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Admission Details ai

c)t:jii-, : ;955

NC / CNC Technolog)'
t.

Introduction

htumerical control of machine tool may be defned as a nelltr,,'

vorious lfunclions of machine lools are controlled by letters, fiiurzt;i , '
are stored on paper, magnetic tape, computer storage disks, or direci i

rqlion in which
l,o/s. This dara
ormation.

i.l'urnerjcal cohirol is the operation of r;:achire lcels:::d rthei; i': r.:r::::

:achines b;- a
of coded jnstructions. The ccded instructions called as ti:i. 1:r :j.i-i:-t cil tis nf rrenico
instructions about the methodology of manufacfure as we!l as tir'; i;:o'r'. rri;.
For example
*'hal tocl is to be used, at u'hat speed, at \\'hat feed and to nrole irom "vl-,'-ir , ,;int to *'h ich
point in rvhat path.
series

Since the program is the controlling point for product rnanufacltit;', 1i

versatile and can be used for any part. All the functions of a NC mrt-,]iine
controlled electronically, hydraulically or pneumatically.

With a built-in computer suppofting the machine tcol functiol' i':

computer numerical control or CNC. Computer numerical control is i,u,
it is a means for machine control.

r
'

' ine becornes

re thei-efore

s knou'n as
irr.rog nrethcd;

2.

Basic Componen_ts of NC S,l'stem

There are three iliiportant cc)mponenls of

th: numerical control or NC:;.ir .'llicse

a) Prograrn of instruciions
b) Controller unit, aiso called as the machine control

c)
All

unit (MCU)

are;

;ii-rd

Machine tool

these have been shori'n in the fieure

belcu

and also Cestribed in the sr:

tr]

.A
i:.

F;'j Lrii

i l--:ce iesic Cc;lir:,ltCrls

cc;.ii'cij?r un:i. (ci m3chine lcri.

?roi. Scniav,

961

il',]
cj ?

t'uJT;e

j
I

tTt--.

tci
irlr-ri aOr]i:Ci SVSiea'r t;,.: i :::r,:

i.luenl sectrons.

a) Program of instructions
The program of instnrctions of tlre NC machine is the step-by-step set

of

instrucri.

thattellsthemachineswhatithastodo'Thesetofinstructionsarecodedinnumen
or symbolic form and written on certain mediurn that can be interpreted b,v
controller unit of the NC machine. The mediums commonly used earlier for rwitiirg
insiructions u'ere punched cards, magnetic tapes and 35mm motion picture film,
now I inch rvide punched tape is used more commonly.
One can also input the instructions directly into the controller unit manuatty, r
method is called as manual data input O,[DI), which is used for very simple jobs. Tl
there is direct numerical control method (DNC) in which t. : machines are controlled
the cornputers b1'Cirecl l;nI: omitting the tape reader.

b)ControllerUnitorMachineContro||erUnit(MCU)

The controller unit is most vitalparls part of theNC and CNC machines. The control.-unit is made of the electronics components. It reads and interprets the progr-am _instructions and convcrts them in the mechanical actioru of the machine tool. Thus t
controller unit forms an important link berwecn thc prograr4 and the machine tool. T _

control unit operates the'rnachines as per the set of instructions given to it.

The typical conrrol unit comprises of tape reader, a databuffer, signal output channe
to the rnachine tools, fcedback chamel from thc machine tool, and the sequence contrto coordinate the ovcrall machining operation

Initially, the set of instmctions from the punched tape are read by the tape reader, whir
is sort of the electromechanical device. The data from the'tape is stored into the da_
buffer in form of logical blocks of instruction-s with each block resulting in certa
sequence of operations.
The controller sends the instructions to the machine tool via signal output channels th
are comected to the servcmotors and other controls of the machines. The feedbac
channels ensure that tle instrtrctions have-been'executed by the machine conectly. Tt
sequence control part of the eontroller unit ensures that all the operations are execut
in the proper sequence.
,:

One important thing to note about the controller unit here is that all the ntodern N
machines are equipped with the microcomputer that acts as the controller unit. Tt
program is fed into the computer direct.ly and the computer controls the u'orking tl
machine tool. Such machines are called as Conrputer Controller lr{achines (CN(
machines.
The follou,ing are the functions and motions which an lvfCU perforrns
o Turning the spindle ON and OFF
*o- Setting cuttingspeeds - - -

o Setting feed rate

o Turning coolart ON and OFF
o lv{oving tool w'ith respect to u'orkpiece
t=roi.

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Adrnission Detaili at

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982A347855

c) Machine Tool
1lc Orird besic comporcnt of er NC qrsfcxo

is lbc niacliDc bol or othcr contoUcd process. Itis pan of thc NC system wbicb paforns uscfirl work I! & Eoct comr3o! c:<ample of an NC sy6&4:
one d"-signed to lrrform machiniag opcrations, 6c nrchinc tciol oorsists of thc worktablc aad spiodli1
es rveJl es *re rnolors aad corrols ncc.cssary to &ivc fur& h also includes thc c'utting tools, worF
fixtu-cs, rnd othcr auxiliary cquipmcnt aee/rJ in 6c machiniag opcration.

$tructit:
numeric

:d by tl
rriting

film,

'c

rally,

).IC

nrach.r'ncs

rangc

in

complcxiry from simple t4p*contollcd

driil

presscs

to hig!],

scphisricatcd and vcrsatilc tlachioing csnters. It is a multifuactios rutbhc wbich inarrporata scvffaf
tirnesaviag features inlo a singlc picc.c of aulornatcd produaion oguipacnr First, a machining ccntcr ii
capeble of pcrformiag a varicty of diffcrcnt opcrations &i[ing trpping, resoing, milling, aad borir$
Second, ir has &c cagaa;ity to chengc tools automalically rdcr tapc comina-od- A variety of machi'i.f
opcrations mcans tirat a raricty of cuning tools uc rcquircd. The lools are kcpl ia a tool dnsr or otbd
holdiag dcvicc. Whco thc t8pc.calls a particular toob erc lcpt b a tool &um or o&er boldiag devje*
\itbea thc tapc calls a particuJar tool, tbc drum rotalas lo positioo tbc tool for iasertjon r.." tbc spindJgt(
Thc ar:lornaric tool changcr thcn grasps tlie tool rad plecas it ino tlc spindlc chuck- A thir.t cepabiiit'
of the NC rnachiaiog center is workpiecc positioning. The machjne table can oricnt thc job so rhat {

th

obs. The
rtrolled b

can bc machjaed on sevcral surfaccs, as requircd Finaliy, a fourth fcaturc posscsscd by sogifi
machi'ii..g ccnlcrs is the prescncc of rwo ublcs or'pallcs on which tlrc workpiccc can bc firn:rcd

controllt rogram ( _
. Thus tL
: tool. Th t chdnne,
tce contr( -

}}rilc

rhc machini-.rg s"qutn.. is bcing pcrformcd on onc workgarq the opcratoi cel bc unJosdiag $f
complercd piicc, and loading tle ncxt ooc. This irnprovcs machinc trol utilization bccar.si
the machinc docs not havc to stand idJc during losding aod unloadiog of lbc workpa.ts.

;rcviously

3.
.

ComputerNumericalControl (CNC)
With the availability of microprocessors in mid

l9?0s the cornputer technology had

made a tremendous progress.

The new control systems are terrned as Computer Numerical Control (CNC) u'hich are
characterised by the availability of an embedded computer and enhanced memory in the
controller as shown in the Fis.. 1.2.

der, whic

o the dat-

in

certai
.

annels th;

feedbac

rectlY. TL
e execute

rodem N

' unit. Tl

Fig. 1.2 : Typical CNC l\Iachine Tool Opcration

'orking tl
res (gNE

Fig. 1.3 : CNC I\tilling I\{schine

\.r.-itf

- \i\l\r

<_ll-)lr

$.
4

r'5'r'' 1.4 : CNC Lathe Machine

Fig.

"

These may also be termed as sofl *'ired numerjcat control i.. ,f," program can be
changed along with built in control fcaturcs.
'.
There are many advantages which are derived from the use of CNC as compared to NC.
Some of them are tie following:
i. Pan Program storage memo!-y.
2. Part Program editing.
3. Part Program downloading and uploading.
4. ' Pan Prcgram simuiation using tool path.
5. Additional parl programming facilities.
6. Local storage such as attached hard disk.
7. Using standard operating systems such as Windows for easier interfacing u'jth other
cornponents of manu facturing systens.
In reality, the controls w'ith the machine tools nou'ada;'s are all CNC and the old NC
control do not exist anymole. As a result, the terms NC and CNC are almost slnon)'mous.

'mm

4.

NC ntotion Ciintrol Sisiems

to accomplish the machining process, the cutting tool and u'orkpiece must be
moved relarive to each other. In NC there are three basic t1'pes of moiion control systems :

In

rcl. of

)NT
Per

1.

Point-to-point NC

.
.
"

ROL

ed

or<jer

Point-to-point (PTP) is also sometimes called a positioning s)'sieni. In PTP, the

objective of the rnachine togl control systein is-to move the cutting tool to a
predefined locationThe speed or path by which this movement is accomplished is not important in pointto-point NC.
Once the tool reaches rhe desired tocation. the machining operation is perfcrmed al
t]Iql p!!]!iq!--Drilling operation and spottvelding operation are good exat:tples *'here PTF s;stetn
is used.

?3i9 744550

Admission Deiaiis at

i ?o2,J341155

Tcol path

ToLl rr'

startir,gt
point

Fig. 1.8 : Point-to-point (positioning) Systen

:ar

In a NC driil press rhe spindre must frrsr positioned

be
.::alion on
at a particui.
the
workpiece under pfp controi.
' Then the drilling of the hole is performed and so forth. Since no cu.i is performed
.,
ben$een hoies, rhere js no n."'d ror .onlottingruiy
..t"tiv" ulotir:: ,'f Lhe tool and
rvorkpiece between hole locations.
Straight-cut NC:

be

:o NC.

2.

'
'

Straight-cut contror systems are capa.bre.of-moving

the cutting tooi
rhe major axes at a controiled rare juitabte
rorrrr""iining.
11 is therefore appropriate for performing
miiling op"-tion, to fab;
of rectangular confi gurations.

ie'.l!sl 1e ene

i: workpjeces

Workpiece

:ther

I
I

r*iI

:J NC

ist

be

i.

rhe

-rj-lS

icc-l
.i

cr

"
o

:ointat

\vith this t1'pe of Nc

s,\,stem ir is not possibre to combine

movemeri; ., i;:ijf t'an a
single a.:tis directjon.
Therefore, anpurar cuts.on.the workpiece
wourd not be possibie. An iu, capabre
oi
straight cui mo'ements is also capabie
of pTp rno,,.*.nt
.

11.

elP:ri

Cutting toot

Fig. 1.6 : Straight_cut systcrn

toa

:d

"

; Starting
t poini

,.

,'f I

Too! path-op,;

performeo or
motion paral::,
v Exes.

Contouring NC

o
"

Contouring is thc rnosi compiex. the mosr

flexible, and the rrost e.rpensi.".,, :rpe
machine tool control.
h is capabre of performing borh prp and

Prcf. Scnjo_1, 98i9 7tJSS0

straight-cur operarions.

of

In addition' the distinguishing feature

Nc systems is rheir capacid
sirnultaneous contror of ,oorJth*
on. "f :^"lr:_:i"g
movement of tle machine
i
cutter is continuously controlled
to generare the desired geomeq

*i,

toor.

n"#*;..::

For this reason, contouring

systems are also called continuous_path

NC si,su
Contouring operations in.t,iae
mitting, turning and flarne crinine.
v
Tool profile

Tool path

Worlparl

Tool-J-.i

stiarting'
poant

tL
7

I
'rm

a
a

Fig. I.Z : Contouring (continuous path)

NC system
In order to machine a curved pSth in a numericar
contror contouring system, *,
direcrion of tbe feed rare rurt
ur'.i*!"a'ro*J;
,o rotto* rhe parh.
"Jnrinrourly
the curveo
shorr straigh(-ri:E
:il,n15:.
the

JT

OL

is commanded to machine each segment

in

succcssion.
what resulrs is a machined outrine that
crosery
rr," a.sir"a shape.
the tool can "!pro""no
be
controtled
bv the rerigth
ffi'rTilitlili"fi,l",i:*een

or

within the metal cutting category, Nc equipment

has been built ro perform virrually,
the
entire range of material removalfrocessed
n,hich includes :

I.

of

p"ii-il;"",v

H;*'mffi*t
Then
toor

Grinding

machines

2. Gear generating machines

3. Laser cutting machines
1. Fipe bending and forming machines
5. Assembly mgchines
6. Milling rnachines
7. Lathes.
\\/ithin the machining category', NC rnachine
tools are appropriate for certain jobs
and
inappropriate-for-'others.
"''t'v'vP.rsrv-r,r-'uutcrs. rollolvlng-are-the
Follo;ving-arethe geheral
Eeheral-cheiaaTer;Rjcc
Cheiaaferistics of-p-ro?ua6,
^r-h-r^-;;:r--:-----;--a
Job;;
metal mechining
.

for *'hich numericar conrroir'ourd be most

appropriate:

l' For the pat-ts

compiex contours. that cannot

!a1ine
conventional machine
tools.

trr,'>f lnniaY Qfrf o -!

tr

be

manula:rur-ed .

L:r

rr:

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i 3.3?ii ;4:1855

Admission ljelails at
r capacitr
ol..

2.

For smali lot production, often for even single (one oii' ir-'i", t::oduction, Such as
protofyping, toot manufacturing etc,
3. For jobs requiring very high accl'racy and repeatabitii:..
4. For jobs requiring many set ups andror the set ups :r: . \'r ' ,,t'{:nsiYe,
, ;ilseguently require
5. The pads that are subjected to frequent design cir, ,,:
more expensive rnanu faeturing methods.
6. 7\e inspe;tion cost is a significantportion of the tolel ni'..i:.ilirvruring cosr.

geomelr

VC syste

6. Difference ber$'een CNC & NC machines

l.

Numericai Control machine, the program is fed to the n-:: , ,-i:,' tirrtugh nragnetic
, rsic machine
tapes.or othersuch media. The originalNC machjnes vr'jr: ': '.: . ,
tools ryhich were modifled to have motbrs for mol'erne rti : ..it:s ti,i-. :..':.r..

ln

In a Computer I.{umericai Controlled machine, the machi-:r"... ,re inte ,-, :.,ced *'ith
computers. This maiies them more versatile iri the sense tl:"' :irpposr ; change in
dimension of a part is required. In a NC machine, jou rvo;r:i ii',rri l,;,;, tc change the
pro-eram in the tape and then feed it to the machine again. But r:r c i:i , . rnachine, you
just chapgg3 variable in the computer ald your.moC.ification I .i.:ne ii
,

t'siem,

th

nafh

raight-line

' :,d is run

2..AnNCmacbinejsnumericalIyiontrolledbuthasnome.frt
the "tape" each time the machine cycles. A CNC machiire

.'

off

program can be stored in its control.

fr of

1.
the

TEE NC PROCEDTJRE

To uti lizc. n uoicii cai co ntol ii-inanufacturi ng, tbc follo wiag:stcps mus

1.

planniag. The ioginccring {"awing of tie *nqkpart s:,.;. . i r.oierprct( ' terus of tt
to be uscd This stc; is rcfcrred lo ,rs p.ccess pl;' ,ng 19d &r}
conccrned u'iCi tlre preparation of a routc she,ct. The routc sbeet is ri liflingG '-.qu.ncc o]

Process

manufacnring processes

illy

opgrafiols *1r.ich must be performed on the workpai.lt is callr,j e route shec . ,,isc il also
li$s-Ac-machircs ttrougb which tl:e psrt must be routed in oidcr :o accompli::], ,',i ,,.quencc of
operation3..\\/e ass'.rrne tlal some af tlre operations rlill be pr:forrred on i,r.i : more NC

the

2.

machines.

Parl prograntming. A part pro5rammer plars the process for the portions
' job lo be
accomplished by NC, Part programmers arc bowledgeable ai,;,ul he raa*l,,;.: , ,,iicess a11d
tley bave beer u-ailed to program for nurnerical control. Tbey *:e respcn..',,', rrni-ug the
scquircc 6f msshining sieps tri bc performed by NC ead tc docunenl rlr"':, i:, , ,al farmai.
Tnere a-re twc ways to prograsl for NC:
Manual par t programming
Comput er-assist ed pa rt pro gramming

In manual pa-'t prog^amming, the machining Lrstructions sre

:bs

and

ioh< in

;: {u:,

iled a pari

piorym msruscdpt Thc ma-luseript is a tisting of the relative ci.!i.r,a; ,i.&.; , ,;ioiu r.'hich
rn0-51-be folioued to mechinc the perf I'r computer-as-sistcd pi:r1 . .
,nri;r, . ,,trch of t-he
tedious computetioaa.l work required in uranr:al pail progra:r,,'::::, ka:. , ;red t.r tle
compuicr- Tiris is espccialll' appropriate for ccmplex n'oikpiece geori.r. ." il:d r' :,t, '*irh man.v
ri:achini-ng sieps. Use of the co:rpute; in Lhcse siruatioru resulu ia :,,. . ;icamt :;,\";rigs i,r pa:t
progranrming t:ne.

,-l ,

piep*e(

1.,.

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of

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il"il"ff
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i,*"?;:Tq,i:i:'Jnfr
Hffiq,ffiJ*tr'***i6't'"if"1ll$iffi
usc

rapc

H.T;;

iil'*pH &a'##". ;f Y"iff;

*g:.ffi;:", #ff.T153"" "; il ii. f,Y#f;?+
in,ifryffi:f:
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;H";;",;H$f"ff :
:ff ffiX?:ffi
i fronr ,::;i3e,Ln"i"*J.,:'"L"'i#.'ffi
i""* u. i*ipfi.

operarorrenoves

thc machinc-aaa

1".a.rffi,_{-rerrc"

fiff"ffffi
*
ryffi;
*. ui"st-ffirtx

;:tr*:?rl##.frHs fi:
thc &it spirdle in fixcd
to thc spiadra Howa,er, to nake
thinss
;ffitl#**.::i;H*-T:l*.oj"d":
casia for.the Dto''"rD"'cr, *rc edopt
*T#T,Tff;"ffiHf,."*Iff#,ffi:
n il;ffi
oor

'rrr"s positioet caD

rcIative

ryf

tr*r *. il"#,i

t.*.iio","

rH"l[jffi$,yidt"' :

Tso !xes'

and

y, arc

pcrpcadiadrr to this planc ana

qpindlc' Tbc positive

'y"*i

is

"iocs.is

defi.ocd in tbc pfrqe of the.rabre,

as shown

to"i--r iiiil
a-iJiJ

'ana.ncg"tive

:1"#,3ffi ffi tr"tffirffi

A rrumcrical control
o'ittl"i

r airraioo i"

"?r"tion

csr{brished

$*

respccr

in fig'rc. Tbc e-axis is

by ,ic vcrtical motioa of trre

of roo,r ""i*-rr"a tabre along rhesc

axes are

;;;;;;

,<

,"trtrjfly;sfr:i"'",[*axismachiaes,dcpcnding

-t"U ; siraihr raac*mc toors (boring mirr, for cxamprc) use

an axis rystc'r similar ,o ,1",
JG"
o.;rr ffi
H;.u*;;;;;;;
l; drc u\ree liaear axes, these
machjncs nuy posscss dre capaciry
ro

*ntor

oo" o,

ror" rotational axcs.

7mn

ncl. o

oNt

IJC machine tool axls ryatem for mllllng and

drif llng

aPer

XF)

zc+)'

-*___

GRO

ted
/

itr,lr-l/

fbv.x(:- )
\

r.ie rnachine toei axis sysGnr for turnlng

"

'r r.l- C:-i-.

9.al '?l:;=i5__:i.r

Admission Details at

Tbrcc rotatioaal aJ(6 atc dcflcd in NC: tb a, b,anl c Excs. th$c axcs spcify anglc$ sboul thc x, y,
and z otcs, rcAcaivcly. To distinguisb positive &om acgntivc ssgul^u Eotioas, fu tiglt-hrod rulc'
can bc us4 Usiog thc rid{ batd witb &c ihu'rlb pol'rti"g in tbc po:itiw tincar sds dirwtioa (x, y, or
z), thc fingers of th band rre crulcd to point in tbc positi'rc rmiooal dircction.
For nrraing opcrafi-ons, n*'o ixcs Erc Dorarlly dt 6d arc rcqui&d 19 so-raand tbc movement
of thc tool rclatjvc to tbc rotating-worpiccc; tbc z axir i! tb ods of rotatioo of tbc wodgi4 and x
axis dcfiocs tbc radial location oftlc crlting tool This arrangaorcot is illwtatcd io fig:urc.
Tbc purposc of tbc coordistc Eystcs is to prorddc a me8rxr of locati:rg tbc tool in relarion t-o
the
.workpicca Dcpcnding on tbc NC Escbirie, tbe pfft progrerncr Eay bavc scvcral difcrcrc optiorrs
available for spcci&ing this tocatio- .
.

plar- &
prog:aQ!

is

omPuleR-

str.rctior.l
r.l

9820341,855

motiol
NC

ci6c

provide<i

uough ia
nper. Irr
tryiag it
lof tbi.s

Tbc programmcr mtrst dacmrine tbe position of 6c tool rclativc. to &c odgin (zcio pobr) of thc
coordinatc sy$tm. NC nachirocs bavc cithcr of tuo mctbods for spccifting tlre zr:m poinf lbc 6rst
po: -ibility is for drc 6gehins to havc a fixcd zcro. In this cssc, tbc origia is al*'ays loca::d d 6c saro.e
positon on tJrc machbc tablc. Llsudly, that position is the soudr*.cst corncr (lowcr lcfl-hand comcr) of
thc tabic and aJl rcol locations *ill b dcfucd by posirivc x aod y coordiosrcs.
Tlre sccond ald rnorc conjroon featurc on modcm NC rnachjncs allows u\e macljne opcrstol to
sct tj:e zcro point at any positioa on trc machiuc tablc. Thjs feanre is callcd floatilg zrro. T\" p"tr
Prograrnmcr is the onc who dccidcs *'hcre thc zcro poiot sboutd bc located. Tbc dcciiica is bascd oa
P8n Pto8tamtrfilg convcnicacc. For cxarnplg the worlrpart rnay bc slaomctrical aod tbc zcro poir:t
should bc cstablishcd st &c ccotcr of slomctry. Tbc locstio! of tbc zcro point is coinrquaic"ted to rhe
nrachinc oPcrator. At tbc bcgindng of tbe job, tbe opcrittor novcs thc tool undcr m.,:.nual ciutol to
some "target poinf' on tbc table. Tbc targa poinr is somc cooveaicat placc oa thc w,":*?iccc or tablc
for tbc opcrator to position thc tool For examptc, it might Uc'r prcdriilca hotc in'ttre *r,ortgiccc. 1.trc
targct Point hqq $64g rcfcrcnccd !o thc zcro poinr by &c part
FogrBEEcr. ln facl thc p:'agraacncr may
havc sclectcd tbc largct poinl as thc zcrc point for toot poSConiag. Wbcn tbe toot l* l"* positioncd
al &c targct Point tlc rnachinc opsrator prcsscs I "zcro' bu8oa oo tbc mashiae tool coosotg wirich
tclls tlic rnachine whcrc t}c origin is locaad for subscqucot tool oovcocots

ra This
spcciaJ

:ile tool
stablish
o takes
tcd, tbe

of the
ich the
a 6xcd
r p.ake

rile the
i.esPccr

axis is
of the
are eq

9-

:ading

APPLICATIoNS oF NIJMERIcAL

coNTRoL

xpccialty il the srcta! working

By far tle most conmon application of NC is for mcta! cutring machilc tools. Mthin dris
c"tegop, numericdly controlled cqu.ipment has bccn built to pcrform virtually t-hc cotirc range of
i.ndu.stry'.

e) use
'Jrese

rnateri aJ

removal processed, incl uding:

Milling
Drilling and related

processes

Boring

Turuing
Grinding
Satr;ing

\\'ithin the machining catagort', NC raachine tools are appropriste for ccrtai-o jobs and
i.na'ppropriale for others. Following are tbe general characfcristics of production jobs in mctal
n'iachining for whjch numerical conEot would bc most sppropriate:
7. Parts are pre665s6/frequently ond is smal! lot sizes.
2. The parr geortft! ls complex.
3 lv{any operations.tnust be performed on the part in its processing.

