culmination of this process, making
property to produce goods benecial to human society.[33] possible the unlimited accumulation of property without
[39]
Locke stated his belief, in his Second Treatise, that nature causing waste through spoilage. He also includes gold
on its own provides little of value to society; he provides or silver as money because they may be hoarded up with[40]
the implication that the labour expended in the creation of out injury to anyone, since they do not spoil or decay
goods gives them their value. This is used as supporting in the hands of the possessor. In his view, the introduction
evidence for the interpretation of Lockes labour theory of money eliminates the limits of accumulation. Locke
of property as a labour theory of value, in his implication stresses that inequality has come about by tacit agreement
that goods produced by nature are of little value, unless on the use of money, not by the social contract estabcombined with labour in their production and that labour lishing civil society or the law of land regulating property. Locke is aware of a problem posed by unlimited
is what gives goods their value.[33]
accumulation but does not consider it his task. He just
Locke believed that ownership of property is created by implies that government would function to moderate the
the application of labour. In addition, he believed prop- conict between the unlimited accumulation of property
erty precedes government and government cannot dis- and a more nearly equal distribution of wealth; he does
pose of the estates of the subjects arbitrarily. Karl Marx not identify which principles that government should aplater critiqued Lockes theory of property in his own so- ply to solve this problem. However, not all elements of
cial theory.
his thought form a consistent whole. For example, labour
theory of value of the Two Treatises of Government stands
side by side with the demand-and-supply theory devel2.4 Political theory
oped in a letter he wrote titled Some Considerations on the
Consequences
of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising
See also: Two Treatises of Government
of the Value of Money. Moreover, Locke anchors property in labour but in the end upholds the unlimited accuLockes political theory was founded on social contract mulation of wealth.[41]
theory. Unlike Thomas Hobbes, Locke believed that
human nature is characterised by reason and tolerance.
Like Hobbes, Locke believed that human nature allowed 2.5 On price theory
men to be selsh. This is apparent with the introduction
of currency. In a natural state all people were equal and Lockes general theory of value and price is a supply and
independent, and everyone had a natural right to defend demand theory, which was set out in a letter to a Memhis Life, health, Liberty, or Possessions.[34] Most schol- ber of Parliament in 1691, titled Some Considerations
ars trace the phrase "life, liberty, and the pursuit of hap- on the Consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the
piness, in the American Declaration of Independence, Raising of the Value of Money.[42] He refers to supply as
to Lockes theory of rights,[35] though other origins have quantity and demand es "rent". The price of any combeen suggested.[36]
modity rises or falls by the proportion of the number of
Like Hobbes, Locke assumed that the sole right to defend in the state of nature was not enough, so people established a civil society to resolve conicts in a civil way
with help from government in a state of society. However, Locke never refers to Hobbes by name and may instead have been responding to other writers of the day.[37]
Locke also advocated governmental separation of powers
and believed that revolution is not only a right but an obligation in some circumstances. These ideas would come

buyer and sellers. and that which regulates the price...

[of goods] is nothing else but their quantity in proportion to their rent. The quantity theory of money forms
a special case of this general theory. His idea is based
on money answers all things (Ecclesiastes) or rent of
money is always sucient, or more than enough, and
varies very little... Locke concludes that as far as money
is concerned, the demand is exclusively regulated by its
quantity, regardless of whether the demand for money is

5
unlimited or constant. He also investigates the determinants of demand and supply. For supply, he explains the
value of goods as based on their scarcity and ability to
be exchanged and consumed. He explains demand for
goods as based on their ability to yield a ow of income.
Locke develops an early theory of capitalisation, such as
land, which has value because by its constant production
of saleable commodities it brings in a certain yearly income. He considers the demand for money as almost the
same as demand for goods or land; it depends on whether
money is wanted as medium of exchange or as loanable
funds. As a medium of exchange, he states that money
is capable by exchange to procure us the necessaries or
conveniences of life, and for loanable funds, it comes
to be of the same nature with land by yielding a certain
yearly income... or interest.
2.5.1

