Islamic schools and branches

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Jump to: navigation, search

The shahadah or Islamic creed, which reads: '"There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the
Messenger of God"'.
Part of a series on

Islam
Beliefs

Allah · Oneness of God

Muhammad · Other prophets

Practices

Profession of faith · Prayer

Fasting · Charity · Pilgrimage

Texts and laws

 Qur'an · Sunnah · Hadith
Fiqh · Sharia · Kalam · Sufism

History and leadership

Timeline · Spread of Islam

Ahl al-Bayt · Sahaba

Sunni · Shi'a

Rashidun · Caliphate
Imamate

Culture and society

Academics · Animals · Art

Calendar · Children
Demographics ·

Festivals
Mosques · Philosophy
Science · Women
Politics · Dawah

Islam and other religions

Christianity · Judaism
Hinduism · Sikhism · Jainism

See also

Criticism · Islamophobia
Glossary of Islamic terms

Islam portal
v•d•e
Map showing distribution of Shi`a and Sunni Muslims in Africa, Asia and Europe.
Over the period of time after the death of the prophet of Islam (the last prophet of the Abrahamic
traditions), Muhammad, there have arisen distinctions by means of schools of thought, traditions,
and related faiths.[1][2]
However, the central text of Islam, the Qur'an ordains that Muslims are not to be divided into
divisions or sections and rather be united under a common goal of faith in one God alone -
Allah[Qur'an 3:103], failure to do which has also been deemed a sin by God and thus forbidden.[6:149]
[6:159]
The Qur'an also ordains that the followers of Islam need to "obey Allah and obey the
Messenger (Prophet Muhammad)" stressing on the importance of keeping the commandments
mentioned in the Qur'an by Allah, and following all the teachings of Muhammad,[4:59]; labeling
everyone who concurs as a 'Muslim'[22:78] as a part of the "best of communities brought forth from
mankind".[3:110] The Quran clearly states that creating sects in Islam is strictly Haram(forbidden),
in Surah 30 Verse 32:

Contents
[hide]
• 1 Sunni Islam
○ 1.1 Schools of Law
○ 1.2 Schools of Belief
○ 1.3 Movements
• 2 Shia Islam
○ 2.1 Twelver
○ 2.2 Ismailism
○ 2.3 Zaidiyyah
○ 2.4 Alawiyyah
○ 2.5 Alevism
• 3 Kharijite Islam
• 4 Sufism
○ 4.1 Qadiri
○ 4.2 Bektashi
○ 4.3 Chishti
○ 4.4 Naqshbandi
○ 4.5 Oveyssi
○ 4.6 Suhrawardiyya
• 5 Other groups
○ 5.1 Reformists
  5.1.1 Islamism
 5.1.2 Liberals
 5.1.3 Qur'an Alone
○ 5.2 Heterodox groups
 5.2.1 Ahmadiyya
 5.2.2 Mahdavism
 5.2.3 Nation of Islam
 5.2.4 Moorish Science
 5.2.5 Submitters
• 6 Related faiths
○ 6.1 Bábism
○ 6.2 Bahá'í Faith
○ 6.3 Sikhism
○ 6.4 Five Percenters
○ 6.5 Nuwaubu
• 7 References
• 8 See also
• 9 External links

[edit] Sunni Islam

[hide]

Part of a series on
Sunni Islam

Full Name

Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘ah

 ‫أهل السنة والجماعة‬

Beliefs

Monotheism
Prophethood & Messengership
Holy Books • Angels
Judgement Day • Predestination

Pillars

Declaration of Faith • Prayer

Charity • Fasting • Pilgrimage

Rightly Guided Caliphs

Abu Bakr • Umar ibn al-Khattab

Uthman ibn Affan • Ali ibn Abi Talib

Schools of Law (Shariah)

Hanafi • Shafi`i • Maliki • Hanbali • Ahle Hadith

Schools of Theology

Maturidi • Ash'ari • Athari

Modern Movements

Barelvi • Salafi • Deobandi

Hadith Collections
 Sahih Bukhari • Sahih Muslim
Al-Sunan al-Sughra
Sunan Abu Dawood
Sunan al-Tirmidhi
Sunan ibn Maja • Al-Muwatta
Sunan al-Darami

This box: view • talk • edit

Main article: Sunni Islam

Sunni Muslims, often referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h or Ahl as-Sunnah, are the largest
denomination of Islam.
The word Sunni comes from the word sunnah, which means the teachings and actions or
examples of the Islamic prophet, Muhammad. Therefore, the term "Sunni" refers to those who
follow or maintain the sunnah of the prophet Muhammad. Another etymology proposed by
some[who?] is that the word "sunni" comes from a movement "Am-ul-sunnah" started by
Mu'awiya.
The Sunni believe that Muhammad did not specifically appoint a successor to lead the Muslim
ummah (community) before his death, and after an initial period of confusion, a group of his
most prominent companions gathered and elected Abu Bakr Siddique—Muhammad's close
friend and a father-in-law—as the first caliph of Islam. Sunni Muslims regard the first four
caliphs—Abu Bakr, `Umar ibn al-Khattāb, Uthman Ibn Affan and Ali ibn Abu Talib—as "al-
Khulafā’ur-Rāshidūn" or "The Rightly Guided Caliphs." Sunnis also believe that the position of
caliph may be democratically-chosen, but after the Rashidun, the position turned into a
hereditary dynastic rule. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire in 1923, there has never been
another as widely-recognized caliph in the Muslim world.
[edit] Schools of Law
Main article: Madh'hab
Madhhab is an Islamic term that refers to a school of thought or religious jurisprudence, or fiqh,
within Sunni Islam. Each of the Sahaba had a unique school of jurisprudence, but these schools
were gradually consolidated or discarded so that there are currently four recognized schools. The
differences between these schools of thought manifest in minor practical differences, as most
Sunni Muslims consider them all fundamentally the same. Sunnis generally do not identify
themselves with a particular of the following schools of thought — simply calling themselves
"Sunnis".
• Hanafi – Founded by Imam Abu Hanifa an-Nu‘man, Hanafi is considered to be the
school most open to modern ideas.[citation needed] It is predominant among Sunni Muslims in
northern Egypt, the Indian subcontinent, Iraq, Turkey, Balkans and in many western
countries.
• Shafi`i – Shafi`i was founded by Imam Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi`i, and has
adherents among many high-ranking Islamic scholars.[citation needed] It is practiced throughout
the Muslim world, but is most prevalent in Egypt, Somalia, Indonesia, Thailand,
Singapore, among Kurds and The Philippines, and is the school of thought officially
followed by the government of Brunei and Malaysia.[citation needed] It is followed by 28% of
Muslims worldwide, being the second largest School in terms of followers..[citation needed]
 • Maliki – The Maliki school derives from the work of Imam Malik ibn Anas. Maliki is
practiced in North and West Africa. It is the third-largest of the four schools, followed by
approximately 15% of Muslims.[citation needed]
• Hanbali – Hanbali is considered to be the most conservative of the four schools and the
one that relies on Hadith the most.[citation needed] Hanbalis reject the use of philosophical
argument in matters of religious belief.[citation needed] The school was started by the students
of Imam Ahmad. Hanbali jurisprudence is predominant among Muslims in the Arabian
Peninsula.
[edit] Schools of Belief