1. ],{uch rneta! necds tc be renoved.

5. Engineering design changes are

lit-c,ly.

6. Close tolerances must be helci on the worba:r.

7 It is an expensive parr v'iiere misiakes in irocessing vouid be

The

paris require 100o4 inspection.

C+I

9S19]-i{55ir

eosr!y.

{ O ADVA}TTAGES OF NC

,
.,

Following are ltc ldvlntagcs of nuocrical control when ir is utilized in the productioa

t.

Reduccd nonarcdudte ana Nuoericat contol hos littlc or no effect bo thc basic
cutting (or otha manufacnrring) proccss. Howwcr, NC can inaeasc &e proportion of tir:
Eaching is engaged in thc acfual p'roccss. Il accomplishcs this by 11tears of fewcr setups. i- :
timc in wtit4 up, rcdtrccd .wo*pcicc hmdting timg automatic tool changcs oo ,,--

macAbcs, andelon
Tbe advantagc for nd&crical conbol tcnds to increasc with tbc aore comptex procsscs.
Rcduced/inurhg. NC rcquira ftrh$es u/iich fue dnplcr and tcss costly to fabrjeare
bccausc tbc positioning is done by the NC t4pc nrbcr 6* thc jig or fxturc.
Rdacdman{oawlngkad dae Bcceusc jobs can bc sst ry more guic&ly witb NC s--c
fewer saugs arc gcocrally requircd wi& NC, the lcad time to deliver a job ro thc custorner is

2.
3.

rcduccd

4.

Grcakrmona/adsdryInibUlly. With nurncrical ccorol

it is

tcss difficult to

a&pt ic
;c:

euginccring dcsigp "l"ngcs, alteratioss of thc production scbedr:le, cbangcovcrs in jobs

nsb ordcrs

Imprcvcd qualty concol NC is ideEJ for cornplicatcd workpara *'hcrc lbe chances o:
buman Biststes alc hiSb Numcrical contol produccs paru with gtcriter accuiilcy, rcduccd

6.

Rclaad ldvcnury. Owing lo bc fewa scarps rnd sborter lcad timcs {,itb sumcrical contro!.
tlc rnrount of iuvcntory csrid by tbc companysis reduced.
Relaccd/loor spacc rcqulncmcttr. Sircc one NC rnachining ccntcr cal oftcn accomplisb thc
poduaion of scvcral convcatioael nrlchiasr, tbc amount of floor spacc requircd in an NC shop
is unlly less tbu in a conveotiooal shop.

scrap, aod lowcr inspcction rEquircorot.

7.
.

&

I
Z

mrr

a:rd so on-

5.

'

DISA.DVANTAGES OF NC
Aloog with tbc advurtagcs of NC, there are sevcral fcaturcs about l.fC whicb must

bc

consi dered disadvantages

I.

Eighcr kvcsancnt

cot|

i.{urncrical control machine tools represedt 6 rlorc sophisticatcC

and complcx tcchnology. This lechnology cosls irorc to buy Lhan its non-NC countcrpart. Th.
higbcr cost rc{uirs manufacturing mar}agernents to use tbese machines morc aggressively t}en
ordinary cquipments. High machinc utiliiitioo is essentid i:r order to get reasooable rcturns or:

2.

invcsbenl. Machinc sbops must operate their NC machines two or three shifts per day tc
achieve this higt machinc utilization.'
Elghcr mainleaance cosl. Be,:ause NC'is a more conplex techaoiogy and bccause NC
machia-es ara dSad liaider, thi miririte-n'ancc proble::: bcccm'er:mbiC acijtc. Alrbougb the

rcliability of NC syslcms has bcrn imprcvcd over tlre years, mainrenarcc costs for NC

3.
rcl.

o1

nrschines r+'ill gencrolly be higJrcr then for conventional machjne tools.

Flndias aad/or tralahg NC penonrel Ccrtain aspccts of numerical control shop
operations reguirc a highcr skill lcvcl than convcntiondl operatioss. parl prograrnmers and NC
maintcnancc personne! lne two skill are as wtrcrc availablc pcnonncl are in short supply. Thc
problems of fiadhg, hiring, and raining these people must be consiCered a disadvantage to tbe

NC shop.

)NT
rPer

iRor
:ed
c

*F

Proi : t.-,ic'.i

9E

i9

71.4550

I !.'tt .::i" 11855

Admission Details at

!i,

-->
)

D
fr 'ollli'"'fr

f,a

rnroufactruing sysiem in

*ttcb a rrroe'bcr of

f,#'t#*"'*t":,1'-:"y',*1,T',,H5g;

Jffi
"*H'eff
t"-;';; ifi B ros Tti *1: iTryY'.'' :.1,:1Y*. q
ffi-T?Ttfiruffi 1;'"a"]'
'fi J'i6o-_oi'*ri*i*tii'"Tltd,13'::1'r'-l#*iq?o;"t
ffi:f ,ilill;&ffi
, .,cbincs. The DNC
bc'uscd to cootrol.morc d'ran lc0 se;r
iHittl, ";; il;;;;"t-;
m.achi.cc
Wbeo
Steo tbc Etach*c
:'r'

id ;:-:i:'

tooi i':r
conputcr is dcsigncd to providc insfgctions to cach rnacbine
:
. con]n^ands,'6"y
t- L-' ^-- comnunicarcd
tn
ir
immcdiatclvl.lir'"
L,i-..
inmcdiatcly.
-^*-,'-;rotrr{
o it
;.*[;;;l

.:.
u,

i.ps. i"t:'":':

and proccssing

a;:<3

tomcr is

rdapt tc
jobs fcr
rnccs of
reduc*d
cootrol,

ryrtem:
tlr *riigt"tioa of th

Components of a DNC

hbrieate-

NC

"r,
Fom the machine tool back to thc compucr'

Figr:rc illustatcs

..J- .;

^ar^
DNC's1ste:::

systm consisB of fow basic componcnts;

Ccntral cortrPulcr
Bull: rr:,::nc1y, which 51e165 lhc NC pan Plograms

L
2.
3.
4.

'

''''r'';lvcs

.1 r'
"'' '{rc'

'

data cOlleAiOn

nUmcricsl

conrol

Tclecomrnunication lines

Machinc tools

ThecompulcrcallsthcpartprogrTinsrrrctiocafrombuli:'....'endsthcmtothc
' :' Tb'is fwo-$'a)'
Jicn t" i"r '

individual machiacs as the necd'ariscs. tt

a.lso roccivcs

bfornation flow ocr1rsln,*l ti-", *'hich mcans

data back

tbat cach Drschinc's

'
rf" li'i" ' jr''s:tr'ctiolrs Eust
reccil'e
L':' t.esdy

rcl]st aJ'*:iys
bc satisficd almost itrrt-tt^."*ry. similarly, tbc cornputcr rcmarl*iig i:"i-trre of-tcthe DNC
iaformation from tbc machiacs and ro ropooi'rr*raiosty. -Tbe
sla'chins tools, eJl ir ;er" ';'me'
systcm is that tl. *o,putriis scrvicing a large of scpantc

plish thc
NC sbop

Tclecommusicarion

lincs

nust

besic

{. ';

Ccntral lBulk srmorY

NC

be

isticatcd
lart- Tbe
rely tban
:hrrns on

(DNC) eyatem
General configuration of direct numerical control

r daY tc
ruse NC
rugb tbe

for NC

req':irenenls thgf arc imposcd oa

Depeoding on the number of machincs and the olmputational
is shorvo in figurc' Tbese
psc
computirs'
of saiellite
the computer, it is somedmes ncccssary to mekc
4g31i''al computer' &ch
offtlic
burdcn
thc
of
Sstelliies erc'minicomPulcrs, and they scrvc lo t L.
Aom $e ccotral
are
reip!'''*d
instructions
satellite controls scvcral machines. Groups of fart Program
as required'
i'iri:rcs
Uuf"o. They arc thlt alp"*"a 1" .*\: iadividu''i r-'
computcr and stored
et the
collected
b:'
rng
buffer bcl''rc
Fcc.dback data 6.om the rrachincs arc also storcd i-a tic sapllite's
cenhal computer.
Bulk mcmor;
Telccommuaication
NC pmgrarns

*tt

:rd NC
vic

lnc
to

r-be

DNC

l:of.

Salriar'

qsl 9:11550

with satellite mlnlcomPuters

Alrfilm! COI-ITROL MACEINTNG SySTEI!{S

2, AD

"+ .
*ry

For a macbining operarioa 6c tcror adaptive cnntrol deaotcs. a coatol systcar

tbat r
ottqnx Proccst variabtcr.tbat bcvc bccn-uscd in rdqy'tivc conbol
-*6ifi;;rt"rrspirdlc dcflcction or focc,.torquq
temperarure,
vibraioa
r,
-rbar
u|rds, naly aII &c metil qniag""fr+q
".prr*i"
variablcs
co, be mcasurcd
hzvc bea ticd in qDer;d
adapcirt conbol qrsterns. TLe notivation for dcvelopins
,
t'o opcfltc the proccss morc c6cicotly. Tlc ryptcrl mcasnrcs
"n of pcrformancc in*m-ach;r,i,rg
bave

-jf,lj#,[l

"dryti;";";t"j"gi;i.il iiii,

mc{al removal rate and cost pcr yoturne cfoctai'rcoovad-

_Etcrc

lo ure rdeptive control

@using

n'ocrical contot (inctuding DNc and

cNc) is 6"1 I
dyoT the non-productive tirnc in
opcration This timc savings is achievcd iy rcduci
-a.ra..^hining
nrb clcracats as wort picce b*di::E
d-:, sctup of rhe jcb, tocl chenlcs, and othcr ;i;-l

oPcrator an<i machinc

delay. Bcciuse these ron-productive elcnrcats arc reduced relative to toj

largcr proportioo of thc time is spcnt in acarally machinine. rl. *-o*-nurt aroor{*
NC bas a sipificant cffcct oo donntimg ir can do rctr*ivcly tittle rc rclucc the G proccs:, nq
comped to a convcationrl machirc rool. Thc moglpromising answer for reducing dre
i"a;;ss tir*.produaion timc,

ouou#ci cegrio-riuiao tu'"qu"o;i;i;fiir-d."r::

ll= :$g y- "f*rg"? -'t "t: .13*t
6tpa6-@
q{gptive qoaror d"&foh.i ;h" ilil-]olai-'"ioro, fe_*
agrirg
a f.tlctioa of rariations i"_gAh f"on !r iroreEfd Ltd"'.i3, *,idt!; iF
g{"tq TtchinilSf;
h". oe cgpab-inry ro 1,ffiira to ar
"it@ro
"* od6.';G*t
compcoslfc
for thcsc vatidioff dudng G procrss.
N-umcrii:al coatot docs not havc this *p65if ,y.-----

* Ir_!e".

of

cont!'of

=gaplive

dcvelo-p*.nioilfffiLr

In rhc
r:rachining sy$rems, rwo di.srincr approaches
to rhe probtem can be distinguistrcd. Thcsc are:

I
nn

l.
2.
7-

Adaprive conrrol ogimization (ACO)

Adaptivc conrrol constrainr (ACC)

Ao.rgttvE

coxrnol

oprrulzerlox- This is represcnrcd by, rhe earry

Bcndix rescarch on adaptive conlrot machining. ln this
forrn cf adaptive con(rol. an
index of perforrnance is specificd for thc system.
This pcrformancc index is a meas9l g]1Tll-Pr9q9Ls-Pg{9!11!c9-.,.1u-ch-a9 pro-ducrion rare or cosr per voiume of
mliallimovEd. rtJo-u;ictr".-or n.
conrroiler is ro oprimize rire index of
performance by nranipulating spced "Jrpt;r.
ant)/or fced in rhe operrtion

'lt

Most adaptive control optimization syst.ems atten'ipt to maximize

the ratio of
wcrk materiai removal rate to toof wear rate. In other words.
thc index of nerfor-

.o

mance is

Ip = a funcrion

\,lT
u'here N{RR

lr
?o
I

'nl.rD
I tY f\

of

N{RR

T\!R

material removal rate

iool x.ear

rate

The trouble *'ith this

r:l-o-I'nglgs tndgrir thar TlyR-cannor be rneasured
o'iihlaiatt measulJmcni r..h*rog-v. i"n.. rhc rp above cannor reail1,beon.rinc
m.nitor-cdduring the process. Eventuafly. sensors u,ilr bc de'elopedtoa
rcr.cr ai u.hich
the true

process per-fcr,-nancecan te nreasu;-ed

on-line. i\?rcn ihis r)ccurs. adapiire
control optimization sl'stems will becorne more
prominent. Ho$.ever, because of

the scnsor problcm.s encountered in the

design of ACo svstems, nearrl,all adapri,.,s
cont'ol rnachrning is of tire sroi-d typ:, adanii,..
.on,roi .onstraint svstems.

Ficf

Sa,7ry

g.sf._a 744SSg

Admission Details at

rr::".,i341855

,l;,,
n that neasi

ll":::::::

inc
power. lo e
sys0ems

:::::|':::

in ocpcrimc
o lics in e1
ning bavc 1

IPre

,;,.-,;

; 'jll

C-f':.1'OJ
.:,J

of

cominon comrrrrcially available

ACE sysrem.

oF AN AOAiTIV

coNr(oL sYSTrr
.C sysrem dr:ring

3:.T-.:q

AlthouE-_
iirrr

qt"

il;il*#ni;;;',

wbco 6c forc. #;;;;;;fi;il-T;;

I'T*.
rate is reduccd ;;;;;..
;;ffi:?:;J;;
*:i3: ffl * ga, i" o.l';f,'fJ*;;
*-t"?f:'.TTlT:.
;"]*i .,:;;:
a,r,air-gap o""rrid"

Soutcgs (,tive to toE

pngglls

ic,yri.""

9Sl'r1"'' n" aiestri's-uik*'l=i;;, ; i;

OPE(AIION

is tbat N
by reduci-u

)rgggx1

Jl

rhc producrion

qv.cms developcri for

i,-)W

l)

.The

i*;;-;,Ld

"a,g::-*yr

,"ess or dep'.h

,elc ofurc&l recnoval.

rrrori,,i.,i-s rre cu:

'f,:_J_*lfi
3,J.X.,i,'
;iX":Jtrn:y*:,*.ly;:*",."1'ff
-ru"r .,u1, il,,.
i,
u"ffi;il;*H;l
;,
#****f..{
t,
-$ilutta'-i,
'j,1,t3;: ryg -Y r9.* d',g.+. wb.' * ;';il, ;#till' ; ;
::':Y":*:i::,**{;;fi;";;;;t;Tlol'ii'i"u'io&er
side of thc!ap, rhc fecd reyerrs ui"r
," rr,.T#i?i; *ll"[I,'*"i

position-s o_

ud/or fi:ei-_
Itl srld,cpl
pond to -nt_
pability.

"

; and detcrmincs

Cutter force

S<t Vorqe

cutter forcc at
the sd vajue

Triple
Ferd ratc

Benefits of adaptive control

nracbinjne

4. !, I irras"d p rc dr
LFon lD.Ea

1'
i^

a"c:,r^:l<

d toor

Lt-

g pfcKc!,O 11
a^ ' Lcss oRrsI*l
! nJrr vt r.+

Prof.

L:

-Qania_12

z.\.c_li)

gllg

pO.r

744550

if tbe

cs of a low thresbold
';ntoUcr assuacs rhat
'. is doublcd Or triplcd
'ilgagcs metal oa the

Ctftcr

configuradon of typrcar adaptive

controf vp*r:hi
cutterforcas as the,..ru*i,
i

tle

or *idtb
ag to decrcascs in tbe

I tjses

13.

l.

CNC Programming :

Part Program

A CNC part prograrn begins *.ith code of

parl program rs a *,r", .-,i.;;;:';#::1#'A:':

rL9L
:l:r:::':T:j :.f^ig:i':l
^
Ir conrrols the -or,"r.nr
oirhe machine looJ anci $e

::::.::::larr.

onioff contror of

au

numbers and s1'mbols and are ananged in

a format of funclirt;i:rJ .,iocks
iepresenti:
operation to be carried oul in the machinins
of a part as shc*,n in ihe fo;lon.ing e.r:ample

Block Formaf
NNSG

Y-

z_l---r-.K_-__F__

.\___ T _.\1--

Each Block consists of a retter foijor'ed by a

number. Each l:ne:
specific rype of action orpiece of inJbrmation neeried
bi.rhe rnachrr:.
N Codes :

asscciaie

'..

Each block always start rvith a block number used

as identjficarion and lS nrat12r
u'ith a 'N' word address. It is generally good practice
ro increment each block number b.,
l(t t6 6l,lotradditionar blocks ro b'e insenld if iurure changes
are requirctl
X, Y arrd Z Codes :

);' Y, and z codes are used to speci$, tie coordinate axis. Number follouing
rhe :
defines the coordinate at the end of thl mo'e relati'e
to an incremcnlai or absoJule refe:
point.
I, J, and K codes

I' J, and K codes are used to speci0" thc coordinate axis r,..hen d..finrng rhe
center :
circJe' Nurnber foliouing the code defines the
respecti'e coordinate f?ri- rhe cenrer ol rhe ci::

F, S and T Codes :

7mm

.
.
"

F-code: used to speci$, the feed rate

S-coJe: used to speci[, the spindle speed
T-co*ie: used tcr speci0, the tool identification nurnl,-rer
as-sociatcd \\.irh
ili subsequenr opcrations.

* asterisk sign

ncl.

of

ONT
rPer

Asierjsk sign at rhe encj jndicates ..End of Block.. :

G Codes : Prepar.atorl.Functlons

it involres

red

actrral Tool

\{o'elnent

l\I Codes : l\liscellaneous Functions

It invoiles acricn necessai.;
So;r-'e

3ROL

Ib;- ;.;iachinii-rg

cf tiie ccnnrcrriv G arid i,1 codes are

ce

:a:j:,j

.r: j.-,i,.

tooi

Lre u:

Admission Details at

| 98203418ss

Preparatory Functions (G Codes)

In CNC programming, the Ford address letter G' refers to a preparatory funcrion
and is
follos'ed b1' a tx'o digit number. e.g.: G00, C90 etc. The pr.p..utory funciions are
used ro
instruct a machine uhat to do via the customer's CNC progrrrn. Some of the
common .G,

iich signi

requirec

of auxiio

;e

cf

codes are detailed below:

lera

toconti^rvivr:!rrt<

Code

amnlo

G00

Point to point positioning ar a One can use a rapid traverse movernent

toposition
rapid traverse movement
the rt :l rapidly, to travel arcund the u,orkpiece or
to approach tool change locaticns.
Linear inrerpolation
\\/itlr GOl the rool travels along a straight line in
u'hich rhe velociry is held constanl.
C jrcuiar interpolarion
This is function allou,s us to program an arc jn a
(Clockwise)
clockrvise direction

I
,,{

ie:erl

lJ

G()2

(JUJ

.',i.:
t- l,-

.Jt!u

tr

I
j

fA

r\^,

:ber bv 5 *

GOl

Opiiation

C j rcu

Functjon

lar interpolation

This is function allou's us ro program an arc

a.rti - clockwise direction

(Anti - clockwise)

ct7-ct9

Plane selection

Gl9

y._zplane

c40

Cufter radius compensation

CANCEL

\-J{

Cuner radius compensation

LEFT

- Used u'hen rhe .u** ir-*

Cuncr radius cornpensation

RIGHT

G12

I,t Lrc uSr-

I tnci, Pr.rgr.,nrine

To deactivate (cancel) tool complnsation

th. l"n

,i*

"f- o1programmed patir $,hen looking in the direction

the tool mol,ernent, i.e. the radius compensation is
considered to the left of the progremmed profile.

---lf;nr Sh
I c-'1 ct <

Ir{ode for prolramming in ''inch" units.

li{cde fc,r piogramming

Programming

I
I

in

"metrjc'.

ttlttt

i i"Iu1ii quadrani Programming

fi::ed c',

Used u'|isx

1li3

cuner is programi:red to

along a arc.[used for slot milling along a Arc]

Ccmrnand that r'.,ili discontinue ani, cf the 9Cl
c-r.cl es (fi xed ci'cles)

Canned ci cle cancelleC

i

le s

Ii

(LU

of nneratior< rl'hich direct r:rachiite

axis moi enrent and cause spindle op,-ration io
ccmpieie. Operaiion such as boring. d;illing.
tapping eic.'
l

C'tC ccntfli?fld.
ith
_-,--_'.-.,I 98

i 9 7.4J5 S0

Thls function js use to identi$ rhe piane on n.hich

machining is to be carried out.
Gl7 * x-yplane
Cl8 * x-zplane

:g the co:
e referer.:

:enter o;
the circ,:

in

resne

aii

dirne nsici-is

ci to ri'orkpiece oi.igiir

1 1C

i
I

Operatiou
incremental Dir.r ension,s

Function

:-J

$"ith il:e G9i command. llie

defined

.Jir:ic:i::i,

in incrernentai ic,nn erlJ'r:.'t

i,,

j;j;

..1.. r

I The feed rate is expressed in

The feed rate is expressed in mnt,'re r. .,r

3. I\{iscellaneous Functions

(l\I Codes) :

]'fiscellaneous function perfo;ar a iai-iet) of au.':irian, comn:;:c t ,.l_' rc :lr_ ,.rj, - - i r-..=
F,iogrem. starting anC stopping lhe _.pind)e, r,_;ol ci:anS;es. cooianr c,n,,:,il- etc ]'1is;e Ji::..1
firnction are used at the being cr enc of the cr.c je and Jre identified b' the
letrer addrcss -1.
lollorved by a t$.o dipit number.
--Code
Operation
Fun ctloil

]_
--_.-__---.---ffi

Prograrnsrop

N400

N403

,/

N{04

sp;nat.cw

on coinmand

i spindle and coolanr funcrition.

