University Of Engineering And

Technology Lahore

ENERGY ENGINEERING
LAB REPORT
Submitted By
NOSHABA NOREEN

Submitted To
MAM SANA ZAHID

14

15

LIST OF EQUIPMENTS
1) Laboratory ovens
2) Softening point apparatus
3) Redwood viscometer
4) Pensky-martens apparatus (closed-cup flash point)
5) Saybolt viscometer
6) Engler viscometer
7) Aniline point apparatus
8) Digital cleveland flash point apparatus (open cup flash point)
9) Gas calorimeter
10)Swelling index apparatus
11)Distillation apparatus
12)Carbon residue apparatus
13)Muffle furnace
14)Cloud point and pour point apparatus

16

Table Of Contents
1
2

Description of equipments1
Experiment # 01.6
2.1. Objective...6
2.2. Apparatus..6
2.3. Theory...6
2.4. Procedure..6
2.5. Result.6
2.6. Precautions....7
Experiment # 02.8
3.1 Objective...8
3.2 Apparatus...8
3.3 Theory....8
3.4 Procedure...8
3.5 Result.....8
3.6 Precautions.9
Experiment # 0310
4.1 Objective10
4.2 Apparatus...10
4.3 Theory10
4.4 Procedure...10
4.5 Result.11
4.6 Precautions.11
Experiment # 04....12
5.1 Objective12
5.2 Apparatus...12
5.3 Theory and definitions...12
5.4 Description ....12
5.5 Procedure...12
5.6 Result.13
5.7 Precautions.13
Experiment # 05....14
6.1 Objective14
6.2 Apparatus...14
6.3 Theory and definition.14
6.4 Description 14
6.5 Procedure...15
17

6.6 Formula..15
6.7 Technical Parameters.15
6.8 Observation ..15
6.9 Significance ..15
6.10 Precautions.16
6.11 Comments .16
7 Experiment # 0616
7.1 Objective16
7.2 Apparatus...16
7.3 Theory and Definitions..17
7.4 Procedure...17
7.5 Formula..18
7.6 Observation and Tabulation...18
7.7 Graph .19
7.8 Significance ...19
7.9 Precautions.19
7.10 Comments..19
8 Experiment # 0720
8.1 Objective20
8.2 Apparatus...20
8.3 Theory....20
8.4 Procedure...21
8.5 Observation and Tabulation ..21
8.6 Graph .........21
8.7 Formula .22
8.8 Significance ...22
8.9 Precautions.22
8.10 Comments..22
9 Experiment # 0823
9.1 Objective23
9.2 Apparatus...23
9.3 Theory23
9.4 Procedure...23
9.5 Formula..24
9.6 Observation and Tabulation...24
9.7 Graph 24
9.8 Significance ..25
9.9 Range Of Engler Viscometer25
9.10 Precautions25
9.11 Comments..25
18

10 Experiment # 0926
10.1 Objective26
10.2 Apparatus...26
10.3 Theory ...26
10.4 Procedure...26
10.5 Observation ...27
10.6 Precautions.27
10.7 Comments..27
11 Experiment # 1028
11.1 Objective28
11.2 Apparatus...28
11.3 Theory ...28
11.4 Procedure...28
11.5 Observations..29
11.6 Significance...29
11.7 Applications ..29
11.8 Precautions.29
11.9 Comments..29

19

20

DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENTS

1) LABORATORY OVENS
Laboratory ovens are ovens used for high forced
volume thermal convection applications. These ovens
generally provide uniform temperatures throughout. Process
applications for laboratory oven scan be for annealing, diebond curing, drying, Polyimide baking, sterilizing, and
other industrial laboratory functions. Typical sizes are from
one cubic foot to 32 cubic feet (0.91 m3) with temperatures
that can be over 650 degrees Fahrenheit (340 degrees
celsius).

2) SOFTENING POINT APPARATUS

Softening point apparatus is used for the determination
of softening temperature and from this temperature we
determine softening characteristics. The softening point
apparatus uses the ring and ball method for determining the
softening point of tars, asphalt and most resins. Samples are
held within the horizontal rings and steel balls are placed on
the top of the samples. As the sample is submerged in water
and heated the weight of balls forces the sample downwards.

