GLASS AND GLAZING

Glass
The major ingredient of glass is sand silicon dioxide. A hard brittle inorganic substance, ordinarily
transparent or translucent produced by melting a mixture of silica, a flux and a stabilizer while molten
maybe blown, drawn, rolled, pressed or cast to a variety of shapes.
During its manufacturing, ordinary window glass in annealed, cooled slowly under controlled condition, to
avoid locked-in thermal stresses that might cause it to behave unpredictably in use.
Glass plays an essential role in the facade. A facade is a special type of wall. It separates inside from
outside. Glass is a uniform material, a solidified liquid. By its property of transparency it opens up our
buildings to the outside world. In modern architecture there is tendency to open up our buildings by using
very large facades that are as transparent as possible.
In the external wall, glass can be used as a curtain wall or structural glazing.
Glass is not essentially transparent. They are available in several opacities and various textures and
finishes.
BASIC TYPES OF GLASS
FLOAT GLASS
Most widely used type of glass.
Monolithic and highly transparent.
Produced by flowing molten glass over a bath of molten tin and slowly cooling.
Have uniform thickness, flatness and excellent optical quality.
Manufactured in two main varieties, i.e.; clear and tinted.
Used in mirrors, windows, curtain walls and doors.
Float glass can be toughened, a process that creates safety glass out of annealed glass.
Available in thicknesses 2-19 mm
Can be colored during manufacturing.
SHEET GLASS
There are three different kinds of sheet glasses:
Annealed flat glass
Processed flat glass
Misc. glass
Actual color is green (or sometimes blue)
Sizes available: 2mm, 3mm, 4mm, 5mm, 6mm, 8mm, 10mm, 12mm, 15mm and 19mm.
Uses: windows, shelves, large size doors and table tops
Thickness: 4-6mm, 8-12mm
PATTERNED GLASS
Sometimes referred to a figured or rolled glass
Has a pattern or texture impressed on one or both sides in the process of rolling.
This glass surface has a patterned decorative design which provides translucency and some degrees of
obscurity.
Patterns are classified as decorative or glazing i.e., used primarily for their functional properties.
Uses: decorative glazing of windows, bathroom partitions, door.
Is difficult to clean as dust settles between the crevices
Thickness: 4mm, 6mm,
Sizes: 2140 x 1280 mm, 2140 x 1320 mm respectively.

WIRED GLASS
Fine twisted hexagonal wire netting or mesh inserted during the process of rolling.
May be patterned, smooth rolled or ground and polished.
Used primarily in fire rated windows, doors, skylights and applications requiring a safety glazing material.
When broken, loose pieces of glass are held by the wire netting.
Georgian wire mesh, 13mm provided.
Thickness: 5 to 7 mm.
Size: 3300 x 1830 mm.
MODIFIED VARIETIES OF GLASS
The basic glass types modified by various techniques to give hybrid varieties:
REFLECTIVE GLASS
Coating of a metal compound applied on one surface by chemical deposition.
Reflects light and solar heat
May be applied on any type of glass and thickness upto half an inch
Uses: principally used in curtain wall glazing and structural glazing, train windows (AC compartments),
doors and windows of commercial buildings, partitions and internal wall cladding.
Disadvantages: Causes light pollution and is hazardous to traffic.
Thickness: 4-6mm, 8-12mm
INSULATING GLASS
Factory assembled unit consisting of two or more panes of glass separated by air spaces.
Moisture proof
The periphery of the air spaces is hermetically sealed.
There are two types of such sealed units:
- Organic seal type: Two or more panes of glass separated by air spaces sealed at their edges
with an organic seal.
Glass edge type: Two sheets of clear single strength or double strength glass fused together at
their edges enclosing a nominal 3/16 inches air space. This type of glass is not produced with
multiple air spaces.
SAFETY GLASS
Developed basically for vehicular purposes where safety from fracture of glass is a major concern.
Requirement of uninterrupted vision rules out the use of wired glass.
TWO TYPES OF SAFETY GLASS
LAMINATED SAFETY GLASS
Made in the form of a sandwich consisting of an interlayer of transparent plastic material such as celluloid
between two sheets of plate or sheet glass.
Celluloid placed between sheets already coated with gelatin and specially prepared enamel.
Adhesion achieved by applying considerable heat and pressure.
When one or both sheets of this composite material are broken the glass adheres to the inter layer so that
there is no danger from the flying fragments
TOUGHENED SAFETY GLASS
Pieces of sheet or plate glass suspended in electric furnace until soft and suddenly cooled by blowing air on
both sides.