-_-ffi

t,:

calcel f

dvance a richt h:lrd

s:-i

I in to the rvorkoiece.

Spl"dl.

etract a right hand scre','.

I to the *.orkpiece.

/
\

1,,106

Tool Chan

Stop spindle and ccrolanr. and retracl-s tool to i

to clrange the ::

retract posilion ancj the lnachine

fronr the soindle.
Su'itch "oN" of coolant svstem.

Coolant "Oltt"
Coolant "OFF"

S$ilch "OFF" of coolant st.stern

.i
\r'all a. na^l^^r
"ON'' /-\L;
C\\' as
J
"" u'cli as coolant.Oli'
j Spindlc "ON" C(l\\' as u'e lJ as ccola;:r "(lN"
I

I (nindlp
Spindle

I\{30

I Srop and Finish of progranr

qr)lr - .

ln

ali

rescl

4.

{l
r

Circular Interpoiation

-.r

\\ihen a tool is to traverse aianq 3n a:c ii a plane- r,,c ll:nciion GCI or Cr-il
crr-ection of tlie nrotion is clocki',ise o:- a'iiici ,ik*i.re respecli.,.elr..

i-c

i:sed if : :

In oider to -speci$' the paih to tl'ie lrfCU iNlachine Conrrol Un jr) . rlie e nd poinr of rhe ::eiid the locarion of the cer,ter of rhe a;c sliollJ r,:,slrcif;ed. y.'jlhi;i lhc b.lcili i;.,,1,:;l
iirc C,' C0i code is proei-an-:ned. iire ceil:r-i ,if iir: :.:: is qi'. e :, r-.', sr:cifr ii;q ii: ,,t::,ii:,, r-:lari', c '

ti.: st:rt oithe

:-,

arc.

Pre-requisites:
i.
?.

1
1

Tcoi should be brougi:i i,r

Co-orcjinate-r ciend i:,c:ri
Djrection iCi\' ,r; CCr'.'i
TL--.-1^*.:-r ir! )td1 i,ltiy

i',.-r I lr

l -.t;1

i'. --:--,,'t
l't)iti,. \ j. -i : :

:.f,1855

Admission Details at

iiir

--

ql

:-(.i c

I r;:t!-t1

(Sla-'

(Ending Pt.)

(6s, 120)
-J-

;'(145. r

r.i;
'

: ellr..,.
1.'1rr1!c

Fig.

' :

Refening to the above Fig. 6.i7 rhe program block for QQ2 lG03
NOt G00 xl45 YilO *
:
*
N02 G03 Xi00 Yl30l45 J30 F50
(A ro Ar)
+
N03 G03 X65 YI20I0 J50 F50
(A1 ro B)
*
N04 I{30

-a--ol

lr:d scrt
I

OR

SCre\\

N0t G00 xt45 Yl l0 *

N02 G03 Xl00 Yl30 R50 F50 *

rl to fi3 the to'

N03 G03 X65 Yi20 R50 F50 *

N04 M30 *

5. Canned C1'cles

r
(A to A1)
(A1

toB)

f the a;:
-1 - -"
rl.lC \,T'- -:{t

! !

Position the tool above the poinr n'here the hole rr.ill b,i: *.Jr!,
Feed the tool into the *orkpieee at a controlled feed rale t.
Retract the tool at a rapid raie io iust above the point rvi,.:-t
The same actions are to be repeated for each of the holes.
It is therefore possible to define a canned cycle or fixed cy'c,' ,,ich e
moticns rr,ithoul having to repeat the same information for e,,r ,: ; the I
The adi'antage io be derived in using the canned cycles can i.c ;lauged
part programs belou'for the coinponent shorvn in Fig.

the

: -ci.

:.4'

(a)
(b)
(c)

is

f*ft-t

are to be repeated a number {;.:

are fairly common to all the positions.
For exanrple in drilling a hole lnr,sl:,:es the follorving steps :

a li l;.
csci :it

lSo

t i-9r

it is found that a series of motions

s.rindi,'
_""

rl

t.i if

as per

Scnja-r' 98i9 :+4SSA

many of u'hich

mined depth
,aried
::peat

all

these

looking al

the

412.2

hotes

Fig.

For the cornponent shown in Fig. 6.18, the parr program for
u,ithout using canned cycles is shown betow :
N05 c00 x20 YzQ Z2 *

Nt0 col z-21Ft00

NI5 GOO 22 *

I
297 mn
)s.

/ tlncl. c
FRON'

. Paper
\

irr<\-

imited
3arrirrf

driling rhe tu,o

ho.r

N20 X60 Y50 *.

N25 G0 | Z-2.1 Ft 00 *
N30 G00 22 +
N35 XI00 Yi 00 250 *
For the silme component the part program using canned c-ycles is shos,n beloq,
:
N05 G00 x20 Y20 22 +
Nl0 c8t x2a Y20 z_21R2 Fl00 *
Nl5 X60 Y50 +
N20 C00 xl00 Yt a0 250 *
In the canned c1'cles the additional data such as tfre clearance plane posirion
rviJl have rc
be specified- For example, GSl canned c1'cle is used for carrl,ing our
the drilli;:=
operations for through holes.
The format to be used as fellorvs :

N G8IX

7PF*

l\

X. \'refers to the centre cooi'dinates of rhe poini',r'here the driiiirl-e is to b'e aa.ied-oua
Z refurs ro rhe final depth of the nole ro be drilled
R refers to the positicn of rh: cleai-ance plane
C.ei is a calned c.,'cie
Tlie:'e are a number of cained crcles identified ht ISO in liiiqr.2rpLr.,r\ Trp
,iioiians e nbe id.,i ir: ', :; irr:S cenned cvcle s as cli iS.( trre chn r'. i- T"hl-'
LLLIb!.r_r
q!

r,t!

i!

_.

t,

| 98203418ss

Admission Details at

Table : Canned Cycle for Turning Operation (G8

G80 / G00

Cancel Canned CYcle

G8r

Drilling, Centre drilling

G82

Counter boring, Counter sinking

G83

Deep Hole

G84

Tapping

c85

Reaming

Drilling

\\'hen stock removal on a rurr'ing job is more, in such a case nurnbers of rough
operations aie required to rer-love the stock.

It rnal' be noticed that a majoritl, of the motions

are actually repetitive in nature and

therefore can be embedded in to a canned c1'cle similar lo the drilling canned.

u,o holes

sD(100)

Tii%ii:4ilfA

uizil%iit
z1 (124)

G61 ; X1 ',21 ; X2 ,22 .23 ; F '

E.g.: GB1 ;60; 126,4 .126;A,01

I have to
drilling

Xi

'

= Totalreducticn in diameter value = D - d

Z1 = Length io be turned + 2mm

X2 = Depth of cui per pass (Dlameter value)
Z2 = Length of tcol retract + 2mm
23 = Distance of tool advance rapiCly before actua! cutlino
F = lr,iode of feed i'0'for-rapiC feed

J'oul.

' l\r,:a?i
'- i -..-

cutling

and'01'for feed v"iih G01)

Fig.: Canned Clcle for turning

Q12.2 hotes

t/L

trt
,rt t

Fig.

'

For the component

-Lt

NI0 cor z_2t Ft}o

IL

Nts

PT

;RO
ed
U.-iJ
&.

&-J
E

-E

G00 22 *

N20 x60 y50 *.

N25 G0t z-21 FlO0 *
N30 G00 z2 +
N35 XI00 Yl0o Z.50 *
For fte silme componenl the parl program
uslng canned c,ycles is sho*,n belori,
N05 G00 x20 Y20 Z2 *
Nt0 c8t x2a YzA Z_21R2FI00 *

t rnn

)Nt

in Fig. 6.. r g, the parr program for driring

rhe tu,o

r+,ithout using canned.shown

cycles is shoi"n below
N05 c00 x20 Y20 22 *

Nl5 x60

Y-<0 *

N20 G00

xl00 Yr 00 250 *

In the canned c1'cle-< the additional data

such as tie clearance plane posirion
rv.ijl ha., :
be specified. For exampre, Ggr cunnea
c;,cie is used for car',ing out tjie
dri.
operations for through holes.
The fcrmat to be used as fbllorv-s
:

N-

G8I

X_- Y-

Z--R----- F--

X' )'refers to the enlre cooi'djnates-of the poini .,r'her:

the driliing is t.l be canibd-c:-.
Z refurs to the final depth of the nole
ro be drjliecj
R refers to the positicn of the clearance plane
I is a ca-nned c-rcle
Tlie:e are a number of canned cr.cres
ideriifi:c b;, iSC irr :ir;s caiesor\ r-re
i;lotions embe,Jde.j in i;;jgx5 canrted
cvcle,s z,r r_3; jS, _= si.:,.,:
tr _l_alj: l.;.
G.l

?rc!. Sctj;l' 9Gi9 7ai;_93

ri:

-.

Admission Details at

| 98203418ss

TvaUIIEU \-Ygle
Table : Canned
Clcle lgf
for Turning
I Uflltllg lJIrEfIUOtr
O
tion (G81)

G80 / c00

Cancel Canned Cycle

G8r

Drilling, Cenlre drilling

G82

Counter boring Counter sinking

G83

Deep Hole

G84

Tapping

c85

Rearning

Drilling

\\'hen slock removal on a turrring job is more, in such a case nurnbers of rough cuning
operations aie required to rertove the stock.
It may be noticed that a majoritl' of the motions are actuall,v repetitive in narure and
therefore can be embedded in ro a canned cycle similar to the driliing canned.

rq,o holes

Tii%iiTii/ffi
U1&,i/%//z
G61 ;X1 ',21

;X2 22:23;F'

E.g. : GB1 ; 60 ; 126, 4'.126 ; 0,

ll have to
: drilling

xi

01'

= Total reduction in diameter

value=D-d

= Lenglh to be turned + 2mm

AZ = Depth of cui per pass (Diameter value)

,J

'

z2 = Lenoth of tcol retract + 2Om

z3 = Distance of tool adi,ance rapiCly before actual cuttino
F_ llode of feeur i'0' fcr rapiC feed and '01' for feed v,,iih G0'i

-out.

'

rr.

niie

--:

i?r'

9819 7.14550

Fig.: Canned C1'cle for turning

6.

Cutter Radius Ccnpensation

In milling operations such as contouring i.e. when milling around the outside of
workpieci and inside a pocket of workpiece, it becomes necessary to calculate the :
path for preparng the program by offsetiing the contour of rvorkpiece by an am
equal to the radius of the cutter.
Apart from the problem of calculating, one should realtze that rvhenever the cutler
changes, the program u'ould need editing

Also it is possible that owing to regrinding, the diameter of the tool rvill be different
the actual size, and consequently the workpiece produced *'ill be larger than that requi:
and henqp the reprogramming is required ro compensale rhe difference in
,
Ho*'ever, if a compensation equal to the radius of the cutter is entered and stored in
control systern, then the prograrn could be w'rinen for the component profile and thu*s rI

size.

changeinprogramwou!dberequired. Itisas

if programis*'rinen.rvr'thacufter

of ze:=..

radius.

Tool radius

is

compensation

activated

bi'the

relevant Freparalory functicf

(G codes)

o
o
o

G4l Cutter Compensation Left

G42 Cutter Compensation fught
C40 Cancer Cutter Compensation
Code G41 is used when tlre centre of the cutter is to the

left of the edge of the workpiec:

being cut when looking in the direciion that the tool is travelling as shorvn in the Fra
Code C42 is used rvhen the centre of the cutter is to the right of the edge of ir:
workpiece being cut when looking in the direction that the tool is travelling as shorvn i=
the Fig.
Code G40 is used to cancel the cutter compensation.

G41

Cutter to the left of cut edge

in direction of cutting

J*

lr
I

cqz

I
I

poc ket

L__
I

I
I
I

_l

-1
'";Pocket

I j:

-'J

)
G42 Cuttu, to the

righl of cut edge

in direction of cutting

Fig. : Cutter Rddius Cornpensatioii

--r

iZ

Before acti\ atinE compen-.aiion the cuiirr- shculd be ai the pr-ogranirned C:pil:
ccordinate). \\'hen ihe c:..l:ier has co;:ipleie,j i:,: r:-rr.'hining. ihe ccrrpe n-i:iirrr lnu:: :c

canceiied usine coCe C,10.

5
::';
rrl

t
T

Froi, Scnjo3' 9819 74455C

;ide

Zero Location for a Move

Zaro Locati* tor a il,,va

Frorn Hde 1 to Hol 2

Forn Hole I u,

,.:,:

of

rte the

an am

erent

,red

in 'hf

7'

:d thus m
r of ze:c *

functicd

Fig.

$ r-c

ir?l
$ -t'L
/orKP rec:
r the Frg

of

rh!
shown i'r

le

Incremental Positioning Systeni.:

6 o t'*qkr i .-3

Ci3 c

l<

n-s
StOct< ).{e c<lor'a\ i n trrcnl
Sloct-.. Rs-''o..rol in Fa c i n-s

tern RCP:Gll n 5
--1+ (Pccx Dn\1\ng onc)z-cxiS
n ). c\ >
'-r T-5
C4>-ctov<- c\{ t h'^S
_T
"-r
cgct
C
dh16adln6
t&iP!--+f r,ttl
lrr o abc Str\ J<- P os i li o o in]
.r

T-5

-^ c. 1
r\

ct,nst
I

-'.)

^^ .) -.
_\

?l'

-e?l

: 5
^-/1

Po L

D n cte .r. c^f,to,

31i

L--)

')l

fr

Sr.r r

fci'<

SPc e d eontu-o i

Cancel

Ln ck-, Pro f r ct rr') ! ?)

ra C'rfn'(
'
r't
C-ooc e I 6D.i 1 r\ crs< P-a cr,
'j
Tc,;) nJo\-< 'F(a o"rVS

,- 41

i ,'{.-r

Zero Location lor a l,love

trom here to Hole

}r

iUS: IC

9319 71155C

i- 'ji

'r5'ol ,l(f
r66n

\J

h'|

Examples:
part prowm Word Address Format to drill 4 lioles ni'oiq ac rlthe part drar+'ing using
,,?l
aP{6o.w
lb' c;'clg>{trh
:n
(b) Crytnd
AbsolgrCforrn /
i. c1{anne d c yCfe u i r h I rpr{^r
r, 16, m

;(Vrepue a CNC

dPh

c2ndcyyt

FLAII

't,/

Prepare a CNC Program lo engrove the given shape on a plate using the mach:
of 100 mm x I00 mm with l0 mrn thickness. Engrai'e tire shi:;.:

centre. Plale has size

a depth of 0.5 mm.

{r

.{ll d;lr:crr-.iolr< i! ( ll l))i:i

l-:oJ

)7 mrr

Incl. o'

r.d Prep:re a CNC part program to drilJ, counter bore. counter sink and Jleam 2 holes
shorvn in the part cirarling. ciearly shorv the set point (safe parking poinr) and axes on
skctclr of the part. Prepare also rhe planning sheet (operation Sequence)

RONT

Front View

Paper

C:-if'1P PUa.:E

. Liefiai : SAt 1i:i

-. Pw Ua:erial Si:e:.
i20 x 1C{ x i5 rn

- GROI

rited

Tr p

-+++J

'

l'ic*

Pra't

lct,r':,' ?Si I 7+:t5.ii

Admission Details at

l.

982034785s

CulterLength Compensatlon.

Tool (cutter) lengt} offset is pr.ov_rded when nuny number of tocls

are used. CNC
programming requircs somc meJhod of informing thc
machinc how far toot p*;"cts from t*e
spindle or tool hotder. To supply this informationJhe rool
tengrh is measured. rooi iengrh is rhe
distance of tool cutting edge from some fixed point
the *"rhln, such as end {aceof spindle
or
tunet.

5 as shog'l

Different tools, have different lengrhs, thaefore some method

must be used ro tell MCU
hou' to compensate these diffaences. Programmable toot
regisrers allow the opeararor to enter
tool number to identify particular tool, tool radius lor
rool rJdius compensation and toolength
for.tool length compensation. This information is stored
in MCU's memory. when a particu)ar
lo-ol is called up within prograrn' the lv{CU
refers to rhis information ro determine

SA. 1045
r, r 19.;?, S::: ;
: ?4,
1 rnrn

hou much

offset to allow.

''ar.

A Tool lengrh ofiset GLO) is cistance from cutring edge

surface when the tool is fully retracted- The purpose
of rl-o

fixtures etc' when tool is called

,

shones(

TLO

is considcred.

Mcu catti tto ro,

"

t*t

of a rool ro the cesireci part

is io altow clearance over clarnps,
uriomrt;c"lly. For longesr rool , a

For examplq rffce tools are uscd for machining

a componenr (Fig; 1 J. The long*t rool
tool is retracted rullv, the .i..rrn". berueen toor
curting edgc

machinir:
re shape f:

|ii:},l:?lfinffiHlhen

TLO for rhese three rools is given betow

Tool

Tool Length Offset

To6l L,ength

01.

20a

50

uz.

170

03

I50

200+50-170 = 80
200 + 50 -150 = 100

holes a-.
xes on th:

\\'orkpiece

FiS 1 :- Tool Length Compensation

:--r

San/

Gt O)

No.

uv SSig 744550

B.

Tocl Positioaing Systerns

There are nvo u'ays that a machine spindle can position itself u'ith respeci r
coordinate s)'sterns. These ru'o systems are called Absolute Positioning and Inc::l
Positioning
Absoft., te Positioning Systems

'

In absolute positioning systems (Fig. 6.21), all machine lobations are taken frc:r
fixed zero point.

'
'

"

Note that all positions on tfie part are taken from the X0iY0 poinr at the lou'er ien :r
of the par.
The firsr iroie u'ouici i:ave coordinates oiX20, Y25; the second hole coo:dlnales ;.:.1
\'25; the third hole coordinates are X80, Y25. Et,ery time the rnachine rro'e:*
controller references the original zero point at the lo*,er Iefi corner of the part.
A drarvback of this system is that if an error creeps in a dimension, it conlinues r,:
=
in that particular dimension only.
The preparatory code used r+'hiJe programmng for absolute dimensioning is C90.

Zero Reference Pcint

For a Move tc any Locaibn

Fiq.
I n cremcn

?7 mn

'

Absolute Positr_oning S1'stems

tal Positioning S1'stems

In this s-t'stem, the tool positions or locations are indicaied n.itlr reference to a Lrrer,i.. -1
krog,n location.
In incrementai positioning (1ig.6.22) the X0r)'0 noint moves uiih the machine spi:
Note thai each position is specified in relation tc rhe previous one. The first i
coordinates ueX20.Y 25; tl,e second hole coordinates are X30. \'0: and the third i
coordinates are again X30, Y0.
After each machine move, the current location is reset ro X0iY0 for the ne.\t mc
Notice that s'ith incremental positioning. the coordinate s,\ -stern "n']oves'' u.irh
location. The machine controller does not refeience an-\'cor;tit.ton zero point.
A.n inherent drarvbackof_this sr:stem is that if an error creeps into rhe c'imensions of a
location. all the locations narked after that u'ill can,r, this error.
The pi-eparaton'code used rvhile programming for-incremenral din-:ensioninr is G9 j
I

'
{lncl. c

RONI
Paper

-|

7-^
\.J l<lv

'
.
,

Admission Details at
u)i For the following ccmponent shorvn in the Fig. make a CNC part prCIgram to machine tl-re
cuter profile of the workpiece. Clearly show the set point (Safe par,l"rri
poinr)
.*r, Ji
ne sketch of the part. show all the caiculations that are necessary.
"ro

h respect
and I

taken

ru'er Jeft c{
:,llale5

ar-e

-$

ne nloYes. t
*
?r1.

:inues to
s

bf

G90.

Specifications

1.

Tool used : End Mill Cuner s )0 mm

2. lr,laterial: SAE I040 steel

3. Rarv m3lgrialsize : lf,x KrtxtZ
4

^^

Assume ftat the 2 holes of s Z0 mm is already drilled

For tlre Fig. shown .below prepare a CNC part program to p,':
operations.

1. Dri!ling of 2 holes
2. lr{achined the outer profile
3. Slot Milling I0 x 3 deep
R.arv

materialsize : i20 x 120 xi5 mm.

;- F-Atr!,1:r-.L J L I rUU-.

Sec

F-V.

:e spinc',:
first hc.:
: lhird hc.:
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l,r3
l'

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7'

Prepare a CNC p,ert

Folrarn to drill4 holes of {12 mm on g0 mnr p.C.D. and

$20 mm as shor'n in the pa,1 dra*,ing. (Ail dimensions are in mm)

i.i.tt)

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4 l-'e'"<.a

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ed

?raf. Sditjc*' 9ei9 7+4:,50

mr

drill &

't41855

Admission Details at
For the following componenf shown in tbe figure prepaic ;
machine the outer profile of the workpiece. Clearly 5fu6p,, ir
point) and axes.on the sketch of the part. (All dirnensions arr :;

part progam to
'nt (Safe parking

r,lY

qFor the figure shown beio*. prepare a CNC parr progr?]n to

operations

(a)

lr{achined rhe ourer profile b) Slor }r{illing 6 x 5 deep

Raw rnslsrial size: 100 x 80 x 20 mm

I'

- 2 }.1t,

fc,:';n

the follou'ing

-i/
ciill & red
I

-L

'i

i:epare a CNC part orograrn ro macl:ined from u,orkpiece 6f inirjrl d;a1nefcr.:.-epare the operation sheet.

