APPLICATION OF THE LAPLACE TRANSFORM

TO CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
LEARNING GOALS
Laplace circuit solutions
Showing the usefulness of the Laplace transform
Ci
Circuit
i El
Element M
Models
d l
Transforming circuits into the Laplace domain
Analysis Techniques
All standard analysis techniques, KVL, KCL, node,
loop analysis, Thevenins theorem are applicable
Transfer Function
The concept is revisited and given a formal meaning
Pole-Zero Plots/Bode Plots
Establishing the connection between them
Steady State Response
AC analysis revisited

LAPLACE CIRCUIT SOLUTIONS

We
e compare
co pa e a conventional
co e t o a approach
app oac to solve
so e differential
d e e t a equations
equat o s with
t a
technique using the Laplace transform
Comple Take Laplace transform of the equation
y
mentary

di
(t )
dt
di
VS ( s ) = RI ( s ) + LL
i = iC + i p
Initial conditions
dt
di
KVL : v S (t ) = Ri (t ) + L (t )
are automatically
di
P
dt
L = sI ( s ) i (0) = sI ( s ) included
a
dt
Complementary equation
r
1
1
I ( s) =
diC
t = RI ( s ) + LsI ( s )
t
RiC (t ) + L
(t ) = 0 iC (t ) = K C e
s ( R + Ls )
s
i
dt
1/ L
K
K2
Only
y algebra
g
c I ( s) =
R
= 1+
RK C e t + LK C (e t ) = 0 =
u
s ( R / L + s ) s s + R / L is needed
L
l
1
Particular solution for this case
a K1 = sI ( s ) |s =0 =
No need to
R
i p (t ) = K p v S = 1 = RK p
r
1 search for
R Use boundary conditions
particular
K 2 = ( s + R / L) I ( s ) | s = R / L =
t
1
L
R
i (t ) = + K C e
or complev S (t) = 0 for t < 0 i( 0 ) = 0
R
R
mentary
t
1
R
L ; t > 0
t
i
(
t
)
=
1

e
1
solutions

i (t ) =
1 e L ; t > 0
R

v S (t ) = Ri (t ) + L

LEARNING BY DOING

Find v (t ), t > 0

v vS
R
vS

RC

1
s
1
1 / RC
V ( s) =
=
s ( RCs + 1) s ( s + 1 / RC )
RCsV ( s ) + V ( s ) =

M d l using
Model
i KCL

In the Laplace domain the differential

equation is now an algebraic equation

dv
dt

dv v v S
d
C +
=0
R
dt

dv
+ v = vS
dt

V ( s) =

K
K2
1 / RC
= 1+
s ( s + 1 / RC ) s s + 1 / RC

K1 = sV ( s ) |s =0 = 1
K 2 = ( s + 1 / RC )V ( s ) |s = 1 / RC = 1

dv
RCL + V ( s ) = VS ( s )
dt
dv
L = sV ( s ) v (0) = sV ( s )
dt
v S (t ) = 0, t < 0 v (0) = 0 Initial condition

v S = u( t ) V S ( s ) =

Use partial fractions to determine inverse

1
s

v (t ) = 1 e

t
RC ,

t 0

given in implicit
form

CIRCUIT ELEMENT MODELS

The method used so far follows the steps:
1. Write the differential equation model
2. Use Laplace transform to convert the model to an algebraic form
For a more efficient approach:
pp
1. Develop s-domain models for circuit elements
2. Draw the Laplace equivalent circuit keeping the interconnections and replacing
the elements by their s-domain models
3 Analyze the Laplace equivalent circuit.
3.
circuit All usual circuit tools are applicable and all
equations are algebraic.