Monetary thoughts

Locke distinguishes two functions of money, as a

counter to measure value, and as a pledge to lay claim
to goods. He believes that silver and gold, as opposed to
paper money, are the appropriate currency for international transactions. Silver and gold, he says, are treated
to have equal value by all of humanity and can thus be
treated as a pledge by anyone, while the value of paper
money is only valid under the government which issues
it.
Locke argues that a country should seek a favourable
balance of trade, lest it fall behind other countries and
suer a loss in its trade. Since the world money stock
grows constantly, a country must constantly seek to enlarge its own stock. Locke develops his theory of foreign
exchanges, in addition to commodity movements, there
are also movements in country stock of money, and movements of capital determine exchange rates. He considers
the latter less signicant and less volatile than commodity
movements. As for a countrys money stock, if it is large
relative to that of other countries, he says it will cause the
countrys exchange to rise above par, as an export balance
would do.
He also prepares estimates of the cash requirements for
dierent economic groups (landholders, labourers and
brokers). In each group he posits that the cash requirements are closely related to the length of the pay period.
He argues the brokers middlemen whose activities
enlarge the monetary circuit and whose prots eat into
the earnings of labourers and landholders, have a negative inuence on both personal and the public economy
to which they supposedly contribute.

sensible, or conscious of pleasure and pain, capable of

happiness or misery, and so is concerned for itself, as far
as that consciousness extends.[43] He does not, however,
ignore substance, writing that the body too goes to the
making the man.[44]
In his Essay, Locke explains the gradual unfolding of this
conscious mind. Arguing against both the Augustinian
view of man as originally sinful and the Cartesian position, which holds that man innately knows basic logical propositions, Locke posits an empty mind, a tabula rasa, which is shaped by experience; sensations and
reections being the two sources of all our ideas.[45]
Lockes Some Thoughts Concerning Education is an outline on how to educate this mind: he expresses the belief
that education maketh the man, or, more fundamentally,
that the mind is an empty cabinet, with the statement,
I think I may say that of all the men we meet with, nine
parts of ten are what they are, good or evil, useful or not,
by their education.[46]
Locke also wrote that the little and almost insensible
impressions on our tender infancies have very important and lasting consequences.[46] He argued that the
"associations of ideas" that one makes when young are
more important than those made later because they are
the foundation of the self: they are, put dierently, what
rst mark the tabula rasa. In his Essay, in which both
these concepts are introduced, Locke warns against, for
example, letting a foolish maid convince a child that
goblins and sprites are associated with the night for
darkness shall ever afterwards bring with it those frightful ideas, and they shall be so joined, that he can no more
bear the one than the other.[47]
Associationism, as this theory would come to be called,
exerted a powerful inuence over eighteenth-century
thought, particularly educational theory, as nearly every educational writer warned parents not to allow their
children to develop negative associations. It also led
to the development of psychology and other new disciplines with David Hartley's attempt to discover a biological mechanism for associationism in his Observations on
Man (1749).

3 Religious beliefs

Some scholars have seen Lockes political convictions as

deriving from his religious beliefs.[48][49][50] Lockes religious trajectory began in Calvinist trinitarianism, but by
the time of the Reections (1695) Locke was advocating
not just Socinian views on tolerance but also Socinian
Christology; with veiled denial of the pre-existence of
2.6 The self
Christ.[51] However Wainwright (1987) notes that in the
posthumously published Paraphrase (1707) Lockes inLocke denes the self as that conscious thinking thing, terpretation of one verse, Ephesians 1:10, is markedly
(whatever substance, made up of whether spiritual, or ma- dierent from that of Socinians like Biddle, and may interial, simple, or compounded, it matters not) which is dicate that near the end of his life Locke returned nearer

6
to an Arian position.[52]

5 SEE ALSO
etc. , did he examine as a philosopher which consequences they had in the abovementioned way. Following Locke, the American Declaration of Independence
founded human rights on the biblical belief in creation:
All men are created equal, (...) they are endowed by their
Creator with certain unalienable rights, (...) life, liberty,
and the pursuit of happiness. Lockes doctrine that governments need the consent of the governed is also central
to the Declaration of Independence.