Pan I'iame :

Piii

llatl

: Brass

qar!,

l,laieial Si:e : 3:. S:-ct: ;i C25

9819 744s50

mn-,

i;m. AlsO

II. For the following component make apart prograrx on a verlical axis machining
Clearly show the set point and axes on the sketch of the part. Also prepare the o;
t,3lr-ne*tftt lct'
{s 1f.ver

OtL

g:t-i':*-:

nl

iL\

(t

i.v
4 Holes Drill Ttrough
o

c'l

Dia. 4, CBore Dia 9 x 5

deip

\
Pr<Forc A CNc eor.b pm$mm l3 Cvf q.Chir\t tO mcn t-:i&
Plot-r th;c}<^u lSnr.'r
in th4 floli Shourn in f,3*

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FtG.3

Chapter No, oz

Automatically Progrannrned Too

a,n APT, tO'rX'tr-nr tl.Atd .'' " n{elh' t' t1-{ Ct

trf{ d b2 'A?T lonquaar s\o,rld, nob b( cnou-( klnaa
'l cIIt!
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firrcgorn Constsb o{t 4 b:P"o
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ur:u J3 Jd"'rL gt ...rl*c gkr.v.n!6 J-i Ka ht nf , \ " nrCrr4ll' p{o..9 , e}<-.
k"T Geornrfrrc
,forrPt t(.
-t l'\r g.*d

S.ho-lCmtaG ib
S5nT \ro\ =

r'--

Gtot"ih^?

br?e I o"a crrr l-tv < da-6I

(+)

), r F, (3o ,4o,5o)

(q)
Z

AP

(u)

C+)

x (+)

%=

(o

lgo,4a,go

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I

lFlacF

PgINT

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PoINT fxt^RG/1N1oF,

lru

l-z

I
I

74

PctNl l xstALL r f.N-I

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ll ;.:t18

Admission Details at

-_--

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crRcLe

/ce.rr,

'r

sb'"
Aorus,

f *.i

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m*i ii.-'ii i il.k.ruruf-

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$ur&d I'? nar-q.., u{. tl-.Arr. St ^$c.CLA v W.*^b hq.V< Sgcu{':
no.n\ra l^ AP 1 ) the, GT(

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''oTiu__@

Adrnission Details at

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c)

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9519:ll,i50
!

t4
E

TEE IWACRO STATEMNTS Ih'APT

The MACRO fcaturc is similar to a subroutine computcr programrning langrragc. It wol
used u"hcre ccrtain rnotion scqucnccs wouJd bc rcpcatcd scvcrai timcs withi-o E progra^n. The

in usiog a lvlACRO subroutine is to reducc the total nu.rnber of statements required in t!

progrsm, thus making tbe job of frc part progranurer casier and'lcss time consuming. Tbe
subroutine is dcfincd by a statement of tbc follo*'iog format:

dcliaifion(r)

rynbol = I{ACRO/prnmcter
Thc rulcs for aaming thc MACRO qmbol are thc sarne 8s for any otber A?T s.rmbol. h
bc six cbaractcs or fcwcr and at teast one of lhc cbaractcrs mu-st bc a letter of the alpbabe'paramcter dcfinition(s) following trc slash would idcntify ccrtain variables in the subroutiacs
migbt changc cach time thc subroutine was callcd into use. Equarion (1) would scrve as thc dC:
firn IiDe of a I,IACRO subroutine. It woutd be fotlowed by the set of APT statemenc that
subroutirrc. Tbe ver; Iast statem:lb in the set musl bc the APT word TERh{AC. Thls
termination of tbc lvlACRO.
To acttvote the L{ACRO subrautine wilhin oa APT program; the following cail sletemens wo
used:
C.{IL,/s;'mbol, prre m etcr specifi ca tion
Thc s1:nboi would bc the nasr, of the I'{ACRO that is to be celled. T}e paraneter specif;
identifies the particuJar values of thc parameten that Ire to be used in this execution of the

-(O

subroutincs.

Aa examplc will scrve to il.lus&ated tbe usc of thc li4ACRO statements aril hox' the
*ouJd bc called by thc main APT program.

rl

6!0.=

-e+

3o

30

o
nn

rn

'l
: fi acRc / Px
Gcr0 / Px

DF.ILL

fART N0 DRrt-lrNG Plr'rE

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At Ot 1-E

I Po
cAt-Li DR)LL,PX = Pr
CALLlbRtLL,?x=?L
CAr-L iDi\iLL, P{ -?3

FRCI-I

L>,VJ
?7 : f"oinrl I 7s ^-n<
?z = fotctl f 4i t L5 ,05

furnT

lEFTN AC

fO,O

P0 = ForNf /-5o -q0 50

?=:

Ml-

'::---11tt: tl-! J-reralls at

!"-"

le.

. Figttu Shor'l.-r' A Port ur.lh thrckru.u a

ln.-,n
APl frogtorn & {^Ul tl.' tuo l-rolal a{-

It would

:. Thc purpct_

Ll.,St thr Toot

.!.

d in the A.}

5Oo 6ylrn;n &

L-

s tbc title
.t

p o.150

r. Posiho4 ShO,.ln , d.rit-t,,..,q

o.. .$era mJi a& 3.SS inJ"nra.

t}rcb par"ficrn+ tt\r dri \ltng -:!

j-u co& d or> bRILL

mr
alpbabct- El
'outi-ncs whi

trlUJi

-O- .l
I

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'a

Tbc N4ACR
rsrbol. It

t e8'2u34165.:

no.

b( &

e6-

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Thr
Co n

nC\

cno.Chrru

tro lt( r

d
t

ccmprise

s signifies d--

en6 would t_

GFNRAL ?aL"

b.7t0

.-

I sPecrncaoi

'the MACR

'tl,c I4ACRT
i

10,

rror

H0M

FOsll t0N

(-2,o,

r)

tr-tai.-6. on APT P!-o3Tq..r .l-S mj.L,t thr Co nt*ir"l

Fa^j shot:n ln Exompled.u-teon
eld r.,^.11 cvgtl wtt\
C. &Or-..r[,, gf O-'15 inch , Assr-rc4 ing rhr pt)t| _ib mo.d*r-

x
_X

eh

st3{.(

fua r{r
3.
-i-9
'-E

Y./_

Ll{!

r u^e
2.30

On ApT

cujJ-"n3 S Pe{ d +s S g.:] trtvf mrq

Inch I nr,;q . ,.ra;1-ling rvlqrhr.,t :.tq.r\r _;A

MILLS

Progrc.nn I-s

nrrl,t thr . Co,--.

t/h\r
q
,..,)
Js-r
Po.lr.k Stnc.o n { r.t {<g" t . -T l-\! porr,t nno.kz-lo-t
Co.rbon sH.tl g\c-ra , r,J;cL hc.s piRv;ou{
t.
c'uh'
6 sL ir1
t1-1* :-.: ".:rl^ s\oge e,S trv
pori o.,}.l.rrc
.'l. O.
i- tool
71, ir:_1 d;ac.r{"q qnd crUl};n3 Cvjfl-lr 'TB?ir,
Ccnd,h:trzr
'.r-lflnqJ
(-c,"nmrndrd
o-\ {aJJ-S-^a : Q*Jf,rr3
min* be rst
.,r{ - 513 RFr'1
k ftta t*' : 2'23 t ''t | "^in.

1.{25

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rl

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*

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RONI
p

Paper

GRC

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I

L_-i'i'ri.

ha.t.

Sp<rd = looo

Ocr APT pro\Tarn J3' cnitt t1^r O\^h^ gtof* te

t1^r goxf uarn3 q. 2o m.n dLq,=uiq errd mi[ cqllA'

Thr

Spin.U '

or

e'F tf-r

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t\^.rr
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A?1

tJ^ili

4-

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9.9"-r

9;.li55il

lu, z hQ(t >

n tLr {tu^l
rratd for clq.nptnS tt\(

T \r

2 holca

Admission Details at

""3

of{Flrr:

1. t^l-;r.fi

rf

(or

on

APT .. 'rfroqrtrn

sho-n in F'guu
afru-d: d ntla 4

bten

ho.ve

Is
'

erct,le

1yidr

tt.r ore-h-lrnf
t1^r a\t

ho\c-5 tn
k u:-rr b.e ua<d Jo e.lorn
Thr

ngSr_S_ TqHe
I
I

ol
ql

ol.t
t-J

'l

-.^-.^I on

tt{

Pa-1F. ?

loOo RPt'i

So\ve

er(o

^1f

u-bin3

le

f\nO.CTO Su-b w,-"h run-

: nalrix ol hcles are lc be dr;lled in lhe rnanner illustraled in the {igurel.The numbe r of holes in
r':jtecticn ars 5 and the nurnber of holes in lhe y-direclion are 7, lhus.rnaking 35 hoies in all.
1.>.rof/ f e

{.ll C-fi} .
'r\r Fo*

.'.r';ie the A.FT program making use of lhe I'4ACBO lealure to establish lhe hole cocrdinates.

-cles of l2 mrn diameter are to be drilled in the manner as shown in Figure:.Write the APT programm
-::.,p use of rhe "Macro" featdre to estab!ish the hole co-ordinator.

tt^.r

Ilp.1!_ffl,lKNEss 20

2c,oe

E,

-t
,-i-\

f-ri/T\
ttt
T----i-7

/-T-\
tl

.,_v
|

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<t,nn t
f tGuFt

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lr

FIGURE 2

9819 74455n

.11^.eAprso{lrceforthernach|nlngofam||ledcomponcniisglvenbe|ow'Fromthisso:,post processor s
tne ceornetry rnd the loof path and indlceta the purpose o(each ol lhe
P,AF.T

NO

EXA'APLE

PAFT

MACHll.l/l''llLL,
INT(iU.001

ou'l Tou'001
CUI TER/'5
SETPT = POI {T/-s, -s, 4
POll{Tl0,0, 0
Pi=
POli'JI/o, 1.75, 0
P2=
POt.{T/5, 3, 0
rJ=
POINT/4,0, 0
PA
=
l4
LINE/P1. P2
LI
LINE/P1, Pd
L2=
LINE/P2, F,tGFiT. AT,A.NGL, 20, L1
IA
LINE/P3. PARLEL, L2
L:
LINE/P3. PARLEL: L1
iA
LINE/P4, LEFT, ATAI.JGL, 70, L2
pl 1
PLANE/PI, P2, P3
SPINDL/l000
FEDRAT/s

COOL NT/ON
FROM/SET PT /--->
GO/TO, 11, TO, L%TO, PL1
GO LFTAl, PASTT$*---/
GO RGTAs. PAST, L4
GO RGT/I.4, PAST. L5
GO RGT/I-s, PAST, L6
GO FIGT/16, PAST, L2
GO RCT/L2, PAST, L1
GOTC/SET PT

ccoL Nrrorr
FINI

d ;n t1{
,A4: rght holu b& / 10"^^ ole to be 216rtt
ctk
rnaK'nq t'-'h t
ln R3"r'r ' r'u-xili tk Ae T Prgtqrn
holt Co -o'r&no-tll
fi q;tohl,a\ kkr
E

797 rr r

dlo,Sroles oH #toO Pco

fr'lc\nt^,l!' Oi :
MAcRc t
tl^r

Pr-nr6 'I fr r:
2O r-'rcn

s.

'rl^:1.

ERC N1

^l
\)l

fol

HI

Paper

L,

lIr
I
I

-^_A \-7-(J

l_

nited

Dr.-{

.-j,1 lria

-\

\p
/t\

Admission
thls sourc6r
cessor sla t*

Chapter No, oS

(1t\i.{}''i,.:

C omp

uf er Ass

is ted

P ar

&4anual part programming can be

time consuming, tedious and
pessessing compfex geome,tries

complex

"I"r

lanJuage systems have been developed

'

','
,,

! for pa rtS

;.rchining of
'r;cks) a nd

jjii

,.s for t he
r..iinp: , , .bs, it is
,1 nunibr.r :,f l.lC part
acrL,irrplish I i r.: iiy gf 1 l-ta

to

calculations that the programmer vrould

otherwise have to do. T'his
in a more accurate and efficient pert
program.
,,'] computer assisted pei.i progrannmin6the various tasks afe di.,i#i
part programmel and the,,Computer',.
I't't

--_

{xrttrfting

t.'

f.i

sril,illf tr. ,

without cornputer assistance it vrould

be impracticar to vrriii. ;
production of such components. ln
these cases, and e'en f: ,
advantageous to use cornputer
assisted part programming.

or requiring many machining opei,,ii,,iir,. r i\

'
dimensional components require thousands
of i: : ..ii.,

3-

pi:ograrnmin

.{

'tts_

:;,;12s5 1;i

.nd resu fts

.trvr

z ''Human

i': ognuttrnert

5.i":,-'i

J06

f\' c'tlter

.11...r.:"is. Fceri:.

Cirir,rrle/s
An llulretl!. ald Cutter

.rn11

i.ft'.J

(l

ompul nlrol$

Edtlrn.:
i'L;r

i.

oC/'
('
t (;
1('
+

rt o-t

shs

lFaRa

+.^tL

F;3.1

Tosks in Computer Assisted

lrclurre

1',r,.,1

part progromm:,

A) Port prooramm
:J:6 7 il tcr(n6
20 nrrn .

_-l
I
I

tn compuler assisted part programming,

the two rnain tasks of

1. [gfining the part 6eomeiry

2. Specifying the Tool path and Operation

thc programn rer

;J

Sequence

I
I

1.

Defining the part Geometrv

I
I

i
I

-1
I
I

nratter how complicated the *.orkpart

may appear, it is ccrr:Fo.scti
georrretric elemenis and mathematicaily
defineci surfaces. Con:irjt i ifre
shovrn in fig 2 ' Although its appearance
is somer,;hat irregur;lr, ii,;,r,
part consists of intersecting
straight rines and a partiar circre. ii,r: iri.,i
ihe part can be defined in ierms cf the
)i- and l,-coordinates r"1 i',,.ir
^Jc

Senjat 9Ai9

/ttJJU

'basic
ie pa rt

i-'i the

;rs

in

Fig-2

Sarnple Fart

x
l'learly any component that can be conceived by a designer can
be describec
points, straight rines, planes, circres, cylinders and other mathematic
aily defi:
surfaces. lt is the part progra'mer's task to identify and enumerate
th georn:elements of which the part is cornprised. Each elernent rnust be defined
in terms
its dimensions and location refative to other elements.

/
,,/

tb

2.

Specifying the Tool path and Operation Sequence

After the part geometry has been defined, the part progra.,nmer rrrUSt ogxt
speci:.
the tool path that the cutter will follow to machine the part. The tool path consists
:'
a sequence of connected line and arc segments, using the previously define:
geometry elements to guide the cutter. In addition to defining part
geometry an:
specifying tool path, the prograrnmer must arso accomplish various
oth:programming functions, such as :
r Naming the program
. ldentifying the machine tool on which the job rviil be perfornred

.
.
.

Specifying cutting speeds and feed rates

Defining the cutter si:e (ctrtier radius, tool length, etc_)
Specifying tolerances in circular interpolation

The cornputer's icb in computer assisted part prograrnming consists

of the

sIep9:

{\

1.. lnput Translation

2. Arithmetic and cutter offset computaiions

'

3. Editing
4. Postprocessing
1. lnput Translation

;-

'i-he input
translaiicn rncdule ccrl,,!.is the ccCed instructions containec
prograrl in to ccnrputer - usable forrn, preparatcft,to furthEr processing.

95ii

714.5:,3

follo,.,.,rni

2. Arithmetic

and cutter ofget computations

The arithmetic and cutter offset rnodure
consist

of a set rrf s,ii:r.i :':ii'rt5 to peiform

the rnathematical computations required
to define the paft st;;,,i r. ;.rf;.i generate
the

tootpattlEiillinlcompensation forcutteroffsei ;--

called ClFiLi, which stands for ,,Cutter

Location Fli., .
consists mainly of tool path dati .
ig.2

Sample r-art

3.

Editing

accomplished.

4.

; +L^
t 'E

I r=U

]1,1
.:

DATA. \a/hen
r-rachine tool
,

on

In postprocessing, the cutter rocation

data and machining co;..m.:r,,
file are converted in to low
f":l .gggja_."n Ou inr".o'r;;;" ;:"

codes, X-, y- anc z

format.

follo'..:ing

I'

.. :;
,

ir a fcrrnai
lob rvitt be

Postprocessing

.of G

-,Jst next specify

' path
consists of
e;'ieu5;Y deiined
-: geometry and
,,,arious other

rodule is a file
'..i,Ests, this file

,-

fn editing, the CLFfIE is edited, and

a new file is grr.i.,,.;
printed, CTDATA provides readabfe
t,rta on curij- .
oceraring commands.
t: o"tput of rhe erJiting ;,hase :.
that can be postproc.r

'

be described b.
:aratically define:
3: th e geomtri:
:f'ned in terms o:

irr. , : .ii ,

:,.

,.3

i,'

7+tSS0

a,inates, S, F, M, and si,,.:.

.': "icti
-.ooffi:,,,..
irt:, ir.
icl

rhe CLDATA
i',:-.6On,rO,tUt
._

,,l

1f,:!ti5
--

, ,; address

6A
\J

Chapter No. o4

I.

Introduction to Group Technotogv (GT)

* qfo' |: r i ng o ! i t o s op tly i n' w h i c h c o mp o E
?;" ::"!::!: ": *"^!2n :, f
/b,f familia o1 the io,r, o1-';,;:;';;;;;1,"",i#i
f,7,3,i1-,:::l:!::
t
a
r:
j
: :f: u r i n i p r o c es s,, i n o,li,,- i r,-i a, i o, o s, ry :,ners prj
in :!::
',

f)rt-\ r-r! i)r\

p\c'n ilr,yp3,rf

ir-

Group Teehnologa

:i

f'batch production'
_:::

Figure I below shows a schematic arangernent

of horv grouping could be
various products, tbe components could
U. gioupqd on the basis of similarin.
shapes and manufacturing
frocedures.

--1-/

' r nrcsi Lo5ou

?.cc\,.oct Lo'=rt., t

I b.JcA );o!>
:r-.c,
, frirrf
.v-,
Cj.

SiJe.rSS|lg!rS

Crr.P;-r';g 515

_T-l
I LJ\

)...:
PStr

ir-t ---\

PS l?
PS

".

t7

--.

iI
f-

lf.,r

l.

pS21

",

.,

"s.-:

--L

L---l

r'r^r'l

Et.
t t\.f,.

lr: . c

l-

{c\l
): n-or
l:f sry&gur11lg ed \_anlage _derir_ed floln grouping $6sli;,3ns
u'ith reference to Fig 2 and 3.

rited
r&

jn

to- lamijie-s

Fig. 2 -ihorrs a proces_i !a.r,.^,1:1 fcr barc!r

proCuciicn. in i,iis ca_.e of 1a.,.oi,.1 aii lhc
rnacl:ine r::
of the sa:re pi-ocesses rrill b,e gi-ouped in
a single i-leparirreni and place i: ioEeii'i.'jaS shOr'..the Fig. 2.
Pray.

Sonjo;,,

teig

74.4550

aci;rission l)eiails
Tn4

rc

at

I eii:0341855

TI.IRNIN6

- r4tLLtN 6

D _oRrt-trrvG

n
{b&
C6 -cttrnqo(-\-' l9/

h compone

- rc6L-

zl simila

6(il.{0,flG

mass prod,

56 could be do4
imilariry, of I

su/.fA(E

GRlN0fi6

Fig. t. Process lal,out for batch produrrlo;

Ho*'e'er. *'ith such an arrangement it can be noticed thal rlie pa,

ced lo rnove thr,rr r nh

various departments before they are completed. This calls for a fairJl iarge amounl
of travel
for the pa:1 and is ri,asteful.
I

1+

Fig. 3 Group technolog-y.. la1'out

Fig. 3 shorts group technolcgi, Ial,our in u'hich machinc: :
u'hich the operations are to be carried our, such tlat the p:,.

I r-l

:he sequence in

he smooth.

Thus the pait does nol ha'e to tra.,'el a lot in the shcp sirt:-t. t1...t
alu,a),s placed b1.the side.

rachine tool is

2. Part Families
The biggest single cbstacle i;r cha;:ging over {o grou-

rechl ,-

productionshopistheproblemofgroupingparisintofami;!es.,i,:i
for solving this problem

a) \/isual

= =.rplai;:ed

-.-.
..ri!

Inspection
Ir ini cli'es tne classificaiior of p:ns in to fa:'iriries b-, lrrkirr,: :i ,,,:i,ei riie -L,.-:-.-'
l'''-t>ttct
iai-1s o; r,h::o:raphs and a-:nlin: ih::r in t;, sin;ii-:: ,-,r-r1,-:p;:.. '.,,is r. iel;icd is
Se nera!l.r cc:lsiiered ro b,e the least accuraie of the thre-:

t,i.ltvul>

-::r C\tr:.1

i:,,i.ir a t;aditional
,.ri {hreelxethods

'l.rl

D-^i

cd n; a,

9:Ji.a 741550

t^-di o
Cr Socni t ies d -gc.."d i ng oc'' dx- c";<isr-''' t "?h..,';
bosed on q .9c.bo$ ru(cj
Gcrrn P O n erl.) '
Arovrd i ng qS c'' r>o\ hs d1-.Cod i.5
->

b) Product Flow

Analysis (PFA).

c) Parts classification and coding

sl,stern

The third method, parts classification and coding, is the rnost rirne consuming zcomplicated of the three methods. However, it is the most frequently applied *it,
and is generally recognizel to be the most po\r,erfijl of the three.
_

Cocl', r5 S$3 3.
- t.he'rOrChr Cc^)
rr\ql nC CCd <
- Ptl-'- b.r )e

Par"ts classification and coding s)'stem

one of the picneering efforts in group rechnology and probably rhe besr knc.
opitz coding s.l.slem. The o9r::

method for parts classificarion and coding s),stem is

coding scheme uses the following digir sequence :

ccd<
Polx
v/

I-trrt-,-n

12345 6789 ABCD

The'basic code consisrs of nine digits, u'hich can be exrended by adding fourrno:.
digits. The first nine are intcnded to convey both design and maaufacturing data, Tl.::
interpretation of the first nine digis is defined in figure 4- The firsr five diejr,
12345, are called thelformcode.It describes thepnmary design anributes of thepiarsuch as extemal shape (c.g. rotational vs rcctangular) and machined fearures
ie g
holes, threads, gear tecth" etc.). The next four digits, 6799, constitute ti-*
'supplementaqt code, u'hich indicates some of the attributes that would
be of use ii
manufaeturing (c.9. dimensions, work material, starting shape, and accuracy). The
extra four digfu, ABCD, are referred to as the secondary code and it can be deiigneC
by the firm to serve its own particular needs.

c{ /

l/ rrr r ><z(r

?
{

Pad dass

Main

Rotational

shape

plane surface

Machining

Adcrl_;

Gtor tcckf h

Macfi ning

Form;nq

,0

.'

0.5<[/lD<3

(!

li . :,eleq9nl.

:,

.Intemai

hlain .
sleF
j

3?

Other holes

,)

'l
..

:-.Sotaiional

GII
.

Spe cial

shap

As3

c
c

NC >1

AE>3
418 <3

Aic<1
Sreciel

J
L --l

,r
\l

stiage
'
r/-;n

------.|/

'Llachini;rg ol
L)tane
.

---l

OIher holes,'

for';iiing

Ylllain bore anC

'. Rct'1;sr-'
' tJ
I

:.1

.tt

snace

sr-idace

uo>2

.'.

plane . sudace ,

'r--l:-

c:

Wilh deviatirrr

.i,
.

elemenl

.;i

.:.'..

$.qachhing bf

shape

orG

679

UD>3

Wth deviation
Lto <2

ExiSm3f "
sh'ape- ':.

Ir3nql figsl,

lJ;clrinino of

fi'llachinin;

l/

Fig.f Optiz- coding si sicm

Olhcr hnt*
teeih and

forning

-l
+i
i>

6:
Ll:

tElc c)lc
*t-

ffitlll'
Hf

tl

Admission Details at
4.

I.
2'

!n".:*,r.li.: sheei::. ,.r.i

istent.

3.
1.
5.
6.
7.
8.

tsuming al,:
rlied

m*ti:r

resl knc: -- ':

The Opirz ?

four mor,:
i data.

Ihe

ive diglr:;,

j(D

The potenrial benefits include

iated machin

tiven shoil

Benefits of Group Technology

9820347855

PrcE te rr

GT promotes standardization of tooling, fixtures (u,ork holding device) and set ups.
lr{aterial handling is r'-duced because parts are moved nithin a machine ceil rather
than within rhe entire faclory.
P:oducrion scheduling is simpler.
l"{anufacturing lead time is reduced.