Main article: Aqidah

Aqidah is an Islamic term meaning creed or belief. Any religious belief system, or creed, can be
considered an example of aqidah. However this term has taken a significant technical usage in
Muslim history and theology, denoting those matters over which Muslims hold conviction. The
term is usually translated as 'theology'. Such traditions are divisions orthogonal to sectarian
divisions of Islam, and a Mu'tazili may for example, belong to Jafari, Zaidi, or even a Hanafi
sect/jurisprudence school, though the latter is usually a rare occurrence.[citation needed]
• Ash'ari – Ash'ari is a school of early Islamic philosophy founded in the 10th century. It
was instrumental in drastically changing the direction of Islam and laid the groundwork
to "shut the door of ijtihad" centuries later in the Ottoman Empire.[citation needed] The Asharite
view was that comprehension of the unique nature and characteristics of God were
beyond human capability.
• Maturidi – A Maturidi is one who follows Abu Mansur Al Maturidi's theology, which is a
close variant of the Ash'ari school. Points which differ are the nature of belief and the
place of human reason. The Maturidis state that belief (iman) does not increase nor
decrease but remains static; it is piety (taqwa) which increases and decreases. The
Ash'aris say that belief does in fact increase and decrease. The Maturidis say that the
unaided human mind is able to find out that some of the more major sins such as alcohol
or murder are evil without the help of revelation. The Ash'aris say that the unaided
 human mind is unable to know if something is good or evil, lawful or unlawful, without
divine revelation.
• Murji'ah – Murji'ah (Arabic ‫ )المرجئة‬is an early Islamic school, whose followers are
known in English as Murjites or Murji'ites (Arabic ‫)المرجئون‬. During the early centuries of
Islam, Muslim thought encountered a multitude of influences from various ethnic and
philosophical groups that it absorbed. Murji'ah emerged as a theological school that was
opposed to the Kharijites on questions related to early controversies regarding sin and
definitions of what is a true Muslim.
They advocated the idea of "delayed judgement". Only God can judge who is a true
Muslim and who is not, and no one else can judge another as an infidel (kafir). Therefore,
all Muslims should consider all other Muslims as true and faithful believers, and look to
Allah to judge everyone during the last judgment. This theology promoted tolerance of
Umayyads and converts to Islam who appeared half-hearted in their obedience. The
Murjite opinion would eventually dominate that of the Kharijites.
The Murjites exited the way of the Sunnis when they declared that no Muslim would
enter the hellfire, no matter what his sins. This contradicts the traditional Sunni belief
which states that some Muslims will enter the hellfire temporarily. Therefore the Murjites
are classified as Ahlul Bid'ah or "People of Innovation" by the majority of other Muslims.
• Mu'tazili – Mu'tazili theology originated in the 8th century in al-Basrah when Wasil ibn
Ata left the teaching lessons of Hasan al-Basri after a theological dispute. He and his
followers expanded on the logic and rationalism of Greek philosophy, seeking to
combine them with Islamic doctrines and show that the two were inherently compatible.
The Mu'tazili debated philosophical questions such as whether the Qur'an was created or
eternal, whether evil was created by God, the issue of predestination versus free will,
whether God's attributes in the Qur'an were to be interpreted allegorically or literally, and
whether sinning believers would have eternal punishment in hell.
• Athari – Athari is a school that derives its name from the Arabic word Athar, meaning
"Narrations". The Athari methodology is to avoid delving into extensive theological
speculation. They use the Qur'an, the Sunnah, and sayings of the Sahaba. Athari is
generally synonymous with Salafi.
• Zahiri – A school of thought which literally translates as literalist, who were regarded as
heterodox among many Muslim for rejecting qiyas and arguing that Allah's
anthropomorphic attributes were to be regarded as literal (i.e. that Allah actually has
hands in Surah 5:64).
[edit] Movements
There are a few numbers of groups which have created their own movements mainly named after
the founder of the group, which follow much of the teachings of the schools and teologies
however some ie. Salafis, disagree to the teachings to some extent. These groups include:
• Salafism – Salafism was revived by the 18th century teacher Muhammad ibn Abd-al-
Wahhab in the Arabian peninsula, and was instrumental in the rise of the House of Saud
to power. Salafism is a puritanical and legalistic Islamic movement under the Sunni
umbrella, and is the dominant form of Islam in Saudi Arabia. The terms "Wahhabism"
and "Salafism" are often used interchangeably. In addition to the Qur'an and hadith, and
the works of earlier scholars like Ibn Taymiyya are used for religious guidance. They are
often associated with the Hanbali madhhab, although they generally reject the following
 of a traditional mazhab. Salafis preach Islamic monotheism (tawhid), and claim teachings
from Ibn Taymiyyah, a 14th century Syrian scholar. Salafism is in general opposed to
Sufism and Shi'a Islam, which they regard as heresies. They see their role as a movement
to restore Islam from what they perceive to be innovations, superstitions, deviances,
heresies and idolatries.
• Barelwi;– The Barelwi is the sufi movement led by Maulana Ahmed Raza Khan of
Bareilly, Rohilkhand India (hence the term Barelvi). They are found mostly in the Indian
Subcontinent. Other denominations of Sunni Islam widely accuse Barelwis of indulging
in practices which lead to shirk and bi'dah.
• Deobandi – The Deobandi is one of the two major divisions of the Hanafi school of law
in the Indian subcontinent. Deobandi are Muslims of South Asia and Afghanistan, and
have more recently spread to other countries such as South Africa and the United
Kingdom. Deobandis follow the fiqh of Imam Abu Hanifa and the Maturidi school of
aqidah. The largest missionary group which follows the movement is the Tablighi
Jamaat. It is a reformist movement within the Hanafi school of fiqh that advocates a
return to the early days of Islam, quite like the Salafis and Ahle Hadith. The Taliban are
reputed to follow the teachings of the Deoband school, although a strict and simplistic
version of the school's teachings.
• Al-Ikhwan Al-Muslimun – Translated as The Muslim Brotherhood, this organisation was
founded by Egyptian Scholar Hassan al-Banna who graduated from Dar al-Ulum. With
its various branches it is the largest Sunni movement in the Arab world, with an affilaite
usually being the largest opposition party in many Arab nations. The Muslim
Brotherhood is not concerned with theological differences, accepting Muslims of any of
the four Sunni schools of thought, it is the world's oldest and largest Islamist group. Its
aims are to re-establish the Caliphate and in the mean time push for more Islamisation of
society. The Brotherhood's stated goal is to instill the Qur'an and Sunnah as the "sole
reference point for... ordering the life of the Muslim family, individual, community... and
state."
• Jamaat-e-Islami – Jamaat-e-Islami is an Islamist political party in the Indian
Subcontinent. It was founded in Lahore, India, by Sayyid Abul Ala Maududi on 26
August 1941,[1] and is the oldest religious party in Pakistan & India.[1] Today sister
organizations with similar objectives and ideological approaches exist in India, (Jamaat-
e-Islami Hind), Bangladesh (Jamaat-e-Islami Bangladesh), Kashmir, Afghanistan, and Sri
Lanka, and there are "close brotherly relations" with the Islamist movements and
missions "working in different continents and countries", particularly those affiliated with
the Muslim Brotherhood or Akhwan-al-Muslimeen.[1] The JI envisions an Islamic
government in Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan governing by Islamic law. It
opposes Westernization--including capitalism, socialism, or such practices as bank
interest, and favours and Islamic economic order and Caliphate.
• Jamaat al-Muslimeen – Jamaat ul-Muslimeen is a movement in Sunni Islam revived by
the Imam Syed Masood Ahmad in the 1960s.[1] Now the present leader of this group is
Muhammad Ishtiaq[2]. The group's reformers were previously part of Salafism and all
the followers were previously part of different Sunni and Shi'ite Denominations. After the
exodus they reformed the Jamaat (community) based purely upon Islamic Principals and
Laws namely Quran and the Tradition (ar. Sunnah) of Muhammad.
[edit] Shia Islam

