STEEL

8.1CLASSIFICATION OF STEEL
Steels can be classified by a variety of different systems depending on:

The composition, such as the chemical composition percentage of carbon.

The manufacturing methods, such as open hearth, basic oxygen process, or
electric furnace methods.
The finishing method, such as hot rolling or cold rolling
The product form, such as bar, plate, sheet, strip, tubing or structural shape
The deoxidation practice, such as killed, sime-killed and rimmed steel
The microstructure, such as ferritic, pearlitic and martensitic
The required strength level, such as high or low tensile strength steel
The heat treatment, such as annealing, quenching and tempering steel.

8.2 CARBON STEEL

Carbon steel is an iron-based metal containing carbon up to 2%, and
small amounts of other elements(Mn, Si, S, and P). variations in carbon have
the greatest effect on mechanical properties, with increasing carbon content
leading to increased hardness and strength. As such, carbon steels are
generally categorized according to their carbon content. Generally speaking,
carbon steels

can be subdivided into low-carbon steels, medium-carbon

steels and high-carbon steels

8.2.1 Low carbon steel

Of all the different steels, those produced in the greatest quantities fall
within the low-carbon classification. These generally contain less than about
0.25 wt% C and are unresponsive to heat treatments intended to form
martensite;

strengthening

is

accomplished

by

cold

work.

Microstructures

consist of ferrite and pearlite constituents. As a consequence, these alloys are

relatively soft and weak, but have outstanding ductility ; in addition, they are
machinable, weldable, and, of all steels, are the least expensive to produce.
Typical applications include automobile body components, structural shapes
(I-beams, channel and angle iron), and sheets that are used in pipelines,
rivets, nails and others. Plain low-carbon steels have a yield strength between
180 and 260 MPa , tensile strengths between 325 and 485 MPa , and a
ductility reach to 25%EL.

8.2.2 Medium-Carbon Steels

The medium-carbon steels have carbon concentrations between about
0.25 and 0.60 wt%. These alloys may be heat treated by

quenching, and then

tempering to improve their mechanical properties. They are most often

utilized

in

the

tempered

condition,

having

microstructures

of

tempered

martensite. The plain medium-carbon steels have low hardenabilities and can
be successfully heat treated only in very thin sections and with very rapid
quenching rates. Applications include railway wheels and, gears, crankshafts,
and other machine parts.

8.2.3 High-Carbon Steels

The high-carbon steels, normally having carbon contents between
0.60 and 1.4 wt%, are the hardest, strongest, and yet least ductile of the
carbon steels. They are almost always used in a hardened and tempered
condition and, as such, are especially wear resistant and capable of holding a
sharp cutting edge. Application include blacksmith tools and wood working
tools.

8.3 Impurities in Steel

Most

ordinary

steels

contain

amounts

of

manganese,

silicon,

sulphur and phosphorus are. The effect of such impurities on mechanical

properties will depend largely upon the way in which these impurities are
distributed throughout the structure of the steel. If a troublesome impurity is
heavily cored in the structure it can be expected to have a far more
deleterious

effect

than

if

the

same

quantity

distributed throughout the structure.

Figure 8.1 Effect of freezing range

on segregation of impurities
2

of

impurity

were

evenly

Excessive

coring

concentrates

the

impurity

in

the

grain-boundary

regions often producing the effect of very brittle inter granular films. The
extent to which coring of a particular element is indicated by the distance
between the compositions intersected with solidus and liquidus lines at any
temperature on the appropriate equilibrium diagram. Thus in Fig. 6.1A the
relative compositions of solid (S) and liquid (L) are very far at any
temperature and this may lead to excessive coring. Since relatively pure
metal is solidifying it follows that the bulk of the impurity element becomes
concentrated in

the metal

which

solidifies

lastin

the grain

boundary

regions. In Fig. 6.1B, however, the compositions of the solid (S) and the
liquid (L) remain close to each other throughout solidification and this will
lead to a relatively even distribution of the impurity element throughout the
microstructure

and

consequent

lack

of

dangerous

crystal-boundary

concentrations of brittle impurity.