\\;ork-in-process is reduced.
Process ptanning is sirnplified

\vorker satisfaction usua!ly improves when working in a GT cell.

Higher qualii;'u'ork is accomplished usine GT.

5 :-

':. Ap?lb t}u ?anK 0r&\ al*rxrrng tlchnrqr^-l ts +hr Pozt

in tf'r tubte tho-F .f'.t,{b,r6 J\es''(a{
Mo.ch;ne ;nq,.duc! mqlrir
fo'r t fu.*lLca ol.'d muthtnq $"oqPJ ' Portss -ottr ; &^1.'&'e d
o\t< i&nh''it a ourncn c41fu
Ho.cht r'r.
b 3 t ltr-ta , U
.

PEn5

rf the parl.
ures (e g

MachinesABCDEFGHl

drute rhc
of use in

'|

acy). The

designed

Suf|.tEf':i,.
c t-p:_

Otra l'3

678f

o. G] Cell ' The Flc-i 1o d.fo. &l

onqch;rct of. S\rlu:n in ltrr tu\:\t bqle{^r Dehrrn irr-{o) f X, cnost lol;co"t S,a,".r. 1. eb. t+." cr'..^(h;r"-) S"-r 'ih:a d-o-A
& Const-,1^tf tt.1 errit-rrK 6l''og't<^-r , Shou;n1 t"rltr-"'' V how
{'ior.1 eo.\q tcttr ! eL}, t tl1g slSKrr
b) Co"n {rr^.ti +1-\r prce.r l-ay .r{, i n - Se41,^u Cr .r'.rvo) , bc,.rii {rctF.r5
mov<, t, b'.^, f?qSrln.. m'ove5 ln l\r So\r"Hon '

7. Four
lF

E
lo
a)

o-t

*l

rrr-o-ch;nra consHh.E

jj

Frcn

c0
0

!a

n\r ?tq^K orda tl..lltnn3 ktchnrqrb{- -{I.o t1--{ l?c-'

In ltu bq"l"]e fha-F ft$ry*
J:i i
in c.-d-r,rcr -oln'rgqtd go';h $r"nl\;s anA rncr\;s gr"ot..gs

mfl)

Pans
Machines

Asco

t
J

(
6

*no*-:

il-

zj:_=aF<nrtor$
Values Z.

Binary

2'
Pans

Machines

2:

22

2l
Decimal

Equivalent

Fank

418

1f

81

l6E

?<c
A

656
't.c

T")

].TEaA-roN
pe'1s
l"iach in

CDFGHI

8inary Values

t
t6
f,

!'tc-

7.

-1

ed

.,}

Decimai
SCuir'3lg;;

Admission Details at

982A341855

Machines
1

7hr cnolclx Lc.{.^b 6.:- ond b-l (pqrts g t., f: p?rosJrd

on r"no-chrr.r 1) doesn't lle In o.n3 Bt th.r CrU G,.r{ -cLr
Kno'*.n a5 accpHonoJ ejrrnr^,b.
'To derl uJt{^ t+"r< elcefHono-f eJr",-taq b j3
&"f t.'co't tl.-r mo-rhrrrr thot jb \ +d b.e cnor< .il.-c.n O1...t
farb f,c.mil5 . i-rt l|.r !lv{n tar.omple kt*ro cnc r hirrrA b+
t5p e "1" r.^J-s{^ld b ,. \ed In t1^{ hi o Cdll T F\r. rcaqlJ
4 thir d--rl'x-o$on .^, shor-.rn rn ro.bk bqt..-r '- Pans

Fank
M6chines
'|

la
f

lb
7

o
3
D

s at Tg e< L C sho'.-,', aJ
Mq thir.ra la cln d lb
in {i..r rno}rr x ) .;.;-,\cUSed t
in Ccr FlJi
ei&ehonol thn-,rb
Du Cl;c,:ft

Cr,C.c}.;rJ

4For a tamily of compon erils shown below, deslgn a composiie componsnl for developlng a

CAPP,

o/

t/

t
I
,\'\

(1) TURNTNG
(2) FACTNG
(3) TURNING TO PRODUCE STEP
(1) EXTERNAL CyLtNDR|CAL GBtND|NG
(s) DFtLLtNG
(6) COUNTER BORE
(7) TAPPtNG.

Chapter No. 05

PITA & Simi

larity Coefticient MaHx @

Production llow analy.sis (PFA) is an approach tog.t!_E i|Jl 4!_c,i1l,lr:q[ggj]!-{_glachjns

\4,as pioneered by J. Burbidge
.elltotg4tr@_thal
id.Iq.Lidc-n-E11!!gllf. f8J. lg].'{!f:
.

)gaR

@e-d-m-aEijrr"e-ar"gqplra$3tgr9s
part
r ;

.-

'

+'
4
:)

I,

*
i
*'

-!-h-9jrr^l'!i;,iarl,olr-.eQlt!a!q sd_qt-

prcrduclion route sheets rather tlall

driwinps. \\'orkparts *:i:, rdentical or sjmilar
_.
toulrngs are classrfred into parl lamilrcs\l hese familres can lhri, -, ::sscJ tt_l form lceical
machine ccils in a group lechnologv lai,out. Sincc PFA uses nra,':fac'Uirlg*{il-1_-rg!.gl
t h a n design_d,a r.. ro ice n i ; fv. Br.t r^,i ; ei. i r ." n or'.
r, ir n offiliffiI"r . a n
6ccur in parts classification and ccding. Firsl, parts *'hose basic geome tries are quite t1,f--'-'x--fercnt mayneverthcles requirc.similar or even identical proccss roulings. Second- psyl-s
lr'hose geometries are quile similar may neverlheless requir prlr.rr:SS roulings that are
guite different.
The procedure in production floq,anal';sis must beein bt,defi' ing the scopr of rhe
studv. rvhich mear:3 d:ciCing on the population Gi;16i1t iti be analr.tciJ. -Sir'-'uii rij ot the
parts in the shop be included tn the study.or should ereprescntalire sample be s:lected
for analvsis? Once this decision is made. then the procedure in PFA consists of rhe fol-

rffilli'

lou,ing srtips:

l.

*
?

Dota cq!lecrton. 'l'he minirnum data needed in thc analvsis are the part number and
operation seguence. u'hich is containcd in shoi-r rlocumenls calied route shrets or
opera{i<ln sheets or sotle similar name. Each operation is usually,associalcd u.ith a
particular nrachine. and so dctsrmining the operalion scqucncc also dercrmines thc
machine seq uence.

2. Srtrtntioti of procrst rt4tlj46sJn this step. thc parts are arranted into gr()ups :rccorcJJirl rc-iHelim-llrnty;f ,h;;"1p.o..rr; rourines.To frcilirarc this src . allopcrar,,)ns ur
"

tt."'1:i,'

Tiolc
TABLE lo-

o^--:Lr^
18.2 Possible
^r
Code
Numbers
^-rIndicarinc
Operations andr'or Machines for Sortation in
Production Flow Analysis (Highly Simptified)

Cperation or h4achine

Code

Cutoff

UI

athe

a2

Turret laihe

c3

Miil

Drill- manual
I'lC drill

05
06

Grind

07

machines inclir<Jed in rhe shop are retjuced to ci,Je n:lrnbers. su;

For each part. rhe operarion codeiai:L lis'ctJ inrhe,
;rrt: perfo;nicd- A sortatiorr ploccdure is then used lt_r 3rraitpc
u'hich are SIlypl ,o-f pir_rts rvirh idenric_gllcgring:;.Sonre packs nr
i lruuil.rer. indicatirrg the urriqueness of (he processing of th:
-p.,r
-ri--illioniain
nranl,parts, and r,i?se oill-ibnsriruie :r parr l;iTii1,.

lahle l.\2.

- i;-j.Jsc shorrn jii

:r i;: r^hich ihe1,
-i5 iiiio "pa.ks."

,.,,,r;r

',

f ii:4
-...* c/:i,'; The piricsse-i u:ctj

frrr cach paci: are rhcrl clispi;irc.

sr;rip,lill:,j errmple r'f r,hich is illustrated in Table lf.l.r The chrr|-;
tile proccss or machine code numb'ers for all of thc rart packs. .lr ,ecr
iu:c Ilf]. lhe PF.{ chart h:-c h,:en referred to t-.i't}i: iei-rn 1:(:rt-n:,i{.i:.ir!

a vaiue (rl
ih caiiesLroniirre pai-t i recui:es prrrcessir-,! on niachine;i. alid
ii,ar nr p,.,..r,inn Cf..ompo,,cnf i'i-. acgsxitl;rh.j en n achineT. For l::3 i;t1l it:t:i]\.. tlie {l s a;-r itiler.; ,i:i;lirJ as bl:i:! icnri-rir ) ei:i;ic.:. I

Sanjay 9819 T44SS0

-l

= ll

.:l-:l)'l;l

rl

pil|6i.

0ther packs

our

TA8LE

18.3

PFA Charr, Alsa Known as a Paa-lfachine Incidence Malrix

Parrs {rl

Itlachines (l )

\.1

2
?

4
o
1

4. Cluster a_f?ls'!::.-From the paltern of dala in the PFA chart. related groupings
identified and rearraneed into a neu'pattern that brings togerher packs rvith si:.
rnachine seguences One possible rearrangement of the original PFA chart is shc
TABLE

18.4

Rearranged PFA Chart, Indicating Possible Macfrine Groupings

Parts (i)

Macfrines

(7')

z
6
5
7
A

in Table I8.4. s,here different nrachine groupings are indicated .*'ithin blocki
biocks might be considered as possible machir,e cells,

i-

- --^t
+-q\
v

1F'? e-ap.

It

is often the case

(but n:

Thble 18.a) that some packs do not fit into logical groupings.These parts mipr
analy'zcd to see if a revised process sequence can be deve1ep.6 that fits into a;the groups. lf not,these parts rnu-ct continue to he fabricaled throueh a convenr::
process la1'oui. In Section 18.6.1, u'e examinc r svstematic technique called :
o,der clustering that can be used tcr perforrn th cluster analysis.

The u'eakness of produciion f"!ou'analvsis is that the data used in the tcchnique
derived from existing produiiion route sheels In all likeliiioo<i.Jlres9 route sheets have-b.
_p-19p_ar-ed--hy: different prggg$ plq1g1s' a-n( the toqJjngs may contain operations th;i_
nonoptimal. illogical, or unnecessary Consequenth', the final machine groupings obtaine:
ihe anal;'sis rnav he suiroptimai. Notu'iihstandine this i.clkness. PFA has the i'ii'ti-i=
requiring less time than a complete parts classificaticn and coding procedure. This is a:'tiye-i,o.,!G!)t_firnt
rij5frjlg,lo In[qdg1s etggp-_l-qghgloei_!4q iheirplanr operarions.
-

-:--f

Unnited
,ra

iru

:=:ci

-Q;-,.1i'6,r 98i -e

74455]

I g8zir',

Adnris;ion Defails at

11555

Slr'rrtA(fTy CoEFFtctENT MAT(lX

__

l-'1 Coeffl'utnts r'rq.frr -.,5

Pravtd,a CI. Sr.n ut",r*d ' .,,orj fs gnvp
Sr'.^{orf

-+r

on t1-q

forfi

bo,St:

trro.f

T\.1L^u

,rd

o.

mo'('

tJir

f9gellr.-a1

'

Palo+1

Componcnl

Machinc

,:n8s are
:h similar
is shorryn

Ft

Machinc-compon.nt chan.

G.t.

LLbLA =Lc A
Slrmlo.al': Co4h'crtn.[ rno-l-rr x rnrJhod
t S,tgi, - LrnxolS Clt^at<rrng Al3o1tf1't-) ,-^.}'-'ch -:-t cklc+l l./s'.-

.ocks. Th e
r ut not i;

The machine{ornponent chart in

Figure 1. wiJl be used to de.rcribc
SLC'A utiiized by Mc4urey ro f;;
the
p"n groror. A simirariry coeffir,ic is
cdc..r_
laledforeachpairofmachinestodeterminehow,,sll;gs,,thetworne,,
l,,is3rin
rerms of rhe number of pans
rhar visir each machin e' A t"'r',;.i, "isiiborh machin., ;;th. nr.nb,,, of parrs
2 : r"t,rer arconvenienr \.'ay to
shos, th iifferenr
ajrernarives, as iilusrraied r-n
Fr.gure i- . ro, insrance, ii.-i in
r;g,,.
notes rhar a parr'isits borh
mlci,inei, a-nd rhe b denoreslh.r,;r" 2 dc_
:r,,isirs
nor machineT' trlc,e'ui"ii"nn",:
rh.-ri;,i;;;i.o.m.i"n, i:e.r.een

liTij5;::t

might be
':o one of
',

ent ion a

,'.led ran

r,.'it

re

.t-

k
h --

srmrJan{y

coefficient bet*een machines i

and j
nrrmber of par-ts common ro
borh machines
rhar visii one
rh; ;r;;;of machinc:

;;lj"Tfi,ians

"r.

rique are

M:cl,inc,i

,ave,bqe n
i that a.re

rtained in
-.:-...\-il (ua (Jr
-(
l: ati;aC-

L{;;l

inq

t:,

;
Lfs:.

3=

;:ri r isiis tc:::

f,:rl

ris jts

mz:h,nc:

na:hif,. i

. : F3.l vrsi!s 6:iitinc;

t = a.::i ii3as rrcl r.istt cilliii nJ:i..ia

Prof. Sanjay gS1-o 744SSC

j,

The similarity coefficient between machines B anC C

The SLCA consisls of the following steps:

Figure

lisl,or 0.!

A pairwise similarity coefficient is calculated for each nnachine. These co< f';'cients could be displayed in a similarity matrix like the one ir: Figure 3Since the ma'rix rs sl,mmetric, only the lower triangular portion is neede(.'
2. The similariry matrfx is scanned to locate the largest sinrilaritl' coefficient.Thr:
<Iesignales the two machines that u'ill form the initial cluster'
3. The similarity rnatrix is then scaoned to locate the largest remaining cot-fs -

l.

cient. The associ'red rnachines are grouped together'

4. Sreps 2and3 are repe-ted unlil all the machines are clusttred logether inic
tsr

uup.

The algorithm is terminated when a.ll the machines are clttslered inlo 'one
group or untit rhe remaining similaritl'coefficients are below sorne specified lcVc I -

M ach

FI

G.t.

inrr

Similarity matrir.

Looking at Figure '4' "r'e can see that

and machine
similarirl;value of 0.8, machines B and C are grouped together

andEaretikeu,iseg:"oupedtogelher.Atavalueof0'5.machineDisciuste
u,ith rnachinel B 4nd c. The machines are cluslered together into one Srotrp
similarity coefficient value of 0. l2'

Results of SLCA

Clu-(ler

Ee3\-

|
2AE
J

Mrchines

trf-

Simitarit-t coeffi cien t

tr.8
0.8

BCD

r.l.

-5

e'co.q e

- D: -.p-

IJ

t- iLr.

imited

i=:'i:f. Sai:.14;-' 9819 74455:'1

Adrrrission Details at

Chapter No, 06
0.3
f

3-

ning

ntroduction;

,nr;;E.ruffit,

Thrs

Cornputer Aided process plan

Process planning iE concerned with

determining the machine tools ar I the
sequence of
manufacruring operations needed to produce
r iiuun frrt'o, proau.,. , ,mputer-aided
process planning (CAppJ is the uje
ol
,rl!9_rr9!9_::
planning of . prr,?r'product,,n

r< [{iA

| 98:il,'i41855

CAPP captures the Logic,

Judgment, and experience of a proce.s"s planner
and
incorporates them in to .orniuter program
whlch automaticaliy qenerates the
ma n u fa ctu ring operation,.q run.u.
Refer fiiure below :

t.{f.'-

one
rcl.
n'II'i.T
Ti{<O{JGH

LEl?Or.?o
AT TEir.l'tl{Al

l h]'r'ilfACTLRINti

lo{ilc
s{tFrvJFS.F

Fig. C4pp system

;;:::::l"rive

1.

appi-oaches ro computer aided process

pranning rrave be:,, , ceveroped.

1.

Retrieval rype CApp systems (aiso

called as Variant SystemsJ

2.

Generative CApp systems

Retrieval

r1,pe CApp systems

Retrie'al vpe cApp s),stems use parrs

cfassification and coding and gioup
technoiogl' as a foundarion. In this
approach, the parrs produced in the prant
are
gt-ouped in io part famiJies,
distinguished according to

their manufacturing
characteristics' For each part family,
I standard process plan is established.-ihe
standard Drocess pian is stored in computer
files anri then rerie'ed for neri,
n'orf:parts,.vhich belong to that famil1,.

-t

Figure belov.'exprains the procedure

used in a retrier,zr process planning
s;,stcrr.
o I he usr h;oi,rd iniiiate the procedure
by entering the part code r:imber
compuier tei-minal.

I
I
I

' '

_L_

The
Il-l2frh

I
I

tz

Prof.

program then searches the part famill,

mairix file to dcii,:.nine
clictc

CF.PP

ai

iia

If rhe file caniains an rdeniical coce number,

the standard machinc i , . : ir:r ai_.C
operaiicn sequence are reirievecj from
the resDc"^iii.e compu:,-, iries i_ r
c;-snia;'t, ihe user.

Sanjat' 9819 Ttt|SA

@
User enters

part code

Part fanily

number

matrix file

Machine

routing file

5tandard
operation
retrieve / edit

Operation
sequence
fite

Fig. Retrieval type CApp system

The standard process plan is examined by the user to perrnit any ne:
editing of the plan to make it compatible r.;ith the ner{ parr design.

After editin& the process plan formatter prepares the paper dccuuren:
proper form.
If an exact match cannot be found befween the code numbers in the ccfile and the code number for the ne\v part, the user rnay search the r=
routing file and the operation sequence file for similar parts that could t.
to develop the plan for rhe ner,r'part. oice the process plan fora nern,panumber has been entered, it bcomes the standard process fcr future p.
the sa me classiflcation.

3. Generative

Process Planning System

Generative process planning involves ihe use of the comDurer to cre;::

individual process pian from scratch, automatically and rrithout human ass;::
rnelon:rputer ,'.'ould ernpioi; a ser of ;G;.'rr"^r ,o p.o!...r rh;""gh
technicai and logical cjecisions to\1'ard a final plan for m:nufactur-ing.-input,s::
s-\'stem','.'culc inciudc : comprehensii'e cesclipticn ci tire,..,.irl:part. T:.,

;;-

?:cf, Satja;,' 93i9 7.1455C

.;i. ;i,141855

Admissron Details at

involve the use of some form of part code number to surnmarize the rvorkpart data,
but it does not involVe the rerrieval of existing standard plans'
i

4t
lil.
IF

ITESTIRIPTI{lN

TECHNICAL

IN (:OIIE

LO6ICAL DECISION.-S

i]JPTIT

t1

(JF P.{RT

.+

lin'tE Too[s
J.IL.{IILF

1
I
I

Fig. Generative Process Planning S1'stcm

r^,,e compare 6enerative process planning and varia;:i, t:ess planning,
generative process planning can be used for any component, v.'' '';.':s the variant
rype is limited to families of part for which the data files have be.' ,.reated.

lf

Benefits of CAPP :
Other

applicati
pro9rat'

---/

necess;

:
rient in s

Benefits of computer-automated process planning include the l'. ll:- .:ifl:

(11 Process rationalization and standardization - automati . ;r iess planning
leads to more logical and consistent process plans thi', v" ll traditional
process planning is used.
productivlty of process plonners - the systern:i'-,r. ,rrproach and
Increased
{2)
availabilify of standard process plans in the data file.c iler," is a Sreater
number of process plans to be developed by the user.
r ?'l Reduced Iead time to prepore process plans.
(Jl
Improved legibility compared to manually prepared ror'r;.' si ,' ,:Dd
LJJ

Abiliq, cf CAPP programs co be interfaced v'i:';

progran|t such as cosi estimating, r,vork standards, and ''

l compu?
re mach:l
rld be usc

part cc'*
re paris f

,'

u,5!s-t?l=e
l

va ric -::l

ut.'q tO i:.d
i hrc

r-:1
li

Praf. Sanja;'

9319:.._

i;{plication

Adnrission Details at

'{l d)J

product The non.contact sensors operated

by the compllt:
production line and they can check the product
very qilj,

Co

seconds.

he

4. Cornputerized

re ins

rlp of

i along the
fraction of

feedback control s),stem:

The data collected by the non-contacr

sensors i.s sent as ii;
rhese sysrems wourd carry ,
:::r,::::::j_.::::11:t:ms

nputer
tded Tr

edback to the
:nalysis of the
the problern
.;n to iL For
r the parts
ruld help rhe
caiion of the

n
i.], I s'; ;;l;i'"., a' " " i;i; ff ; ;:;l: ii'H.";niri:
rine ahd nna afprofririr'.,,r
i:j:s_:^' jl^,1: ynufacuring
from noi_conoo r;n;;.;';;;'i;;;.,
I]l1ili:..,1.,
i::"tt
:ii:.?-::" re d are n ot wi rh n rh e a ccep ta b t ;;;;r;;,1, ;'.r. ;,,

r tech

::,,:-,

tial of

.,,,...'i
*;"',;;. ;'0";
:'' ih.rlastages
l'-": :": "j:"
::: due
::i':to-':'reduced
"",
money
and
also irprou.l,
:,T:,::O
producr

lots of
:, ,.:litY of th e
sr.i'es

ri,

R]

F.

5' Compurer aided quarity contror

ify cc:[

ilj
and cAD/cAIl integration:

Apart from inspection and testin& computers

are used in a nl,
areas of rhe quariry control. At
the apprications or ca-Qc c;rn iie i;,
CAD/CAM to make the whoie prn.uriof
designing ,"al"r.,,lr*r",
by rhe compurers converted inio fully
rurorn"i"J ir*"rr.

I
,,

of other
iied rr.ith
rntrolled

or

Pa

and err
18 Can
ran-y

ig

assuff
ontroir
le fcr la

,here

id

AQC

r{

; loca:d
red i: *

n. ot.{

rinC:{

JpcL, -

;.L .titt
.

ln contact inspection, phl,sicar contacr

is made betw,een .r.., . !
measu'nl or gaging instrument, rt,hereas
in non-ccrrrtact irr:.r;,
contact is made.

