Comprehension

There are no hard and fast rules for the students to understand the text and answer the questions asked.
However, there are some guidelines for the students to understand any text and answer the questions that
follow.
• Read the passage quickly for specific information like names and dates. Read it again slowly and
carefully to understand the whole text.
• Read each questions, find the answer and underline it in the passage.
• Try to answer in your own words, don’t just copy the whole paragraph or sentence. In a very few
cases only, you can copy the complete sentence.
• Maintain the tense in your answer in which it is asked.
• Maintain the speech in which you are answering the question. Generally while answering such
questions as what did somebody say? You better write in indirect speech.
• Simple, correct and clear sentences should be used.
• Don’t give unnecessary and long answers.
• The complete answer is a must. You cannot just write short phrases in your answers.
Paragraph writing
A paragraph is a group of sentences dealing with a particular topic. A paragraph may have only one
sentence or many more according to the nature of the topic. However, it is best to write short and
moderate paragraphs including all necessary supporting details on the given topic.
Every sentence in it must be closely connected with the main topic, and they can be linked with each
other with the help of sentence linkers, such as however, therefore, as a result, on the other hand,
though, because, so that , …. Thus all the ideas related to the main topic should be expressed in a
logical order. Guidelines
*Ideas should be logically expressed.
*Main idea should be mentioned first and sub ideas/supporting details should be written afterwards.
*The language should be simple. *A very direct and persuasive style should be used.
*Irrelevant ideas should strictly be avoided. *Sentences should be grammatically correct.
*Use of logical connectors makes the writing powerful.
Here is one specimen paragraph:
Difference between the polar regions
Geographers have found that there are some important differences between the northern and
southern polar regions of the earth. The Arctic region, in the north, is mostly sea, surrounded
by masses of land. The South pole, on the other hand, is situated in a land mass surrounded by
oceans; in fact, Antarctica is regarded as a continent by itself. Both the regions have a very
cold climate, but the winter in the Arctic is not so severe or so long as that in the Antarctic.
Antarctica is snowbound almost throughout the year, but the snow in the Arctic melts in
summer. There is some vegetation in the Arctic, but Antarctic is a desert with virtually no
plant or animal life.
(From V.R. Narayanswami, 2005)
What is a paragraph? It is a group of sentences that introduces, presents and develops one main
idea about the topic. And it can be divided into three major parts.
A. The Topic Sentence : It is normally the first sentence of the paragraph which conveys the overall
point of the paragraph. It helps the writer focus on the idea written about.It helps the reader know
about what the paragraph is all about.
B. The Supporting Details: They are sentences used to support the main idea stated in the topic
sentence. They give more information about the main idea through examples. They say in details
what the topic sentence says in general. They should be clear evidence that what the topic sentence
says is trustworthy. They should be strong convincing points on which the topic sentence can rely
upon.
C. The Concluding Sentence: It is a reflection of the main idea pronounced in the topic sentence.
It sums up what the topic sentence and the supporting details talk about. It is the closing sentence
that reminds the readers of what they have to value. It is compulsory for the completion of the

1 |Composition & Grammar/ rbtdhakal @01 Jan 2010.

paragraph unity. It eventually indicates the end of a paragraph. It prepares the reader for a smooth
transition to the next paragraph if there is one.
How to write your paragraph
Paragraph writing consists of many necessary elements to be taken into consideration before, while
and after writing.
I. BEFORE WRITING:
 In this stage it is important to specify the topic you are intending to tackle.
Take a sheet of paper and just start jotting down notes that have tight connection with your topic.
In this stage, mistakes and word-order are to be overlooked momentarily.
After you gathered the data necessary for your topic the next step is to be taken.
II. WHILE WRITING:
o Topic Sentence:Choose a topic sentence for your paragraph that states the main idea of your topic.
The topic sentence is a statement that generally introduces the topic and thus it is often referred to as:
the opening statement. Keep in mind that the readers will greatly rely on what it says so as they can
decide if the paragraph is worth reading or not. It gives them a broad view of what you are writing
about because the topic sentence is meant to state the main idea of the paragraph. It helps you focus
on the main idea and not drift away from it.
o Supporting Details:They give information that reinforces the main idea stated in the topic
sentence. The students are strongly advised to provide at least three strong details which can support
the main idea. The students can use all the writing techniques necessary to make the paragraph
sustainable and eligible: descriptions, definitions, examples, elaboration and exploration.
o Concluding Sentence:This is the last sentence of your paragraph and it should reflect what you
have talked about in your paragraph and it should echo the topic sentence in a way or another.
III AFTER WRITING: Reviewing
This final step can be called the editing step. This is a very crucial stage of your work process as you
should review what you have done and make sure the paragraph is eligible, technically speaking.
Among the things that this stage is about are:
o Coherence and cohesion of the content o The stability of the form o The linking words
o Grammar, spelling and punctuation. o Clear handwriting
Apart from these essentials, other factors are to be mulled over:
1. Your main idea should be expressed in the topic sentence in a full, clear declarative sentence.
2. Your topic sentence should in no way be a purpose statement such as:
 The purpose of this paragraph is …  I will prove in this paragraph …
 In this paragraph, I will tell …  Show but don’t tell.
3. Don’t repeat yourself now then thinking that you are reinforcing your point.
4. Don’t use complex or farfetched terms that may puzzle the corrector.
5. Don’t use long winding sentences. Keep simple.
6. Instead of giving definitions, it’s better to explain and give examples.
7. Your supporting details shouldn’t be too excessive.
8. Try not to be redundant or out of point. Stick to your topic.
9. Never introduce or present new ideas.
10. Irrelevant supporting details should immediately be discarded.
Finally, you can transform your concluding sentence into a thought provoking statement that the
reader may find appealing.
Essay writing
An essay is a regular and connected piece of writing about any topic. It may be a narration of some
events, description of some substance, place, etc., reflection of some abstract ideas, exposition of
one’s arguments on some issues, etc.
Guidelines
• Plan: Mental or rough written plan to include all necessary ideas and to avoid irrelevant ideas.
• Structure/parts
2 |Composition & Grammar/ rbtdhakal @01 Jan 2010.
  Introduction: first one paragraph.
 Body: three paragraphs according to three main ideas. Each paragraph should have a
clear main idea that can be underlined. The main idea is also called the pilot sentence
which is mostly written as the first sentence or as the last sentence though there is no
strict rule for where to write it.
Note: there is no strict rule regarding the number of paragraphs. But in the exam you are
advised to write no less than three paragraphs and no more than five paragraphs. And
regarding the length of paragraph also there is no strict rule, it can be a single one line
sentence or a page or more pages long writing, but for you average length in each
paragraph would do.
Mind! Each paragraph should be interconnected. And within paragraph also each
sentence should naturally lead to the next.
 Conclusion: final one paragraph( with a conclusive main idea)
• Content: show clear understanding of the topic, include strong points from your rough plan
and avoid irrelevant ideas.
• Vocabulary:
 Do not use those words and phrases which are not clear to you.
 Repetition of words should be avoided as far as practicable.
 Do not try to be very literal in your expression.
 Avoid too much use of proverbs, sayings and idioms.
• Grammar: your essay should be grammatically correct. You can check for the grammar after
you finish writing the essay as a proofread.
Here is one specimen essay from Hedge, Tricia (1988,p.136)
Renewable Energy
The sun is the source of al life on earth and provides us with almost all the energy we use. Fossil fuels,
such as gas, oil, and coal, are simply stored solar energy: the product of photosynthesis millions of
years ago; while the renewable energy sources, solar, wind, tidal, wave, biomass, and hydro are all the
direct result of the sun’s energy.