Locke was at times not sure about the subject of original

sin, so he was accused of Socianism, Arianism, or
Deism.[53] But he did not deny the reality of evil. Man
was capable of waging unjust wars and committing
crimes. Criminals had to be punished, even with the
death penalty.[54] With regard to the Bible Locke was very
conservative. He retained the doctrine of the verbal inspiration of the Scriptures.[22] The miracles were proofs
of the divine nature of the biblical message. Locke was
convinced that the entire content of the Bible was in
agreement with human reason (The reasonableness of 4 List of major works
Christianity, 1695).[55][22] Although Locke was an ad A Letter Concerning Toleration, 1689.
vocate of tolerance, he urged the authorities not to tolerate atheism, because he thought the denial of Gods
(1690) A Second Letter Concerning Toleration
existence would undermine the social order and lead to
(1692) A Third Letter for Toleration
chaos.[56] That excluded all atheistic varieties of philosophy and all attempts to deduce ethics and natural law
(1689) Two Treatises of Government
from purely secular premises, for example, mans au (1690) An Essay Concerning Human Understanding
tonomy or dignity or human ourishing.[57] In Lockes
opinion the cosmological argument was valid and proved
(1691) Some Considerations on the consequences of
Gods existence. His political thought was based on a
the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the Value
particular set of Protestant Christian assumptions.[57][58]
of Money
Lockes concept of man started with the belief in cre (1693) Some Thoughts Concerning Education
ation. We have been sent into the World by [Gods] order, and about his business, [we] are his Property, whose
(1695) The Reasonableness of Christianity, as DelivWorkmanship [we] are, made to last during his, not one
ered in the Scriptures
anothers Pleasure.[59] Like the two other very inuen (1695) A Vindication of the Reasonableness of
tial natural-law philosophers, Hugo Grotius and Samuel
Christianity
Pufendorf, Locke equated natural law with the biblical
revelation, since in their view both had originated in God
and could therefore not contradict each other.[60][61] As 4.1 Major posthumous manuscripts
a philosopher, Locke was intensely interested in Christian
doctrine, and in the Reasonableness he insisted that most
(1660) First Tract of Government (or the English
men could not hope to understand the detailed requireTract)
ments of the law of nature without the assistance of the
(c.1662) Second Tract of Government (or the Latin
teachings and example of Jesus.[62] Locke derived the
Tract)
fundamental concepts of his political theory from biblical texts, in particular from Genesis 1 and 2 (creation),
(1664) Questions Concerning the Law of Nature
the Decalogue (Exodus 20), the Golden Rule (Matthew
(denitive Latin text, with facing accurate English
7:12), the teachings of Jesus (e.g. his doctrine of charity,
trans. in Robert Horwitz et al., eds., John Locke,
Matthew 19:19), and the letters of (Paul).[63] The DecaQuestions Concerning the Law of Nature, Ithaca:
logue (Ten Commandments) puts a persons life, his or
Cornell University Press, 1990).
her honourable reputation (i.e. honour and dignity), and
(1667) Essay Concerning Toleration
property under Gods protection. Freedom is another major theme in the Old Testament. For instance, Gods
(1706) Of the Conduct of the Understanding
actions in liberating the Israelites from Egyptian slav (1707) A paraphrase and notes on the Epistles of St.
ery in the Decalogues prologue (Exodus 20:2) were the
Paul to the Galatians, 1 and 2 Corinthians, Romans,
precondition for the following commandments. MoreEphesians
over, Locke derived basic human equality, including the
equality of the sexes (Adam and Eve) from Genesis
1:2628, the starting point of the theological doctrine of
Imago Dei.[64] To Locke, one of the consequences of the 5 See also
principle of equality was that all humans were created
equally free and therefore governments needed the con Libertarianism
sent of the governed.[65] Only when Locke had derived
List of liberal theorists
the fundamental aspects of his concept of man and ethics
from the biblical texts life, equality, private property,
U.S. Constitution, inuences

6.1

Notes

References

6.1

Notes

[1] Laslett 1988, p. 68, Locke and Hobbes.