A) Contact Inspection Techniques

contact inspection invorves the use
of a nrechanicar probe or other
makes contac with the object
being inspected.

d rhe

'i:al

tl.^r
IIIdL

dr:

E I\.1 EAS IJ RING VLACHI

N ES

The coordinate measuring machine (ct{i\{)

i-s th.e mosr pronrir :r r,:
:rr,r,li of the
.A
equipment used for aonlrar
inspeclion of u,gig;px'_1r.
a,.,,r.,riiii,ir.
:r7i:;:,,iJ-i1_1g
rnachine r's iilustrared in Fipure
ri consisr. ofa raiie ,^,tr;, tr ir.j,r.
ir,;. r ,: in l
fired, registered po.srtion ind a m,_rrable
head which f,otar r:1{,rr:.iri;ir;,i.,,i
probe can be mo'ed in tiuee
lhc
directions. corre.spcnding to thc
r. i i,t;ti , ::ci_
nales During operation. the probe
is broughr in,u.n*ir., witri : i,,.,
y121-1,:r,, .c r(j\
bc ineasured and rhe three .'.onrain,,,.
Jrl.siti.ns arc indicarcd ir, ;r lrirjr r, : ,,{.i. ihcsc nrachincs are in rhr:

,,,:ir:lil:,,:i

-',ia*],rtifi'ff!,t#;:.'.'
rdllu.:

*
,

Inspection techniques can be divided

in to fwc broad categories
AJ Contact lnspection
B] Non-contact lnspection

C O O R D I NAT

*
g

Z. Inspection Techniques
ne b;i I

&

:j

coor-dinate'lea5uii
are ci);rnuicr c()i;lr'iii:J ;
ir.n cri'ihc r.-:achine is sim:lir_,., ,n.'\C
'i mrchincs
::i_
r.,r.i,n.-orrii",rrir,.,, r1,,, ;,,,.., ;r::r, , r
,
r;c
-ca'\unni proL'e is eirhei' rarx ci)rr:rri,:c tii- ;,,;;r:;,
:,,nrr,,;i,,,i ;, :,r,: ,, ,J
c(),-rid jnaic d:ta can he
dori,njo:iCcd l:i,
r-,t'tjir:rr nr,"....u! coniroi.
.1,js,-, .;::
,,,,,,ri , ,,,:.
,
:':.'it i;j C\f\i ia;i: un l,_r:i: h,.,:.
;.,,.:.
Sanja_i' 9819 744550
To,.Jai,'.s

,;:t:liil.i,::l:::;:i

[.., F..,.;.

'..t,'.;jII\,j|/,

-.-

\iruflut(

2
r

//

Probe hcad

Worklablc

1-11

il

rJ

Figure

Coor<linarc nrijisuring mach jne.

Recent aCvances in Clv{M
technology are ba.sed largef;, ()n
gr-ea:=
pnrviir"g ui,i,. .,;;;;.;.,ficse
atrvarr.e:
t;..'::#r1;,1.,;:::::,:."_T.:rure.s
he capa b i r i t y f or a u rt;mirr ic *,rlrpon
o

id;;,ilT#;":ffi:

ilIT::,:::'::.::"

,fij|:"tPuters'

;fi

i:

:
rbr ini;xcriun rxrlonncr who
are; inc.xperienc
rncxpenenc!
ancJ convers-ion rourines
berween porar and cfiesian
co:

AbyANTAGT5

uq!"r.r
Savings in inspecrion tlmc
"' 'ntf:.t':n ri by using coordinate r,leasuring nrachinc.
nltrcant. Tl,pically.
Lrlrveen 5 anj
ri_^ t.
_._
and |toe0% nr
af rr,rhe rirne
,;q;j,";

l1;L l:, f ,1:'', :: 3,i

fi:: ;i j:." ilT

j ";
:
;:
: :' | -,:: ry., ;,a,;i
i;; I*.t/l d;
tg

ll*.,:

i* T'l

;; ; ci;;
;:J:-', ":lJ:
eoTJlT.
J
i i;:;

matched
;:
b-v rnanual inspecrion,
: :":,
" "a.
and reducrion.s
i prt>duction delavs
.in
"',X
i(\
of the first rrorkpiecc in a
batch.

[ct t:

DrsAbvANr^6s
-..\/us,, r,,L rLLruru()r\

inspe.crion finne
linne are si-sr,ificant
si-srrificanr u.jih
u jih lr C\l...
c\rl
fl*l:^i'.:T,::y::::1''nln rn.specl,on
,,,;,r,

rr',. r,.i 1n",,', ,r,.".,ordinurc

lffi::i:,.J.,:;::i::t; illl:^1,*,n,",r
o,'1',' 1: rin,"' ;;=
'__
tdt ilitiC. U!J;:
;il:1,'J;:il''"j.,';.
:::l f "::,, ::i; :T l":''
:l
-__
,i,. p,,r,,,i,";-;;;,,;,;xrrlctj

;:ill.,."; ;if:

duc(ion ai-ca (o rire *lf;,o::,i,rinsrl:.

Ct,ttrt. f" i1.,.'';i I
srasc\ r,i prtrJucii,,n.-;",;r.i',""11.'i-,',T'f

trJ
ri
F.

93

9' 7ztt5 5 C

fi.r,

i"'ll,,l:.l,iint''ed

ar rcre

rrr c

:_

Admissicn Details at

B)

NONCONTACT INSPECTIoN

METHODS- OPTICAL

in'spection method'
Oprical s!'slems are the dominant type of noncontact
and comtechnology
of microelectronics
Tl-rese systems generally rely on the use
puter processing of the sensing signals'
used for inspection
There are a varietY of oPtical sensing techniques

u'ork. Some c{ tf.r tXPel or(

.
2.
I

(irmouter
/,/

,i

S.vslcnl

)-.,A
/'1

-J.

14

t'a"lll
-ltl

l-

iiJ

trn !5'eater

Scanning laser beanr devices

Photogrammetry

Machine visicin is rhe acquisition of image data,follo'*'ed by'the processing and interpreralion of rhese dara by computer for some useful application. lr'lachine vision (alsc called
coplputer vision.since a digiralcomputer is required to Process the image dara) is :i gro\\'ing technology. u'irh its principal applications in industrial inspection.

.z'<tl

lr{achine vision

l\{achine'v'isiorr

A.r

"

The operation of a machine vision system can be divided into the follou,ing three
functions: (1) image acquisition and digitization, (2) image processing and analysis. and
(3) interpretation. These functions and their relationships are iliustrated schematically in
Figure t

il

c advanccs rrG
s table,' inte;t

t. lrnage rcquisition

cxpericnced c

and digitiza tion

2. lmage processirrg

.i. Intcrnrclati()n

and analvsis

rflesian ctxrrcii
Digitizalion

lrnage

Compulcr
(processing)

in te

rPrctai;on

Cai-n': ra

:irach incs a-i-::

on a Clnftl s
aees incluci:' s
u:[ic'h cani]*
is i(] FCI aPi:$

Lirht r-

Dccisions
and
actions

sturce \-

Pa;-is

;.tll:catron

iih ;i Ctr{i\'
.rdin:.rlc rnc;
,r

hinc. usuai
rrlcd l'rorn Ii
lc,-r"'eral dl'

I.

ttgtlrc {,

Basic functions of a machine visiorr systein.

lmage Acquisition and Digitization

niage acquisirion and atgitizztion is accomplished using a video camera and a digitizing s1'siem io sioi-e ths inae: J:re foi sut'srqirent analr.'sis.The camera is focused on the subject of
j;:erest. and an inaq,e is obiained bl ciividing the vi:u'ing area intc a mairix of discrete pic:u;-e elernents icalled pirels). in *'hich each elei-neni has a value that is proportional to ihe
ii.iht i::rensitv c,f rhar F,,3irir)n of the scene.The intensitv value for each pixel is converted into
The operation of vieu'in-e a Scene con;lr eCUi\alent dlg;i:l r':lue b-r an ADC
sisrjne of a sin-,Fl: cbrecr rhat ccntrasts sut,stantialiv *'ith its background. and diviciing thc
s:ene into e coirespoiding nratrix of pictuie elenlents. is depicied in Figur-c 2 '
i

Prof. SaniaY 9819 74455CI

\:-_--../

{")

(c)

Figurc 2
Divi<iing the image into a matrix of picture etements.
where each element has a light intensi(1' value corresponding to
that port;on of the image: (a) rhe scene; (b) 12 X 12 marrix super_
imposed on the scene;and (c) pixel intensity values, either black or
white. for the scene.

lmage Processing and Analysis

Z.

The second function in the operation of a machine

vision _clstem is ir,rage p;ocessi;.
The amount of data that must be piocessed
is s.:

anal;'sis.,

q,a:n /irtninallr:

A ----r
. 1,
T

;i

il ;f; ;i;1;
;'ff;JJ ::T#Jt; ;
;.;' ;;r:;;r;;'ilii"i'.
i;

r? t. ech n iq u -' i ;
;;
:t"
l:
T:o
or
r".r,niq","".-i;'ft;;,"..i,1;;
"l:il:imlleo
cq1'oiesor]'
:T;fi:,::::j1,"',T:::,'::,::::1
segmenrarion 31'.'
irsrrrntoioiircr.,"n;qu". r;;;;;;;J',"'o".?ir!'I;'-:::.,

;1

ti:

1,l?/l -^^r

i::

:::$l:

n
*':: r'" r' n . . ; ; ; ;'
:;j j:: :and
: :' :edge
:':'jdetectionI
olding
"
"
":l'j : -' :Thres'iu:ttring
r

::l::

in'or'es rhe

eitr-,er.u'hile

-rhis

or bfack
:::?^l'1y:represenring
defined :hreshorc'arue

;# ;; ffi :;ffi :xl : :i :

;

conulrs;;;;r,rJirijlr,-,
is donc

bl,corriparinr the intg-

,r;;;;;;;., ,r,r.
:"1::.,:;"::1is given.
|::i'::l,h,i
the.h,inar.v bir varue of r*,hire. sa1, r,,iirlr:lr";-;;;.";;.;:rn;"-+
jli.tlg,o,.it
or'brack. say 0 Redu.i"f ,i,. ;',.;; ;;;,;;;,;;,i"or'il!j.,
:l::l'j,::j:.,:-:.1:,.f,1,:1::
d

the

inrate Edge

;;.;;l;;;;;;;'#;;;-

tcctrr;,'r is concerne,l *.ith o'etern:in:nq

rr::,i:tiy tfr.
illr l('LJ:.1(_1il
f.,.uii,rn (lj fr0
an object and its surroundinqs in an imaqe. This is
acc.r:lprished i-,,' idcntif'
r.rLrr (ruraiLirl i!t_1st.\ a{ ijt3 notcl-s ol lht, rr!-1,,61 a .,,,

soiii''are

de

aiggrr-i1h1n.-q

13,,.:-",!_=r.--,,;;.

ri ri,," pi".r

gS

;;;;;:,:;;;;i;;:

hr\e
Ii

hr-en o.rsli,ped' [r:r roll,rrvi;ig

7.4,{,3.i C

tn. norj.1.

u'rnr.,r';;.;,'.:;

Admission Details at

| 982034185s

ftx)t{)gramrnt'try involv"s thc cxtraction of thrcc-dinrc_nsirnrr!

1,!irrir_ frppr ;r
prir
ol'phologrlphs
tukcn at tJiffcrcnt angfes. ThcT*,r prfxrr,rgr:rphs .,rrb* cpJrr.
--ffi.u-niuctrti
t;.' "rrt-rhranaiul.-afi-rrc* u pair <'rf pht.,r.r6n1.'. to foi-rrr ;r
:ni'cc-tJrrtrcnsionul irrratc firr thc vicvrcr.

ln thc nr*r\urunlcn(

pr(x'e-s.\ uscd.Jt:r inspcction. thc lwo phrlt'lr;jphs irrd

crr!lctla nx,n(L-i)lnpuralor.to c.slablish c(x)i-flinatcs antj p,rsiiiol:. r,lribJee lr. Thcse tiat:r arc'lhcn corfiputcr-anal1,z.ed lo
ex(ricltc thc tJcsiri.itl inlirnrr:rtion 'iiris amrn.r,rucnt is illusrratcrl in li!urc
:,:i:,J

hi'

;r tlcvicc

Obiect ro

be

rneaJured

-.
1

r\

C:mera

lmage-

trrocgsang
CO.'nFU ter

FIGURE

Measurenrent systern based on phologramme(ry

principles

3) NONCONTACT INSPECTION METHODS- NONOPTTCAL

en ts.

The three gencral lypes are:

rg lo

l.
2

P'LT -

kor

Elecirical field rechniques

Radiarion rechniques

.1. Ulirasonic.s
ocesstng eil
sed is sign:i

rrnplete

rallzing

oat
:hr

rcessing anr

ntj seEraral:
are thresh:ensity leiej

Redi;:tiott Techniques', R;trli;ttitrn techrriqucs utiliz.c X-rav r:rtJi;rlion

to accompli..h
::' rr''iri:i'iLi ii''i-iLLiir:il l;i(iccdiiics alil nr('i:ils trid ri,clti-i;t
hricarcti pl()dtrcts. l'hc arnouni .i
' l'f ii:rrtl :lir'i'rlr'-'il h'thc m':tal trlricci c;rrr hc trscil {o ir:dicalc lhickness
artd presencc lrl.

re in tensiii

r than tne
ihreshoJci.

fiari:s in liie mclal Jlart or ri'clrled sccti()n An examplc is tlrc

usc ol'.\-r.;rr. inipcctil:r
techniqur's iLr nlessir''c thic|:rtess ol slrci:t metirl nrarlc in ;r rollint
ririli 'l'lie r6\[-]-.r.lr{)i.r l.
pe;-f''1i'nlcd as ln tltt-liile/pt:sl-pi-crccss proccdure. rvillt
inlo:-ril;rlion lrpnr ti.rc irisl-reitir,;i
used lc mitk: adjustrrrents in the olicninr; het*,t:cn roll.s
in thc rnilinq nrili.

'means of
ohiertc
i^
v!\\.I i
v !/J

be Iu'e :i:
on lr:sl tn
',-\,:-

'

feelttcat. riettlrecn"n.l lJr',du:- ce rirrin concJirion:;. an clectricallt,acti'e prr:he

-,in (reale al ieclrri.;rl I'icltl. l'lrc l'ielcl ir;rilcclt.d l.rr.irn ol.r.iccf in tlru vicinit-v
oI thc probc.
iralrlples .l clcclIit';il liclrls irtclutlc' r'c'lrrcr;rncrr. cir!)ircit;rrrcc.;rntj
inducla,rc(.. Ir.l rhc rypi.
..,i ripplie;rii0n. lhc obiccl (rr.orlp;1;1) is
lrusiti,r,.,"j in a cJefirred rcl:rtion rr,itlr respcrct ttr
r::'
1-"rqi-r6'..'\ ttlcitsurclnctlt cl-the rrh.iect': cl'l'ccl tl;t {htc clcctrical l'ielil allo,r.s
an indircct
'r-.r\i.i t,,';tir.ri[ (]r
S;tging <;f ce rlain Pilrl L.ltilr.jt:tcr.istics to bc ntadc. suCh as cJrrne nSiOna.l
''".ililcr. lltitkt-'css tri'slieei ntalerill. irnri irr.\olld cases. fl,rn's (cracks and voids bcl<;*,thc
.r.:r'iit JC r in llic rrr:rlcriai.
:

\t_

r'ct.i.

Snnja-t, 9Bi9 71.i5SC

Lirr,.'it r' pholrxJ irxJc n rrav

rrr o{hc r porition-sensitii.c

plrrrtrr dcrcclo,

l.i.rhtspr;t
.i'lh t
't
|

sn,

V-_-l
llil

R --lili
Vr/
lf...-'j-,l-f
\/'
li
I

tJ

{)trjtcr
llrit'ct

-\

\.

II

\TI

\-.t

ll
'-rri
'/\
*l
I

\\\\;.,

i'
I

j ll:rselirrc

l'igrrrt, 12. l{ l'r irrr'iJrl.' r rl olrti'.':rl

tr

i;rrrgul;rl jtrri scrr:t,rr1

i,
lJltrasonic lnspection f,lethods. Ultrasonic lechniques
r'.qu)forvariousinspectitrnlasks.Sonrc,rlfl.:

make usc ()l- r..,-,i

riiques arc performcd manually. wirereas others are autom:rlcd. Onc ol the au,methods involves emitting ultrasonic \^,Aves from a probc and reflectins rhcrn
object to he inspectcd. In the setup of the inspcction procedurc. an ideal rcsr p;rr.r ,.
in front of the probe to obtain a reflectecl scund pattern.This sountJ parrcrn hccl
standard against which production parts are la{er comp ared.If the reflectcd patterr-.
given production part matchcs the slandard (rvithin an allo,*,ahfe statisticat variaric
part is considered acceptable; orherwise. it is rejected. One tcchnical prohlcnr
technique involves lhe presentaiion of producrion parts in front of thc prcrhe.
extraneous variations in the reflecled sound patterns. the parts rrusl llrr.:rr,s hc
the same position and orientation relalive to the probe.

ADVANTAG

oF

NoI.{ coNTAcT .rNSFeC.TIoNs

Nonconiact inspcclion of iterns is an at(ractivc a,!temative (o the

types ol'methods
discussed in the preledin3 .sccrion Anrong lhc acivantaqe.s of
noncontact inspection
2r?

It usualll, eliminates

(he necd to reposition the workpart.

Noncontact inspection is usually rnuch l'aster thatl ct'lntact inspcction.

it

eliminates rnechanical
',icar cncountered v,'ith the contacting inspection
probc because it climinares rhc probc"

It reduces potential dantcr to 1o:t:pl:. rrho musl touch a hazardous

material if
contact inspection is used.
6. It rem-ores llre poisfbilii' r,f drirrueJ ro rhe surface ,r a parr rl,hich
might
i-e sult durinr contaci ins;xe rion

i:';,--

i:

Sen-;a3,"

*cee

f .g

7 4 4.

5 5'J

Admission Details at

1855

Another set of techniques in image processing and anall'sis ihat t; rrmall,v follows
segmentation is feature extraclion.lr{ost machine vision systers { :re!-af 1{ ze an object in
f
perimetrer,
the image by means of the object's features: its area, length, ii'iti'ir rii,rrlr er.
.r:
::i'
deterrnine
methodi:
extraction
Feature
ratio.
center of gravity, and aspect
{
olding,
edge
obj:r:
of
the
these features based on the area and boundaries
.rbject
,.
tt;
,,,
,t
r,
.,
can bg
detection, and other segmentation techniques). For example. ti;,'
:
,iir,
'
itiplying by a
determined by counting the ndmber of pixels that nrake up th'; i . ' ,:,

I
"
factor representing th.e area of one pixel. Its length can be four:''1 '
tirc'
l,
ui
(in terms of pixels) betg'een the two exlreme oPPosite ed$s
Par

i:

the

distance

Interpretation

i
i

*,"r-,
of thc ri
au

l()rTa

crn of:
rrt is p!a
cc()n'lc:

ri

tern fril
iation).1
n with fir
:, Ttr ei't
: pl;tc. -l

d features.
For an1'given application, the image mus{ be interpreted base, l,,: "i
'
rsk
terrned
u'ith
recogni:':i;:
concerned
'
The interpretation function is usually
;entif.y
'.,!'r
,
thc;'
the
object recognition or pdttern recognition. The objective in
,
T*o cornobjecr in rhe image b;'comparing it *'ith predefined models or stairijarci '.,
monl.v used inter-pretation techniques are template matching and feali.ire wi 'i'i ,,i:.Template
matching is the name given tovarious methods that attempt toconlPare (':r{ 'nore fear in co m'
t ures of an image with the corresponding features of a model or ternplat '-: ' ,
ii
i
wlri<
i,i
image is
puter memory. The most basic template matching technique is one in
compared, pixel by pixel, with a corresponding computer model. Within cc,':,;it statistical
tolerances, the computer deterrnines *'hether the image matches the templa:, 'lne of the
rechnicaldifficultiesr+.iththismethodistheproblernof aligningthepartir;t: , .zmeposition and orientation in frontof the camera,to allow the comparison tr: hr ',,l"jr: without
complications in image processing.
Feature n,eighting is a technique in which several features (e.g..:.i1.. it:::tth, and
perimeter) are combined into a single measure by assigning a weight i , ;,cli feature
according to its relarive importance in identifyin$ thc object.The score of ir!i: ( lrj. {:t in the
image is compared r+r'th the score of an ideal object residing in compt,t,'r' ', ,rlory to
achieve proper identifi cation.

Machine Visiort Applications

Ti'pical industrial inspection tasks include thc follorving:

-{"
JJ

)n

rf

Dinr.,rtsiritta! tt'reusitrc nerit. Thcse applicarions involve detcrrnin!ng thr ,r of certarri cjinrensional features of parts or products usually moving at i :, r.ly high
'r
speeds on a nrclvinq convevor.Thc machine vision sYstcm mus{ compai { I features
deteridime nsions) u,ith the corresponding features oI a ct'rmputer-storccJ trir iri
mine tlre size value.
. Dintensionai gaging.l-his is similar to the preccdirtg except thril ti
, rrnctiOn
rather than a measltrement is performed.
.. ri.[.
" llcri/it'atir;ti of the prescnce of L'ot?tl)Otteni.s. This is donc itl an ;rl',.' '
..:, ;lar io
o l:t'riii<uriott af ho!t lacarion ond nuntherof holes. Opcr;rtionallr {l';
ve
componen{s.
cjiinensional measurement and rilication of
,j ,r i,ail Of
o Dxtcciiriti ,,i siirft:t'c ilnuts anl lt'j'ccts. Flari's anC dcfccts Lrn []ii' t'rri;
,
t ':. I i'1'r Cl O
ixalci-iti ofierr reieal thentsclies as a change in rcilccteiJ liglit.Tlri:'.,
i-Jcntif-t' thc de r iaiion t'iom ar, ide r! model oi the s,rfztcc.
o Dt'!cc'iir;ti r;.1 f/ittt'.t in it 1:rintttt irtl:ei.Tlic iJcl'ect catr trc iri tlie lortrt ol ,,
'',',, l,: ',icJ
iabel or poo;li prinliC tcxt. nunrhrrinq. tti'graphic-s crtt iie liilrli.

Clhtr :pplic:lilrs ir:li:::, ir::i s,liliirs. c.).;illins. r.lifie icni i\ies r,

:isl 3lcrg

a con\

clof. and inventcrv nrc::ito;in5.

Prof. Saniar' - 9819;l{550

i.l,r:

' !r ;n:

z, Scanninq laser beam devices

Not all .scanning btim devices use lasen as the light source, but most c:
Thc advantdge of the iaser is that it is a coherent light beam which can be
great distance.s *.ithout significant diffusion. I ^sen have found nuny a
i n industrial measurernent problems.
The scanning laser beam device relies on the n:easurenrent of
than light, although a light sensor is reguired in irs oprarion. The s:
dia6r'arn of its operation is pictured in Figure . ,4 laser is used to pror:l
tinuous thin bcam of light. A rotating mirror deflecrs the bean: so rha: .acros.\ thc object to l-rc measured. The light sensor is lmated at the foca.

I
>f

f\

a
8

1n
Srgnal

prccersrng

FIGURE

Scfrernatic diagrarn showing op6ration of scanning laser beam

systethe lcns sy.\le m to detccr thc intcmiprion rlf the lighr h:lm as it is bltrckcd h.
ob.icct.'fhc tinre hpsc orrrcsgindin-e to lhc rntcmrptirrn ol'rhc lighr l-rc.run i,::'.
tlred to detcrmine lhc desircd drmcnsinrt of thc'part. Tt'picallr,. ri l11iqp,rpf i'r't...
progranlmcd to ma\c thc conycrsion ol'lhc time llpsc intrr:r tlimcnsirrnlrl r;rlii..
to pcrlilrnr other func{ions. such;rs siun:rlinS lin l'}ul()iililll(' nilfi\-ic jeLiir',r ::-,:i
ism to c.icct a defcctrvc pafl fioni thc ljnc.