Independent sources
v S ( t ) VS ( s )

Resistor

i S (t ) I S ( s)

Dependent sources
v D (t ) = AiC (t ) VD ( s ) = AI C ( s )
i D (t ) = BvC (t ) I D ( s ) = BVC ( s )
...

v (t ) = Ri (t ) V ( s ) = RI ( s )

Capacitor: Model 1

I ( s)
t
L i ( x )dx =
s

Source transformation

I eq

v (0)
= s = Cv (0)
1
Cs

1t
1
v (0)
v (t ) = i ( x )dx + v (0) V ( s ) =
I ( s) +
C0
Cs
s
Capacitor: Model 2

Impedance in series
with voltage source

I ( s ) = CsV ( s ) Cv (0)
Impedance in parallel
with current source

Inductor Models

di
v (t ) = L (t ) V ( s ) = L( sI ( s ) i (0))
dt

di
L = sI ( s ) i (0)
dt

I ( s) =

V ( s ) i ( 0)
+
Ls
s

LEARNING BY DOING

Determine the model in the s-domain and the expression for

the voltage across the inductor

Steady state for

o tt<0
0

i ( 0) = 1 A

Inductor with
initial current

KVL : 1 = (1 + s ) I ( s )
Ohm' s Law
V ( s ) = 1 I ( s ) V ( s ) =

1
s +1

Equivalent circuit in
s-domain

ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
All tthe
ea
analysis
a ys s tec
techniques
ques a
are
e app
applicable
cab e in the
t e s-domain
s do a
LEARNING EXAMPLE

I S ( s) =

3
s +1

Draw the s-domain equivalent and find the voltage in both

s-domain and time domain
One needs to determine the initial voltage
across the capacitor

i S (t ) = 0, t < 0 vo (0) = 0

RC = (10 103 )(25 106 ) = 0.25

K
K
120
= 1 + 2
( s + 4)( s + 1) s + 4 s + 1
K1 = ( s + 4)Vo ( s ) |s = 4 = 40

Vo ( s ) =
1

Vo ( s ) = R || I S ( s )
Cs

R
1/ C
3 103
Vo ( s ) = Cs I S ( s ) =

1
s + 1 / RC
s +1
R+
Cs

K 2 = ( s + 1)Vo ( s ) |s = 1 = 40

vo ( t ) = 40 e t e 4 t u(t )

LEARNING EXAMPLE

Write the loop equations in the s-domain

Do not increase
number of loops

Loop 1
VA ( s)
R1 I1 ( s ) +

v1 (0) v2 (0)
+
L1i1 (0) =
s
s

1
1
I1 ( s ) +
( I1 ( s ) I 2 ( s )) + L1s ( I1 ( s ) I 2 ( s ))
C1s
C2 s
Loop 2
L1i1 (0)

L1s ( I 2 ( s ) I1 ( s )) +

LEARNING EXAMPLE

v 2 ( 0)
L2 i2 (0) + VB ( s ) =
s

1
( I 2 ( s ) I1 ( s )) + ( L2 s + R2 ) I 2 ( s )
C2 s

Write the node equations in the s-domain

N d V1
Node

Do not increase number

of nodes

i1 (0)
i ( 0)
C1v1 (0) + 2
=
s
s
1

1
1
G1 +
+ C1s V2 ( s )
+
+ C1s V1 ( s )
L1s L2 s
L2 s

Node V2
I A ( s)

i 2 ( 0)
=
s

1
1
G2 + C 2 s + C1s +
V2 ( s ) C1s +
V1 ( s )
L2 s
L2 s

I B ( s ) C 2v2 (0) + C1v1 (0)

LEARNING EXAMPLE Find vo (t ) using node analysis, loop analysis, superposition,

source transformation, Thevenin' s and Norton' s theorem.

Assume
ssu e a
all initial
t a co
conditions
dto sa
are
e zero
e o

V1 ( s )
KCL @ V1
1
2+
12
s
V1 ( s )
4
V
(
s
)

V
(
s
)
o
s + 1
+
=0 s
1
s
s
s
KCL@Vo
Could have
Node Analysis

Vo ( s ) Vo ( s ) V1 ( s )
+
= 02
1
2
s

used voltage
divider here

4 s + 12
2s
s
(1 + s 2 )
2 sV1 ( s ) + (1 + 2 s )Vo ( s ) = 0

(1 + s 2 )V1 ( s ) s 2Vo ( s ) =

Vo ( s ) =

Loop Analysis

8( s + 3)
(1 + s ) 2

Loop 1
I1 ( s ) =

4
s

Loop 2
1
12
s ( I 2 ( s ) I1 ( s )) + I 2 ( s ) + 2 I 2 ( s ) =
s
s
4( s + 3)
I 2 ( s) =
( s + 1) 2
Vo ( s ) = 2 I 2 ( s ) =