[2] Locke, John. A Letter Concerning Toleration Routledge,
New York, 1991. p. 5 (Introduction)
[3] Delaney, Tim. The march of unreason: science, democracy, and the new fundamentalism Oxford University
Press, New York, 2005. p. 18
[4] Godwin, Kenneth et al. School choice tradeos: liberty,
equity, and diversity University of Texas Press, Austin,
2002. p. 12
[5] Becker, Carl Lotus. The Declaration of Independence:
A Study in the History of Political Ideas Harcourt, Brace,
1922. p. 27
[6] Baird, Forrest E; Kaufmann, Walter (2008), From Plato to
Derrida, Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall,
pp. 52729, ISBN 0-13-158591-6
[7] Broad, CD (2000), Ethics And the History of Philosophy,
UK: Routledge, ISBN 0-415-22530-2

and as having laid the foundation of those superstructures

which have been raised in the Physical & Moral sciences.
[18] Jeerson called Bacon, Newton, and Locke, who had so
indelibly shaped his ideas, my trinity of the three greatest men the world had ever produced"". Explorer. Monticello. Retrieved 28 August 2012.
[19] Seigel, Jerrold. The Idea of the Self: Thought and Experience in Western Europe since the Seventeenth Century.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press (2005).
[20] Taylor, Charles (1989), Sources of the Self: The Making of
Modern Identity, Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
[21] McGrath, Alister. 1998. Historical Theology, An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought. Oxford:
Blackwell Publishers. p. 2145.
[22] Heussi 1956.
[23] Olmstead 1960, p. 18.
[24] Stahl, H (1957), Baptisten, Die Religion in Geschichte
und Gegenwart (in German), 3. Auage, Band I, col. 863
[25] Olmstead 1960, pp. 1025.
[26] Olmstead 1960, p. 5.

[8] Henning, Basil Duke (1983-01-01), The House of Commons, 16601690 1, Google, ISBN 9780436192746, retrieved 28 August 2012
[9] Laslett 1988, III. Two Treatises of Government and the
Revolution of 1688.
[10] Rebecca Newberger Goldstein, Betraying Spinoza: The
Renegade Jew Who Gave Us Modernity, New York:
Schocken Books (2006), pp. 26061
[11] John Locke, Britannica Online.
[12] Julian Hoppit, A Land of Liberty? England. 16891727
(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), p. 195.
[13] John Kenyon, Revolution Principles. The Politics of Party.
16891720 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1977), p. 200.
[14] Kenyon, p. 51. Kenyon adds: Any unbiassed study of
the position shows in fact that it was Filmer, not Hobbes,
Locke or Sidney, who was the most inuential thinker of
the age. Kenyon, p. 63.
[15] J. R. Milton, Locke, John (16321704), Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press,
2004; online edn, May 2008, accessed 12 Sept 2013.
[16] The Three Greatest Men. Retrieved 13 June 2009. Jefferson identied Bacon, Locke, and Newton as the three
greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception.
Their works in the physical and moral sciences were instrumental in Jeersons education and world view.
[17] Jeerson, Thomas. The Letters: 17431826 Bacon,
Locke, and Newton. Retrieved 13 June 2009. Bacon,
Locke and Newton, whose pictures I will trouble you to
have copied for me: and as I consider them as the three
greatest men that have ever lived, without any exception,

[27] Bornkamm, Heinrich (1962), Toleranz.

In der
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[29] Cohen, Martin (2008), Philosophical Tales, Blackwell, p.
101.
[30] Tully, James (2007), An Approach to Political Philosophy: Locke in Contexts, New York: Cambridge University
Press, p. 128, ISBN 978-0521436380
[31] Farr, J (1986), I. 'So Vile and Miserable an Estate': The Problem of Slavery in Lockes Political Thought, Political Theory 14 (2):
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doi:10.1177/0090591786014002005, JSTOR 191463
[32] Farr, J. (2008), Locke, Natural Law, and New
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[33] Vaughn, Karen (1978), John Locke and the Labor Theory
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[34] Locke, John (1690), Second Treatise of Government (10th
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[35] Zuckert, Michael (1996), The Natural Rights Republic,
Notre Dame University Press, pp. 7385
[36] Wills, Garry (2002), Inventing America: Jeersons Declaration of Independence, Boston: Houghton Miin Co
[37] Skinner, Quentin, Visions of Politics, Cambridge.