More energy arrives at the earth’s surface in an hour than is consumed in the world in a whole year.
Even in cloudy northern countries like Britain there is more than enough solar energy for our needs. The
total falling on Britain every year is more than one hundred times greater than all the energy used.

This energy can be used to heat buildings either directly (passive solar energy) or by use of solar
collectors (active solar energy). The sun is also responsible for rain, which can be harnessed as hydro-
power. Falling or flowing water generates 25% of the world’s electricity. Waves are the result of winds
over the ocean, and ways of harnessing this new source of energy are being developed at present, while
the complex interaction of earth, moon, and sun results in the tides, which can also be used to produce
electricity.

The official view in Britain is that renewable sources of energy such as these will be unable to provide
more than a small proportion of our needs until well into the next century. But such pessimistic
predictions are directly linked to the lack of money for research and development. In 1983/84 for
example, only £11.3 million was spent on all he renewable sources of energy put together, while £206
million was given to the development of nuclear power. Some renewable sources, such as solar and wind
energy, are already cost-effective and working well today. However, these are not being taken up by
industry or the general public, due to lack of information on what is available, and financial incentives.
We need to develop many of the more promising renewable energy options now if we are to ensure that
the world has enough energy to take us through to the new century.

3 |Composition & Grammar/ rbtdhakal @01 Jan 2010.

Organizing your essay
Study this block diagram of a five-paragraph advantages/disadvantages essay to plan a first draft
of your essay. In your notebook, draw your own diagram and write your notes in each of its
sections.
Main Task Alternative Task
Write a five-paragraph essay about Write a 3-5paragraph essay in which you explain the following quote. Indicate
the advantages and disadvantages whether you agree or disagree with it and use detailed examples to support your
of workplace monitoring of opinion. Use examples form history, current events, and/or personal experience.
“Power may be compared to be a great river; while kept within its bunds it is both
employees by employers.
beautiful and useful, but when it overflows its banks it is then too impetuous to
be stemmed; it bears down all before it, and brings destruction and desolation
wherever it comes.” – Andrew Hamilton(1676-1741)
Main Task Alternative Task

INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION
Hook Hook (optional)
Summary or general statements Explanation and analysis of quote
Thesis statement Thesis statement

BODY 1
BODY 1 Support for your opinion
Advantages of workplace Topic sentence
monitoring Examples from history/current
Topic sentence events/personal experience
Summary of research as support
Transitional sentence
Transitional sentence
BODY 2
Support for your opinion
BODY 2 Topic sentence
Disadvantages of workplace Examples from history/current
monitoring events/personal experience
Topic sentence
Summary of research as support
Transitional Sentence Transitional Sentence

BODY 3
BODY 3 Support for your opinion
Your opinion on workplace Topic sentence
monitoring Examples from history/current
Topic sentence events/personal experience
Summary of research as support Concluding sentence
Concluding sentence

CONCLUSION CONCLUSION
Restatement of thesis Restatement of thesis
Summary of main points Summary of main points
Advice and/or warning Reference to quote
Advice and/or warning

(Adapted from: Colonna & Gilbert 2006, p. 82)

4 |Composition & Grammar/ rbtdhakal @01 Jan 2010.
The following procedure is useful while writing an extended essay
Task Skills Needed Product

1. Read the question and thinking academically Essay subject.

understand what you are
required to do. Think about the
subject, the purpose and the
audience.

2. Think about what you know brainstorming Diagrams or notes.

about the subject. Write it
down in some way.