3) REDWOOD VISCOMETER
The redwood viscometer consists of vertical
cylindrical oil cup with an orifice in the centre of its base.
The orifice can be closed by a ball. A hook pointing upward
serve as a guide mark for filling the oil. The cylindrical cup
is surrounded by the water bath. The water bath maintains
the temperature of the oil to be tested at constant
temperature. The oil is heated by heating the water bath by
means of an immersed electric heater in the water bath. This
viscometer is used to determine the kinematic viscosity of
the oil. From the kinematic viscosity the dynamic viscosity
is determined.

21

4) PENSKY-MARTENS APPARATUS
(Closed-Cup Flash Point)
Pensky-Martens Closed-Cup Flash Testers feature
a cover that slides shutter open to apply test flame. Select
from electrical or gas heated models. Electrical models
are equipped with a 750 watt nickel-chromium heater.
Gas model has a built-in nickel-plated brass natural gas
burner and liquid propane burner mounted on a cast iron
base. Testers include a thermometer holder, brass test
cup with handle, pilot flame, test flame reference bead, built-in stirrer, plated brass
thermometer ferrule, and cooling vents.

5) SAYBOLT VISCOMETER

22

A device used to measure the viscosity of a fluid. The saybolt viscometer controls the
heat of the fluid and the viscosity is the time it takes the fluid to fill a 60cc container.
The apparatus consists of stainless steel bath with oil cup which is centrally placed
in a water bath. The bath has a lid which contains a water cooling tube, two handles
with two stirring blades, thermometer socket and a straight heater. Stirring is done by
turntable arrangement. A thermometer can also be inserted into the cup cover. Two jets
one universal and one furol can be screwed to the cup by a handle. The temperature is
controlled by energy regulator or voltage varrier. Used to determine the specific
viscosity of tars and their products.

6) ENGLER VISCOMETER
This is the apparatus for the measurement of viscosity. It consists of water bath
with oil cup and lid. The water bath stirring device is mounted over stand. A thermometer
dip and oil cup has thermometer socket. The bath is filled with 500 watts heater, Engler
viscometer measures in Engler degrees. The time required for 100ml of the oil to glow
through device at a predefined temperature. The conversion of engler degree to absolute
units requires an appropriate table, a degree in rocket science and an intricate knowledge
of fluid dynamics.

7) ANILINE POINT APPARATUS

23

Used to characterize pure hydrocarbons and to indicate the aromatic content of

hydrocarbon mixtures. Apparatus performs hands-free aniline point and mixed aniline
point determinations automatically by means of a
modified thin film technique (ASTM D611 Method
E). The sample is heated by a platinum immersion
heater and the aniline point is detected photo
electrically. Temperature is displayed on a large
LED indicator. Built-in pressure regulator and
solenoid valve permit quicker cooling cycles and
determination of sub ambient aniline point
temperatures.

8) DIGITAL CLEVELAND FLASH POINT

APPARATUS (Open Cup Flash Point)
This apparatus is used for determination of flash and fire point of petroleum
products except fuel oils and those having an open cup
flash below 79oC. The apparatus consists of a cup,
heating plate of specific dimensions, and thermometer
clip and test flame attachment with service joints for
passing over test liquids surface in the prescribed
manner. Heating is controlled by means of energy
regulator fitted to apparatus suitable for operation on
220V AC.

9) GAS CALORIMETER
Gas Calorimeter is used to measure and control
the caloric value or Wobbe Index (WI) of the sample
gas. In this calorimeter the sample gas is burnt at the
burner with air and the temperature difference between
the combustion exhaust gas and the feed air at the burner
inlet is detected by using a thermocouple. This
calorimeter detects the ow rate of both the sample gas
and the air as the differential pressure by using the
orice and converts the differential pressure to the
digital signal then compensates the ow rate variation by
the digital calculation.

24

10)

SWELLING INDEX APPARATUS

This method is a small scale test for obtaining information regarding the free swelling
properties of coal. The result may be used as an indication of caking characteristics of the
coal when burned as a fuel.
This test can be made with either electric or gas
heating. When electric heating the result obtained
must be same as that are obtained by gas heating.
Some coals give buttons that do not conform in shape
to standard profile. For such coals, measure the
maximum cross sectional areas of the buttons, and
determine the index from the relationship of the areas
of the standard profiles to the swelling indexes.

11) DISTILLATION APPARATUS

Distillation is widely used method for separating
mixture based on difference in the conditions required
to change the phase of components of the mixture. To
separate the mixture of liquids, the liquid can be
heated to force components, which have different
boiling point, into the gas phase the gas is then
condensed back into liquid form and collected.