[hide]

PART OF A SERIES ON
Shī‘ah Islam

BELIEFS & PRACTICES

Succession of Ali
Imamate of the Family
Mourning of Muharram
Intercession · Ismah
The Occultation· Clergy

VIEWS

The Qur'an · Sahaba

Mu'awiya I · Abu Bakr · Umar

HOLY DAYS

Ashura · Arba'een · Mawlid

Eid ul-Fitr · Eid al-Adha
Eid al-Ghadeer · Eid al-Mubahila

HISTORY

Twelver · Ismāʿīlī · Zaidi

The verse of purification
Mubahala · Two things
Khumm · Fatimah's house
First Fitna · Second Fitna
The Battle of Karbala
 Persecution

AHL AL-KISA

Muhammad · Ali · Fatimah

Hasan · Husayn

SOME COMPANIANS

Salman the Persian muhammadi

Miqdad ibn Aswad
Abu Dharr al-Ghifari
Ammar ibn Yasir
Bilal ibn Ribah

v•d•e

Imam Ali Mosque in Najaf, Iraq, where Ali the first Shī‘ah Imam is buried.
Main article: Shia Islam
Shia Islam (Arabic: ‫ شيعة‬Shī‘ah, sometimes Shi'a or Shi'ite), is the second-largest denomination
of Islam. Shia Muslims—though a minority in the Muslim world—constitute the majority of the
populations in Azerbaijan, Bahrain and Iran, as well as a plurality in Iraq, Kuwait, and Lebanon.
In addition to believing in the authority of the Qur'an and teachings of the Muhammad, Shia
believe that his family—the Ahl al-Bayt (the People of the House), including his descendants
known as Imams—have special spiritual and political rule over the community[3] and believe that
Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law, was the first of these Imams and was the
rightful successor to Muhammad, and thus reject the legitimacy of the first three Rashidun
caliphs.[4]
The Shi'a Islamic faith is vast and inclusive of many different groups. There are various Shi'a
theological beliefs, schools of jurisprudence, philosophical beliefs, and spiritual movements. The
Shia identity emerged soon after the death of 'Umar Ibnil-Khattab—the second caliph—and Shi'a
theology was formulated in the second century[5] and the first Shi'a governments and societies
were established by the end of the ninth century.
As stated above, an estimate of approximately 10–15% of the world's Muslims are Shi'a, which
corresponds to about 130–190 million Shi'a Muslims worldwide.[6] Shi'a Muslims also constitute
over 30% of the population in Lebanon,[7] over 45% of the population in Yemen,[8] over 35% of
the population in Kuwait,[9] 20–25% of the population (primarily Alevi) in Turkey,[10] 20%
(primarily Bektashi) of the population in Albania,[11] 20% of the population in Pakistan and 18%
of population in Afghanistan. They also make up at least 15% of the Muslim populations in
India, the United Arab Emirates, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Serbia, Montenegro, and Kosovo.
Significant Shi'a communities exist on the coastal regions of West Sumatra and Aceh in
Indonesia (see Tabuik). The Shi'a presence is negligible elsewhere in Southeast Asia, where
Muslims are predominantly Shafi'i Sunnis.
A significant syncretic Shi'a minority is present in Nigeria, centered around the state of Kano
(see Shia in Nigeria). East Africa holds several populations of Ismaili Shia, primarily
descendants of immigrants from South Asia during the colonial period, such as the Khoja.
According to Shi'a Muslim,[who?] one of the lingering problems in estimating Shi'a population is
that unless Shi'a form a significant minority in a Muslim country, the entire population is often
listed as Sunni.[citation needed] The reverse, however, has not held true, which may contribute to
imprecise estimates of the size of each sect. For example, the 1926 rise of the House of Saud in
Arabia brought official discrimination against Shi'a.[12]
Shi'a Islam is divided into three branches. The largest and best known are the Twelver (‫اثنا عشرية‬
iṯnāʿašariyya), named after their adherence to the Twelve Imams. They form a majority of the
population in Iran, Azerbaijan, Bahrain and Iraq. Other smaller branches include the Ismaili and
Zaidi, who dispute the Twelver lineage of Imams and beliefs.[13]
The Twelver Shi'a faith is predominantly found in Iran (90%) , Azerbaijan (85%), Bahrain
(75%), Iraq (65%), Yemen (45%), Lebanon (35%) [14], Kuwait (35%), Turkey (25%), Albania
(20%), Pakistan (20%), and Afghanistan (20%).[15][16].
The Zaidi dispute the succession of the fifth Twelver Imam, Muhammad al-Baqir, because he did
not stage a revolution against the corrupt government, unlike Zaid ibn Ali. They do not believe in
a normal lineage, but rather that any descendant of Hasan ibn Ali or Husayn ibn Ali who stages a
revolution against a corrupt government is an imam. The Zaidi are mainly found in Yemen.
The Ismaili dispute the succession of the seventh Twelver Imam, Musa al-Kadhim, believing his
older brother Isma'il ibn Jafar actually succeeded their father Ja'far al-Sadiq, and did not
predecease him like Twelver Shi'a believe. Ismaili form small communities in Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Uzbekistan, India, Yemen, mainland China, and Saudi Arabia[17] and have several
subbranches.
[edit] Twelver
[hide]