[38] Locke, John (2009), Two Treatises on Government: A

Translation Into Modern English, Industrial Systems Research, p. 81, ISBN 978-0-906321-47-8
[39] John Locke: Inequality is inevitable and necessary (MS
PowerPoint). Department of Philosophy The University
of Hong Kong. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
[40] Locke, John. Second Treatise. The Founders Constitution. 2551, 12326. Retrieved 1 September 2011.
[41] Cli, Cobb; Foldvary, Fred. John Locke on Property.
The School of Cooperative Individualism. Retrieved 14
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[42] Locke, John (1691), Some Considerations on the consequences of the Lowering of Interest and the Raising of the
Value of Money, Marxists.
[43] Locke 1997, p. 307.
[44] Locke 1997, p. 306.
[45] The American International Encyclopedia 9, New York:
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[46] Locke 1996, p. 10.
[47] Locke 1997, p. 357.
[48] Forster, Greg (2005), John Lockes politics of moral consensus.
[49] Parker, Kim Ian (2004), The biblical politics of John
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[50] Locke, John (2002), Nuovo, Victor, ed., Writings on religion, Oxford.
[51] Marshall, John (1994), John Locke: resistance, religion
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[52] Locke 1987, p. 806.

REFERENCES

[62] Waldron 2002, p. 12.

[63] Waldron 2002, pp. 2243, 4546, 101, 15358, 195,
197.
[64] Waldron 2002, pp. 2143.
[65] Waldron 2002, p. 136.

6.2 Citations
Heussi,
Karl (1956),
Kompendium der
Kirchengeschichte (in German), Tbingen, DE,
11. Auage, Seite 398.
Laslett, Peter (1988), Introduction, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press to Locke, John, Two
Treatises of Government.
Locke, John (1996), Grant, Ruth W; Tarcov,
Nathan, eds., Some Thoughts Concerning Education and of the Conduct of the Understanding,
Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Co, p. 10.
Locke, John (1997), Woolhouse, Roger, ed., An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, New York:
Penguin Books.
Olmstead, Clifton E (1960), History of Religion in
the United States, Englewood Clis, NJ: PrenticeHall.
Waldron, Jeremy (2002), God, Locke, and Equality:
Christian Foundations in Lockes Political Thought,
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, ISBN
978-0-521-89057-1.

6.3 Sources

[53] Waldron 2002, pp. 27, 223.

[54] Waldron 2002, p. 145.
[55] Henrich, D (1960), Locke, John, Die Religion in
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IV, Spalte 426
[56] Waldron 2002, pp. 217 .
[57] Waldron 2002, p. 13.
[58] Dunn, John (1969), The Political Thought of John Locke:
A Historical Account of the Argument of the 'Two Treatises
of Government', Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
Press, p. 99, "[The Two Treatises of Government are] saturated with Christian assumptions..
[59] Waldron 2002, pp. 142.

Ashcraft, Richard, 1986. Revolutionary Politics &

Lockes Two Treatises of Government. Princeton:
Princeton University Press. Discusses the relationship between Lockes philosophy and his political
activities.
Ayers, Michael, 1991. Locke. Epistemology & Ontology Routledge (the standard work on Lockes Essay Concerning Human Understanding.)
Bailyn, Bernard, 1992 (1967). The Ideological Origins of the American Revolution. Harvard Uni.
Press. Discusses the inuence of Locke and other
thinkers upon the American Revolution and on subsequent American political thought.

[60] Elze, M (1958), Grotius, Hugo, Die Religion in

Geschichte und Gegenwart (in German), 3. Auage, Band
II, col. 18851886

Cohen, Gerald, 1995. 'Marx and Locke on Land and

Labour', in his Self-Ownership, Freedom and Equality, Oxford University Press.

[61] Hohlwein, H (1961), Pufendorf, Samuel Freiherr von,

Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart (in German), 3.
Auage, Band V, col. 721

Cox, Richard, Locke on War and Peace, Oxford:

Oxford University Press, 1960. A discussion of
Lockes theory of international relations.

9
Chappell, Vere, ed., 1994. The Cambridge Companion to Locke. Cambridge U.P. excerpt and text
search
Dunn, John, 1984. Locke. Oxford Uni. Press. A
succinct introduction.
, 1969. The Political Thought of John Locke:
An Historical Account of the Argument of the Two
Treatises of Government. Cambridge Uni. Press.
Introduced the interpretation which emphasises the
theological element in Lockes political thought.
Hudson, Nicholas, John Locke and the Tradition
of Nominalism, in: Nominalism and Literary Discourse, ed. Hugo Keiper, Christoph Bode, and
Richard Utz (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1997), pp. 283
99.