Manganese
It is not only soluble in austenite and ferrite but also forms a stable
carbide, Mn3C. manganese increases the depth of hardening' of a steel. It also
improves strength and toughness. Manganese should not exceed 0.3% in
high-carbon steels because of a tendency to induce quench cracks particularly
during water-quenching.
Silicon
Silicon imparts fluidity to steels intended for the manufacture of
castings, and is present in such steels in amounts up to 0.3%. In high carbon
steels silicon must be kept low, because of its tendency to render cementite
unstable and liable to decompose into graphite (which precipitates) and
ferrite.
Phosphorus
Phosphorus has a considerable hardening effect on steel but it must
be rigidly controlled to amounts in the region of 0.05% or less because of the
brittleness it imparts, particularly if Fe3P (brittle compound) should appear as
a separate constituent in the microstructure.
Sulphur
It is the most deleterious impurity commonly present in steel. If
precautions were not taken to render it harmless it would tend to form the
3

brittle sulphide, FeS. Sulphur is completely soluble in molten steel but on

solidification the solubility falls to 0.03% sulphur. If the effects of extensive
coring, referred to above, are also taken into account it will be clear that
amounts as low as 0.01% sulphur may cause precipitation of the sulphide at
the crystal boundaries. In this way the austenite crystals would become
virtually coated with brittle films of iron sulphide. Since this sulphide has a
fairly low melting point, the steel would tend to crumble during hot-working.
Being brittle at ordinary temperature. It would be very difficult, and certainly
very expensive, to reduce the sulphur content to an amount less than 0.05%
in the majority of steels. To nullify the effects of the sulphur present an
excess of manganese is therefore added during deoxidation. Provided that
about five times the theoretical manganese requirement is added, the sulphur
then forms manganese sulphide, MnS, in preference to iron sulphide. The
manganese sulphide so formed is insoluble in the molten steel, and some is
lost in the slag. The remainder is present as fairly large globules, distributed
throughout the steel, but since they are insoluble, they will not be associated
with the structure when solidification takes place. Moreover, manganese
sulphide is plastic at the forging temperature, so that the tendency of the steel
to crumble is removed. The manganese sulphide globules become elongated
by the subsequent rolling operations (Fig. 6.2A and B).

Figure 8.2 (A) The segregation of

iron sulphide (FeS), at the crystal
boundaries in steel. (B) The formation
of isolated manganese sulphide (MnS)
globules when manganese is present in
a steel

The Heat-treatment of Steel

9.2Introduction
Steels are among the relatively few engineering alloys which can be
heat-treated in order to vary their mechanical properties. This statement
refers, of course, to heat-treatments other than simple stress-relief annealing
processes. Heat-treatments can be applied to steel not only to harden it but
also to improve its strength, toughness or ductility. The type of heattreatment used will be governed by the carbon content of the steel and its
subsequent application.
The various heat-treatment processes can be classified as follows:
(a) annealing;
(b) normalising;
(c) hardening;
(d) tempering;
(e) treatments which depend upon transformations taking place at a
single predetermined temperature during a given period of time (isothermal
transformations).
In all of these processes the steel is heated fairly slowly to some
predetermined temperature, and then cooled, and it is the rate of cooling
which

determines

the

resultant

structure

of

the

steel

and,

hence,

the

mechanical properties associated with it.

Annealing
The

term

'annealing'

describes

number

of

different

thermal

treatments which are applied to metals and alloys. Annealing processes for
steels can be classified as follows:
1-Stress-relief Annealing
The recrystallisation temperature of low carbon steel is about 500C,
so that, during a hot-rolling process recrystallisation proceeds simultaneously
with rolling. Thus, working stresses are relieved as they are set up.
Frequently, however, we must apply a considerable amount of cold work to
low carbon steel, as, for example, in the drawing of wire. Stress-relief
annealing then becomes necessary to soften the metal so that further drawing
operations can be carried out. Such annealing is often referred to as 'process'
5