Prof. Sar,ic

9879 7+4550

COMPUTER-A|DED TESTTNG ( cAr)

,?-

rf
e

rlrem

Testing is generally applied

unction;r I
performance of a final product. h ma;,also be applied fcr
nblies ol'
tlie final product, such as thc engines and transmissions o! ,iu{o:,,r }.,i .. Tesrin6;
may also be per-formed on individual componenls in u,hjch strir.e Ii,irci .ral a.\pct
of thc component must be examjned and cannot be implicitl,v ,, rrn.ur
Dy means
of a mechanical inspection. An example of this mighr be rhr c.. ,,,: of i, .r.ke lining
in u'hich the dimensions are correcr. but the functional prior-ii:,.;i:e r:, , bc delcrlr.,:-d through a testilg procedure.

proje{-

pplicatkt

ime rail
schemi

ject a c*
11 s$'eq

il pointf

.I,
I

'2

/sl8rn.

J
\

t'r'r'

lt'1c..

'--\
lD

t-

Conrputer-aided testing is simply the appJication oi Ii,'i]Lrii':', itr"r r: the testing procedure. There are different levels of automation r'.;rich '. ii L;. found in
CAT. At the lowest level, the computer v,,ould be used simply to rironilor the test
and anall,ze the results, but the testing prcredure itself is manurllv sei up, initiated. and controlled by a human operalor. In this case tire comp:rrr"r rs'rives rhe
data from a data logger or a data acguisition systm
and
prepare.s a report of the test results.
At a much higher level of aulomation arc cornputer-inlep'r:irii {r:i cells,
rvhich consist of a series of tesring stations (a dozcn or moir r retion: r rri' ,,:rcommon) interconnected by a materials handling system. An a:.iomaigri r i il has
mo.st of the earmarks of a computer-integpated manufac{ur:ng:i}'stf ..r
These cells are ofien interfaced ciirecii: ',r: ti:. j;embly'line so lhat the products flow automaticaliy from finaj a,csern'i,.: ir r:,. r 1gs1ing. All facets of the operation gf the test cell are under coniplrirr li" ,i The
individual stations typically opera(e independently of each orL,:,,r. D,'.,., ,)eration. a product is transfer-red bi' the handling syslem to an ii,. ',,: hle i,
tion.
The test station automalicaliy registers the product in the propri' i+*::rion , , ,, ,,rientation. and attaches the required connecting appantus to condi,i;t tb, test. i i,:: testing then begins with the computer monitoring thedata and anaivzing the r, .irs. If
the p;t;dur't passes the test, it is automaticali,v moved to the next,assembl, ,:ieralion or fin:rl packing. In the event thc prrxlucl fails to pass thc tsi {herc
' 'flen
lhe o:-oi'i-siLrn to trarsfcr the proCuct to a manual station fi.r:- eri,,iinai:i ;)y a
hui,-ran operator. The corr,putercan ofien be helpful in this regerd b;. .;rdici ,,the
reason the test failed, or even diagnosing the problern-.and rerrmll;i ,r,ii;l tl :rioSt
promising repair aiternatit,e. Arother fcature of sonre test cei:,' is t {:t:i ' :i.\'to
I opmal:e adjuslments in the product during the test cycle to fine-t: ,,e ii ,ur,,
era

tion

Computer-ajded test cells of the type descnbed aLxf,r'e ;',

iions r,''here the product is complicatcd and produced in s:'
Eranrprlcs incir-rde auiomobile engine.;. aircraft e ngines, ar,'i e i
circuiis .{d',,a;rtages of these cells includc hieher throughpur r
sisiencr in the test Drocedure. and le.ss llr>tlr space c':cr:pieri r,, '
3i c,.rnpa;ed to a m:nual faciiirv of simriar capacilr'.

Prof. Sanjay 9819 T44SS0

:r.,ljL-1,

:.!tua-

,;i:: fli:.,ltitigS.
i{. I .i.1 ., llC.{.1

. : :' r'i ( i,nr, .r ':ll Clll

.;:

INTEGRATION OF CAOC WTH CAD/CAM

Although many important berefits result from the usc of compurer-aided q
control, additional benefits can be obtained by inregrating CAQC *ith CAD'C:
The nerits of an intcgnted CAD,
and manufacruring srl1 t}e
for
both
design
th,cJ
basic information about the product. The design department creates the pl

&ta base jt,

definition and the manufacruring department makes use of and supplemenc

definition to de veloo the manufacturing pla.r:. It is important to add the QC co:-:
tion to the CAD/CAM frameu,ork. The quality control department musr rrs:
same CAD,'CA,\'! data base to oerform its function.
One u,ay in which the data base can be used is to de"'elop the NC piogtzi

to oprale the tapc-controlled or

comPuter{ontrolled coordinate measui:

machines. Thesc programs can be generated automatically or interactively.
These ptggrams would then be dc *
loadcd to the Cldlr,t through a DNC Jink from t}e c:ntral computer to the contrc:unit for rhc CI,Iil4. Ttrc same sort of downloading process is possible for sorr,e
the noncontact inspertion rrcthods discussed earJier.

Another way

in which a

corTurlon data base

is helpful to QC is *'he:.

engineering changes arc made to the product. Of course, engineering changes ar:
liable to have an influence on inspection and testing. It is helpful for any changes
to be recorded in a colnmon data file for all departrnenis, including @, to use.

Finally, another area wherc CAD/Crl\{ benefits rhe QC fut'rction is in cor'*'puter production monitoring. The t;.pes of production records that are Senerate:
iuring computer monitoring arc some'.irnes usefu! to the quality control departme:':
in traiing rhe cause of Frcnr quality in Rarticular productic'n I1t,
1

R3\9----

iltd
Prc:'. Sar:iai.'98f

*Q

7'44550

:8x41855

Admission Details at

Chapter No. oB

llL) rse
er-aided quali
,irh CAD,'C,{\
rted

rrl,a tlp
rtes the

rpplernents thi
lhe,@ coniri
)t rnust use th

Computer Graphics

P(ocess
GENEEAL DEsIGN

jilrl'ri
OJ Ar'
Tht FIQG,r6 8(' cl' t tgn;ng' j-5 Cho*
st<pj
A6' Stx
Cbnstsk:
;g.roltve gntrd*rrr , '^t'luch
l. Recognition of need
2. Definition of Problern
3. Synthesis
.,on or
4. Analysis and
: i;:tem
.*_ _-J
5. Evaluation
('. Prcsenta:ion
{

i
i

;t
_--J

NC programs
measuring
ctively5en bc downdre controller'
e for sorne of

rie

A nal ytis

oprirrli!

al

nd
io4

)C is *'hen
changes are
my changes
to use.

: is in com: generated
'Cepartment

,@invo]r.estherealizationbi,some.onethai.a1rcble1
existsffictil'eaction51rouIdbctaken..Ihismightbethe|&ntlFr-

cation of some Jefccr in a currenl n-;:chine design by an engirreror the pcrceptlon

of a ncr,.' product manketing cpporirrrtirl' b1'a s:lc-swt on 'Pl":ltiot of tht-ryb:
lei n ir,i oi'" e:r a thorough specification of tite item to be des:gned. This sgrccifir ,,ii,:s
includrs oh;,sicai and funr:tiunal cha-'acteristics, co.st, qualitv. and opcial:nr; ;)eii:rl-rLncc
' Sl n*..i. pd -4.Irh ar,: clcsely related and.higl:Ji' iteraiive in th Cesign
pirccss. A cenan comF)netrt or subsl,stcm of the overall .s1'slem is ccnc. ;rralized
bi'lhc cesigne;, subjccted to andvsis, i::iproved through this analvsj:- cedun:,
:.itd rcdesisncC. The prs:ess is repcaled urrtiJ the design has been q,-tin:.' . j witHn
ll:,: ccrr:iraints irnposed on ihe clcsigrer. Ttre coinponents aniJ subsl'sl,: .ire syllr.irc.sizr'd i;i1..: the final cverail systcm ir, a similar iterative rnairiler.
. Evaluaiion is coecenied *'ith meas:Jfing tlc design agarnst the: 'ii,:,,iion;.
rslabiffiile
problc.;n detln;tit'n pl:asc. This evaluatic,n ofrcn ,,;r ':, thc
ia-liicliticl; enci iesiing of a prt'{ot;'pc mo<lel io essess olereiixg perfc,,
r':i:ai.
iir. ;eii:biiiii,, an,1 otirer criier-ia.,The fina! pha-se in th"- ciesign I
it:
::,
:.,,:;
:--i alf
i:-3rer:riion .'i th: desien. Tnis i:,.:iui'les dccumeniation r:f th:
!:i\\ir.-(. rnaie:-::i spcciiliilic;ls. es:anblr l;sts, znd.so oil. E.':-,,,.
t.'3i1'u lii-,'i :.,ri':-e< llt"? -; ,^/.(;on Ar'..r Frcr V rr- rte,1 Fitrr.'.
, i:lr.:' il'.'
l-;; i..-'-si;;r. i.' i.,e ,Jesign Dlr':::.::rs, i;,:1.ie:i:tr ils ik'i-atirc n3l,i:e
.

Prof. Saniay 9819 744550

THE PRODUCT C}'CLE AND CA-D/CAM

it is ap;
in rhe opcrarions of a manufacnrring firm'
To eppreciate the scope of cAD/cAM
and n
thailust.y
r.tJi,iJ
cxamine the various
cvcle'
"fi."t,ir"r"r'io o"r.r.,i"itiesand funclions as the product
(a).
in.tt.. product cycle is' present'd in Figrrre
F. diagram shou.ing L\e various.,t.p,
is drivcn by customcrs
:n'"1r,
*u,k.,r rather thar- one monolitluc

-o *it:ls

ilil||il:

:T".YII:-'l*.o.'ttn

dl

;i ;4;.

t'::*:t-ll;l',fr,''l?,j" "f*,il
-a *"i**
lill'.T,::,,"f""?ff";; .L,or., groupt
the produ=
rhcre *itl bc diffcrenccs in the *ay
Dcpanding on rhe p"rar"rr*
fun"tioni
In some cascs, lhc design
activaled. j;
"''?'
"':J'!rry'fo*,"11l.*:",".:':ii*:*ig
ur1:T:1,':
;;''""
c" an9
i.T;'
T
i
i#'.il
ii
illff.l' whatcvcr
i:
*i'l
"T:T:l;
thc case, rhe product
same firm.
i
T,:::t]':ldr::
;:
:*"";
produc
the
ptan
ror
'yti-utgiti
f,illfi Jf:::;: :;"tr;::i;;-,;;;p;';d ;ij ,onstated iilo a
indusuiar

m an

t-hc

d:sigr

p'ott"' fi't

fij.;1"Tt#;::J.ll,
should

"ngin."nng

perform
perlormfor

complctes
.his
'hls comPlcrcs

iii:i:

plen'is

g*1l::it^O.it-i::::,t":Tjr?i":r:?1tffi;
indicaring bo*' u:

n.'.0.'*i'p.,rarig " ,.,0rspecifications

. r ---:--r!., r^lnr' r|,p nrorilrcr througlout its lengincering changes which. npicallv-l]]"-.i,,:1;,:"t?:::lJ:::*:;:5

in rlgu" t"l.-,3'.1:i::::l::':r'::",1::'*:3TS""'j;
tl,.
t"" a.sigi-i'ii';ii"'
""'=n'tr'ior*ui;,J *fri.rt spccifics rhe xquencc of production oPeratro:rs
r#'rr',nJ';;;;.' u.'a"quirca to producc

fi.1o;:'"'"1''n..*,

esuipment

-o

the -r.nSnufacture ::
producr ;
r'.n dates. Onc. all of these plans are formulatcd' thc
JO" proaLily
customer'
foltowcd by quality tcsting' and dclivcry to the

pro,duct Schcduting provides a

[lll6t
fijr"tioa

plant that corrmits t}re eompany

tc

"n

Desigrr

Drafting

cnginecring

Ordcr new

Proccss

cquipment

Plann!ng

land tooling

Quality
citritrol

Production

Production
schcduling

'

Figure (a)
Product cycte (deslgn and manufacturing)

TheimpactofCAD/C}\!isr11i|eltinallofthedifferentactivitiesintheproiuctc..:
in Figurc Ol-= t;;putir-ajd'd design
c:T:"-::::
;' ut o n o r rli J prcd11-."u:11"i::"j:1:':.1r";
"::::'.:t't .'-.
*

indicsted

::::?fi#,iJ:,-; #: J;;;;zu''trion' to" tpcienlli-'

:::
G",t
i

and schcduling

,o

io.ro

J::.'; li"::J

-c-".lf"::..:,:"t",1,t:.1:T"tcoir:piriers are 'ised

in quaiirv corrirol,
ilft::?:T";"ffiil*H."#;;;;;;;;",
and its comPonenls'
inip..,lont and performance tests on the ploducl
r,,rl., elt ,rf r.:. acrir.
cADrc'r.\1
vr'"'"':
'-----.-.(h)'
tll rtEuL \t"r'
.- lilllli'--'ll-':::]':-:
illustrated ;;'s*'
As llltaTraleg
.4S
l':{ld
":
-.^-.'i --.'--:-.-=-:-<'r.-*a'rd jlroi[tlor oF::aiions ofTnocer' niaru;"'

;d-l--

offi't

m irt; desrgn
a
Fr\'ast'e'
fi:=m, the comPuter he-s-becone

F.rn.rion,

#.ffiJ-l;if;,:i;:

ttll'it"a i":ltfii:;t^:::::',.;:l:::ti::li:l]1,,'I:'
fi'.s ani thb people ,,'ho aie e*iirlt'" er :.

ffi#;;-;"1';;"r".,".g

underta,rd CAD/CA\4.

::t,-ti. Sa.:a r: 98r g 744':fi4

io :<

Admission Details at

9820341855

_-_->

@
Compurer-automated

drafiing and
docuncntat!on

tis
and man

Desigr

re (a). Thc
rink of thcsc

Drafting

engineei"ing

onolithic
e

product

rd &e

Order new

Prod

cquipment
a'rd toolin

omplished
: a product.

: producl
nesn'lg
bow thc

Quality
contiol

Production

Schcdul ing

out its lifs

,anufacrure c
>erations rcqi

acture of
product

Computcrizcd sched*i

Cornputcr-aidei

produce'thc

mate

qualiqv control

rial

rco ui re;';le i: i

gocs

Product cycle revised with CADICAM overlaid firre.{

CoN CURf,ENT ENbINFEr1lN

6 (Oue.urg DY
.-'' DeslGN-

ln the past. the lnajor luncrions *,ithin an organization would com;.r:

ii ,r taSk b]
''throwin-e ir over the wail" to rhe nexr department in the sequence and R 'r;, bc coir't
cerned u'ith rny internal customer prob'lerns that might arisc. Hencc, th
, quentla!
t,.qii:ccri:;g *,as u.srd to describe the process. Quality,bv de.sign,-cr
: l[ engir,ce rint. reouires tlie major funcrions to be performed at the same time.'
,., r ,em proinrrrrediare feedba.-k, which pfevenrs problems with quality and prr irrr'i, iry from
'ides

occ u rrin S.

.i hrr:rd delinition ot'quilirv

.jesi-r:n rrnd dcvclop

prixJucr

b,r,der-ign is a (eanr ot'specialists whc

ensurc

l! '

ciproducibility'and cuslciri
i:iiui-e 1 5|i1'rr,' s flo*'diagr::ms for borh sequential (or tradirional) er:,
,:i't lnd qualir-r b.v dcsign or corlcurrent engineering oh the righr. In qir:,r'
cniinccring (such:rs rneciranicai. clectricat. structural. qrraliry, mater.

proCuct c1c.:

utilized i:
process

in

Pl:---

proCuci:
.iSed io ;e::

rc)

ca.se

'

treousll
f action.
, ()n rhe

l',. .icsign,
,;j' ,'rcti()n,
.l r'-, t.t[rfnefs

;;i.l husiness (.\uci'] a.s nui'chrsine , marketing, finance) as u,ell as supolieir

i:';r;:'stofrn toscther to dcvelop a pro.Juct that considers ell facets cf jt:. :,rii il{)iiality
:.' "r"-'li :rs irs cos(s. $'hen ceclr t,f thc specirlists has early input io the pr;.;rlr, rii.rfiltition
;::j siruiicriions. cost i.; rninirnizctl lrid pcrfclrrnancc is niaxirnizcc. I lru.., ir:tier.
., ;:iiri'; l.rr,dtrcis;rrc ni;rnrrfi,erurcl flr lcis cost r,r'ith shoncr rinie to markci

'ign,

fx'st,
t.{

ir oi. :.::r j:r' - liSl9.-iii:tl

Sequeotial

Ingineering

Engi nrcnng

lr,;nufrsturr ng
rroducl

Pcrformancc

-.-

Dcsign

Cost
Ir{ ar kc

ra

t'il i ry

Aesrhctics

\trification

Verificadon

fr
T

Flgure

Prodr,rct Dcvelopment Ftow Diagram

There is obviously a longer lead time involved in *r9 traditional metho.d,

because ea-b
stcp is performed independent-ly and sequentially. one afier anotler.
As problems arise,
the prqect is scnt back to the appropriate area and the process
starts over. Because there
is a higlr level of technical specialization at each step. numerous
cycles are common,

lF*

The
qual!ty b-v design (or concurrent) engineering method combines
.n ,t,.r* steps into one.
The product is designed to be successful at cach srage ofits life cycle.
It is deiigned correctly tie first time, ct'nsidering ailattributes and facets of its Iife. such
as marketabilit-r'. assernLrli', und serviceabjritl,. belbre relca.se ro tesiing
and. finally,, to pro<luction.

Design changes that occur late'in the producr developmenttye

f e cause ihcrcaTed lead
tinres ard, thus, higher cosrs. euariry by design herps contror
design changes by _shifring
all the design tc'the beginnin,s of the project rarher rhan rhroughour its *'hole
life c1,cle,
:ts shor'n in Figure -2. The shifiing of all design ro the b,-linriing
of the projecr increases rhe iine re.;u;red lbr initial de.sign: hou.ever. the
future benefits out*,eish this
in c re a::e.

Fraf. Santal' 9e1-e 744550

I
Admission Details

t
/,*.'u*.rrl
errorlrr{
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| 9,t?n,.,i,,g55

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Qualiry by design

r-{"J
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SNI
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Segucnrial enginecring

,I

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I

r.'l

Raii-*

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=,;-'e -2 Hypotheticat product

l5

Timc unir

Devefopment Iime Line

:=\AFITS
The prima* benefit of impremenung
quariry by design rechniquc: :
cie?se in ume ro marker. orher
benefits orqu"iiry uyiir:gn rechnjiri .:.1

;ii de-

. Fa5ter product developrnent.

. Betrer quelir;,.
' irss u'crk jn progress.
, Fe',',.er engineer,ine change ordei.s.
' increased productiviti..
/-\
ach
r

se,

fhe

;$-F

i{}

or.;l
ttt-

ead
r{r5
'lc

I
L-.

3'tr4 --(H'\\rAtt "

A1>pr:tta CL,

inhis

Sanjay 9819 744550

ts)

-+7*nt-,al

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Geone rn tc

!]

14

0Dg LIN

Wire-frame models
Most currentday graphics s)Ttems use a form of modeling called wire-frame
modeling. In the c-onsrruction of thc wirc'fnrrr nndel, tbe cdges of the objecu are
tin... Figure t illusfated this form of rcprcscntation.
shown
"r
con. The imagc assunes thc appcarance of a frame
slructed ou' of *ire-hencc tlrc narnc "wire-frarne" rnodcl'

Ft6t
to
Thcre are lirnitations to thc nrodels which usc thc u'irc-frame ?pProach
casc
the
pronounced'tn
form the image. Thcsc limitatiofls are, 6f coursc, cspccially
of tlrecdirncnsional obj+ts. In nnr:y cases, wire-frarrr mqJels are Quite adequate
for two{inrensional rcprescntation. The'rbost conspicuous limitation is that aII of
thc lirrcs that definc rhe cdges (and contourcd surfaccs) of the model arc sho*n in
thc irnage. Many threc-dirncnsional rrire-frame systelrs in usc today do not pos'
scss an butornatic hiddcn-linc rcrnoval fearurc. Conscquently, thc lines rhat inCicarc thc edgcs A the rcar of thc modcl show right though the forcground surfaces.
This can causc thc imagc to bc sonpwfiat confusing to thc viewer, and in somc
cases the irnage might bc intcrpretable in several different ways (e.g., Figtne Z)

Perspective view ol
FIGURE 2
lhreeiimensional obiecl ol Figure 6.9
rvithout hidcjen llne rernovaj.

There are also linritations *ith tlre u'ire-frame models in the u.a-v many CAD
systetns definc tlie model in thcir data bases. for cxarnple, there migit b ambiguity in the casc of a surface definition as to *.hich side of the surface is solid.

-g]

Solid models
An improvenrel! Qvet *ire-frane models, both in terms of realism to the user ald
definition to the computer, is the solid modeling approach. In this approaclr, the
models are displayed as solid objects to the vieu'er. u'ith very little risk of misinterpretation. When :olor is added to the image, the resuijng piciure becornes str-ii:-

ingly

I
I
I

realistic.

Admission Details at
Thcre arc trrro factors u&icb prornote future wide$rcad usc of solid modclers

(i.e., graphics syrterns witb the cripabiliry for solid modeline). The finr is the
increasing awareness amofig uscrs of thc limitations of wirc-franr systems- As
powerful as toJay's ri,ire-franre-based CAD systems have bccome, solid model
systems represcnt a dramatic improvenrnt in gnphics tmhnology. Thr second nrson is the continuing developnent of computer hadwue urd software $,hich n:::i:e

solid modeling pnssible. Solid modelers reguire a Ereat deal of compuratic:ial

po\r,er, in terms of both speed urri nrinory, in order to opcrate.

Two basic

I.

approachcs

to the problem of

Constructivc solid geometry ICSG or

solid modeling have been

G*p),

also callcd the building-

block approach

2.

t.