Fragments have no cutting edge.

Toughened glass withstands a dead load more than four times that of ordinary glass.
Additional compressive stresses in the surfaces make the glass stronger.
Can safely accommodate high tensile forces due to the pre-stress.
Fracture can occur once the pre-stress has been exceeded.
GLASS BRICKS
These are hollow glass units or blocks of glass shaped to work as bricks
Joined with the help of silicon sealants to obtain seamless finish
The two outer, exposed surfaces may be smooth or textured.
Glass blocks can be colored and have decorated surfaces.
Walls of glass blocks meeting fire resistance are also possible.
Sizes: 71/2 by 71/2 by 3
TWO TYPES OF GLASS BLOCKS
FUNCTION GLASS
Direct or diffuse the daylight, which upward toward the ceiling used always above eye level.
DECORATIVE OR ARCHITECTURAL GLASS
Available in wide range of styles and patterns these glass masonry units provide almost unlimited design
versatility when used in window, openings and facades, as interior wall and divider paneling. TINTED
GLASS
Manufactured by adding a dye at the molten glass stage
Used to minimize solar heat gain and glare while it also absorbs heat.
Available in grey, bronze, green, blue and blue/green
Allows for increased control of comfort and energy usage
Sizes available:
Grey and Bronze - 4mm, 5mm, 6mm,8mm,and 10mm
Blue
- 6mm
Green
- 5mm, 6mm, and 10mm
Blue/Green
- 6mm and 10mm
Thickness: 3mm, 4mm, 5mm, 6mm
TEMPERED GLASS
Is produced by cutting annealed glass to the required sizes for use, reheating it to approximately 1200
degrees Fahrenheit, cooling both its surfaces rapidly with a blast of air while its core cools much more
slowly, Its four times as strong in bending and more resistance to thermal stress and impact.
HEAT-STRENGTHENED GLASS
The heat strengthened process is similar to tempering but its about one-third as high as tempered glass in
terms of bending and strength.
SPANDREL GLASS
Special opaque glasses are produced for covering the spandrel area (the bands of the wall around edges of
the floors) in glass curtain. It is usually tempered or heat strengthened to resist the thermal stresses that can
cause by accumulation of solar heat behind the spandrel.

FOAMED OR CELLULAR GLASS

Is use d as rigid, vapor proof thermal insulation.
GLASS FIBERS
Are used in textiles and for material reinforcement. In spun form, glass fibers form glass wool, which is
used for acoustical and thermal insulation.
ANNEALED GLASS
Is cooled slowly to relieve internal stresses.
OBSCURE GLASS
Have one or both sides acid-etched or sandblasted to obscure vision. Either process weakens the glass and
makes it difficult to clean.
LOW EMISSIVITY (low-e) GLASS
Transmits visible light while selectively reflecting the longer wavelengths of radiant heat, produced by
depositing a low-e coating either on the glass itself or over a transparent plastic film suspended in the
sealed air space of insulating glass.
GLAZING
There are nearly as many different variable considerations included within the topic of glass as with all
other components of windows & doors combined. After all, glass is the most obvious part of any window
and many doors include, at least some, glass.
GLAZING OPTIONS:
The use of single and multiple layers of various types of glass within any given sash or door
Generally, there are three common glazing configurations. They are Single, Double & Triple Glazing. As
the names imply, Single Glazing includes one layer of glass, Double Glazing includes two layers and
Triple Glazing includes three layers. Until the recent availability of various high performance materials,
the greater the number of glass layers, the greater the insulating value of the window or door. Now, with
the advent of such products as sealed insulating glass, Low E glass, Heat Mirror and others, insulating
values can be enhanced without the use of multiple glass layers. Often, combinations of certain Glazing
Options, Glass Types, Metallic Films and Chemical Gas Fillers can provide significant insulating
efficiency.
At Wood stone, virtually any combination or requirement can be included in a given window or door