annealing, and is carried out at about 650C. It should be noted that process
annealing is a sub-critical operation, that is, it takes place below the lower
critical temperature (A1). In this treatment, there is no phase change and the
constituents ferrite and cementite remain in the structure throughout the
process.
2-Spheroidising Annealing
Spheroidising used to improve the machinablity of carbon steel. This
process included spheroidisation of pearlitic cementite of high carbon steel.
The

spheroidised

temperature

condition

is

produced

by

annealing

the

steel

at

between 650 and 700C, that is, just below the lower critical

temperature (A1) for duration between 6-20 hour depending on chemical

composition, grain size of pearlite and on the size of the specimen. Whilst no
basic phase change takes place, surface tension causes the cementite to
assume a globular form (Fig. 9.8). If the layers of cementite are relatively
coarse they take rather a long time to break up, and this would result in the
formation of very large globules of cementite. This in turn would lead to
tearing of the surface during machining. To obviate these effects it is better to
give the steel some form of normalizing treatment prior to annealing in order
to refine the distribution of the cementite. It will then be spheroidised more
quickly

during

annealing

and

will

produce

much

smaller

cementite.

Figure9.8 The spheroidisation of pearlitic cementite.

globules

of

3-Annealing of Castings
The cast structure of a large body of steel is extremely coarse. This
is due mainly to the slow rates of solidification and subsequent cooling
through the austenitic range. Thus, a 0.35% carbon steel will be completely
solid in the region of 1450C(see Fe-Fe3c diagram),but, if the casting is large,
cooling, due to the lagging effect of the sand mould, will proceed very slowly
down to the point (approximately 820C) where transformation to ferrite
begins. By the time 820C has been reached, therefore, the austenite crystals
will

be

accordance

extremely
with

large.

the

Ferrite,

equilibrium

which
diagram,

then

begins

deposits

to

first

precipitate
at

the

in

grain

boundaries of the austenite. The remainder of the ferrite is then precipitated

along certain crystallographic planes within the lattice of the austenite. This
gives rise to a directional precipitation of the ferrite, as shown in Fig. 9.9
representing typically what is known as a Widmanstatten structure. The
mesh-like arrangement of ferrite in the Widmanstatten structure tends to
isolate the stronger pearlite into separate patches, so that strength, and more
particularly toughness, are impaired. The main characteristics of such a
structure are, therefore, weakness and brittleness, and steps must be taken to
remove it. Heat-treatment must therefore be used to effect what limited
refinement of grain is possible.
The most suitable treatment for a large casting involves heating it
slowly up to a temperature about 40C above its upper critical (thus the
annealing temperature depends upon the carbon content of the steel) , holding
it at that temperature only just long enough for a uniform temperature to be
attained throughout the casting and then allowing it to cool slowly in the
furnace. As the temperature rises, the Widmanstatten type plates of ferrite are
dissolved by the austenite until, when the upper critical temperature is
reached, the structure consists entirely of fine grained austenite. Cooling
causes reprecipitation of the ferrite, but, since the new austenite crystals are
small, the precipitated ferrite will also be distributed as small particles.
Finally, as the lower critical temperature is reached, the remaining small
patches of austenite will transform to pearlite. The structural changes taking
place during annealing are illustrated diagrammatically in Fig. 9.9. Whilst the

tensile strength is not greatly affected by this treatment, both toughness and
ductility are improved.

Figure 9.9 Structural changes occurring during the annealing of a steel casting (approx
0.35% carbon). The as-cast Widmanstatten structure is reheated to some temperature above
its upper critical and then allowed to cool in the furnace.