12) CARBON RESIDUE APPARATUS

Reaches standard test temperature of 550C rapidly
and controls with 1C stability. Microprocessor
temperature control has C/F switchable digital set point
and display. Operator and equipment are protected by an
over temperature control circuit which automatically
interrupts power to the unit should block temperature
exceed the programmed cut-off point. Heavily insulated
stainless steel cabinet with three-layer refractory top
provides excellent heat retention.

13)MUFFLE FURNACE
Muffle furnaces are usually heated to desired
temperatures by conduction, convection, or black
body radiation
from
electrical
resistance
heating elements.
Therefore
there
is
no combustion involved in the temperature control of the
system, which allows for much greater control of
temperature uniformity and assures isolation of the
25

material being heated from the byproducts of fuel combustion.

14)CLOUD POINT AND POUR POINT

APPARATUS
A method for automatic determination of cloud point
temperature and pour point temperature of petroleum fraction
a light sources, a light detector, heater, cooler to determine
the temperature of sample. Measurements of light reflection
are used to determine cloud point temperature. Detection of
the freezing in place of motion indicator is used to determine
pour point.

26

EXPERIMENT # 01
OBJECTIVE
Report the swelling index of coal.

APPARATUS
Crucible, gas burner, stand, silica triangle

THEORY
This method is a small scale test for obtaining information regarding the free swelling
properties of coal.
The result may be used as an indication of caking characteristics of the coal when burned as a
fuel. This test is not recommended as a method for the determination of expansion of coal in
coke oven.
Swelling Index Apparatus:
This test can be made with either electric or gas heating. When electric heating the result
obtained must be same as that are obtained by gas heating. The apparatus common to both
electric and gas method shall consist of the following
Crucible
Translucent silica
Iron stand
Report the swelling index zero if the residue from the test sample is non-coherent.
Some coals give buttons that do not conform in shape to standard profile. For such colas,
measure the maximum cross sectional areas of the buttons, and determine the index from the
relationship of the areas of the standard profiles to the swelling indexes.
For measuring the cross sectional areas mount the button on the graph paper, ruled into
square centimeters and square millimeter and trace the outlines of the buttons on the paper.
The buttons may be mounted conveniently by means of modeling clay. The squares inside
the outlines may be counted and fractions of squares along the boundary line estimated. To take
care of buttons whose cross sectional area is greater than that of standard profile, has been
extended to include about 700mm2 which is the maximum area of silica crucible use in the test.

PROCEDURE
1) I took a crucible and placed it directly on flame.
2) After heating some time it was transferred to table and a balanced weight of coal in cold
conditions is taken in it.
3) The coal is leveled by tapping and rotating the crucible.
4) Then crucible is heated on a silica triangle stand for 7.5 min until all the volatile matter is
evolved.
5) Then it is cooled and observed the shapes and compare then with the shapes given in the
figure.

RESULT

27

The shape of burnet coal sample is most likely matched with 2nd one which has swelling
index 1.5.

Characteristics profile of coke buttons for different values of swelling numbers

Precautions

Perform the experiment carefully

Level of coal in the crucible should be maintained.
Avoid overheating the coal

28

Experiment # 2
Objective
To determine the carbon residue in given sample of oil

Apparatus

Porcelain crucible
Skidmore crucible
Chimney wire support
Sand bath etc

Theory
The carbon residue of a fuel is the tendency to form carbon deposits under high temperature
conditions in an inert atmosphere. It may be expressed as Ramsbottom Carbon Residue (RCR),
Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR) or Micro Carbon Residue (MCR). Numerically, the
CCR value is the same as that of MCR. The carbon residue value is considered by some to
give an approximate indication of the combustibility and deposit forming tendencies of the fuel.
The carbon residue of a fuel is the tendency to form carbon deposits under high temperature
conditions in an inert atmosphere, and may be expressed commonly as Micro Carbon Residue
(MCR) or alternatively Conradson Carbon Residue (CCR).
It should be noted that numerically MCR is effectively the same as CCR. The overall
relationship between actual diesel engine performance and carbon residue is poor, however, the
carbon residue value is considered by some to give an indication of the combustibility and
carbonaceous deposit forming tendencies of a fuel. The carbon residue provides information on
the carbonaceous deposits which will result from combustion of the fuel. For fuels with a high
carbon- high carbon/hydrogen ratio, it is proved more difficult to burn them fully, which results
in increased deposits in the combustion and exhaust spaces. Fuels with a high carbon residue
value may cause problems in older engines when they are operating under part load conditions.