Par
t of a series on Shī‘ah Islam
Twelvers
 The Fourteen Infallibles
Muhammad · Fatimah.Ali ·
Hasan · Husayn.al-Sajjad · al-
Baqir · al-Sadiq.al-Kadhim ·
al-Rida · al-Taqi.al-Naqi · al-
Askari · al-Mahdi

The Twelve Imams

Ali · Hasan · Husayn
al-Sajjad · al-Baqir · al-Sadiq
al-Kadhim · al-Rida · al-Taqi
al-Naqi · al-Askari · al-Mahdi

Concepts
Fourteen Infallibles
Occultation (Minor · Major)
Akhbar · Usul · Ijtihad
Taqleed · 'Aql · Irfan
Mahdaviat

Principles
Monotheism
Judgement Day · Justice
Prophethood · Imamate

Practices
Prayer · Fasting · Pilgrimage
Charity · Taxes · Jihad
Command Justice · Forbid
Evil
Love the family of Muhammad
Dissociate from their Enemies

Holy cities
Mecca · Medina · Jerusalem
Najaf · Karbala · Mashhad
Samarra · Kadhimayn
 Groups
Usuli · Akhbari · Shaykhi
Nimatullahi · Safaviya
Qizilbash · Alevism · Alawism
Bektashi · Tabarie

Scholarship
Marja · Ayatollah · Allamah
Hojatoleslam · Mujtahid
List of marjas · List of
Ayatollahs

Hadith collections
Peak of Eloquence · The
Psalms of Islam · Book of
Fundamentals · The Book in
Scholar's Lieu · Civilization of
Laws · The Certainty · Book of
Sulaym ibn Qays · Oceans of
Light · Wasael ush-Shia ·
Reality of Certainty · Keys of
Paradise

This box: view • talk • edit

Twelvers (also called Imamiyyah) are members of the group of Shi'a Islam who believe in
twelve Imams. The twelfth Imam is believed to be in occultation, and will appear again just
before the Qiyamah (Islamic view of the Last Judgment). The Shi`a Hadiths include the sayings
of the Imams. Many Muslims criticise the Shia for certain beliefs and practices, including
practices such as the Mourning of Muharram (Mätam). They are the largest Shi'a school of
thought (80%), predominant in Azerbaijan, Iran, Iraq, Lebanon and Bahrain and have a
significant population in Pakistan, Kuwait and the Eastern province of Saudi Arabia. The
Twelver Shi'a are followers of the Jaf'ari madh'hab. Followers of the madh'hab are divided into
the following sub-divisions, although these are not considered different sects:
• Usulism
The Usuli form the overwhelming majority within the Twelver Shia denomination. They follow
a Marja-i Taqlid on the subject of taqlid and fiqh. They are concentrated in Iran, Iraq, and
Lebanon.
• Akhbarism
Akhbari, similar to Usulis, however reject ijtihad in favor of hadith. Concentrated in Bahrain.
• Shaykhism
Shaykhism is an Islamic religious movement founded by Shaykh Ahmad in the early 19th
century Qajar, Iran, now retaining a minority following in Iran and Iraq. It began from a
combination of Sufi and Shi‘a and Akhbari doctrines. In the mid 19th-century many Shaykhis
converted to the Bábí and Bahá'í religions, which regard Shaykh Ahmad highly.
[edit] Ismailism
 [hide]

Part of a
series on Shī‘ah Islam
Ismāʿīlism

Concepts

The Qur'ān · The Ginans

Reincarnation · Panentheism
Imām · Pir · Dā‘ī l-Muṭlaq
‘Aql · Numerology · Taqiyya
Żāhir · Bāṭin

Seven Pillars

Guardianship · Prayer · Charity

Fasting · Pilgrimage · Struggle
Purity · Profession of Faith

History

Shoaib · Nabi Shu'ayb

Seveners · Qarmatians
Abu 'Abdullah al-Shi'i
Fatimids · Baghdad Manifesto
Hamza ibn ‘Alī · ad-Darazī
Hafizi · Taiyabi · Ainsarii
Hassan-i Sabbah · Alamut
Sinan · Hashshashīn
Pir Sadardin · Satpanth
Aga Khan · Jama'at Khana

Early Imams

Ali · Ḥassan · Ḥusain

as-Sajjad · al-Baqir · aṣ-Ṣādiq
Ismā‘īl · Muḥammad
Aḥmad · at-Taqī · az-Zakī
al-Mahdī · al-Qā'im · al-Manṣūr
al-Mu‘izz · al-‘Azīz · al-Ḥākim
az-Zāhir · al-Mustansir · al-Musta
′lī · al-Amīr · al-Qāṣim

Groups & leaders

 Nizārī - Aga Khan IV
Druze - Mowafak Tarif
Dawūdī - Burhanuddin
Sulaimanī - Al-Fakhri Abdullah
Alavī - Ṭayyib Ziyā'u d-Dīn
Atba-i-Malak Badra - Amiruddin
Atba-i-Malak Vakil - Razzak
Hebtiahs
AlKawar