3. Go to the library and find library/research skills Reading list.

relevant books or articles.

4. Find the books on your reading reading skills: skimming and List of materials
list and study them. scanning studied.

5. Make notes on these books and reading in detail Notes.

articles. selecting & note-taking
Record full details of the paraphrasing/summarising
materials you use.

6. Organise your planning Essay plan.

essay/assignment. organisation

7. Type or write your first draft. writing from notes First draft.
synthesis
writing paragraphs
typing/word-processing

8. Discuss your first draft speaking skills List of

informally with friends, other listening skills revisions/changes.
members of your class and your discussion skills
lecturer if possible.

9. Revise your first draft, bearing
in mind any comments that
were made in your discussions.
Go back to 2. if necessary
Produce your second draft.
use of dictionaries & reference Second draft.
books
writing introduction & conclusion
quoting/writing a list of references

10. Proofread your draft. checking for spelling mistakes Assignment with
checking punctuation and changes marked.
grammar
checking vocabulary use
checking style
checking organisation, references
etc.
checking for plagiarism

11. Produce a final typed version. typing/word-processing writing Final assignment.

title/contents page

12. Check everything. final check Hand in.

5 |Composition & Grammar/ rbtdhakal @01 Jan 2010.

Guidelines
1. Look at your notes.
2. Decide on the purpose of your paper. Is it to inform, to explain, to compare, to describe something,
to describe a process, to explain the reasons, to enumerate the causes, to compare/contrast, to discuss,
to defend (a point of view), to contest (a point of view), etc. or a combination?
3. Organise your notes into sections; organise sections into subsections. The organisation of your
paper will depend on your communicative purpose as in 2.
4. Order your information.
5. Plan your paper. The main text should consist of three main parts:
I. Introduction
a. Comment on subject of essay
b. Which aspects will you deal with?
II. Main body
a. Develop your line of argument through three or four main ideas.
b. Support your main ideas with examples and illustrations from experience or other authors.
III. Conclusion
a. Summary of main ideas.
b. Answer to question or comment on topic of essay indicating wider implications for or future
trends.
English essays are linear: - they start at the beginning and finish at the end, with every part
contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetition. Writers are responsible
for making their line of argument clear and presenting it in an orderly fashion so that the reader can
follow. Each paragraph discusses one major point and each paragraph should lead directly to the
next. The paragraphs are tied together with an introduction and a conclusion.
An essay has three main parts
1. An introduction
2. A main body
3. A conclusion
1. The introduction.
The introduction consists of two parts:
a. It should include a few general statements about the subject to provide a background to your essay
and to attract the reader’s attention. It should try to explain why you are writing the essay. It may
include a definition of terms in the context of the essay, etc.
b. It should also include a statement of the specific subdivisions of the topic and/or indication of how the
topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically address the question.

It should introduce the central idea or the main purpose of the writing. It should address the question.
2. The main body.
The main body consists of one or more paragraphs of ideas and arguments. Each paragraph develops
a subdivision of the topic. The paragraphs of the essay contain the main ideas and arguments of the
essay together with illustrations or examples. The paragraphs are linked in order to connect the ideas.
The purpose of the essay must be made clear and the reader must be able to follow its development.
3. The conclusion.
The conclusion includes the writer’s final points.
a. It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the points made in the main
body
b. and explain the overall significance of the conclusions. What general points can be drawn from the
essay as a whole?

It should clearly signal to the reader that the essay is finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of
the essay has been achieved, and that the question has been answered. Don’t just leave the evidence hanging

6 |Composition & Grammar/ rbtdhakal @01 Jan 2010.

there - analyse it! Comment on the implication/significance/impact and finish off the paragraph with a critical
conclusion you have drawn from the evidence.
I. INTRODUCTION

General Statement
Organisation Statement

II. MAIN BODY

A. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence

B. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence

C. Introductory Sentence
Point 1
Point 2
Point 3
...
Concluding Sentence

III. CONCLUSION

Recall issues in introduction;

draw together main points;
final comment.

Check list: Essay writing

Here are some useful questions to ask yourself about your essay:
i. Does it cover all the main aspects and in sufficient depth?
ii. Is my essay clearly structured? Does my written work look like an essay?
iii. Does my argument make sense? Is it well balanced and researched?
iv. Are my paragraphs and arguments clearly connected and coherent? Is each main point well supported
by examples and argument?
v. Are the grammar, punctuation and spelling acceptable?
vi. Is it neatly and legibly written?
vii. Are my examples and quotes relevant to and supportive of my answer?
viii. Have I used a consistent referencing style? Have I referenced all my quotes and paraphrases?
7 |Composition & Grammar/ rbtdhakal @01 Jan 2010.
 ix. Have I remained within the set word limit?
x. Is what I have written an organized essay, not just a collection of paragraphs?