Procedure
1. Clean the porcelain crucible and weight to the nearest 20.2g.
2. Fill it with oil sample and reweight to the same accuracy.
3. Then place it to the skidmore crucible, cover both crucibles on the center of the wire
triangle with the asbestos insulation on the tripod.
4. Cover the assembly with the sheet iron and apply heat with a strong flame by the bunsen
burner so that the fire or the ore ignition will be from 8.5 to 11.5 minutes.
5. When smoke appears in the chimney, move it or tilt the burners so that the flame plays on
the sides of the crucible and ignites the oil vapor.
6. Remove the burner momentarily and adjust the flame above the chimney.
29

7. Burning period is from 12 to 14 minutes.

8. When the burning and smoking ceases, the burner is adjusted so that the bottom of the
iron crucible is heated to a cherry red for exactly 7 minutes.
9. Remove the burner and allow the apparatus to cool for few minutes.
10. Weigh the porcelain crucible and content.
11. Repeat the same procedure for the other oil sample

Results:
Crucible weight
Crucible + oil(1g) weight(before heating)
Crucible + oil weight (after heating)

20.2g
22.00g
22.22g

Precautions

Place the crucible carefully

Readings should be taken carefully

Experiment # 3
Objective
Distillation of petroleum products

Apparatus

125ml conical flask

Gas burners
Thermometer
Condenser
Cooling bath
Flask support
Graduated cylinders

Theory
Fractional distillation of crude oil is a process through which components of crude oil are
separated according to their boiling points. Components having a high boiling point condense
on the column and return into the solution while components having lower boiling points are
passed through the column and collected.
This means crude oil can be separated by physical methods, in this case by fractional
distillation, because they have different boiling and condensation points.The crude oil is heated
to vaporize it and the vapor passed into the fractionating column. This is a continuous
30

process (not a batch process). The fractionating column works continuously with heatedvaporized crude oil piped in at the bottom and the various fractions condensed and constantly
tapped off from various levels, each with a different condensation temperature range. The most
volatile fraction, i.e. the molecules with the lowest boiling points, boil or evaporate off first and
go higher up the column and condense at the higher levels in the column at the lowest
temperatures. The rest separate out according to their boiling/condensation point so that the
highest boiling fraction, i.e. the less volatile molecules with higher boiling points, tend to
condense more easily lower down the column, albeit at the higher temperatures.

Procedure
1. Take 100 ml of sample in the flask, tight the flask with the cork and fit the thermometer
and condenser.
2. Apply heat immediately at uniform rate
3. End of condenser tube should touch the sides of cylinder
4. Regulate the heat and maintain uniform rate of distillation between 4 ml/min to 5 ml/min.
5. Record the reading of distillation thermometer when liquid level reaches to 5 ml.
6. Continue the heating until mercury reaches a maximum and start to fall consistently.

Results
Concentration (ml)

Temperature (0C)

Ist drop

65

10

80

20

82

30

88

35

94

40

99

45

100

50

106

55

110

31

60

122

65

130

70

139

Precautions

End of condenser should touch the sides of cylinder

Flow of cooling water should be continues to obtain better
product
Record the readings carefully

Experiment # 4
Objective:
To determine the flash and power point temperatures of the given sample of lubricating oil using
Cleveland open cup apparatus.

Apparatus Required

Cleveland open cup apparatus

Thermometer
Beaker
Sample of oil

Theory And Definition

The flash point of the lubricating oil is defined as the lowest temperature at which it forms vapors and
produces combustible mixture with air.
The higher flash point temperature is always desirable for any lubricating oil. If the oil has the lower
value of flash point temperatures, it will burn easily and forms the carbon deposits on the moving parts. The
minimum flash temperature of the oil used in IC engines varies from 200C to 250C. When the oil is tested using
the open cup apparatus, the temperature is slightly more than the above temperatures. The flash and fire point
temperatures may differs by 20C to 60C when it is tested by open cup apparatus. However, a greater difference

32

may be obtained if some additives are mixed with oil. The flash and fire power point temperatures depends upon
the volatility of the oil.

Description
The Cleveland open cup apparatus consists of a cylindrical cup of standard size. It is held in position in the
metallic holder which is placed on a wire gauge. It is heated by means of an electric heater housed inside the
metallic holder. A provision is made on the top of the cup to hold the thermometer. A standing filling
mark is done on the inner side of the cup and the sample of oil is filled up to the mark. This apparatus
will give more accurate results than the pensky martens closed cup apparatus.