This box: view • talk • edit

Main article: Ismailism

The Ismailis and Twelvers both accept the same initial Imams from the descendants of
Muhammad through his daughter Fatima Zahra and therefore share much of their early history.
However, a dispute arose on the succession of the Sixth Imam, Ja'far al-Sadiq. The Ismailis are
those who accepted Ja'far's eldest son Ismail as the next Imam, whereas the Twelvers accepted a
younger son, Musa al-Kazim. Today, Ismailis are concentrated in Pakistan and other parts of
South Asia. The Nizari Ismailis, however, are also concentrated in Central Asia, Russia, China,
New Zealand, Afghanistan, Papua New Guinea, Syria, Australia, North America (Including
Canada), the United Kingdom, and in Africa as well.
• Nizari – The Nizāriyya are the largest branch (90%) of Ismaili, they are the only Shia
group to be have their absolute temporal leader in the rank of Imamate, which is currently
invested in Aga Khan IV. Their present living Imam is Mawlānā Shah Karim Al-Husayni
who is the 49th Imam, who is also believed to be the manifestation of God and Godhead
in his unity. The Nizāriyya believe that the successor-Imām to the Fatimid caliph al-
Mustansir was his elder son al-Nizār. However, the Fatimid Regent appointed al-
Mustansir's younger son al-Mustaˤlī as caliph and as a result, an-Nizār died in prison
after he failed to claim the throne by rebellion. Most Nizaris keep the tenets of their faith
secret. Some claim to be Muslim, some do not, though the Nizari faith itself abides by
some of Islamic principles.
• Mustaali – The Mustaali group of Ismaili Muslims differ from the Nizāriyya in that they
believe that the successor-Imām to the Fatimid caliph, al-Mustansir, was his younger son
al-Mustaˤlī, who was made Caliph by the Fatimad Regent Al-Afdal Shahanshah.
In contrast to the Nizaris, they accept the younger brother al-Mustaˤlī over Nizar as their Imam.
The Bohras are an offshoot of the Taiyabi, which itself was an offshoot of the Mustaali. The
Taiyabi, supporting another offshoot of the Mustaali, the Hafizi branch, split with the Mustaali
Fatimid, who recognized Al-Amir as their last Imam. The split was due to the Taiyabi believing
that Tayyab Abī al-Qāsim was the next rightful Imam after Al-Amir. The Hafizi themselves
however considered Al-Hafiz as the next rightful Imam after Al-Amir.
The Bohras believe that their 21st Imam, Taiyab abi al-Qasim, went into seclusion and
established the offices of the Da'i al-Mutlaq (‫)الداعي المطلق‬, Ma'zoon (‫ )مأذون‬and Mukasir (‫)مكاسر‬.
The Bohras are the only surviving branch of the Mustaali and themselves have split into the
Dawoodi Bohra, Sulaimani Bohra, and Alavi Bohra.
• Dawoodi Bohra – The Dawoodi Bohras are a denomination of the Bohras. After
offshooting from the Taiyabi the Bohras split into two, the Dawoodi Bohra and
the Sulaimani Bohra, over who would be the correct dai of the community.
Concentrated mainly in Pakistan and India.
 • Sulaimani Bohra – The Sulaimani Bohra named after their 27th Da'i al-Mutlaq,
Sulayman ibn Hassan, are a denomination of the Bohras. After offshooting from
the Taiyabi the Bohras split into two, the Sulaimani Bohra and the Dawoodi
Bohra, over who would be the correct dai of the community. Concentrated mainly
in Yemen.
• Alavi Bohra – Split from the Dawoodi Bohra over who would be the correct dai
of the community. The smallest branch of the Bohras.
• Hebtiahs Bohra – The Hebtiahs Bohra are a branch of Mustaali Ismaili Shi'a Islam
that broke off from the mainstream Dawoodi Bohra after the death of the 39th
Da'i al-Mutlaq in 1754.[citation needed]
• Atba-i-Malak – The Abta-i Malak jamaat (community) are a branch of Mustaali
Ismaili Shi'a Islam that broke off from the mainstream Dawoodi Bohra after the
death of the 46th Da'i al-Mutlaq, under the leadership of Abdul Hussain Jivaji.
They have further split into two more branches, the Atba-i-Malak Badra and
Atba-i-Malak Vakil.[18]
• Druze – The Druze are a small distinct traditional religion that developed in the
11th century. It began as an offshoot of the Ismaili sect of Islam, but is unique in
its incorporation of Gnostic, neo-Platonic and other philosophies. Druze are
considered heretical and non-Muslims by most other Muslims because they are
believed to address prayers to the Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah, the
third Fatimid caliph of Egypt, whom they regard as "a manifestation of God in
His unity." The Druze believe that he had been hidden away by God and will
return as the Mahdi on Judgement Day. Like Alawis, most Druze keep the tenets
of their Faith secret, and very few details are known. They neither accept converts
nor recognize conversion from their religion to another. They are located
primarily in the Levant. Druze in different states can have radically different
lifestyles. Some claim to be Muslim, some do not, though the Druze faith itself
abides by Islamic principles.[citation needed]
[edit] Zaidiyyah
Zaidiyyahs historically come from the followers of Zayd ibn Ali, the great-Grandson of 'Ali b.
Abi Talib. They follow any knowledgeable and upright descendant of al-Hasan and al-Husayn,
and are less esoteric in focus than Twelverism or Ismailism.
[edit] Alawiyyah
Alawites are also called Nusayris, Nusairis, Namiriya or Ansariyya. Slightly over one million of
them live in Syria and Lebanon.[19]
[edit] Alevism
Alevis are sometimes categorized as part of Twelver Shi'a Islam, and sometimes as its own
religious tradition, as it has markedly different philosophy, customs, and rituals. They have many
Sufi characteristics and express belief in the Qur'an and the Shi'a Imams, but reject polygamy
and accept religious traditions predating Islam, like Turkish shamanism. They are significant in
East-Central Turkey. They are sometimes considered a Sufi sect, and have an untraditional form
of religious leadership that is not scholarship oriented like other Sunni and Shia groups. They
number around 25 million worldwide, of which 22 million are in Turkey, with the rest in the
Balkans, Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Azerbaijan, Iran and Syria.
[edit] Kharijite Islam
Kharijite (lit. "those who seceded") is a general term embracing a variety of Muslim sects which,
while originally supporting the Caliphate of Ali, eventually rejected his legitimacy after he
negotiated with Mu'awiya during the 7th Century Islamic civil war (First Fitna).[20] Their
complaint was that the Imam must be spiritually pure, and that Ali's compromise with Mu'awiya
was a compromise of his spiritual purity, and therefore of his legitimacy as Imam or Caliph.