Normalizing
In normalizing steel is heated at about 30-50C above its upper
critical (thus the normalising temperature depends upon the carbon content of
the steel) , holding it at that temperature only just long enough for a uniform
temperature to be attained throughout the workpiece,

then steel is removed

from the furnace and allowed to cool in still air. This relatively rapid method
of cooling limits grain growth

. Moreover, the surface finish of a normalised

steel is often superior to that of an annealed one when machined , and the
strength and hardness of this steel are higher than the annealed steel. The
type of structure obtained by normalising will depend largely upon the
thickness of cross-section, as this will affect the rate of cooling. Thin sections
will give a much finer grain than thick sections, the latter differing little in
8

structure from an annealed section. Since cooling of steel in still air is

relatively rapid cooling method, so that, normalized steel has several internal
stresses. Tempering process is used after normalizing process in order to
relive these stresses.

Hardening
When a piece of steel, containing sufficient carbon, is cooled rapidly
from above its upper critical temperature it becomes considerably harder than
it would be if allowed to cool slowly. The degree of hardness produced can
vary,

and

is

dependent

upon

such

factors

as

the

initial

quenching

temperature; the size of the work; the constitution, properties and temperature
of the quenching medium; and the degree of agitation of the quenching
medium. Water quenching of a steel containing sufficient carbon produces an
extremely

hard

structure

called

martensite

microscope as a mass of uniform

which

appears

under

the

needle-shaped crystals (figure 9.10).

Carbon is still in solution in the iron and has not been precipitated as iron
carbide as it would have been if the steel had been cooled under equilibrium
conditions.

However,

X-ray

crystallographic

examination

of

martensite

shows that despite very rapid cooling which has prevented the precipitation
of iron carbide, the lattice structure has nevertheless changed from FCC
(face-centred cubic) to something approaching the BCC (body-centred cubic)
structure which is normally present in a steel cooled slowly to ambient
temperature. This BCC type structure is considerably supersaturated with
carbon since at ambient temperatures only 0.006% carbon is retained in
solution

under

equilibrium

conditions.

Consequently

the

presence

of

dissolved carbon in amounts of, say, 0.5% can be expected to cause

considerable distortion of the structure and in fact produces one which is
body-centred tetragonal BCT.
Generally no attempt is made to harden plain carbon steels which
contain less than 0.25% carbon since the increase in hardness produced
would be so small as shown in figure(9.11) and for anther reasons which will
be discussed later. Large masses of steel of heavy section will obviously cool
more slowly than small work of thin section when quenched, so that whilst
the surface skin may be martensitic, the core of a large section may be

pearlitic or bainitic because it has cooled more slowly. If, however, small
amounts of such elements as nickel, chromium or manganese are added to the
steel, it will be found that the martensitic layer is much thicker than with a
plain carbon steel of similar carbon content and dimensions which has been
cooled at the same rate. Alloying elements therefore 'increase the depth of
hardening', and they do so by slowing down the transformation rates( to
pearlite). The liability to produce quench-cracks, which are often the result of
water-quenching, is reduced in this way.

So the low alloy steel could be

hardened by using oil medium. The quenching medium is chosen according

to the rate at which it is desired to cool the steel. The following list of media
is arranged in order of quenching speeds:
5% Caustic soda, 5-20% Brine, Cold water, Warm water, Mineral oil,
Animal oil, and Vegetable oil
To harden a piece of steel, then, it must be heated to between 30 and
50C above its upper critical temperature for hypoeutectoid steel ,and it must
be heated to between 30 and 50C above its lower critical temperature for
hypereutectoid steel for several time, then quenched in some medium which
will produce in it the desired rate of cooling. The medium used will depend
upon the composition of the steel and the ultimate properties required.
Symmetrically shaped components are best quenched, and all components
should be agitated in the medium during quenching.

Figure 9.10 Photomicrograph showing the martensitic

microstructure. The needleshaped grains are the
martensite phase, and the white regions are austenite that
failed to transform during the rapid quench.