Short Story writing

A story is an account of past events, incidents or imagined events.
Guidelines
i. Order: in telling a story, the events should be related in the order of time in which
they occurred.
ii. Plot: every story must have a plot i.e. a thought out plan that will bring all the events
to a crisis wherein lies the whole point of telling the story. Before we begin to write
our story, we must think out a proper conclusion, and plan out in our mind the chief
events in such a way that they might lead up to the climax in a convincing manner.
iii. Proportion: To make the story interesting, the proportion between the important and
the less important points should be maintained. We should emphasize the important
points, pass over the minor points, neglect all useless details and finish up in the most
natural way.
iv. Personal interest: The characters of the story must be made as distinct and alive as
possible. Each character must have an individuality of his/her own and behave as
naturally as in real life. Great story writers create characters which live, breath, and
move like real human beings.
v. Setting (time and place): A story writer should give clear descriptions of the locality
where the events take place, the weather, the time – day, night, evening, personal
appearance of the people, etc.
vi. Use the past tense. But we can use present or future tenses also in dialogues while
using direct speech.
vii. Sometimes dialogues/ direct speech should be used to make the story lively and
interesting.
viii. Write a suitable title of the story which must be brief but covering the whole theme
of the story.
ix. Write the moral of the story either directly in the next sentence or indirectly implying
in the last sentence of the story. It can be a very famous proverb, saying or quote, or
your own witty remarks.
Some specific hints to write a guided story
i. Read the given outlines carefully to understand it.
ii. Have a clear and definite idea of the plot of the story.
iii. Give a suitable title to the story.
iv. Use all the points given; and add other necessary points that make real sense in the story.
v. Generally write the story in the past tense.
vi. Mention the moral the whole story imparts. It can be given the concluding sentence, or in a
next line starting with Moral : ………….. .
Sample short story
An old lady becomes blind – calls in a doctor – agrees to pay large fee if cured, but nothing if not
– doctor calls daily – put eyes o lady’s furniture – delays the cure – everyday takes away
furniture – at last cures her – demands his fees – lady refuses to pay – saying cure not complete –
doctor brings a court case – judge asks why she will not pay – she says sight not properly
restored – she cannot see all her furniture – judge gives verdict in her favor - moral
The Fair Justice
Not so far away from the city center, there lived an old lady on the outskirt of Bombay. She was
very rich. Once she had an accident and became blind. Therefore for her treatment, she called in
a doctor. She told the doctor that she would pay him a large fee if her problem was solved.
However, if she was not cured, he would not be paid anything. He agreed to her proposal. As his
agreement, he visited her daily for curing her blindness. He was lured by the furniture she had in
8 |Composition & Grammar/ rbtdhakal @01 Jan 2010.
 her house. As he put his eyes on the furniture, he started delaying the cure. Then he started to
take the furniture away every day. At last when he cured her completely, he demanded his fees.
But the old lady refused to pay it. She said that she was not completely cured. The doctor brought
the case into the court. The judge asked the woman, “Why did you deny to pay the fees after all
he gave you a good treatment?” She replied, “My sight is not properly restored. I cannot see all
my furniture.” When she told it as a proof, the judge realized the doctor was guilty. Thus, he
gave the verdict in favor of her. She was very happy with the fair justice; so she thanked the
judge. Moral: Truth is after all discovered.

News story/news report/newspaper article writing

The news story or newspaper report writing means writing a story from news happening or events
taking place in a particular place or in our daily life. It is written or reported in a newspaper or for
other forms of media such as radio, TV, etc. It means that writing a news story is different from
writing a fiction or any other literary story.
If we minutely observe newspaper report, news article and news story they slightly differ but they
are generally used synonymously. News report is a description of something or some event, or some
persons prepared for someone’s consideration. News story is also a detail of anything or any person
for readers. It is wider than news report.
News story is unlike news report in which the writer can include his opinions about the issue. The
purpose of news story becomes more to present the story in an effective manner than to inform the
readers. It slightly differs from news report in the manner of presentation of issues. It is longer and
more detailed than news report. There is no need to be an event or a program or an incident. It should
be appealing also so that everyone can take interest in seeing it. In brief, a report or news story
should include the following points:
- A newspaper report and a news story should be based on facts.
- It should have a complete story
- It should be fair and unbiased
- It should have a catchy (attractive) headline.
- Even if you are one of the eye witnesses, you should not describe it yourself. You must
make other people speak and you just report to what they say to make the report authentic
and based on facts.
- If there is any one digit number to be mentioned, it is written in words.
- There is no need to add Mr/Mrs/Ms types of titles before names.
A news story or report should answer the following questions
- What has happened(the details of what has happened)
- What has happened since the event took place
- What hasn’t happened since the event took place
- What has been happening since
- What is going to happen next
- News story or report should answer what, when, where, who, whom, how, which
questions in brief. In the terms of journalism, it should answer the questions to 5 W’s
and1H (i.e. where, why, what, when, who, and how).
Guidelines
♥ Headline: the headline should have catchy words or phrases to draw the readers’ attention to the
news story. Generally, it is written in present tense for the past events/ incidents, for example:
PRESIDENT STEPS IN FOR DEMOCRACY and for future events to + main verb is used,
KOIRALA TO MEET UN SECRETERY. The headline is written in either of the following ways:
 All in upper case: MAOISTS DISCUSS HQ PANEL
 Each first letter of major words are capitalized: Maoists Discuss HQ Panel
 Only first letter of the first word and of the proper nouns are capitalized. Maoists discuss HQ
panel

9 |Composition & Grammar/ rbtdhakal @01 Jan 2010.

 ♥ By line/source: who wrote the article/from where is the article received/bought. The reporter’s name
is written in the by- line. If it is bought from the news agency, the source would be the same news
service/agency like Himalayan News Service, AP, AFP, RSS.
♥ Date line: it includes the place and date of where and when the news is written. We write this as
Kathmandu, May 6. Sometimes the source if short is also written after the date line in parenthesis, as
Kathmandu, May 6 (RSS).
♥ Body/Information:

Specimen format

Headline Maoists discus HQ panel

By line/(source) RENU KSHETRY/RSS/Himalayan News Service
Date line KATHMANDU, JAN.19
Body ………………………………………..
……………………………………….
……………………………………….
……………………
………………………………………
………………………………………
………………………………………
………………………………………
……………………………………....
……………………..
Sample article 1
12 student organizations submit memo to PM

Himalayan News Service

Kathmandu, June 5

A delegation of 12 student organizations affiliated to various political parties handed over a

memorandum to Prime Minister Madhav Kumar Nepal at his office today. The student organizations
urged the PM to adopt diplomatic means to resolve the ongoing controversy on the Nepal-India
border.