While there are few remaining Kharijite or Kharijite-related groups, the term is sometimes used
to denote Muslims who refuse to compromise with those with whom they disagree.
The only surviving Kharijite sect is the Ibadi. The sect developed out of the 7th century Islamic
sect of the Kharijites. Nonetheless, Ibadis see themselves as quite different from the Kharijite.
Believed to be one of the earliest schools, it is said to have been founded less than 50 years after
the death of Muhammad.
It is the dominant form of Islam in Oman, but small numbers of Ibadi followers may also be
found in countries in Northern and Eastern Africa. The early medieval Rustamid dynasty in
Algeria was Ibadi.
Ibadis usually consider non-Ibadi Muslims as unbelievers, though nowadays this attitude has
highly relaxed.[citation needed] They approve of the caliphates of Abū Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab,
whom they regard as the "Two Rightly-Guided Caliphs". Specific beliefs include: walāyah-
friendship and unity with the practicing true believers and the Ibadi Imams, barā'ah- dissociation
and hostility towards the unbelievers and sinners, and wuqūf- reservation towards those whose
status is unclear. While Ibadi Muslims maintain most of the beliefs of the original Kharijites,
they have rejected the more aggressive methods.[citation needed]
The Sufris (Arabic: ‫ )سفريين‬were a sect of Islam in the 7th and 8th centuries, and a part of the
Kharijites. They believe Sura 12 (Yusuf) of the Qur'an is not an authentic Sura.
[edit] Sufism
Main articles: Sufism and Tariqah
Not strictly a denomination, Sufism is a mystical-ascetic form of Islam practiced by many Sunni
and Shi'a Muslims. By focusing on the more spiritual aspects of religion, Sufis strive to obtain
direct experience of God by making use of "intuitive and emotional faculties" that one must be
trained to use.[21] Sufis usually considered Sufism to be complementary to orthodox Islam,
however it has widely been criticized by many Muslims on the whole for being an unjustified
Bid‘ah or religious innovation. One starts with sharia (Islamic law), the exoteric or mundane
practice of Islam and then is initiated into the mystical (esoteric path of a Tariqah (Sufi Order).
[citation needed]
Sufi followers consider themselves as Sunni or Shi'a, while there are also others who
consider themselves as just 'Sufi' or Sufi-influenced.
[edit] Qadiri
Main article: Qadiriyyah
The Qadiri Order is one of the oldest Sufi Orders. It derives its name from Abdul-Qadir Gilani
(1077-1166), a native of the Iranian province of Gīlān. The order is one of the most widespread
of the Sufi orders in the Islamic world, and can be found in Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, Turkey
and the Balkans and much of East and West Africa. The Qadiriyyah have not developed any
distinctive doctrines or teachings outside of mainstream Islam. They believe in the fundamental
principles of Islam, but interpreted through mystical experience.
[edit] Bektashi
Main article: Bektashi
The Bektashi Order was founded in the 13th century by the Islamic saint Hajji Bektash Wali, and
greatly influenced during its fomulative period by the Hurufi Ali al-'Ala in the 15th century and
reorganized by Balim Sultan in the 16th century. Because of its adherence to the Twelve Imams
it is classified under Twelver Shi'a Islam. Bektashi are concentrated in Turkey and Albania.
[edit] Chishti
Main article: Chishti Order
The Chishti Order (Persian: ‫ )چشتيہ‬was founded by (Khawaja) Abu Ishaq Shami ("the Syrian") (d.
941) who brought Sufism to the town of Chisht, some 95 miles east of Herat in present-day
Afghanistan. Before returning to the Levant, Shami initiated, trained and deputized the son of the
local Emir, (Khwaja) Abu Ahmad Abdal (d. 966). Under the leadership of Abu Ahmad’s
descendants, the Chishtiyya as they are also known, flourished as a regional mystical order.
[edit] Naqshbandi
Main article: Naqshbandi
The Naqshbandi order is one of the major Sufi orders of Islam. Formed in 1380, the order is
considered by some to be a "sober" order known for its silent dhikr (remembrance of God) rather
than the vocalized forms of dhikr common in other orders. The word Naqshbandi ‫ نقشبندی‬is
Persian, taken from the name of the founder of the order, Baha-ud-Din Naqshband Bukhari.
Some have said that the translation means "related to the image-maker," some also consider it to
mean "Pattern Maker" rather than "image maker," and interpret "Naqshbandi" to mean
"Reformer of Patterns", and others consider it to mean "Way of the Chain" or "Golden Chain."
[edit] Oveyssi
The Oveyssi Order was founded 1,400 years ago by Uwais al-Qarni from Yemen. Uways
received the teachings of Islam inwardly through his heart and lived by the principles taught by
him, although he had never physically met Muhammad. At times Muhammad would say of him,
"I feel the breath of the Merciful, coming to me from Yemen." Shortly before Muhammad died,
he directed Umar (second Caliph) and Ali (the first Imam of the Shi'a) to take his cloak to Uwais.
According to Ali Hujwiri, Farid ad-Din Attar of Nishapur and Sheikh Muhammad Ghader
Bagheri, the first recipient of Muhammad's cloak was Oveys.
The Oveyssi order is still in existence today, with over 500,000 students and numerous centers
worldwide. The present Pir—Molana Salaheddin Ali Nader Shah Angha—was officially
appointed as the forty-second Sufi master in the unbroken chain of transmission on September 4,
1970, when the cloak of Muhammad was bestowed upon him by his father Shah Maghsoud
Sadegh Angha.
[edit] Suhrawardiyya
Main article: Suhrawardiyya
The Suhrawardiyya order (Arabic: ‫ )سهروردية‬is a Sufi order founded by Abu al-Najib al-
Suhrawardi (1097–1168).
[edit] Other groups
[edit] Reformists
[edit] Islamism
Main article: Islamism
Islamism is a term that refers to a set of political ideologies derived from various fundamentalist
views, which hold that Islam is not only a religion, but a political system governing the legal,
economic and social imperatives of the state. Many Islamists do not refer to themselves as such
and it is not a single particular movement. Religious views and ideologies of its adherents vary,
and they may be Sunni Islamists or Shia Islamists depending upon their beliefs. Islamist groups
include groups such as Al-Qaeda, the organizer of the September 11, 2001 attacks and perhaps
the most prominent; and the Muslim Brotherhood, perhaps the oldest, which also forms the
largest opposition grouping in Egypt. Although violence is often employed by some
organizations, not all Islamist movements are violent.
[edit] Liberals