11

Figure 9.11 relationship

between carbon content
and hardness

Tempering
In this process quenched component heats or tempers in order to
relieve the internal stresses and reduce the brittleness. During tempering,
which is always carried out below the lower critical temperature, martensite
tends to transform to the equilibrium structure of ferrite and cementite. The
higher

the

tempering

temperature

the

more

closely

will

the

original

martensitic structure revert to this ferrite and cementite mixture and so

strength

and

hardness

fall

progressively,

whilst

toughness

and

ductility

increase (Fig. 9.12). Thus by choosing the appropriate tempering temperature

a wide range of mechanical properties can be achieved in carbon steels. The
structural changes which occur during the tempering of martensite containing
more than 0.3% carbon, take place in three stages:

First Stage
First stage occurs at temperatures below 200 C. This stage involves
conversion of the martensite to low carbon martensite (0.25%C) plus epsilon
carbide (). -carbide is metastable and richer in carbon than cementite and
is described by the formula Fe2.5C (or Fe5C2). low carbon martensite retains
some degree of tetragonality because it still contains more carbon in solid
solution than would ferrite; there are no changes in the morphology of the
martensite crystals. At this stage a slight increase in hardness may occur
because

of

Brittleness

the
is

presence

significantly

of

the

reduced

finely-dispersed
as

quenching

but

hard

stresses

-carbide.

disappear

in

consequence of the transformation. At 100C the transformation proceeds

very slowly but increases in speed up to 200C.

Second Stage
The second stage of tempering occurs between 200 and 300C. It
refers directly to the conversion of retained austenite to bainite (ferrite+
carbide) .this stage is important when there are significant quantities of
retained austenite.

11

Third Stage
Third stage start at 300C. At this stage -carbide begins to transform
to ordinary cementite and this continues as the temperature rises. In the mean
time the remainder of the carbon begins to precipitate from the low carbon
martensite also as cementite and in consequence the martensite structure
gradually reverts to one of ordinary BCC ferrite. Above 500C the cementite
particles coalesce into larger rounded globules in the ferrite matrix. This
structure was formerly called sorbite

or

tempered martensite. Due to the

increased carbide precipitation which occurs as the temperature rises the

structure becomes weaker but more ductile, though above 550C strength
falls fairly rapidly with little rise in ductility (Fig. 9.12).

Figure 9. 12 The relationship between mechanical properties and tempering temperature for a
steel containing 0.5% carbon and 0.7% manganese in the form of a bar 25mm diameter,
previously water quenched from 830C.

12

9.3 Isothermal Transformation(IT orTTT) Diagram

Introduction
The relationship, between structure and time at constant temperature,
can be studied by using isothermal transformation IT curves which are
known as TTT (Time-Temperature-Transformation) curves. The TTT curves
indicate the time necessary for transformation to take place and the structure
which will be produced when austenite is supercooled to any predetermined
transformation temperature.

Building of TTT curves

Such curves are constructed by taking a large number of similar
specimens of the steel and heating them to just inside the austenitic range.
These specimens are divided into groups each of which is quickly transferred
to an 'incubation' bath at a different temperature. At predetermined time
intervals individual specimens are removed from their baths and quenched in
water. The microstructure is then examined to see the extent to which
transformation had taken place at the holding temperature. Let us assume, for
example, that we have heated a number of specimens of eutectoid steel to just
above 727C and have then quenched them into molten lead at 500C (Figs.
9.13 and 9.14). Until one second has elapsed transformation has not begun,
and if we remove a specimen from the bath in less than a second, and then
quench it in water, we shall obtain a completely martensitic structure,
proving that at 500C after one second ('A' on Figs. 9.13 and 9.14) the steel
was still completely austenitic. If we allow the specimen to remain at 500C
for ten seconds ('B' on Figs. 9.13 and 9.14) and then water-quench it, we shall
find that the structure is composed entirely of bainite in feather-shaped
patches. If we quenched a specimen after it had been held at 500C for five
seconds ('C on Figs.9.13 and 9.14) we would obtain a mixture of bainite and
martensite By repeating such treatments at different holding temperatures we
are able, by interpreting the resulting microstructures, to construct TTT
curves of the type shown in Fig. 9.13.
TTT Description for eutectoid steel
The horizontal line at the upper of the diagram representing the
eutectoid temperature Below this line austenite is unstable, and the two
13

approximately C-shaped curves indicate the time necessary for the austenite
to

ferrite + cementite transformation to begin and to be completed following

rapid

quenching

to

any

predetermined

temperature.