In old days, use of glass in construction consider fragile and had very limited application. People use wooden panels
in window shutters. By passage of time, use of glass in window panels starts instead of wooden panels. A great
revolution comes in construction especially in urban development, use of glass become necessary. Now use of quality
glass becomes unavoidable in construction work.
Advantages:
Use of glass in construction work adds beauty to the building.
2. Its use fulfills the architectural view for external decoration.
3. By using glass in interior, it saves the space inside the building.
4. Glass cladding in building fulfill functional requirement of lighting, heat retention and energy saving.
5. Its use appear a sense of openness and harmonious.
6. As toughened glass is available, one can have good interior design with the use of glass in transparent staircase,
colored shelves, ceiling etc.
7. Glass is an excellent material for thermal insulation, water proofing and energy conservation.
8. Glass is bad conductor of heat; it saves energy in air conditioning of building.
9. For making glass partition on upper floors, no extra design is required for slab as glass is light in weight.
Disadvantages:
As glass is very costly material, it may increase the budgeted cost of construction work.
2. Use of glass also enhances the cost of security.
3. Its use in hilly area and desert may cause more maintenance cost.
4. Glass is also unsafe for earthquake proven area.
CONCRETE
A heavy, rough building material made from a mixture of broken stone or gravel, sand, cement, and water, that can be
spread or poured into molds and that forms a stone-like mass on hardening.
Brief History of Concrete
During the ancient times, around 3000 BC, Egyptians used mud mixed with straw to form bricks, which is more
similar to adobe than concrete. However, the used gypsum and lime mortars in building the pyramids such as the
Great Pyramid of Giza.
Romans made cement from a naturally reactive volcanic sand called harenafossicia.For structures those exposed to
fresh water, such as bridges, docks, storm drains and aqueducts, they used volcanic sand called pozzuolana.
Pozzuolana and harenafossicia react chemically with lime and water to hydrate and solidify into a rock-like mass that
can be used underwater.
They used these two materials to build large structures such as roman baths, the pantheon, and the colosseum
The art of concrete was lost after the fall of the Roman Empire in 476 AD.
In 1793, British engineer, John Smeaton discovered a modern method for producing hydraulic lime for cement.
Finally in 1824, Joseph Aspdin invented Portland cement by burning finely ground chalk and clay in a kiln until the
carbon dioxide was removed. It was named Portland cement because it resembled the high-quality building stones
found in Portland, England.
Today, concrete is widely used in constructing different structures such as high rise building and skyscrapers.
Characteristics of Concrete
1
Strength
and
Durability

Used in the majority of buildings, bridges, tunnels and dams for its strength
Gains strength over time
Not weakened by moisture, mould or pests
Concrete structures can withstand natural disasters such as earthquakes and
hurricanes

Versatility

Low maintenance

Affordability

5
6

Fire-resistance
Thermal mass

Locally produced
and used

Albedo effect

Low
life-cycle
CO2emissions

Roman buildings over 1,500 years old such as the Coliseum are living examples of
the strength and durability of concrete
Concrete is used in buildings, bridges, dams, tunnels, sewerage systems pavements,
runways and even roads
Concrete, being inert, compact and non-porous, does not attract mould or lose its
key properties over time
Compared to other comparable building materials, concrete is less costly to produce
and remains extremely affordable
Being naturally fire-resistant concrete forms a highly effective barrier to fire spread
Concrete walls and floors slow the passage of heat moving through, reducing
temperature swings
This reduces energy needs from heating or air-conditioning, offering year-round
energy savings over the life-time of the building
The weight of the material limits concrete sales to within 300km of a plant site
Very little cement and concrete is traded and transported internationally
This saves significantly on transport emissions of CO2 that would otherwise occur
The high "albedo" (reflective qualities) of concrete used in pavements and building
walls means more light is reflected and less heat is absorbed, resulting in cooler
temperatures
This reduces the "urban heat island" effect prevalent in cities today, and hence
reduces energy use for e.g. air-conditioning
80% of a buildings CO2 emissions are generated not by the production of the
materials used in its construction, but in the electric utilities of the building over its
life-cycle (e.g. lighting, heating, air-conditioning