Main article: Liberal movements within Islam
Liberal and progressive movements have in common a religious outlook which depends mainly
on ijtihad or re-interpretations of scriptures. Liberal Muslims believe in greater autonomy of the
individual in interpretation of scripture, a critical examination of religious texts, gender equality,
human rights, LGBT rights and a modern view of culture, tradition, and other ritualistic practices
in Islam.
Euro-Islam or European Islam, Progressive Muslim Union, Canadian Muslim Union, Muslim
Canadian Congress, Ittifaq al-Muslimin etc. are liberal Islamic denominations. Progressive
Muslim Union and some other liberal organizations support same-sex marriage, LGBT rights,
female imams, and feminism.
[edit] Qur'an Alone
Main article: Qur'an alone
Qur'an-Aloners, or Qur'anists refer to those who follow the Quran alone without additional
details or hadiths. There are multiple "Qur'an-Aloner" groups and movements based on the
ideology.
[edit] Heterodox groups
[edit] Ahmadiyya
Main article: Ahmadiyya
The Ahmadiyya movement was founded in India in 1889 by Mirza Ghulam Ahmad, who
claimed to be the promised Messiah ("Second Coming of Christ") the Mahdi awaited by the
Muslims and a 'subordinate' prophet within Islam. The followers are divided into two groups, the
Ahmadiyya Muslim Community ("Qadianis") and the Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the
Propagation of Islam ("Lahoris"), the former believing that Ghulam Ahmad was a non-law
bearing prophet and the latter believing that he was only a religious reformer though a prophet in
an allegorical sense. Ahmadis consider themselves Muslims and claim to practice the pristine
form of Islam as re-established with the teachings of Ghulam Ahmad. They are, however
considered non-Muslim by a majority of mainstream Muslims because of the issue of Ghulam
Ahmad's prophethood.
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community is the larger community of the two arising from the
Ahmadiyya movement and is guided by the Khalifa (Caliph), currently Khalifatul Masih V, who
is the the spiritual leader of Ahmadis and the successor to Mirza Ghulam Ahmad. He is called
the Khalifatul Masih (successor of the Messiah).
The Ahmadiyya Muslim Community believes that Ghulam Ahmad was the 'Promised One' of all
religions, fulfilling the messianic prophecies found in world religions.[22] They believe that his
claims to being several awaited personalities converging into one person were the symbolic,
rather than literal, fulfillment of the messianic and eschatological prophecies found in the
literature of the major religions.
The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement believes Mirza Ghulam Ahmad to be the Mujaddid
(reformer) of the 14th century Hijra and not a prophet in the true sense of the word. They assert
that he intended his use of the terms "Nabi" and "Rasool" to be metaphorical, when referring to
himself. [23] Members of the movement are often referred to colloquially as Lahori Ahmadis.
[edit] Mahdavism
Main article: Zikri
Mahdavi's ("Mahdavism") spread under Muhammad Jaunpuri in the Indian subcontinent
including Pakistan, as well as in Afghanistan and some parts of Iran. Its followers are presently
in the Deccan and Gujarat regions of India and, in a related Zikri form, in Karachi, Pakistan.
Communities of Mahdaviya historically lived in makeshift thatches, surrounded by a fence,
called Daira, which in Arabic means circle, boundary, or engulfment. These settlements were
away from urban centers which contained thousands of followers who had left their worldly
desires, pleasures, and properties for the sole purpose of Deedar (Vision of Allah the almighty).
This was the important aspect for which Imam Mahdi-e-Maood (AHS) came into this world.
Today, some Dairas can be found in Channapatna, near Bangalore, Chanchalguda in Hyderabad
and in some parts of Gujarat.
Zikri is claimed to be based around the teachings of Muhammad Jaunpuri, a 15th century Mahdi
claimant. In religious practice, the Zikris differ greatly from mainstream Muslims. A main
misconception that Zikris perform prayers called dhikr five times a day is a major one, in which
sacred verses are recited, as compared to the orthodox practice of salah. Mehdavis also pray five
times a day (salah).Most Zikris live in Balochistan, but a large number also live in Karachi, the
Sindh interior, Oman and Iran.
[edit] Nation of Islam
Main article: Nation of Islam
The Nation of Islam was founded by Wallace Fard Muhammad in Detroit in 1930,[24] with a
declared aim of "resurrecting" the spiritual, mental, social and economic condition of the black
man and woman of America and the world. It is viewed by almost all Muslims as a heretical cult,
the group believes Fard Muhammad was God on earth,[25][24] this is viewed as shirk among
mainstream Muslims, furthermore it does not see Muhammad as the final prophet, but Elijah
Muhammad as the "Messenger of Truth", plus it only allows people of black ethnicity and
believes they are the original race on earth. In 1975 however, the teachings were abandoned and
the group was renamed to American Society of Muslims, by Warith Deen Mohammed, the son
of Elijah Muhammad.[26] He brought the group into beliefs of Sunni Islam, establishing mosques
instead of temples and promoting to follow the Five pillars of Islam.[27][28] Thousands (estimated
2 million) of African Americans joined Imam Muhammad into mainstream Islam,[29] however
very few were dissatisfied, these include Louis Farrakhan, who revived the group again in 1978,
with the same teachings of the previous leaders, currently it has from 30,000 to 70,000 members.
[30]
The comparison of beliefs between mainstream Islam and the Nation of Islam:[31]
Belief Mainstream Islam Nation of Islam
Allah is one, who has no partners Wallace D. Fard came as God incarnate
God
(God is spirit) (God is man)
The final prophet of Islam, no one Elijah Muhammad is the prophet to tell
Muhammad
comes after him about incarnation of Fard
All are equal regardless of color of The Black race is superior than others,
Race
skin, judged on behavior whites are devils
Allah created the universe, first Black scientists created the plan which
Creation
humans were Adam and Eve repeats every 25,000 years
Revealed to Muhammad from God Black scientists created and revealed the
Qur'an
through the Angel Gabriel Bible and the Qur'an
Sacred rules and laws of Islamic life, Not followed, own-created such as 4-6pm
Sharia law
based on Qur'an and Sunnah meal or avoid white flour cake meals
[edit] Moorish Science
Main article: Moorish Science Temple of America