8( s + 3)
( s + 1) 2

Applying current source

Source Superposition

I 2'
Current divider

Vo' ( s ) = 2

s
4

1
2+ +2 s
s

Applying voltage source

Voltage divider

Vo ( s ) = V o' ( s ) + V o" ( s ) =

8( s + 3)
( s + 1) 2

Source Transformation

Vo" ( s ) =

2
12

1
2+ + s s
s

Combine the sources and use current

divider

Vo ( s ) = 2

Vo ( s ) =

The resistance is redundant

s
4 12
+ 2
1
s + + 2 s s
s
8( s + 3)
( s + 1) 2

Using Thevenins Theorem

Reduce this part

s2 + 1
1
ZTh = + s =
s
s

Voltage
divider

VOC ( s ) =

12
4 4 s + 12
+s =
s
s
s

Only independent sources

Vo ( s ) =

2
4 s + 12
s2 + 1 s
2+
s

Vo ( s ) =

8( s + 3)
( s + 1) 2

Using Nortons Theorem

Reduce this part

ZTh = s
Current
division

s
4 s + 12
2
1
s+ +2 s
s
8( s + 3)
Vo ( s ) =
( s + 1) 2

Vo ( s ) = 2
4 12 / s 4 s + 12
I SC ( s ) = +
=
s
s
s2

LEARNING EXAMPLE Determine the voltage vo ( t ). Assume all initial conditions to be zero
Selecting the analysis technique:

Transforming
g the circuit to s-domain

. Three loops, three non-reference nodes

. One voltage source between non-reference
nodes - supernode
. One current source.
source One loop current known
or supermesh
. If v_2 is known, v_o can be obtained with a
g divider
voltage

Doing the algebra : V1 ( s ) = V2 ( s ) 12 / s

I ( s ) = V2 ( s ) / 2 + 6 / s

(1 / 2)( s + 1)(V2 ( s ) 12 / s ) 2( V2 ( s ) / 2 + 6 / s )
+ V2 ( s ) /( s + 1) = 0
12
s
V1 ( s ) V1 ( s )
V ( s)
KCL@ supernode :
+
2 I ( s) + 2
=0
2/ s
s +1
2
V ( s)
Controllin g variable : I (s
( s) = 1
2
1
Voltage divider : V0 ( s ) =
V2 ( s )
s +1
Supernode constraint : V2 ( s ) V1 ( s ) =

Continued ...

V2 ( s ) =

12( s + 1)( s + 3)
s ( s 2 + 4 s + 5)

Vo ( s ) =

12( s + 3)
s ( s 2 + 4 s + 5)

Compute Vo (s ) using Thevenin' s theorem

-keep dependent source and controlling
variable in the same sub
sub-circuit
circuit
-Make sub-circuit to be reduced as simple
as possible
-Try to leave a simple voltage divider after
reduction
d
i
to Th
Thevenin
i equivalent
i l

VOC 12 / s

VOC 12 / s VOC 12 / s
+
2I '= 0
2
2/ s
12
V 12 / s
VOC ( s ) =
I ' = OC
s
2
I '+ (2 I ' ) /( 2 / s ) 2 I ' = 0 I ' = 0

12 / s
+

I "= 6 / s
I SC 2 I " I "2 I " /( 2 / s ) = 0
6( s + 3) Z = VOC ((ss ) = 2
TH
I SC =
I SC ( s ) s + 3
s
Vo ( s ) =

1
1+ s +

2
s+3

12
s

Continued

Computing the inverse Laplace transform

Analysis in the s-domain has established that the Laplace transform of the
output voltage
l
iis

12( s + 3)
s 2 + 4 s + 5 = ( s + 2 j1)( s + 2 + j1) = ( s + 2) 2 + 1
s ( s 2 + 4 s + 5)
12( s + 3)
Ko
K1
K1*
Vo ( s ) =
=
+
+
s ( s + 2 j1)( s + 2 + j1)
s ( s + 2 j1) ( s + 2 + j1)
Vo ( s ) =