Composition of concrete
Water
The amount of water relative to the amount of cement changes how easily the concrete flows, but also affects the final
strength of the concrete. More water makes for easier flowing concrete, but also makes for lower strength concrete
upon curing.
Portland Cement
Cement hardens when mixed with water, which binds all of the ingredients together. Portland cement is the most
common cement used and is composed of alumina, silica, lime, iron, and gypsum. Small amounts of other ingredients
are also included.
Aggregates
Sand, gravel, and crushed stone are used as the aggregates in concrete. Aggregates make up the majority of a concrete
mixture.
Admixtures
Admixtures accomplish a variety of goals. This can be as simple as adding a pigment to color the concrete. Other
admixtures are used for faster curing times in cold weather, creating extremely high-strength concrete, or for
increasing the flowable nature of concrete without compromising the strength.

Types of concrete
Normal Concrete
The concrete in which common ingredients i.e. aggregate, water, cement are used is known as normal concrete. It is
also called normal weight concrete or normal strength concrete.

High strength concrete

Compressive strength of high strength concrete mix is usually greater than 6,000 pounds per square inch.
High Performance Concrete
Strength of high performance concrete ranges from 10000 psi - 15000 psi
Air Entrained Concrete
It is used where the concrete is vulnerable to freezing and thawing action. It is prepared by adding the air entraining
admixture.
Light Weight Concrete
The concrete which has substantially lower mass per unit volume then the concrete made of ordinary ingredients is
called lightweight concrete. The aggregates used are lighter in weight.
Self-Compacting Concrete
The concrete where no vibration is required. The concrete is compacted due to its own weight. It is also called selfconsolidated concrete or flowing concrete. It can be also categorized as high performance concrete as the ingredients
are the same, but in this type of concrete workability is increased.
Shotcrete
Shotcrete is mortar or (usually) concrete conveyed through a hose and pneumatically projected at through a shortcrete
nozzle with high velocity onto a surface. Shotcrete undergoes placement and compaction at the same time due to the
force with which it is projected from the nozzle.
Pervious Concrete
Pervious concrete contains a network of holes or voids, to allow air or water to move through the concrete. This
allows water to drain naturally through it, and can both remove the normal surface water drainage infrastructure, and
allow replenishment of groundwater when conventional concrete does not.
Roller Compacted Concrete
Roller compacted concrete, sometimes called rollcrete, is a low-cement-content stiff concrete placed using techniques
borrowed from earthmoving and paving work.
Reinforced Concrete
- Concrete mold wrapped in a mesh of iron rods is called reinforced cement concrete or RCC. Concrete
with
reinforced steel acquires the capacity to carry enormous loads. It is the most versatile material with a wide range of
applications in construction.
Applications of Concrete
-

Beams, drain tiles, piers, steps

Post, Beam and Deck
Pilasters and round column forms
High Performance Admixtures
Masonry
Soil solidification
Insulating Concrete Form
Motorways/roads, overpasses and parking structures
Brick/block walls and bases for gates, fences and poles