This faith was founded by Timothy Drew in 1913 in the United States. Its main tenet is that
African-Americans were descended from the Moors and thus were originally Islamic. Its
followers claim it to be a sect of Islam but it also has almost equal influences in Buddhism,
Christianity, Freemasonry, Gnosticism, and Taoism.[citation needed] They have their own book that
they call "Circle Seven Koran".[citation needed]
[edit] Submitters
Main article: United Submitters International
The United Submitters International (USI) is a religious group, founded by Dr. Rashad Khalifa.
Submitters considers themselves to be adhering to "true Islam", but prefer not to use the terms
"Muslim" or "Islam," instead using the English equivalents: "Submitter" or "Submission."
Submitters consider Khalifa to be a Messenger of God. Specific beliefs of the USI include: the
dedication of all worship practices to God alone, upholding the Qur'an alone with the exception
of two rejected Qur'an verses,[32] and rejecting the Islamic traditions of hadith and sunnah
attributed to Muhammad. The main group attends "Masjid Tucson"[33] in Arizona, US.
[edit] Related faiths
[edit] Bábism
Main article: Bábism
In 1844 a young man from Shiraz, Iran proclaimed to be the Mahdi and took on the title of "The
Báb". The religion he began officially broke away from Islam, and gained a significant following
in Iran. His followers were called heretics by the state, and in 1850 the Báb was publicly
executed. Most Babis accepted the claims of Bahá'u'lláh, henceforth considering themselves
Bahá'ís.[34]
[edit] Bahá'í Faith
Main article: Bahá'í Faith
Following the death of the Báb almost all Bábís turned to Bahá'u'lláh, as the fulfillment of the
Báb's prophecy of man yazhiruhu'lláh, "He Whom God shall make manifest." Baha'u'llah was a
respected leader of the Bábís community. The Bábís eventually called themselves Bahá'ís.
Bahá'ís believe that the Bábí and Islamic prophecies of the end times and the return of the Mahdi
and Jesus were fulfilled. As does the Shaykhi school of Islamic interpretation, to which this
group is historically connected, Bahá'ís interpret Islamic (and other) eschatology symbolically
and metaphorically. Bahá'ís believe Bahá'u'lláh to be a Manifestation of God, a messenger on par
with Muhammad. Due to its background and history, it is sometimes categorized as a sect of
Islam, which is denied by its adherents and the Muslim mainstream. Bahá'ís have been
persecuted as apostates in some Islamic countries, especially Iran.
[edit] Sikhism
Main article: Sikhism
Sikhism has had strong influence from both Islam and Hinduism but more from the latter.
Guru Nanak visited Hijaz to learn Holy Scriptures of Islam - Qura'an and Hadees. He was
disillusioned with discrimination in Islam and Hinduism and the essence of Sikh teaching is
summed up by Nanak in these words: "Realisation of Truth is higher than all else. Higher still is
truthful living". Sikhism believes in equality of all humans and rejects discrimination on the
basis of caste, creed, and sex. Sikhism also does not attach any importance to asceticism as a
means to attain salvation, but stresses on the need of leading life as a householder.
[edit] Five Percenters
Main article: The Nation of Gods and Earths
An offshoot of the Nation of Islam, this group was formed in Harlem, New York City in the
1960s by Clarence 13X, who proclaimed himself to be Allah (God). The group believes God is
black and focuses on bringing justice to African-American youth. They have little relation to
mainstream Islam, except that they use the expression Allahu Akbar.
[edit] Nuwaubu
Main article: Nuwaubianism
At various times known as the Ansaaru Allah Community, Nubian Islamic Hebrews, and
Nuwaubians, this group no longer claims to be Muslim. Its founder and leader, Malachi Z. York,
was known as As Sayyid Al Imaam Issa Al Haadi Al Mahdi and other similar names when he
was claiming to be a Muslim and the successor to Elijah Muhammad. The Nuwaubian teachings
are now based on ancient Sumerian and Egyptian texts with extraterrestrial revelations from the
alien spirit said to be inhabiting York.
[edit] References
1. ^ So Many Different Groups of Muslims by Yusuf Estes
2. ^ Why are Muslims divided into different Sects/Schools of Thought by Zakir Naik on IRF.net
3. ^ Corbin (1993), pp. 45–51
4. ^ Tabatabaei (1979), pp. 41–44
5. ^ Dakake (2008), pp.1 and 2
6. ^ pewforum.org
 7. ^ New York Times: Religious Distribution in Lebanon
8. ^ How many Shia?
9. ^ Demographics of Kuwait
10.^ Demographics of Turkey
11.^ Demographics of Albania
12.^ Discrimination towards Shia in Saudi Arabia
13.^ Tabatabae (1979), p. 76
14.^ The Revenge of the Shia
15.^ Religious Minorities in the Muslim World
16.^ A History of Islam from a Baha'i Perspective
17.^ International Crisis Group. The Shiite Question in Saudi Arabia, Middle East Report N°45, 19
September 2005
18.^ http://www.islamicvoice.com/september.98/features.htm
19.^ Alawi Islam
20.^ Overview of Kharijite islam
21.^ Trimingham (1998), p.1
22.^ “Invitation to Ahmadiyyat” by Mirza Bashir-ud-Din Mahmood Ahmad Part II, Argument 4,
Chapter “Promised Messiah, Promised One of All Religions”
23.^ "Hazrat Mirza Ghulam Ahmad Sahib of Qadian never claimed prophethood (in the light of his
own writings)", Accusations Answered, The Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement
24.^ a b Milton C. Sernett (1999). African American religious history: a documentary witness. Duke
University Press. pp. 499-501.
25.^ Elijah Muhammad. History of the Nation of Islam. BooksGuide (2008). pp. 10.
26.^ Richard Brent Turner (2004-08-25) Mainstream Islam in the African-American Experience
Muslim American Society. Retrieved on 2009-06-22.
27.^ Evolution of a Community, WDM Publications, 1995.
28.^ Lincoln, C. Eric. (1994) The Black Muslims in America, Third Edition, (Grand Rapids,
Michigan: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company) page 265.
29.^ Rosemary Skinner Keller, Rosemary Radford Ruether, Marie Cantlon (2006). Encyclopedia of
Women and Religion in North America. Indiana University Press. pp. 752. ISBN 0253346851,
9780253346858
30.^ 2008-02-14 America's black Muslims close a rift The Christian Monitor. Retrieved on 2009-06-
22.
31.^ Abraham Sarker (2004). Understand My Muslim People. Barclay Press. pp. 90
32.^ 9:128-129 Two False Verses Removed from the Quran
33.^ Masjid Tucson (Mosque of Tucson)— Official Website
34.^ Religious Dissidence and Urban Leadership: Bahais in Qajar Shiraz and Tehran, by Juan Cole,
originally published in Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies 37 (1999): 123-142

[edit] See also