K o = sVo ( s ) |s =0 = 36

K1
K1*
+
2 | K1 | e t cos( t + K1 )u(t )
( s + j ) ( s + + j )

12(1 + j1)
12 245
One can also use
K = ( s + 2 j1)V ( s ) |
=
=
1
o
s = 2 + j1 (2 + j1)( j 2)
5153.43(290)
quadratic factors...
= 3.79 198.43 = 3.79161.57
36

12( s + 3)
C o C1 ( s + 2)
C2
vo ( t ) = + 7.59e 2 t cos(t + 161.57 u(t )
Vo ( s ) =
+
=
+
2
2
2
5

s ( s + 2) + 1 ( s + 2) + 1
s (s + 2) + 1

C1 ( s + )
C2
+
e t [C1 cos t + C 2 sin t ]u(t )
2
2
2
2
(s + ) +
(s + ) +
2
12( s + 3) = C o (( s + 2) + 1) + s[C1 ( s + 2) + C 2 ] s = 2 12 = C o 2C 2 C 2 = 36 / 10 6 = 12 / 5
C o = sVo ( s ) |s =0 = 36 / 5

Equating coefficien ts of s 2 : 0 = C o + C1 C1 = 36 / 5

12
36

vo ( t ) = (1 e 2 t cos t ) e 2 t sin t u(t )

5
5

LEARNING EXTENSION Find io (t ) using node equations

VS
Vo + VS

supernode
p

Vo

Assume zero initial conditions

Implicit circuit transformation to s-domain
s domain

K1
K1*
+
2 | K1 | e t cos( t + K1 )u(t )
( s + j ) ( s + + j )

KCL at supernode

2 V ( s) V ( s)
Cs (Vo ( s ) + VS ( s )) + o + o
=0
s
Ls
2
V ( s)
12
VS ( s ) = , I o ( s ) = o
s
2
Doing the algebra
algeb a

1
15
I o ( s) | 1
K1 = s + j
s= + j
4
4

4
K1 =

6.33 66.72
= 6.53 156.72
0.9790
90

io ( t ) = 13.06e

t
4

15

cos
t 156.72
4

1 6s
1 6s
=
2
s + 0.5 s + 1
1 15
s + +
4 16

K 1*
1 6s
K1
=
+
I o ( s) =

1
15
1
15
1
15
1
15
s + j
s + + j
s + j
s + + j

4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4

I o ( s) =

1
15

1 6 + j
4
4

=
15
15
4
2j
4

LEARNING EXTENSION Find vo (t ) using loop equations

I 2 ( s) =

K 0 = sI 2 ( s ) |s =0 = 2

supermesh

constraint due to source

2
= I 2 I1
s
KVL on supermesh
1
12
I1 + 2 I1 + sI 2 + 2 I 2 = 0
s
s

K1 = ( s + 0.27) I 2 ( s ) |s =0.27 =
K 2 = ( s + 3.73) I 2 ( s ) |s =3.73 =

16(0.27) + 2
= 2.48
(0.27)(0.27 + 3.73)

16(3.73) + 2
= 4.47
(3.73)(3.73 + 0.27)

i2 ( t ) = 2 + 2.48e 0.27 t 4.47e 3.73t u(t )

v o ( t ) = 2 i2 ( t )

Solve for I2

I 2 ( s) =

K0
K1
K2
+
+
s s + 0.27 s + 3.73

16 s + 2
16 s + 2
=
2
s ( s + 4 s + 1) s ( s + 0.27)( s + 3.73)

Determine inverse transform

TRANSIENT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS USING LAPLACE TRANSFORM

For the study of transients, especially transients due to switching, it is important
to determine initial conditions.
conditions For this determination,
determination one relies on the properties:
1. Voltage across capacitors cannot change discontinuously
2. Current through inductors cannot change discontinuously
LEARNING EXAMPLE D
Determine
i vo (t ), t > 0

+
i L( 0 )

vC (0)