Procedure
1. Clean the cup and fill it with the given sample of oil up to the filling mark.
2. Insert the thermometer in the holder. Make sure that the thermometer should not touch the
metallic cup.
3. Heat the oil by the means of electric heater so that the sample of oil gives out vapor at the rate of 10C
per minute.
4. When the oil gives out vapor, introduce the test flame above the oil, without touching the
surface of the oil and watch for flash with flickering sound.
5. Introducing the test flame should not continued at regular intervals until the flash is
observed with peak flickering sound. The temperature corresponding to this flickering
sound is noticed and it is the flash point temperature of the given sample of oil.
6. Continue the process of heating and introducing the test flame until the oil will begins to burn
continuously and observe the temperature . This is the fire pint temperature of the given
sample of oil.
7. Repeat the test twice or thrice with fresh sample of oil and observe the results.

Result
The flash and fire point temperatures of the given sample of oil were determined using Cleveland open
cup apparatus. The flash point temperature of the given sample of oil is 78C. The fire point temperature is
of the given sample of oil is 98C

Precautions

There should be almost upto 200C difference between flash point and fire point
Readings should be taken carefully
Use the apparatus carefully

33

Experiment # 5
Objective
To determine flash point of given sample of petroleum products by Pensky Martins apparatus.

Apparatus

Pensky Martins apparatus

Beaker
Thermometer

Definitions
Flash Point
The lowest temperature of the sample, corrected to a barometric pressure of
101.3kPa, 760mm Hg, at which application of a test flame causes the vapor of the sample to
ignite under specified conditions of test.
Fire Point
The fire point is defined as the temperature at which the vapor continues to burn after being
ignited.

Theory
The sample is heated at a slow, constant rate with continual stirring. A small flame is directed in
to the cup at regular intervals with simultaneous interruption of stirring.
The flammability of liquid is determined by testing using a specific test method entitled Flash
Point (open) and Fire Point by means of the PenskyMartens Apparatus. This method determines the
temperature under strict laboratory conditions at
which a liquid volume, in an open container, will
firstly, flash when an ignition source is presented
above the surface of the liquid and thereafter ignite
and continue to burn (fire point) for a period of 5
seconds. Clearly these respective temperatures will
be higher than the traditional flash point for the same
bunker fuel sample.
Every flammable liquid has a vapor pressure, which
is a function of that liquid's temperature. As the
temperature increases, the vapor pressure increases.
As the vapor pressure increases, the concentration of
evaporated flammable liquid in the air increases.

34

Hence, temperature determines the concentration of evaporated flammable liquid in the air.

Procedure

Clean the oil cup and dry so that no any traces of low flash solvent remains in the cup.
Pour the lid in position and insert level indicated by the filling mark.
Place the lid in the position and insert the thermometer in the holder.
Set the cup in the air bath and apply the heat.
Adjust the stirrer to rotate at the rate of one to two revolution per second.
Starting the temperature of at least 500C and apply the test flame at a temperature of 20C.
Continue this procedure until flash point is obtained.
Then cool the apparatus and refill with fresh oil and check the flash point by decreasing
the range of temperature and get the accurate reading.

Technical Parameters
1. Rated voltage:
2. Temperature range:
3. Heating power:
4. Agitation way:
5. Ignition gas:
6. Ignition way:
7. Ambient requirement:

AC220V10% 50Hz
40~360C
0~1000W (Continuously adjustable)
Motor stirrer, 105r/min
Pipeline coal gas, Liquid gas, and gas pressure less than 10Kpa
Ignition is controlled by hand
Temperature: 20~30C Humidity85%

Observations
Sample = Diesel
Initial temperature = 54oC
Rate of heating = 1-2oC/min
Revolution per min = 35 rpm
Flash Point = 61oC

Significance

Flash point measures the response of the sample to heat and flame under controlled
laboratory condition.
It is only one of a number of properties which must be considered in assessing the overall
flammability hazard of a material.
Flash point is used in shipping and safety regulations to define flammable and
combustible materials.

35

Precautions

Safely handle the equipment during working.

Before checking flash point, switch off the main supply.
Clean off the place to prevent from any accident.

Comments
Diesel has normal 61oC flash point. Neither its more flammable nor its rigid.

Experiment # 6
Objective
To report the effect of temperature on the viscosity of the given sample by redwood viscometer.