Building structure, fences and poles

Advantages of Concrete
Some advantages of concrete are given below in brief.
Concrete is economical when ingredients are readily available.
Concretes long life and relatively low maintenance requirements increase its economic benefits.
It is not as likely to rot, corrode, or decay as other building materials.
Concrete has the ability to be molded or cast into almost any desired shape.
Building of the molds and casting can occur on the work-site which reduces cost.
Concrete is a non-combustible material which makes it fire-safe and able to withstand high temperatures.
It is resistant to wind, water, rodents, and insects. Hence, concrete is often used for storm shelters.
Disadvantages of Concrete
Concrete has some disadvantages too along the advantages stated above.
Concrete has a relatively low tensile strength (compared to other building materials),
low ductility,
low strength-to-weight ratio, and
Concrete is susceptible to cracking.
CEMENT
A building material made by grinding calcined limestone and clay to a fine powder, which can be mixed with water
and poured to set as a solid mass or used as an ingredient in making mortar or concrete.
Brief History of Cement
The oldest use of cement dates back to the thousands of years old Egyptian civilisation. The Egyptians used natural
cement made by combining limestone and gypsum for the construction of their massive and highly impressive
pyramids.
Later in the Roman era, the concept of cement advanced further. Romans used a combination of slaked lime
with Pozzolana, a volcanic ash from Mount Vesuvius.
In 18 th century England, John Smeaton, a British engineer, was assigned the task of re-constructing the Eddystone
Lighthouse, a structure that had witnessed repeated structural failure.
In 1756, Smeaton conducted a number of experiments that led to the discovery that cement made from limestone
containing a considerable proportion of clay would harden under water.
Based on this discovery, Smeaton rebuilt this lighthouse in 1759 and this time, it stood strong for 126 years.
until the early part of the 19th century, large quantities of natural cement was used, that was made with a combination
of naturally occurring lime and clay.
In 1824, Joseph Aspdin, a British mason obtained a patent on his hydraulic cement formula that closely resembled the
modern cement as we know today. He called this cement Portland Cement
Cement went through many more improvements and developments in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
Composition of Cement
Cement is manufactured through a closely controlled chemical combination of calcium, silicon, aluminum, iron and
other ingredients.
Common materials used to manufacture cement include limestone, shells, and chalk or marl combined with shale,
clay, slate, blast furnace slag, silica sand, and iron ore. These ingredients, when heated at high temperatures form a
rock-like substance that is ground into the fine powder that we commonly think of as cement.

Types of Cement, Their Composition and Uses

Types of Cement
Rapid
Hardening
Cement

Composition
Increased Lime content

Quick
cement

Small percentage of aluminium

sulphate as an accelerator and
reducing percentage of Gypsum
with fine grinding
Manufactured by reducing tricalcium aluminate
It is prepared by maintaining the
percentage
of
tricalcium
aluminate below 6% which
increases
power
against
sulphates
It is obtained by grinding the
clinkers with about 60% slag
and resembles more or less in
properties of Portland cement
It is obtained by melting
mixture of bauxite and lime and
grinding with the clinker it is
rapid hardening cement with
initial and final setting time of
about 3.5 and 5 hours
respectively
It is prepared from raw
materials free from Iron oxide.

setting

Low Heat Cement

Sulphates
Cement

resisting

Blast Furnace Slag

Cement

High
Cement

Alumina

White Cement

Coloured cement

Pozzolanic Cement

Air
Entraining
Cement

Hydrographic
cement

It is produced by mixing
mineral pigments with ordinary
cement.
It is prepared by grindin
pozzolanic clinker with Portland
cement
It is produced by adding
indigenous air entraining agents
such as resins, glues, sodium
salts of Sulphates etc during the
grinding of clinker.
It is prepared by mixing water
repelling chemicals

Purpose
Attains high strength in early days it is used
in concretewhere form work are removed at
an early stage.
Used in works is to be completed in very
short period and concreting in static and
running water
It
is
used
in
massive
concreteconstruction like gravity dams
It is used in construction exposed to severe
sulphate action by water and soil in places
like canals linings, culverts, retaining walls,
siphons etc.,
It can used for works
considerations is predominant.

economic

It is used in works where concrete is

subjected to high temperatures, frost, and
acidic action.

It is more costly and is used for architectural

purposes such as pre-cast curtain wall and
facing panels, terrazzo surface etc.,
They are widely used for decorative works
in floors
It is used in marine structures, sewage
works, sewage works and for laying
concrete under water such as bridges, piers,
dams etc.,
This type of cement is specially suited to
improve the workability with smaller water
cement ratio and to improve frost resistance
of concrete.
This cement has high workability and
strength