Transformation

is

sluggish at temperatures just below the eutectoid temperature, because the

difference in free energy between austenite and pearlite at these temperatures
is small, the structure formed will be coarse pearlite. Then the time required
for completion, decrease as the temperature falls towards 550C. The rate of
transformation reaches a maximum at 550C. At region just above 550C,
structure formed will be fine pearlite. At temperatures between 550 and
220C

transformation

becomes

more

sluggish

as

the

temperature

falls

because the slower rate of diffusion of carbon atoms in austenite at lower

temperatures. In this temperature range the transformation product is bainite.
The appearance of this phase may vary between a feathery mass of fine
cementite and ferrite for bainite formed around 450C; and dark acicular
(needle-shaped) crystals for bainite formed in the region of 250C. The
horizontal lines at the foot of the diagram are, not part of the TTT curves, but
represent the temperatures at which the formation of martensite will begin
(Ms) and end (Mf) during cooling of austenite through this range. It will be
noted that the Mf line corresponds approximately to -50C. Consequently if
the steel is quenched in water at room temperature, some 'retained austenite'
can be expected in the structure since at room temperature transformation is
incomplete.

Figure 9.13 Time-temperaturetransformation (TTT). Curves for a

plain carbon steel of eutectoid
composition.

14

Figure 9.14 The

thermal treatment
sequence used in the
derivation of a set of
TTT curves.

6.9 Continuous Cooling Transformation Diagrams CCT

Most heat treatments for steels involve the continuous cooling of a
specimen to room temperature. An isothermal transformation diagram is
valid only for conditions of constant temperature, which diagram must be
modified for transformations that occur as the temperature is constantly
changing. For continuous cooling, the time required for a reaction to begin
and end is delayed. Thus the isothermal curves are shifted to longer times as
indicated in Figure 9.15 for an ironcarbon alloy of eutectoid composition. A
plot containing such modified beginning and ending reaction curves is
termed a continuous cooling transformation (CCT) diagram. On this diagram
are superimposed four curves, A, B, C and D, which represent different rates
of cooling. Curve A represents a rate of cooling of approximately 5C per
second

such

as

might

be

encountered

during

normalising.

Here

transformation will begin at X and can be completed at Y, the final structure

being one of fine pearlite. Curve B, on the other hand, represents very rapid
cooling at a rate of approximately 400C per second. This is typical of
conditions prevailing during a water-quench, and transformation will not
begin until 220C, when martensite begins to form. The lowest rate at which
this steel (of eutectoid composition) can be quenched, in order to obtain a
structure which is almost wholly martensitic, is represented by curve C
(140C per second). This is called the critical cooling rate for the steel, and
if a rate lower than this is used some fine pearlite will be formed. For
example, in the case of the curve D, which represents a cooling rate of about
50C per second, transformation would begin at P with the formation of some
fine pearlite. Transformation, however, is interrupted in the region of Q and
15

does not begin again until the MS line is reached at R, when the remaining
austenite begins to transform to martensite. Thus the final structure at room
temperature is a mixture of pearlite, martensite and traces of retained
austenite.

Figure9.15The effect of
cooling rate on the structure
for eutectoid TTT diagram.

TTT Curves for Hyper and Hypo eutectoid Steel

Several differences are evident between the eutectoid TTT diagram
and

non-eutectoid

TTT

diagram

as

shown

in

figure

9.16.

one

major

difference is that the curves of the hypoeutectoid steel have been shifted to
the left. While the curves of hypereutectoid steel have been shifted to the
right. A second major difference is that another transformation line has been
added, that
hypoeutectoid

indicates the start of the formation of proeutectoid ferrite for

and

proeutectoid

cementite

for

hypereutectoid.As

shon

in

figure 9.16 the Ms and Mf temperatures decreases as the weight percent

carbon increases.