On receiving the memoranda, the Prime Minister made it clear that the government had already made
a series of diplomatic efforts to solve the issue. Prime Minister Nepal expressed his commitment to
the issues of nationalism. He informed the Foreign Secretary Gyan Chandra Acharya asked Rakesh
Sood, the Indian Ambassador to Nepal, to discuss on the matter. He also said that a team, including
border experts and government officials, had been deployed at the site.

Interpreting charts and diagrams

Charts and diagrams are visual representation of some statistical data and factual elemental factors of
any subject. They can be formed of different kinds like charts, graphs, maps, diagrams, tables etc.
while interpreting such para-orthogrphic (semi-written) texts, we should consider the following
factors.

• Our interpretation should give a complete description of the text.

• While analyzing we should compare and contrast the data and facts of each other category
• A suitable title is to be given( in most of the cases it is given in the question)
• Use of appropriate connectives ( while, whereas, in comparison to the second element, in
contrast, likewise, thereby, at the end) is required
10 | C o m p o s i t i o n & G r a m m a r / r b t d h a k a l @ 0 1 J a n 2 0 1 0 .
Example
Look at the following example:
Figure 1 shows sales of mobile phones per month. As
can be seen, it covers the years 1998 to 2001 and shows
that the sales of mobile phones declined steadily in
1998, then remained steady from May until the end of
the year. The sales rose, more and more steeply,
throughout 1999, with a steep increase at the end of the
year, and reached a peak of 6,200 in February 2000. A
sharp fall followed but sales leveled off at about 5,300
per month in April, fluctuated slightly through the year,
and are now increasing again.
Sender’s add.
Letter writing ………………
……..,
Look at these different styles of writing a letter. …………………… .
i. Traditional style: Date … , ………….
Paragraphs are indented and there is no
Inside address
one-line spacing between paragraphs.
………………………… ,
Address and date are also punctuated. …………………………. ,
………………………… .

Salutation,

……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
…………….

……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………….?
Compli. Close,
ii. Block style: Sender's address sign ………….
……………………….
………………………..

Date …………………

Inside address
…………………………
……………………………

Salutation
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………… .

……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….. ?

Complimentary Close

Sign……………

Name …………..

11 | C o m p o s i t i o n & G r a m m a r / r b t d h a k a l @ 0 1 J a n 2 0 1 0 .
 Sender’s
add.

iii. Modified Block style: ……………………

…………………….

Date
…………
Inside address
…………………….
……………………..

Salutation,
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
…………………………………..
Note: Inside address is needed only in formal letter.
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………
…………………

………………………………………………………………
………
a. Personal letter:
Read the following letter observing the arrangements of the different parts.
This is an example of a personal letter. A personal letter is written to friends and relatives.
They are informal variety of letter. Such letters are written in a chatty or conversational style.
Look at the form of a personal letter Sender’s address (not punctuated in
…………… current practice)
……………
Date (not punctuated in current practice
……………
……………..,
Salutation
…………………………………………. ..
……………………………………...........
…………………………………………..
…………… Body of the letter (one-line spacing as
paragraphs are not indented)
…….…………………………………….
………………………………………….
………………………………………….
……………………
Complementary close
……………… ,

……………….. Signature (first name

only) (no full stop)

We should follow the following format while writing a personal letter:

1. Address of the sender and date of letter
2. Greeting to the person we are addressing to(writing to): Dear father, Hi Ramesh, Dear
friend, but not Dear friend Ramesh
3. Body of the letter: this is the main part of the letter where we write our message
4. Subscription: name or sign of the sender

12 | C o m p o s i t i o n & G r a m m a r / r b t d h a k a l @ 0 1 J a n 2 0 1 0 .
 b. Letter to the Editor
Letter to the editor is written to draw the attention of the concerned authorities on any issue
through the columns of a newspaper. It is written to the editor so that s/he would publish it in
the newspaper and the concerned ones come to know about the problem in question and
could take necessary steps to solve it. Letters to the editor usually contain comments,
complaints or opinions expressed by readers on matters of public interest.
Here is one sample letter to the editor:
Sample letter (concerning quality education)

Sallaghari, Bhaktapur

30 December 2009

The Editor
The Rising Nepal
Kathmandu

Dear Sir,

I would be grateful if you would allow a little space in your widely circulated and popular
newspaper in order to draw the attention of the general public as well as the concerning
authority of the government to the problem of quality education.

As we all know these days most of the students are going abroad for study and work. This is
because of lack of quality education and unemployment that we are suffering in Nepal.
Which will ultimately invite the problem of brain-drain in Nepal. If the students are provided
with quality education which will make them able to compete with international students and
provide them with good jobs, the problems of educated manpower fleeing away will be
solved and the country will be proud of its own skilled manpower. Only when we pay more
attention and give importance to technical education, we can at least create the study-and-
earn situation which will certainly check the flow of the intelligentsia towards other countries
for work. Thus the government should open technical institutions and conduct nonformal
trainings all over the country to control the problems of brain-drain and unemployment. In
the meantime the local people should be made aware of the importance of technical
education.

I hope the concerning authority will take apt steps immediately.