Assume steady state for t<0 and determine

voltage across capacitors and currents
through inductors

For DC case capacitors are open circuit

inductors are shortcircu it
vC (0) = 1V , i L (0) = 1A
Circuit for t>0

Vo ( s ) =

2s + 7
2 s + 3s + 2
2

N
Now
determine
d
i
the
h inverse
i
transform
f

b 2 4ac < 0 complex conjugate roots

Laplace

Circuit for t>0

Vo ( s ) =

K 1*
K1
+
3
7
3
7
s+ j
s+ + j
4
4
4
4

3
7
= 2.14 76.5
Vo ( s )
K1 = s + j
4
4
3
7

s = + j
4

K1
K1*
+
2 | K1 | e t cos( t + K1 )u(t )
( s + j ) ( s + + j )

Use mesh analysis

( s + 1) I1 sI 2 =

4
+1 s
s

Solve for I2

vo ( t ) = 4.28 cos((

2
1
sI1 + ( s + 1 + ) I 2 = 1 ( s + 1)
s
s
I 2 ( s) =

7
t 76.5)
4

2s 1
2
1
Vo ( s ) = I 2 ( s ) +
s
s
2 s + 3s + 2
2

LEARNING EXTENSION

Determine i1 (t ), t > 0

Initial current through inductor

i L (0 ) = i L (0 + ) = 1 A

12
6

I1 ( s )

I1 ( s ) =

2s

2s
1

2 s + 18 s

1
s
Current
divider

I1 ( s ) =

s
i1 (t ) = e 9 t u(t )
s+9

LEARNING EXTENSION

Determine vo ( t ), t > 0

2s

8
V
3
+
Vo (s )

Determine initial current through inductor

i L ( 0)

Use source
superposition

i12V = 2 A

i4V

Vo ( s ) =
Vo ( s ) =

2
12 8
+ (voltage divider)
4 + 2s s 3

(8 s + 36) K1 K 2
=
+
3 s ( s + 2)
s s+2

K1 = sVo ((ss ) |s =0 = 6

2
= A
3

K 2 = ( s + 2)Vo ( s ) |s =2 =

4
A
3

v o ( t ) = 6 e 2 t u( t )
3

i L ( 0) =

10
3

TRANSFER FUNCTION
X ( s)

System with all

initial conditions
set to zero

Y (s )

bn s n + ... + b1s + b0
H ( s) =
am s m + ... + a1s + a0

For the impulse function

Y ( s)
x (t ) = (t ) X ( s) = 1
H ( s) =
X ( s)
H(s) can also be interpreted as the Laplace
If the model for the system is a differential transform of the output when the input is
an impulse
i
l and
d all
ll iinitial
iti l conditions
diti
are zero
eq ation
equation

dny
d n1 y
dy
b
+
+ ... + b1 + bo y
n 1
n
n 1
dt
dt
dt
m
m 1
d x
d x
dx
= am m + am 1 m 1 + ... + a1 + ao x
dt
dt
dt
If all initial conditions are zero
bn

d k y
L k = s kY (s )
dt
bn s nY ( s ) + ... + b1sY ( s ) + b0Y ( s )
= am s m X ( s ) + ... + a1sX ( s ) + a0 X ( s )
bn s n + ... + b1s + b0
Y ( s) =
X ( s)
am s m + ... + a1s + a0

The inverse transform of H(s) is also

called the impulse response of the system
If the impulse response is known then one
can determine the response of the system
to ANY other input

LEARNING EXAMPLE

A network has impulse response h( t ) = e t u(t)

Determine the response, vo (t ), for the input v i (t ) = 10e 2 t u(t )

In the Laplace domain, Y(s)=H(s)X(s)

Vo ( s ) = H ( s )Vi ( s )

1
s +1
10
vi (t ) = 10e 2 t u(t ) Vi ( s ) =
s+2
h(t ) = e t u(t ) H ( s ) =

Vo ( s ) =

K
K
10
= 1 + 2
( s + 1)( s + 2)
s +1 s + 2

K1 = ( s + 1)Vo ( s ) |s =1 = 10
K 2 = ( s + 2)Vo ( s ) |s =2 = 10

vo (t ) = 10 e t e 2 t u(t )