Waldron, Jeremy, 2002. God, Locke and Equality.

Cambridge Uni. Press.
Yolton, John W., ed., 1969. John Locke: Problems
and Perspectives. Cambridge Uni. Press.
Yolton, John W., ed., 1993. A Locke Dictionary.
Oxford: Blackwell.
Zuckert, Michael, Launching Liberalism: On Lockean Political Philosophy. Lawrence, KS: University
Press of Kansas.
Locke Studies, appearing annually from 2001, formerly The Locke Newsletter (19702000), publishes
scholarly work on John Locke.

7 External links

Mack, Eric (2008). Locke, John (16321704)".

In Hamowy, Ronald. The Encyclopedia of Libertarianism. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE; Cato Insti- 7.1 Works
tute. pp. 3057. ISBN 978-1-4129-6580-4. LCCN
The Clarendon Edition of the Works of John Locke
2008009151. OCLC 750831024.
Macpherson. CB The Political Theory of Possessive
Individualism: Hobbes to Locke (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1962). Establishes the deep anity from Hobbes to Harrington, the Levellers, and
Locke through to nineteenth-century utilitarianism.
Moseley, Alexander (2007), John Locke: Continuum
Library of Educational Thought, Continuum, ISBN
0-8264-8405-0
Pangle, Thomas, The Spirit of Modern Republicanism: The Moral Vision of the American Founders
and the Philosophy of Locke (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1988; paperback ed., 1990), 334
pages. Challenges Dunns, Tullys, Yoltons, and
other conventional readings.
Robinson, Dave; Groves, Judy (2003), Introducing
Political Philosophy, Icon Books, ISBN 1-84046450-X
Rousseau, George S. (2004), Nervous Acts: Essays on Literature, Culture and Sensibility, Palgrave
Macmillan, ISBN 1-4039-3453-3

Of the Conduct of the Understanding

John Locke eText Archive
Lockes works from Online Library of Liberty
Works by John Locke at Project Gutenberg
Links to online books by John Locke
The Works of John Locke
1823 Edition, 10 Volumes on PDF les, and
additional resources
1824 Edition, 9 volumes in multiple formats
John Locke Manuscripts
Updated versions of Essay Concerning Human Understanding, Second Treatise of Government, and
Letter on Toleration, edited by Jonathan Bennett
The Online Library of Liberty Two Treatises of
Government, ed. Thomas Hollis (A. Millar et al.,
1764)

Works by or about John Locke in libraries

Strauss, Leo. Natural Right and History, chap. 5B
(WorldCat catalog)
(Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1953). Argues from a non-Marxist point of view for a deep
anity between Hobbes and Locke.
7.2 Resources
Strauss, Leo (1958), Critical Note: Lockes Doctrine of Natural Law, The American Political Science
Review 52 (2): 490501, doi:10.2307/1952329,
JSTOR 1952329 A critique of W. von Leydens edition of Lockes unpublished writings on natural law.

John Locke entry by William Uzgalis in the Stanford

Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2007-05-05

Tully, James, 1980. A Discourse on Property : John

Locke and his Adversaries. Cambridge Uni. Press

John Locke: Political Philosophy entry in the

Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy

John Locke entry in the Internet Encyclopedia of

Philosophy

10
Locke, Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy,
UCSD.
John Locke Bibliography
Locke Studies An Annual Journal of Locke Research
Hewett, Caspar, John Lockes Theory of Knowledge,
UK: The great debate.
The Digital Locke Project, NL.
Portraits of Locke, UK: NPG.
Huyler, Jerome, Was Locke a Liberal?, Independent,
a complex and positive answer.
Timeline of the Life and Work of John Locke at The
Online Library of Liberty
Vaughn, Karen, Locke on Property (bibliographical
essay), The Online Library of Liberty, Liberty fund.
Constitutional Government: Lockes Second Treatise (15) on YouTube Transcript by Professor
Steven Smith
John Locke (16321704), The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics, Library of Economics and Liberty
(2nd ed.) (Liberty Fund), 2008

EXTERNAL LINKS

11

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