Figure 9.16 modified TTT

diagrams for hypoeutectoid
and hypereutectoid steels.
16

Hardenability (Mass Effect)

Let us examine the conditions under which a large body of steel will
cool, when quenched. The core will cool less quickly than the outside skin,
and since its cooling curve B (Fig. 9.17A) cuts into the nose of the
'transformation-begins' curve, we can expect to find some fine pearlite in the
core, whilst the surface layer is entirely martensitic. This feature is usually
referred to as the 'mass effect' or hardenability. Even if we are able to cool
the component quickly enough to obtain a completely martensitic structure,
as indicated in Fig. 9.17B there will be such a considerable time interval CD
between both core and surface reaching a martensitic condition that this will
lead to quench-cracks. This difficulty may be remedied to some extent by
adding alloying elements to the steel. These reduce the critical rates of
austenite transformation and make it possible to get a martensitic structure
throughout quite thick sections even when the less drastic oil- or airquenching processes are used.

6.11Martempering or Marquenching
When we cool the steel under conditions of the kind indicated in Fig.
9.17c. Here the steel is quenched into a bath at temperature E and left there
long enough to permit it to reach a uniform temperature throughout. It is then
removed from the bath and allowed to cool so that martensite will begin to
form at F. The net result is that, by allowing the core to attain the same
temperature as the surface whilst in the bath at temperature E. The final aircooling will not be rapid enough to allow a large temperature gradient to be
set up, and both core and surface will become martensitic at approximately
the same time. thus minimizing the tendency towards quench-cracking.

6.12 Austempering
This process illustrated in Fig.9.17D. Here the steel is quenched into a
bath at a temperature above that at which martensite can be formed and
allowed to remain there long enough for transformation to be complete at G.
Since

transformation

importance

when

to

bainite

heat-treating

is

complete

components

of

at

G.

Austempering

intricate

section.

is

Such

components might distort or crack if they were heat-treated by the more

conventional methods of quenching and tempering.
17

Figure 9.17 (A) and

(B) illustrate the
effects of mass
during normal
quenching. (C) and
(D)
show how these
effects may be
largely overcome in
martempering and
austempering.

6.13 Isothermal Annealing

In this process the large body of steel is heated into the austenitic
range and then allowed to transform as completely as possible in the pearlitic
range. The object of such treatment is generally to soften the steel sufficiently
for subsequent cold-forming or machining operations. The nature of the
pearlite formed during transformation is influenced by the temperature at
which isothermal transformation takes place. Transformation just below the
lower critical temperature leads to the formation of spheroidal pearlitic
cementite

since

precipitation

is

slow,

whilst

at

lower

temperatures

transformation rates are higher and lamellar cementite tends to form. A

structure containing spheroidal cementite is generally preferred for lathe
work and cold-forming operations, whilst one with lamellar cementite is
often used where milling or drilling are involved.

18

Ruling Section
It

became

necessary

for

manufacturers

to

specify

the

maximum

diameter or ruling section of a bar, up to which the stated mechanical

properties would apply following heat-treatment. If the ruling section is
exceeded then the properties across the section will not be uniform since
hardening of the core will not be complete.
The Jominy end-quench test is of great practical use in determining
the hardenability of steel. Here a standard test piece is made, (Fig.9.18A)
and heated up to its austenitic state. It is then dropped into position in a
frame, as shown in( Fig. 9.18B), and quenched at its end only, by means of a
pre-set standard jet of water at 25C. Thus different rates of cooling are
obtained along the length of the bar. After the cooling, a 'flat', 0.4 mm deep,
is ground along the side of the bar and hardness determinations made every
millimetre along the length from the quenched end. The results are then
plotted as in Fig.9.19. These curves show that the depth of hardening of a
nickel-chromium steel is greater than that of a plain carbon steel of similar
carbon content, whilst the depth of hardening of a chromium-molybdenum
steel is greater than that of the nickel-chromium steel.

Figure 9.19 The relative depth of

hardening of three different steels as
indicated by the Jominy test.

Figure 9.18 The Jominy end-quench test.

(A) The standard form of test piece used. (B) A simple
type of apparatus for use in the test.

19