Impulse response of first and second order systems

t
Case 2 : < 1 : Underdampe d network

First order system H ( s ) =

h(t ) = Ke
s + 1
poles : s1, 2 = 0 j0 1 2

h(t ) = Ke o t cos( o 1 2 t + )

Normalized second order system

y

H ( s) =

02
s 2 + 2 0 s + 02

poles : s1, 2 = 0 0 2 1

Case 1 : > 1 : Overdamped network

h( t ) = K 1e ( 0 + 0

2 1 ) t

+ K 2 e ( 0 0

2 1 ) t

C
Case
3 : = 1 : Critically
C iti ll damped
d
d network
t
k

Vo ( s )
Vi ( s )
a) C = 8F poles : s1, 2 = 0.25 j 0.25

LEARNING EXAMPLE

Determine the transfer function H ( s ) =

Transform the circuit to the Laplace

domain All initial conditions set to zero
domain.

b) C = 16F poles : s1, 2 = 0.25

c) C = 32F poles : s1, 2 = 0.427, 0.073

Vi ((s )
Mesh analysis

Vi ( s ) = 2 I1 I 2

Vo ( s ) =

0 = I1 + 1 + s +
I2
sC

(1 / 2C )
Vo ( s ) = 2
s + (1 / 2) s + 1 / C

Determine the pole-zero plot, the type of damping and the

unit step response

LEARNING EXTENSION

H ( s) =

s + 10
s + 4s + 8

1
s + 10
Y ( s) = H ( s) =
2
s s ( s + 4 s + 8)

zero : z = -10
poles
po
es :

s 2 + 4 s + 8 = ( s + 2 j 2)( s + 2 + j 2)

s 2 + 4 s + 8 = 0 s1, 2 = 2 j 2
x

Y ( s) =

j
j2

10

s2 + 4s + 8
2 o

o2

1
I 2 ( s)
sC

2
=
2

K1
K2
K 2*
+
+
s s + 2 j2 s + 2 + j2

K1
K1*
+
2 | K1 | e t cos( t + K1 )u(t )
( s + j ) ( s + + j )
10
K1 = sY
Y ( s ) |s =0 =
8
8 + j2
K 2 = ( s + 2 j 2)Vo ( s ) |s =2+ j 2 =
(2 + j 2)( j 4)
K2 =

8.2514
= 0.73 211
2.83135 490

10

vo ( t ) = + 1.46 cos(2t 211)

Second order networks: variation of poles with damping ratio

Normalized second order system

H ( s) =

02
s 2 + 2 0 s + 02

LEARNING EXAMPLE

o2 =

poles
l : s1, 2 = 0 0 2 1

Case 2 : < 1 : Underdampe d network

poles
l : s1, 2 = 0 j0 1 2

1
,
LC

2 o =

R
L
1
Cs

1
V ( s)
LC
Gv ( s ) = o
=
=
1
1
Vin
R
i ( s)
+ Ls
L +R
s2 + s +
Cs
L LC
Variation
V
i ti off poles.
l
Use o = 2000

= cos

LEARNING EXAMPLE

The Tacoma Narrows Bridge Revisited

Previously the event
was modeled as a
resonance problem.
More detailed studies
show that a model
with a wind-dependent
damping ratio provides
a better explanation

d 2
d
+ 2 o
+ o2 = 0
2
dt
dt

= 0.0046 0.00013U
U = wind speed (mph)
Torsional Resonance
Model

Conditions at failure
wind speed

= 42mph

twist

= 12

time to collapse = 45min

Problem: Develop a circuit that models this event

integrator

model d 2

d
+ 2 o
+ o2 = 0
2
dt
dt

..