Apparatus

Redwood Viscometer
Thermometer 0-100c
Stop watch
50 ml standard narrow necked flask
Given Sample of oil

Theory
Viscometers are designed for viscosity tests of
petroleum product. The complete outfit
comprises hammer finished Stainless steel both
with electrical heating arrangement suitable to
operate at 220 Volts AC Mains with tap, silver
plated oil cup with precision stainless steel jet,
cup cover, ball valve and thermometer-clip.
Stirrer and M.S. Sheet stand with leveling
screws.
The redwood viscometer consists of vertical
cylindrical oil cup with an orifice in the centre of
its base. The orifice can be closed by a ball. A
hook pointing upward serves as a guide mark for
filling the oil. The cylindrical cup is surrounded by
the water bath. The water bath maintains the
temperature of the oil to be tested at constant
36

temperature. The oil is heated by heating the water bath by means of an immersed electric heater in
the water bath, The provision is made for stirring the water , to maintain the uniform temperature in
the water bath and to place the thermometer ti record the temperature of oil and water bath . The
cylinder is 47.625mm in diameter and 88.90mm deep. The orifice is 1.70mm in diameter and 12mm
in length. This viscometer is used to determine the kinematic viscosity of the oil. From the kinematic
viscosity the dynamic viscosity is determined.

Definition
Viscosity
Viscosity is the property of fluid . It is defined as The internal resistance offered by the fluid to
the movement of one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer . It is due to the Cohesion between
the molecules of the fluid . The fluid which obey the Newton law of Viscosity are called as
Newtonian fluid .
Effect of temperature on viscosity
Viscosity of lubricating oil is inversely proportional to the temperature i.e. with increase of
temperature, viscosity decreases. This is due to the decrease in intermolecular attraction. At
higher temperature, oil must have sufficient viscosity to carry loads. Hence heavier oils are used
at higher temperature. Similarly, light oils are used at low ambient temperature.

Procedure

Select the appropriate viscometer, either Redwood viscometer No.1 or 2 depending up on

the nature of lubricating oil.
Clean the viscometer cup properly with the help of suitable solvent e.g. CCl4, ether,
petroleum spirit or benzene and dry it to remove any traces of solvent.
Level the viscometer with the help of leveling screws.
Fill the outer bath with water for determining the viscosity at 80 o c and below.

37

Place the ball valve on the jet to close it and pour the test oil into the cup up to the tip of
indicator.
Place a clean dry flask immediately below and directly in line with discharging jet.
Insert a clean thermometer and a stirrer in the cup and cover it with a lid.
Heat the water filled in the bath slowly with constant stirring. When the oil in the cup
attains a desired temperature, stop the heating.
Lift the ball valve and start the stop watch. Oil from the jet flows into the flask.
Stop the stop watch when lower meniscus of the oil reaches the 50 ml mark on the neck
of receiving flask.
Record the time taken for 50 ml of the oil to collect in the flask.
Repeat the experiment to get more readings.

Formula
In this case of red wood viscometer, the kinematic viscosity (v) of liquid and the time (t) required
to pass 50cc of liquid are correlated by expression.

=0.0026 1.175/t
Where,
= Kinematic viscosity
t= time in seconds to collect 50cc of oil.

Observation & Tabulation

Sample = Diesel Oil

Temperature (oC)
38
43
48
53
58
63

Time (sec)
27.436
20.27
16
15.4
11.77
10.21

38

Graph

Graph Between Time And Temperature

T
i
m
e

30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Temperature

Significance

fuel.

Pump design can be done with the help of viscosity.

Pump operation of the engine depends on the proper viscosity of the liquid
Its very important to know about the fluid flow through various objects.
Conveying of fluid can be done effect by means of viscosity data.

Precautions

The oil should be filtered thoroughly a cloth to remove solid particles that may clog the
jet.
The receiving flask should be placed in such a manner that the oil stream from jet strikes
the neck of receiving flask and do not cause any foaming.
After each reading the oil should be completely drained out of receiving flask.

Comments
The kinematic viscosity for the given sample was determined and the graph was plotted and it
was observed that the kinematic viscosity of the given sample decreases with increases in
temperature.

39

Experiment # 7
Objective
To report the effect of temperature on the viscosity of the given sample by Saybolt viscometer.

Apparatus

Saybolt viscometer
Stop watch
Thermometer
Conical flask
Beaker

Theory
Viscosity is a fundamental characteristic property of
all liquids. When a liquid flows, it has an internal
resistance to flow. Viscosity is a measure of this
resistance to flow or shear.
Viscosity of liquids decreases with increasing
temperature and as a result the lubricating oil becomes
thinner. Hence the viscosity of oil should not change
much with temperature.
The rate of change of viscosity of oil with temperature
is known as viscosity index. If the viscosity of oil falls
rapidly as temperature is raised, it has low viscosity
index. On the other hand if viscosity of oil is slightly effected on raising the temperature, its
viscosity index is high.

