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Compressible Flow
Section 4 (continued)

Shock-Expansion Technique Applications :

Supersonic Aerofoils.
One could think of a general two-dimensional supersonic flow to be a combination of uniform
flow, shocks and expansion waves. We have developed tools to handle each one of these in the
preceding sections. A technique to calculate such a flow reveals itself and is called ShockExpansion Technique. In plain words it can be described as follows. Employ shock relations
where there is a shock and Prandtl-Meyer expansion relations where there is an expansion.
We now consider typical examples are flow past corners and aerofoils.
Flat Plate Aerofoil

Figure 4.18: Flat Plate Aerofoil at zero angle of attack

Consider a thin flat plate placed in a supersonic stream as shown in Fig. 4.18. For a zero angle
of attack, there is no flow turning anywhere on the flat plate. Consequently the pressure is
uniform on the suction and the pressure surfaces. Drag and lift are both zero. Now consider the
flow about the flat plate at an angle of attack equal to .
Interesting features are produced on the plate as shown in Fig. 4.19. The flows sees the leading
edge on the suction surface as a convex corner. A Prandtl-Meyer expansion results. At the
trailing edge the flow compresses itself through a shock. At the leading edge on the pressure
surface is a shock since it forms a concave corner.The flow leaves the trailing edge through an
expansion fan. A close look at the flow past the trailing edge shows that there are two streams
of gas - one, processed by expansion and shock on the suction surface and two, gas processed
by similar features on the pressure side. The two shocks are not of the same strength.
Consequently the gas streams are of different densities and temperatures. However, the
pressures and flow angles are equalised at the trailing edge.

Figure 4.19: Flat Plate Aerofoil at an angle of attack

This gives rise to a slip stream at the trailing edge. From the pressure distribution shown, lift
and drag can be calculated as

L= P l P u c cos

D= Pl P u c sin

(4.25)

where c is the chord. Note that this drag is not produced by viscosity as with incompressible or
subsonic flows. It is brought about by the waves (shock and expansion) which are unique to
supersonic flows. This is an example of Supersonic Wave Drag.
It is desirable to express drag and lift as drag and lift coefficients, CL and CD . These are
obtained by non-dimensionalising the corresponding forces with the term 1/2 U 2 A ,
where A is the area over which lift or drag force acts. This can be shown to be equal to
2
1/2 P M A .
Consequently, it can be shown that

C L=C PlC Pu cos

C D=C Pl C Pu sin

where Cpl and Cpu are the pressure coefficients on lower and upper surfaces.

(4.26)

Diamond Aerofoil

Figure 4.20: Flow about a Diamond Aerofoil

Consider a typical aerofoil for a supersonic flow i.e., a Diamond Aerofoil as shown in Fig. 4.20. A
flow at zero angle of attack produces the features as shown. At the leading edge we have a
shock each on the pressure and suction sides. Then at maximum thickness we have expansion
waves. The flow leaves the trailing edge through another shock system.
The flow is symmetrical in the flow normal direction and lift is zero. But there is a drag which is
given by,

D= P 1P 2 c sin w

(4.27)

It is possible to generalise the aerofoil and develop a formula for drag and lift. Consider an
aerofoil with a half wedge angle of w . Let be the orientation of any side of the aerofoil.
The pressures on each of the sides can now be summed to determine lift and drag coefficients
as follows -

P cos 1/2
C L=
In terms of Cp for each side we have

C L=

cos w

P M 2 c
2
C P cos
2 cos w

(4.28)

(4.29)

Similarly for drag we have,

P sin 1/ 2
C D=

P M2c
2

In terms of Cp for each side we have

C D=

cos w

C P sin
2 cos w

(4.30)

(4.31)

Thin Aerofoil Theory

The shock-Expansion technique we developed is accurate and also simple. However, it is a
numerical device requiring considerable book keeping. This is no problem today that we have
computers that can handle this efficiently. But in the past people were looking for methods,
which gave a closed form solution. One such is the Thin Aerofoil Theory. Now we consider
aerofoils that are thin and angles of attack small such that the flow is deflected only slightly
from the freestream direction. Consequently the shocks belong to the weak shock category.
Now the pressure change anywhere in the flow is given by,

P
M 2

P
M 21

(4.32)

As per our assumption, pressure, P is not far from P and the local Mach Number on the
aerofoil is not far from M making the above equation, reduce to
2