..

adder

+ 2 o + o2 = 0 = (2 o + o2 )

= (0.001156 00013U ) 1.579

Using numerical values

vi

Vi ( s ) V ( s )
+
=0
1
R
Cs
1
V ( s ) =
Vi ( s )
R C s

( )

v1
Simulation
building
blocks

v2

V1 V2 V
+
+
=0
R1 R2 R f
R
R

V = f V1 + f V2
R2
R1

d 2
2
dt

d
dt

Simulation using
dependent sources

Simulation results
Wind
d speed=20mph
speed 0 p
initial torsion=1 degree

Wind speed=35mph
initial torsion =1degree

Wind speed=42mph
initial torsion=1 degree

POLE-ZERO PLOT/BODE PLOT CONNECTION

Bode plots display magnitude and phase information of G ( s ) |s = j
They show a cross section of G(s)

G ( s) =

1
V ( s)
LC
=
G ( s) = o
1
Vin ( s )
2 R
s + s +
L LC

s2
s2 + 2s + 5

If the
th poles
l gett closer
l
tto
imaginary axis the peaks
and valleys are more
pronounced
p

Cross section
shown by Bode

Cross section

Due to symmetry
show only positive
frequencies

Front view

Amplitude Bode plot

Uses log scales

STEADY STATE RESPONSE

Y ( s) = H ( s) X ( s)

Response
p
when all initial conditions are zero

Laplace uses positive time functions. Even for sinusoids the response contains
transitory terms
EXAMPLE H ( s ) = 1 , X ( s ) =

s +1

s
( x ( t ) = [cos t ]u(t ))
s +2
2

s
K1
K2
K2*
Y(s) =
=
+
+
(s +1)(s + j)(s j) s +1 s + j s j

If interested in the steady state response

only, then dont determine residues
associated with transient terms

y (t ) = Ke t + 2 | K 2 | cos( t + K 2 ) u(t )
transient

Steady state response

For the general case

X M cos t u(t ) =

If x (t ) = X M cos( o t + )u(t )

y ss (t ) =| X M | H ( j o ) | cos( o t + H ( j o ) + )

1 XM
X M j t
XM

+
e + e jt X ( s ) =
2
2 s j o s + j o

K *x
1 X M
X M
Kx
=
+
Y ( s ) = H ( s )
+
+ transient terms
2 s j o s + j o s j o s + j o
1
y ( t ) = 2 | K x | cos( o t + K 2 ) + transient terms
K x = ( s j o )Y ( s ) |s = j o = X M H ( j o )
2
y ss ( t ) = X M | H ( j o ) | cos( o t + H ( j o ))

LEARNING EXAMPLE

Determine the steady state response

If x (t ) = X M cos( o t + )u(t )

y ss (t ) =| X M | H ( j o ) | cos(( o t + H ( j o ) + )

o = 2, X M = 10

s2
s2
Vi ( s ) H ( s ) = 2
Vo ( s ) = 2
3s + 4 s + 4
3s + 4 s + 4

Transform the circuit to the Laplace domain.

Assume all initial conditions are zero

H ( j 2) =

( j 2) 2
= 0.35445
3( j 2) 2 + 4( j 2) + 4

y s (t ) = 3.54 cos( 2t + 45)V

V1 Vi V1 V1
+ +
=0
2
2 2 +1
s
1
Voltage
g divider : Vo =
V1
2
+1
s

KCL@V1 :

LEARNING EXTENSION

Determine voss (t ), t > 0

If x ( t ) = X M cos( o t + )u(t )

y ss ( t ) =| X M | H ( j o ) | cos(( o t + H ( j o ) + )

o = 2, X M = 12
Transform circuit to Laplace domain.
A
Assume
all
ll initial
i iti l conditions
diti
are zero
Thevenin

Vi (s )

1
s

1
1
VOC ( s ) = s Vi ( s ) =
Vi ( s )
1
s
+
1
1+
s
1
1
s2 + s + 1
ZTh ( s ) = s + || 1, ||= s +
=
s
s +1
s +1

Vo ( s ) =

2
VOC ( s )
2 + ZTh ( s )

Vo ( s ) =

2
1
Vi ( s )

s + s +1 s +1
2+
s +1
2

2
Vi ( s )
s + 3s
3s + 3
H (s )
2
2
2
H ( j 2) =
=
=
4 + 6 j + 3 1 + 6 j 6.0899.46
Vo ( s ) =

voss (t ) = 12

2
cos(2t 99.46)
6.08