Faithfully yours,
……………..
Mitra Maharjan
c. Job application
One of the most important types of formal or official letter is one written to apply for a job. It
is usually sent in response to a vacancy advertisement. It is written in the following format:
1. Heading: address and date
2. Addresssing the post,Inside address
3. Subject
4. Salutation (Dear Sir/Madam)
5. Body of the letter

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 6. Subscription (Yours faithfully/sincerely yours)
13 Pako, New Road
Kathmandu
1 January 2010

The Personnel Manager

Alka Engineering Works
New Baneswhor, Kathmandu

Dear Sir,
With reference to your advertisement in the Kathmandu Post of 25 December 2009, I write to apply for the
post of security officer in your company.

I am twenty two years old. I was educated in the National College of Applied Sciences, Satdobato, where I
completed the intermediate course.

For the last two years I have been a security officer in Ashok Engineering Works, Putalisadak. I have been
responsible for the maintenance of the building and the protection of factory property. I have been
supervising the movement of goods into and out of the factory.

I enclose a testimonial from the personnel manager of Ashok Engineering Works.

My present employer is willing to relieve me in two weeks if I am appointed by you.

Yours faithfully,
………………
Krishna Mahat
Encl. 1
C V Writing
Curriculum Vitae
Name:
Date of Birth:
Address:
Age:
Sex:
Marital status:
Educational Qualifications:
S.No. Institute Degree Division Passed Year
1. ………………….
2. ………………….
3. …………….
Experience :
1.
2.
3.
Trainings:
1.
2.
3.
Special interests:
Languages known:
Referees:
1.
2.
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RULES AND REGULATIONS
While writing the rules and regulation on behalf of some institutions, public places and so on, use
the following structures. You are recommended to use a variety of structures rather than using the
same structure for all the rules.
1. You should (not)…….
2. You are (not) supposed to…………..
3. You are (not) allowed/ permitted to…………….
4. You are restricted to…………
5. You are forbidden to……………….
6. You ought (not) to………..
7. You (don’t) have to ………………
8. You are (not) to……………..
9. Doing…/to do ………… is strictly prohibited / forbidden here.
10. You may/can …………………

GRAMMAR EXERCISES
Articles
___ girl was playing in __ street __girl was ten years old. She was playing with ___ ball. __ ball was made of
___ rubber. Suddenly __ dog came and began to frighten her. ___ girl ran hastily to ___ neighboring hours
where___ elderly man was sitting with ____ stick in ____ hand. ____ man took up ___ stick, ran to __ dog and
drove him out of ___ street ___ girl thanked __ man and again went to play in ___street.

Once I was standing on __ bank of ___ river. __ elderly sadhu was selling __ beads. I bought some of ___
attractive beads. ___ fisherman was waiting for his catch. __ washer man was beating___ clothes against his slate.
__ few young men were rubbing oil on their bodies some boys were bathing in __ river. It was so cold that even
__ sun trembled in ____ wavy water of ___ river

I like to eat __ sweets but I like __ sweets made from __ milk of _ cows most. Yesterday my uncle came
with ___ sweets. Everybody liked __ sweets. But I didn't like them because they were made form milk of
__buffalo. Although I don't like to drink _ cow's milk yet my father forces me to drink __milk every day.

Did you see _ boy? He is _ friend of mine. He is _best student of my school. All __ teacher and ___student
love him very much. He always helps __ poor boys. He will never tell ___lies. He has __ sound health. He
drinks __ milk every day. He also goes for __walk in __morning.
1. He is _______ M.S. in orthopedics.
2. He is _______ humble man.
3. Pokhara is _______ old town.
4. She is _______ university teacher.
5. The workers have formed _______ union.
6. He is _______ M.Sc. in physics.
7. Don't make _______ noise.
8. He wants to buy _______ H.M.T. watch.
9. This is _______ usual sight.
10. My brother is _______ M.P.
11. He is strong like _______ ox.
12. _______ boy is waiting for you.
13. He bought _______ inkpot.
14. He gave me _______ one-rupee note.
15. This is _______ useful book.
16. He became _______ great man.
17. Sita has _______ headache.
18. I have got _______ cold.
19. We have so fine _______ day !
20. You are _______ real Hitler.
21. London, _______ capital of England is one of _______ busiest place in _______ world.
Many a mother tries to act out her unrealized dreams through her daughter.
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 PREPOSITIONS
TIME PREPOSITIONS: IN, AT, ON
In before periods of time
• Parts of the day: early in the morning, in the afternoon • Years: in1938,
• Months: in July, • Seasons: in (the)summer, in autumn,
• Decades and centuries: in the 1930s, in the 21st century
• ‘In’ can mean ‘during or within a period of time’. He had made the flight in twenty-eight hours.
‘In’ can also mean ‘at the end of a period of time’. He expected to land in California in about 23 hours.
• Note that the phrase in time means ‘early enough for something’ or ‘not too late for something’.
Just in time to celebrate his birthday on July 17th
On before days/dates
• Days: on Monday, on his birthday, on Christmas day • Dates: on July 17th, on November 2nd
• With parts of days/dates: on Tuesday afternoon; on the morning of Monday, July 16th
• Note that the phrase on time means ‘at exactly the right time’. Corrigan left exactly on time.
At before exact times
We use at :
• With clock times: at 16.30. But we don’t normally use at in questions like:
What time did he leave New York?(at what time did he leave new York? Is very formal)
• With single words meaning a time of day. At dawn, at midday, at night, at lunchtime
• With beginning, start, end. At the end of a heroic flight, at the beginning of the flight
• With the words time, moment. At that time he was a young pilot, at the moment(=now)
• With public holidays and festivals. At Christmas (but on Christmas day), at Easter, at the weekend(‘on the
weekend’ in American English)
When not to use in, on or at
• We don’t use in, on or at before the words every, next, this, last and tomorrow, yesterday.
Next Monday, every day, this morning, last Tuesday, tomorrow morning
Prepositions of place: in, on, at
In
• In general, we use in when we talk about an enclosed space that is surrounded on all sides.
He lives in a tent. He sleeps in a sleeping bag.
• We use it with buildings and areas surrounded by walls, etc.(in cheap cafés, in the park, in a square, in the
street)
• With larger areas like cities, states, countries, continents. (In the city, in the country, in London, in Britain )
• With words that describe the relative position of something.
In the middle of the square, in a corner of the tent, in the south of England
• With words like hospital, church, school. ( He was in hospital last year. )
• With newspapers and magazines. (An article in the Daily Mail )
On
• In general, we use on when we talk about a horizontal or vertical surface.
On the floor, on the front page, on the walls
• We use it with any kind of line.
On the north bank of the River Themes
On the border between Italy and Austria
On the west coast of Scotland
• With machines. (On the phone, on his computer, on television )
• With the positions right and left and the word side. (On the right , on the other side of the river)
At
• Small places like villages, toals, stations, etc. (at the party, at Sallaghari, at the airport, at the pub)
• When something stops after a long time: at the end of the film, at the end of the street, at the end of the
week)
16 | C o m p o s i t i o n & G r a m m a r / r b t d h a k a l @ 0 1 J a n 2 0 1 0 .
Extra
1. The fire alarm is above the poster.