Procedure

Clean the viscometer, remove all the solvents.

Heat the water bath few degrees above the test temperature and insert cork stopper tightly
into the air chamber into the bottom of viscometer.
Filter the sample through a 100 mesh screen directly into the viscometer until the level is
above the over-flow rim.
Stir the sample and add hot water until the sample temperature remains constant.
40

Stir with the viscosity thermometer which circular motion at 30 to 50 RPM in a

horizontal plane.
Remove the thermometer from the sample, quickly remove the oil from the gallery until
its level is below the over-flow rim.
Place the receiving flask where stream of oil from the bottom of viscometer will just
strike the neck of the flask.
Snap the cork from the viscometer using the attached cord and the same instant start the
timer.
Stop the timer, the seconds.
Repeat the above procedure at different temperatures and take atleast six readings.
Draw the graph between time and temperature.

Observations And Tabulation

Sample = Diesel Oil
Time (sec)
64
57
48.6
46.3
41.16
38.79

Temperature ( C)
32
37
42
47
52
57

Graph

Graph between time and temperature

70
60
50
T
i 40
m 30
e 20
10
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Temperature

41

Formula
Kinematic viscosity

= At-B/t
Where,
A=0.00226, B=1.95
A and B are constants.

Significance

It is used to find the viscosity of the fluid.

Pump design can be done with the help of viscosity.
Pump operation of one engine depends on the proper viscosity of fuels.
Conveying of fluids can be done with the help of viscosity data.
It is very important to know about the fluid flow through various object

Precautions

The oil should be filtered thoroughly a cloth to remove solid particles that may clog the
jet.
The receiving flask should be placed in such a manner that the oil stream from jet strikes
the neck of receiving flask and do not cause any foaming.
After each reading the oil should be completely drained out of receiving flask.
Do not connect bath to a power supply unless the bath is filled with oil.
Do not leave unit unattended, especially when operating at high bath temperatures. This
could create a potential fire hazard

Comments
The viscosity of the given sample was determined at various temperatures and graph was
plotted. It is found that kinematic viscosity decreases with increase in temperature.

42

Experiment # 8
Objective
To report the effect of temperature on the viscosity of the given sample by engler viscometer.

Apparatus

Saybolt viscometer
Stop watch
Thermometer
Conical flask
Beaker

Theory
Viscosity is a quantity that describes a fluids resistance to
flow. Fluids resists the relative motion of immersed
objects through them as well as to the motion of layers
with differing velocities within them.
Specific viscosity of a substance in the Engler scale is the
time required in seconds for the flow of 100cc of the
sample divided by the time taken for the flow of equal
volume of water. This viscometer allows direct
comparison of viscosities of various samples without lead to calculate their actual viscosities.
An instrument used in measurement of degree Engler, a measure of viscosity; the kinematic
viscosity v in stokes for this instrument is obtained from the equation t is the efflux time in
seconds. It consists of water bath having oil cup with lid. The water bath stirring device mounted
on stand. A thermometer clip to the water bath oil cup lid has a thermometer socket. Viscosity is
to be find out by taking temperature with time.

Procedure

Thoroughly clean and dry the viscometer.

Insert the stopper and fill the water bath with water.
Heat the outer bath some degree above the test temperature.
Pour the sample into the cup till it reaches the top of the measuring points.
Level the instrument and place 100 ml flask below to jet.
43

Place the lid and inner thermometer into the position an maintain the bath of required
temperature with frequent agitation
Maintain these conditions continuously for three minutes by rotating cover.
Withdraw the sample and during filling 100 ml flak note the time.
Repeat the above procedure at different temperatures and take atleast six readings.
Draw the graph between time and temperature.

Observation And Calculations

Temperature ( C)
31
36
41
46
51
56
61

Sample = Diesel Oil

Time (sec)
34.35
31.43
30.42
29.26
29.13
29.01
28.36

Graph

Graph between time and temperature

40
35
30
T 25
i
20
m
15
e
10
5
0
0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Temperature

44

Formula
= At (B/t)
where,
= kinematic viscosity (centistokes)
A, B = constants
A = 0.076, B = 0.04

Significance

In the determination of specific viscosity of tars and the fluid properties.

In the determination of lubricating properties of fuel oils.