M
P

P M 2 1

Referring all pressures to

(4.33)

P and flow direction to that of the freestream, we have,

PP
M 2
=

P
M 2 1

(4.34)

This gives,

C P=

PP
/2 P M 2

M 2
2

M 2 M 2 1

2
M 2 1

(4.35)

(4.36)

(4.37)

Thus we have a simple expression for calculating Cp on any surface in the flow, say an aerofoil.
The interesting feature is that Cp depends upon the local flow inclination alone. What
feature caused that flow turning is of no consequence. We can now re-look at the examples we
considered before.
Flow about a Flat Plate Aerofoil at an Angle of Attack
Consider the Flat Plate Aerofoil previously treated in Section . The flow is inclined at an angle
on both the surfaces. Accordingly,

C Pu =

2
M 2 1

and

C Pl =

2
M 2 1

(4.38)

and

C D =C Pl C Pu sin

(4.39)

The lift and drag coefficients are given by,

C L=C PlC Pu cos

Substituting for Cp and noting that for small

4
C L=
M 2 1

, cos 1

and

42
C D=
M 21

and

sin

, we have,

(4.40)

Diamond Aerofoil
For the aerofoil we have for the flow behind the shock,

C P1=C P3=

2 w

(4.41)

For the flow behind the expansion waves,

C P2=C P4=

2 w

(4.42)

While using Eqn. 4.37 a positive sign is used for compression and a negative one for expansion.
The drag coefficient is given by,

C D=
which can be written as

4 2w

(4.43)

4
t
C D=
2
M 1 c

(4.44)

An Arbitrary Aerofoil
Consider a general aerofoil placed in a supersonic flow as in Fig. 4.21. The aerofoil can be
thought of having a thickness, h(x) , an angle of attack, and a camber c . One can
show that for this aerofoil,

Figure 4.21: Flow about an Arbitrary Aerofoil.

C L=

4
M 2 1

2
4
dh
C D=
22c
2
M 1 dt

(4.45)

Second Order Theory

The approximate theory we have developed is of first order in that it retains only the first
significant term involving in an expansion for Cp . Busemann has provided a second order
theory which includes 2 terms as well. As per this theory,

C P=
which is also written as

1 M 4 4 M 2 4 2
2

2 M 2 12
M 2 1
C P=C 1 C 2

(4.46)

(4.47)

even while using this equation, a positive sign for compression and a negative one for
expansion is used.
Note that the coefficients C1 and C2 are functions of Mach Number and
also listed in Tables in appendix.

only. These are

Thus we have three methods to calculate pressure in a turning supersonic flow. Of these
Shock-Expansion technique is the most accurate. The remaining are for small flow turnings
only. The Busemann's method may provide better answers for small flow turnings.
Interaction between shocks and expansion waves
In the case of diamond aerofoil considered above, interactions can take place between shocks
and expansion. In general, these have insignificant effect on the flow. Still for an accurate
analysis, the interactions should be considered. But this is beyond the scope of an introductory
textbook as the present one. The effect of interaction is in general to attenuate the shock. The
flow configuration is given in Fig. 4.22.

Figure 4.22 Interaction between Shocks and Expansions.

Reduction of Drag by cancelling the Waves
It is clear that in supersonic flows, waves are the main sources of drag. An idea suggests itself
that we can reduce drag by removing the waves from the system. What do we mean by this?
Let us take the example of a shock impinging on a solid wall. We have seen that this produces
an incident shock and a reflected shock. The latter one comes about in order to turn the flow to
be parallel to the wall. Suppose, we turn the wall itself at the point o through an angle in
the other direction as shown in Fig.4 .23 . Then the flow follows the wall and there is no need
for a reflected shock. This phenomenon can also be interpreted as saying that an expansion
wave is produced at 0 that cancels the reflected shock. Now the system is free of waves and so
free of wave drag.

Figure 4.23: Cancellation of Waves.

A clever device built based on the idea of wave cancellation is Busemann Biplane (Fig. 4.24).
The geometry and incoming Mach Number are so arranged that a perfectly symmetrical
system of shocks is produced and at the exit there are no waves whatever. This gives a zero
wave drag. If the Busemann plane is run under off-design conditions as in Fig. 4.25, the exit
flow is not wave-free. There is a resulting wave drag.

Figure 4.24: Busemann Biplane under design conditions

Figure 4.25: Busemann Biplane under off-design conditions

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