2. The man is walking across the road towards the telephone box.

3. The girl is leaning against the wall.

4. The family is walking along the pavement past the library.

5. The woman is waiting at the bus stop.

6. The girl is standing behind her mother.

7. The poster is below the fire alarm.

8. The child is between her parents.

9. The lady is walking down the library steps.

10. The newspaper is in the bin.

11. The bus stop is in front of the library.

12. The man is dropping the bottle into the bin.

13. The bus is near the zebra crossing.

14. The library is next to/beside café.

15. The boy is getting off the bus.

16. The woman is getting on the bus.

17. The man is sitting on the motorbike.

18. The telephone box is opposite the library.

19. The man is coming out of the library.

20. The boy selling newspapers is out of the library.

21. The boy is looking through the window.

22. The girl is walking under the ladder.

23. The man is going to the library.

24. The workman is climbing up the ladder.

25. The blackboard is above the bench. (=higher than)

26. The bench is below the blackboard. (=lower than)

27. There is a fan over the table. (=vertically above)

28. There is a cat under the cat. (= vertically below)

Adjective with preposition : about, for on at in with by of

17 | C o m p o s i t i o n & G r a m m a r / r b t d h a k a l @ 0 1 J a n 2 0 1 0 .
1. She's very good _______ maths.
2. The room was full _______ people.
3. I don't think he’s very interested _______ politics.
4. Are you excited _______ your birthday next week?
5. I'm tired _______ this game. Let's play something else.
6. I'm worried _______ Tina. Do you think she'll be ok?
Verbs with preposition
9. I agree _______ you I think this one is too expensive.
10. She sat down and asked _______ a cup of coffee.
11. He smiled _______ her and walked away.
12. Thank you _______ all your help, I really appreciate it.
13. I'm not sure when I'll arrive. It depends _______ the traffic.
14. They are always arguing _______ money.
15. Does your little brother believe_______ Santa Claus?
Use of At, In, and On
at 5 o'clock in the morning on Monday
at dinner in the evening on the 16th of july
at square in patna on the coast/bank
at midnight in London speak on the phone
at dusk in India on your head
at daybreak in America hit on your heat
at down in the room on new years' day
at noon in uniform on the committee/staff/jury
at the meeting in rags Line on grass
at a desk in green -kf]zfsdf_ on my birthday
at Hetauda in the west on tour
at war in politics on business
at peace write in ink congratulate on
at work in bed play on
at school in hospital on foot
at state in summer on T.V.
at the top of in debt on that day
at stake in a temper on sale
at the station in love on guard
at first in order runs on petrol
at his best/worst in a week on credit
at leisure in the sky on holiday
at full speed in the bag on the road
at once, smile at in trouble on the radio
at the platform in problem on fire
look at in common on leave
at times in reply on rent
bad at in July on a journey
good at in 2009 on the table
joke at in jail to live on
at 12 noon in the exam on the whole day
at (the page) 50 in old age on purpose
at play in winter on the telephone
at sunset swim in the river on the wall
at last in a taxi on a plane/train/bus
laugh at on a bicycle
Use of By and with
by Monday (by = till) write with a pen
by accident cut with a knife
by the way with joy
by post see with own eyes
by my watch with your help
little by little quarrel with
come by 6 O'clock with pleasure