Range Of Engler Viscometer

Temperature measurement range 0-100

Viscosity range of fluids 28.8 35.2 centistokes

Precautions

The oil should be filtered thoroughly a cloth to remove solid particles that may clog the
jet.
The receiving flask should be placed in such a manner that the oil stream from jet strikes
the neck of receiving flask and do not cause any foaming.
After each reading the oil should be completely drained out of receiving flask.

Comments
The kinematic viscosity for given sample was determined for different temperatures and
tabulated. The graph was plotted and it was found that the kinematic viscosity decreases with
increase in temperature.

45

Experiment # 9
Objective
Determination of cloud and pour point of petroleum products.

Apparatus

Thermometer
Beaker
Ice
Cooling bath
Cork jacket
Testing jar
Disk
Gasket

Theory
Cloud point is the temperature at which a cloud of wax crystals first appears in a liquid when it
is cooled under specified condition. In this experiment the cloud point is refer to the temperature
below which wax in the crude oil and biodiesel form a cloud appearance. Due to presence of
solidified waxes, the oil thickened and clogs fuel filters and the injectors in engines. The wax
also accumulates on cold surfaces and forms an emulsion with water. Therefore the cloud point
indicates the tendency of the oil to plug filters or small orifices at cold operating temperatures.
Pour point is the lowest temperature at which a sample of petroleum product will continue flow
when it is cooled under specified standard conditions it is a rough indication of the lowest
temperature at which oil is readily pump able. Also the pour point can be defined as the
minimum temperature of the liquid, particularly a lubricant after which, on decreasing the
temperature, the lquid ceases to flow.

Procedure

Take a sample of coconut oil and cool the oil to be tested to a temperature of 25oC about
the approximate cloud point.
Remove any moisture present by filtration.
Pour the clear oil into the test jar upto the level marked.
Adjust the position of the cork carrying the test thermometer, so that the cork fits tightly.
Thermometer and the jar are coaxial.
Place the ring gasket around the test jar one inch from the bottom.
46

The disk, gasket and inside of the gasket should be clean and dry.
Insert the test jar in the jacket and maintain the temperature of cooling bath at 30-35oC
and put the jacket containing test jar in the cooling bath.
After each 2oC fall in temperature remove the test jar from the jacket quickly, but without
disturbing the oil.
Inspect for the cloud point, has the oil in the bottom of the test jar and record the
readings.
Jar was examined after every minute.
This process was continued till the product show no movement this was the pour point of
the product.

Observations
Sample = Coconut Oil
Initial Temperature = 26 c
Cloud Point = 14oc
Pour Point = 12oc
o

Precautions

Use the high cloud and pour thermometer if the expected cloud points is above 36oF.

Use low clouds and pour thermometer if cloud point is below -36oF.

The difference in the temperature of the baths must be 30oF and temperature of the oil
must be at least 50oFwhen it is going to transfer to next bath.
Take readings correctly so that the cloud and pour points are accurately observed.

Comments

Cloud point of coconut oil is 120C but our calculated one is 14oC.
Pour point of coconut oil is 8oC while our reading is 12oC.
The change in values may be due to impurities in sample and environmentally conditions.

47

Experiment # 10
Objective
To find out softening point of pitch bituminous.

Apparatus

Bituminous
Beaker
Kerosene oil
Iron ball
Thermometer

Theory
The temperature at which the substance attains a particular degree of
softness under specified condition of test is called softening point.
Bitumen is specified by softening point. Bitumen being amorphous
does not melt sharply but gradually becomes softer and less viscous as
the temperature rises. For this reason, the determination of the
softening point must be made by fixed arbitrary and closely defined
method. The softening point of bitumen is rounded out by the ball and
ring test.

Procedure

First fill the rind with the bituminous and place on the stand.
Then put a ball on the ring and place the stand in the water.
Apply the heat smoothly.
When the ball just passes through the ring, stop heating and note the temperature.

Observations And Calculations

Heating rate = 3oC/min
Softening point of ist ball = 78oC
Softening point of 2nd ball = 81oC
Average softening point = 78 + 81 / 2 = 7.5oC

Application

At 810C

Used in annealing of bitumen.

Processing of plastics.
48

Determining the quality of bitumen.

Significance

To find the consistency of bitumen.

It is regarded by same indication of viscosity.
It is used in the designation of hard as oxidized bitumen.

Precautions

Carefully observe the both temperatures.

Comments
Since our sample softening point is between high and low range hence it is suitable for road
making process.

49