18 | C o m p o s i t i o n & G r a m m a r / r b t d h a k a l @ 0 1 J a n 2 0 1 0 .
 by bus/train/sea heard with patience
house is by the river acquainted with
pay by cheque afflicted with
by birth consistent with
Use of From and For
suffer from qualify for
different from pay for
draw water from a well for sale
prevent from anxious for
protect from apology for
prohibit from blame for
Use of To and Of
turn to the left full of
prefer to short of money
junior to tired of
face to face died of cholera
add to die of hunger
apologize to SB for proud of
appoint to guilty of
assent to negligent of
Fill in the blanks with suitable prepositions where necessary:
1. The lady was dressed _________ black.
2. Cows live _______ grass.
3. He is married _______ my sister.
4. He prevented me _______ speaking.
5. I have been waiting there _______ two hours.
6. He traveled _______ a bicycle.
7. She stayed _______ home yesterday.
8. The train comes _______ 7 o'clock.
9. Rice sells _FOR______ Rs 3000/– a quintal.
10. Here is a girl _______ blue eyes.
11. I will come _______ Monday.
12. She was born _______ August 15 1979.
13. You should apply _______ the post.
14. Do you object _______ my opening the window?
15. Every week I write _______ my friend.
16. I was annoyed _______ his brother.
17. He entrusted me ___TO____the letter.
18. There is an exception _______ every rule.
19. What is the time _______ your water?
20. Is it an answer _______ that question?
21. He did not die _______ cholera.
22. I inquired __OF_____ him ____ABOUT___ that matter.
23. Please fill __UP_____ the form ___IN____ ink.
24. We prefer milk _______ tea.
25. I congratulate you __ON_____ your success ___IN/AT____ the exam.
Fill in the blanks with proper prepositions:
1. Be careful to guard ___(against)____ danger.
2. When do you intend to go _______ India.
3. Are you connected _______ the matter?
4. The woman was overwhelmed __BY_____ grief.
5. The English triumphed __(over)(x)_____ the Mughals.
6. The father deprived the son _______ all he had.
7. A mother is blind _______ the faults of her son.
8. I can read the book _______ the light _______ the moon.
9. It is __(beyond)_____ my power to help.
10. She was absorbed _______study.
MORE PRACTICE EXERCISES
They are somehow clever. = they are not clever in any way.
19 | C o m p o s i t i o n & G r a m m a r / r b t d h a k a l @ 0 1 J a n 2 0 1 0 .
They helped us to some extent. = they didn’t help us at all.
She is still working there. = she isn’t working there any longer.
They’re sometimes fools. = they are rarely/never (aren’t ever) fools.
I wrote a letter and so did my sister. = I didn’t write a letter, and neither did my sister.
He likes meat,too. = he doesn’t like meat, either.
Either Ram or Sita went home. = Neither Ram nor Sita went home.
All of the information …correct. (is/are)
There are…………, aren’t there? Something…………., it? This/that ………, it? These/those…….., they?
Agreement according to last noun.
Not only….but also. Noun’s noun (aeshop’s fables are)
Noun+relativeclause (I invite one of the boys who were…)
Singular noun+prep+same singular noun - singular verb (ship after ship goes…)
Agreement according to first noun
Noun + As well as/in addition to/with/along with/together with/(of,in,on)….. the condition of our hospitals is poor.
One reason for accidents ….carelessness. (is/are)
Either or/neither nor
Any noun plural – plural verb Both singular nouns – singular verb
If two pronouns, verb agrees with the nearest one.
Speech
‘I want to buy some exercise books,’ he said.
‘We are waiting to see what will happen next,’ they said.
‘You may be surprised when you hear what I have to say,’ he said to her.
‘Rita, can you wait for five minutes more?’ said Roshan.
She said, ‘I am having a wonderful time now.’
The inspector said, ‘Don’t move a step from here.’
Negative & Tag
She used to have long hair. (neg) Didn’t she use to have long hair? (assertive)
That isn’t very nice, ……..? The term begins soon,……….?
Preposition
It has not rained … 6 months. (since/for/from)
She has not written to me ….she left me/ ……..two months/ ……..April. (since/for/from)
Tense and conditional
As he was cycling down the street, he ….a steam-roller. (meet)
When she saw smoke coming from a window, she…towards the house.(run)
After they…one game, they at once began another. (had finished)
If I …him, I will give him your message. (see)
If Jack …the cake, he would have been very ill. (eat)
Kate …….an accident unless she rode more carefully. (have)
Mr Banjade ……….my essay if I don’t give it in today. (not mark)
If it rained for two days, the river ……. its banks. (overflow)
Things would be different if they …….him captain. (make)
If he had not asked her, she………him. (not tell)
John always ……..late to school. (come) Be quiet! The teacher ……… (come)
I …(have) a cold all last week so I …(not want) to go out.
By the end of the term we …English for five years. (study)
I …(sing) a song and Jane …(dance) at the concert next month.
Sonali …(write) an essay when I called to see her. I …(not see) Mr Sharma for two weeks.
I …(finish) my dinner. Please may I go to watch TV?
Rohan …(take) rest this morning but now he ..(work) hard.
The fields were bare because the herd of cattle …(eat) all the grass.
voice
What ought we to do about this? Why were you breaking the glasses? Ought I to help her?
20 | C o m p o s i t i o n & G r a m m a r / r b t d h a k a l @ 0 1 J a n 2 0 1 0 .
They took him away. Somebody has stolen my bicycle. Carelessness causes accidents.
Nobody is going to help him. Your answer surprised me. The road outside our house is being dug up.
They will build the house.
TRIVIAL FACTS
2065
1. What does NEA stand for?

2. Why has annual conference been postponed?

- Annual conference has been postponed because due to unforeseen circumstances.

3. Library rules: Mention silence.

4. Natural resource is our property.

- We should them. If we are not protect them what should harmful will come in our daily life.

- I’ll them some knowledge about wild life.

5. Unless you invite her, she would come. (won’t)

6. What did Pradip pal remember? = he remember however was that he had once been a prosperous farmer.

7. He think of dowries……..
2066
8. What does CV stand for?

9. Mr. Sharma was surprised ….my skills. (at/in/with)

10. How do they solve the problem? (passive)

11. Have this picture -------in the city square. (post/ posted/to post)

12. Had he gone there, he ------his relatives. (meet)

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