Bouncia,a representalion (B'rcp)

coxsrRurrrv sourD GoHeT|(y

tcsG

c-

oy

,/-7-"@.
gl-_ /--\

Q--J

"cr)

a-n ndb Stmdt $tor*.}rr c Sho.gta -Such o.b cub<A

Sglrrr<+ , (gl;n&r, Con4 elc .-olr trbtd.
Th.rat gllmerila*y
c SVro.at-a o.T< adRn Caurd o.S
$(sN-k|
Pr/rni bVra . Tt\r
id{a -r,5 ff Lomtrr,.r o. flurnlaX ott fi\r4{ Pn'rntHYe,
J:, c-,<.af. Corng\r Solid fno&14. t hja Co nrtruda v e
so\'d cflodrj..n1. ( cs e) ogp6ach jb
.o.l+c Kno.on o4
.

z)

B*rl

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aa

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:uth o-! union , inhrsrtl.J*,r oY d{,(t *rc{ .
Af

f,rnl.nJ h v

i n voKe

Prcotl. , fu
cl

Unr

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O

S''rrf,o-c^a

Tkr boundal, -rYaqtnlolron ofPnoch bt+a,'}l

t1^t tlbr-d J3 d.rc,^: t1^r- o*1lrnr d^to'r"X ott LKr PG'l:
t'xrd ir
t1t, otrl,Itnr d.rq-(nt eor-n"'T'oJ1
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Admission Details at

Lrn

of tht 6ro.vb ( In ordA l:l g{qift

(o'ln ot h..t r^no drJri C-ornf orrrnf
f3ounda\ mo&J.rn-1 -L5 cn^rrh f.:"\t'r'l
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for Horra

tqlqblc

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Con'io,-'r'.

Cor.{'r

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l. glo.cr. in 'J" r&Vil\t i - 5,' h$1
stfo.r!.gr-:l
far h c*J,Y
jA qtv{ n J:'3 J J,.
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q344 r'
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The t'*'o approaches have their relative advantagcs and dis:r,i.",rrrr:j j..: The
C'rep svstems usually have a significant proccdural advartage in li,r:. i;,,;,irj ;,rrrr.ru;a:ion of the model. It is rclatjvely easy to construct a precisc scijrj r:. ,:ir:l uut of
repular solid pdmitives b1'adding, subtracting, and intercccting drt;. (:$rntr3nen15.
Tir building-block approach also results in a rnorc compact file of thc mojel irr the
c:(a base.
On the otler hand, B-rep syslems have t\eir relative advantages. Ci,:. of
r-m becomes evident rvben unusual shapes are encountercd tl.ral
'.vould nr,: b:
:::,iuded *'ithin the avaiiable repertoire of the CSG s)'stems. This kind of sitrr:,r!on
:; exemplilied by aircraft fuselage and wing shapes and by auromobiie bojr,.rtl,l::-: such shapcs would be quite difllcult ro develop w,irh rhe buiidrn;,',lr l:
::'::-oach, but tlie brundarl'rcplesentation method is ver; feasible for thjs ,.: r:{
--'rlpm

::r

A-nother point of comparison bel*,ern tlie two approaches is the diffe,r r'r.i, :ri

u?.''the nrodel is stoi-ed in the &ta ba.* for lhe two systems.':r:l i,i,
':?:oach stores the model by a combination of data and logical procedirrr,, iri,

3.:clean model). This generally requrrcs less storage but rncre ccmi,
::::+Juce the model and iu image. Bi,contrast, the B-rep sysrcm stores i , :.t,i; .;
:,::lr:tion of die mode.l boundaries. This rcquires more storag? space bui .'.'!,
-'--essitate nearll the samc computation effort to reconstruct
ti':e imape.
t'|
:t::ili of tire B-rep s.\,stems is thai it is relati'ely simple to conr,*n baci: ' 'rli,
i i0::i
:<":.:n a bounda-1' representatjon anc a conesponding \\'iie-fianx ri):,', 1: 't l
--4si.ii is that the nrodel's boundary definition is simjlai lo the r, :tr l;,,r, i i,,
- :-. r'hich
faciliutes conversion of one form to the olher. Thi: ;irc:c" 1i;i r:iri
:
B-rel
s,\'stem.s
compat!hie n'ii; 6r.!_<1!19 C.$ st.si:r-,s .,rut ii .i;,i. i,, Li
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t

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Admission Details at

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ca.n

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\'ISUAL REALISh{
will display all paru of Lfrc ob-:
The graphical techniques that have bccn discussed so far
are ob'scrved, internal deurcal.'objects
if
$e viewer, simply as a collection of lincs. Now,
q'ill
surfaccs will take on di5:
and
cast,
be
iJ"uti,""a from view, shador*s
CAD systems have 'l::
conditions'.
ligltfing
local
intcnsities asd bues according to thc
vicwing conditioas
cclebracd in reccnt ycars for thcir ability to simulatc such 'rcalistic'
in nlo disrinc:
&chniques
application.of
thc
involvcs
images

iil;;;'jlj

i{, g*;,ton

of rcalistic

or colouring
the removal of hidden surfacJ fiom rbc image, and thc shadiag
conditions'
lighting
tbc
modelled
to
swfaccs in a mautcr appropriatc

of the r:

raster display technologies, becausc

These lechniquqs arc fouaded on thc usc ofcciour
ma-.v be scr to a djfferenr
individJ
displ"',,s

tr'

*l3y,a9 i"-tti:t:-l:":::-t-:'i^lt.':
fi".t
of colour and shadc. An allied gioup of proceciures for ":
.r."
#;;;';il;;;
realism of rcmoYing obs:'
dispiays and plottcr tr."t it 5.9.P. acbicvc rhc morc limjted
removal'
edies and ,*i""" ctrvc is callcd hiddcn-line
'och

of thc early
These proccdurcs prciatc biddcn-surface rcmoval bccause
finl
vector icviccs, and tbercforc it is thesc that wc will address

1.

Hidden-Linc Removal
vcctors i:: the r-r
or
In.hjddcn-li:nc (sorrctimcs callcd bidden.cdgc) removal, cdgcs
-otrcr
or dispiai':
ihc
irnage,
of
thc diJplay
rhar arc obscurcd Uy viSUtc surfaccs arc omiui &om
visiblc
is
rechniqucs
rhe
for
artcraativc narne

'il;;.
ffi#i "Jt;;#
idcntification. T|c

proJs of g*;tinq

*i';;';;r;;;';;;;-Jd;

bourdaries. Ir is tlrercforci

f",ri6y

a hiddcn-line.irnages

i:.ti-"11{1ltly

op"nsive, although techniques suc:

geometry) and spe:
irnaginary

against every facc in rbe object is very computariooaty

tti"

appt;caiion

of Uoxiig t.ttr 1g*"-ting.

31 lf.t

pcrformancc'
subdivision of the model havc becn applicd to improve

Figureshowsatn'tchiddenJincimageofanobjectandt.|recorespondingirnage
tesse

lated approx imaiion'

,\!a-

3d
liiE

B"
IE
-I

III

X-i

t-tl

ric modet against muttiprc, oflcn inegularly sht

is
proceCs: ertsintt thc approach il.whicir cach cdge

Adrnission Details at
i

.i_r41955

HNDEN-SARFACE REMOYAL

a-i
,

Hidden'surface rcmoval (alrc callcd visiblc rurfecc detcrmlnafiant is, by conbast,

more
gencrally-image-sprce procrs{'.g lrnag? of al objcct is generated at I psrticular
rcsotuion Uy
manipuJating pixcls on a rasct dirplay, exploiting thc abiliry of rasrcr deoiccs
to disptat;h;;d

hc objoct
il detail

Jhe imaee-soacc approrct mans rbllpcrforoeage of hidderr"i; r altorirhnu.'Thj; i,

;,..i_iSStr/ fo dcvotc large
computing effoi to the gcneration of fne sceoc dctsil for complex :tri:dels. go*.rl"i,-iti,
n'rrc.essary to recompuie tbe diglay for aay changc !e ccalc.

on d!

e-rees.

,.rurr

rve be
ions

is',inct

Ore of the simplcst hjdden-surfacc algorithrns is thc deptb-buffer or z-buffer algorith4.

This
algorithm uses rhe &ame buJfcr for tbe disptay
jorceh*pirEl

rusc in su
' to etvc
s

thcYi

for veci

L3 obscurc

turthesr

po

"

ur.

iJu.,

rl:e

flris

m!nance

!::r

by fint scning thr dcpir

pixcl ro rhc
"*i-itu' L ca;h
;i ;:;;!; ;ffi r}",il
;iff
A;T#:i,:",#;
pixcl
ajgonthrn works

buffer contains tbe hidden-surfacc iorgc of thc

6-arne

"r" '

^,oig

The image characteristics tJ'at are cxploited are forms of cohetr,.r,.,r, i,

describes the generally slow'changc in moving irnages wirh timc, i1-,11r 1|1g
6,
in colour and shade sithin-an imagc. ,+ good *'ay of grasping ti,:,
,igs,
consider the display of a terevisjcn piaure: (carpont dhotn".
.ol, .:-i ,
means Lhal one fiarnc is oftea very sinilar to thc ncxt; the
simiiarit.. I ,r"
the irnagc is called scrn-riac cobercncc, whilc tic simliarity in
corour i *,.

thc

moCC
,isplayed er

,isiblc lir

n8 proccss.
shapeC

tlre picture is aq example of

gc rs
ues such

rprtial

cohcrencc.

Finall.v, much hiddcn-surfacc removal also rel.ies heavily

rnd spatii

on

t:ol1,g,

l;i a tcrm tlat

-:,rjuar change
.i,,.r.,enrcics

to

, iime, and
:. .r ljncs of
,:,,,., , : rarts of

.1,

tessellated

represenktions of surfaces and faces, as shoun in

figurc (Oe dcpth-bufer*r, ,-n*h
*"
any model representalion for which a depth and shadi
".r,
at an arbir;ary point ,.' t* .o*pu,.o,
although ir of,en also uses a potygonal ,.p:T.nyignl.
f\" U*-,;:,fri".jpi.

t" 1T: T
4+9!'q:"t
that is *idel1' applied,
known as

rge fron:

3-

,,1,;i;

to to_d

t,,)e: ,.ilng rrrL.rique

"lto-Jrt*in-*tT6;cir pixe)r, Iic u.rii:in the
rsrore.

scan .onterrr'on,
projecred imagc of a given po!1,gon.

DEPTH-BUFFER n{ETHoD cr Z-BuFFER METHOD:

'4 commonll' used imaee-space

metbod.

"il"h

approach to detecting visible surface is tlrrr depth !:uffer

irqpjel* rr;,

proced,r.e is a.lso refcned to as the z-buffer

merhod,;inQ.;[,;;;-_pAl;;iiii,iifri",,..,,r"a
from the I'iex'plale along the z a.v.is of a viewing syslem.
Lch'su,{ace of a sce:ir, is proi,,ssed
sepa-'arel1', one poinr ar a rime ecross rhe surfrcc.
The method i, *Jry
r,l,"r. .n",
cont:lning cnly pol;'gon surface, because deprJ: values
"pprlJ ..:r,rj the
can be coroputed rrryqu!cl:i.,
i:lethod is easv to irnprement. But the rner-hoi can
be appried to non-pranar i.*f'ce.

ii'iih

^esr.rlt

of

u5seo.ler.:

tl.--ilEi

lcffe.llq![9gLq

ir
-d,.fll cach
nmjlrio! of th? objecr, if rhe ri, . .f the oryccr &om *re
vieupoint is less tban rhe currcnt$dept\ thc &9tb rad colour velucs i,,r rhat
pixei'arc rcplac:d
b-v tJre vajues fo:
t new objccl Wbcn we ril objags i.n rhc rnodei - pr,i.esrid, tjre
procc5sed,

{y

of

object desc;iptions conrerted to projcction coordinates,

each (;r, ),, r) I
-s',irface corresponds. to the orthographic projeciion point
k, .1',) c,i, t;.,.
Therefo.re, rcr each pixei posirion
1r, 11 cJtire view piene, obje cr Cepths ,,,

poll'goa

conpa-'i;g z r':lues. Figr:,-e sho*s rb-ree su:faces at varling

prciecticr l:ne nc;:i position
ia a viev",piane taken

al

tiis pls:rion. sc ils surf:ce intensitl..l.a!ue

Fi.of. Sanjay'98i

iir*,.., a.li,
* ti.r"1,, pia:,,;.

(x, 1,)

714550

at (.r,

1) is saved.

L,..

rrlo-o

.:ed b1'
,a-t ;^

:r,r
'

i;sest

We can brplemcnt tbc deplb-buffcr algorith'n in normaliTed coordinaics, so that z valu=

tJre back clipping plane to rN st tbc tront clipping planc. The value of z^o ce.
eithcr to I (for a unit cubc) or to the largest value that can bc storcd on the systcm.

from 0 at

iA'

At view-oianc Dosition (x, y), surfacc Sr has tbc snrallcsl dcpth from thc
visible at lhat positiorr.

vieu

plage e:.:

As implied by thc nane of tbis mcthod, two buffer srcas arc required. A dcpth bufcr is
slorc dcpth values for each (r, :) position as surfEces ere proccssed, and thc refiesh
stores thc intcnsity values for each position. Initially, all positions in the deptb buffer ar:
0 (mininrum dcpth), and the rctesb bufcr is inttiatizcd to-thc brickground inrcnsit).
surfacc listcd in thc polygon tabJes is tbcn proccssd one scari line at a time, calcr:lat
dcpth (z val-uc) at cach (r, y) pi1el position Thc calcul4-tcd d-ryth iq comparcd ro u\e
prcviously storcd in the dcpth buflcr at that position. If the calculucd dcpth is gnrer r
value stored in thc dcptt bufcr, tlrcn new dcptb valuc is storc4 aad the srdacc intcrsit>
position is dctcrmined and pleccd in tbc i;ane rry locatioo il the rcfrcsh buffer.
r

Surnmarization of the steps of a dcptb-buffcr algorithm as follows:

l.
2.

Initializc tbc depth buffer

d+th (:, y) -

0.

and rcfresh buffcr so thal for

refresh (r, y) =

h*oa

"!

l"fo

positions (r, y).

For cach position on cacb polygon surfacc, comparc dcp& valucs to prcviously
in thc dcpth buffer to determioc visibility.

value-c

.
.

Calculate thc depth z for each(x, y) position oo r]:e polygon.

If z > depth (r, ),), thcn set
dcpth (r, ,) = z, refrcsh {r, y) = Ir",t{r, i

\\"lrere ,fu,.rgu is the value for t}te backgrounC iniensiry, utd lrurt (r, y) is rhc projected i;.:
value for the surfacc at p!re! position (r, y). Aftcr all surfaccs bave becn proccssed, th:
buller contains depth values for the visiblc surfaces end the refresh buffer conu:--:
corresponding intensi:y values for those s'.rfaces.

j:r-iil.

*ee,",ya;. gSt.g 744SSs

-!

7L

STANDARDIZATION IN GRA PHICS

$.;ith thc prolifcralion of cctnpulers rrrd s,rfr*arc in Oc market, il became nccessaD, ro sturr1.udizc
c:rtain cJencnts er caclt stagc, so lhal intesrrrient madc by compaaics in certain h.:,rdrvare ur sof:wrirc

1\'&5 rrcl totali-v lost arrd could be uscei rviih.rrrt rr:,:ch rnoditication on thc neu,er arrd rJiitcrcar
s).slenis.
Star,dardization in engineering hrrc!u,are is u,cil l;ntrvn. Fr.urhcr. it is posslble to obl,airr irarr1r+,a;c an.l
scft$'are from a n,r.nber of r'cndors and t\en !:'integraicd into s single sl'slcin. This rncrrs thlr ,-\crc
should b: compatibi,liry bet*'ccrr ya..reu.s sofir',,rr.'e lemenrs as also bct'rvecn Lhe hardrva.c a;-i,J soft*,agc.
'This
is achievei bv mar'nr:rjrring prcper iai;:rl,:lc ..t::Jida:ds al vario'rs level.s. F'otlorvir:g ul sorne ci'

thrn

'
.
.
.
"
.
.
'
.
.
.
.

GKS
PIIIGS
COR-E -

{Crphical

Kern,-.| .Srstc:r:s}

(Programrncr's i{icrarchics! Inierfacc for Oraphics}

(ACI,4-SICGRAPH)

CK.S-3D

ICES
DXF
STEP
Dl\{IS
\'DI
VDI\{
GKSM
NAPLPS

{Jnirial Craphlcs E.r.changc Spccificarron)

F-xchange Forma:)
(Sra.ridard l,rr rhc Ll.tclra.nge ol'producr Model Dara)
(Dirr,er,sionalh,teesuremenr!nrerfacespccificarion}
(Virr.ual Dcvice Inrerface)

(Dra*'ing

(Vinual &vice Mcrafilc)

(GKS Mcufite)
Norrh Arnerican Presentation Levcl protocol Syntax)

Schematicalil , tlre ope,ation of the-se srandards *'ith applicarion protrarns

Dctails of somc of rhesc :irand3rds are discussec in rhe foliowing sections.

I
L.._

Craphics
Darabase
-'-t
"

i-^. ce l rn', er

lucrr
i Devicc i

I
!

Device Drivcr

Various Standards in Graphics programming

Graphical Kernel

Sl.sren-. (CKS)

'lektronics Pi'rt I0
GI\O-F fi-oir CAII Crctre. C:rnh:-iCg,:

is

depicre,j

in

Figure.

6'

Ho*'ever, the real ellort as regards standatdisaticn ciunc from,lCM-Sl(;GI-I'{PH in thc frrrnt of I
in 1977. In 1979. DIN relcased tlrc vcrsion of 6KS. Tating- all thc exrstirtq
lnckzgcs, ISO has standardised thc GKS as a 2D :;tandad in 1981. lle rnriri r.bjcctirei thi;:-'
p:rt forward for GKS arc lhe follcsr;ng.
t. To provide thc complete rarrge of graphrcirl lrrcilitics rn 2D. including thc intcractivc caprbil,i.
2. To conuol all typcs of graplricdeviccssuch r.s plottcr:;rrrd displal'dc'viccs in I cott-<istcnt ma-':
standard

for a varicty of progarrrs.

contribudon
of GKS for the graphics prograrnrning is in tcrrtts of lhe laycr mc.
Tire
ma-or
.
'fliis c.
shown in figure Ar environmenl for usc'! to work is tcrmed as Work Statiorr in CKS.
v.'orkstations
arc idcntical. The characteristici c:
VDU, plottcr or printer. For a programmcr, all

3. To

bc srnall enorrgh

workstations are
worksution.

built into GKS. It is aisc possible to rvorli simultaneously on

urore

lh,a:

Application Program
Appl ication Orientcd La,ver
[-an guage-Independent Laye r

Graphic Kerncl System

Operating Slstcm
Graphical Rcsourccs

Layer Modef of Graphics Kernel Systern

The coordinale frames avaitable to the users of tbe fotlowing tfuce types.
World coordinates (WC) which arc the uscr-oriented drawing coordinetes.
Normalizcd dcvicc coordinates (I.IDC) u'hich is a unifon-n s),s{em for all work staticns.
Dcvicc coordinate-" (DC) are rhc actual coordinete system fcr the particular u'orl: stelion
Input mcthtrd; into GKS environnrenl arc organised in 'Jrc follorving war':
LOC,{,TOR means of entering the location in vrorlC cu.crrjinates.
VALTJATOR real value in lcrms of dislances.
CHOICE integer options such a-s 0, l, 2. 3. ctc
to select an object or segment in a drau'ing alieady createC
PICK

(i)
(ii)
(jii)

STRING
STROKE

charactcr values.
ro provicje continuousll'the locaiion values in world coordinates.

For dra*'ing lines, the concept of PEN is used. PEN has the attribulcs of colLrur. thick;res:
line gpe. Lines can be drawn with any PEN thst ca,r defineJ. 'l}e basic graphic primitives rhil rnade available are.

. POLYLINE for lines aftcrspeciff ing in thc l:nci t-r'pe. !ine rvidth anci li;re cr'lour
. POLI'F{ARKER for spccific marker t;'pcs aftcr specify'ing t}re t1'pc. size and ccloui.
" GEI{ERALISED DF.AMNG PRII\{ITIVES (GDP) for specific graphic pnmitiles s'-:arc, circte, etlipse, spline, etc.
o TEXT after speci$'ing font iy'pe, precisiolr. cclour, height of thc box, c.rrra;r.on t , ,

spacing up vector and *re path (left, right, up or do*n).

AREA foi batehing and fiiling of :reas.
Lt esscnce, thc GKS is essentially a set of proccdr:rcs i.l':z.i ca.n be called bi'user pi'ctrarns lbr ca::

. FILL

oul ccrtajr generalised functions. In thc intcrest of i:rlerchangcab:lit.)', IS0 ha< idcnti fiei c-::
aaling ccnienrions foi-all-ihesti funr'{iirni :n. ';a:'fo',i !rn'_gu-a5ciirl dl.-r to aiitc?"ra ;f thc-iE7:

,
T

of thc progra-'nmirrg la::guagcs.

GKS is cjefineC in terrns

ol a nu:;bl:' c'i'ie',cls i:scribing ihe lclcl cf -s'.,p';roi in t::r:

faciiitjes. The highest. le','el is 2c, the'.:gh lcr'*i lr is llic nrc.si conrnio:ii-r' a,.arie.L,lr ii:ii:;"
marginal cjifference in {ern-,s of tire icngth of inpri qrrr'-r (5 in i,rse of 2c a.rrd 0 in c..,sc ol-lh
r.i.lj'r:,b,er of implcne:rta'rj:ns r-c a"ajlable lc- t-rKS r:;; i :,;is tf cc::::uir: sL-.:,"l:::: ::.r:i :'i. n'.:;:
i,l:: irlal;: lr;i;'l']e,:cr,1llLi('is.

:,i3;' SE';t

Admission Details at

;q

f(rrnr ofC

cXr-s{t,lC

cti\e5

tl-,{):ir:

Pic Slice
.g-lii5

6,1rul

cteristics of

1 rnore

Circle

Grapl'ics Primitives in IBM GKS

re laycr

5.

982034'tqss

lhax

OTHER GRAPHIC STANDARDS

Besidcs GKS, which is u'ell acccpted, a nurnber of separaic standards have been dcvelcpcd to acld:-ess
thc aspccts *'hich werc not covcred b.v GKS. Some of thesc standards are briefly d:scr-:l,td belo*..

Thc GKS has bccn subscquently cnhanccd to provide a

sepa-:-atc

staadard for the th-r*e dimensions as

6KS 3D, '*.hich mainta:ns compatibiliry uir-h the 2D standard.

Tbc othq 3D graphic standard is PHI6S (Prograrnrncr's Hierarchical Intcrfaic for Graphics), being
ecccpted by the CAD vcndors as the system capable of taking carc of thc 3D graphicai :.,crk as rvell as
a::-L'nation. Some of the features thal arc spccific to PHIGS and are not well supporred .,r'GKS are the
f': llorving:

.
.
o
'
.

;taticns.
1: station.

vcFI high intcractiviqv

hierarchical strucnring of dau
real timc modification of graphic dara
support for geometric animation
adaprability to distributcd user enviroamenr

Li:

North American Prescntation Level Protocol S1'ntax,(NAPLPS) is the prcss:,,,ion srandari

::relopcd jointly by the Canadian tovenment and AT & T and othcr compuler nunicarion
-::panies as a basb f<tr tronslcrring dato from compul.rs io the video display s-1 , .: such as

r.lete-d and other

vide-o prescntation rystems.

The N.a.PLPS is a means of cncoding t\e graphlc dau consistjng of borh gi'aphlrs a,r,j;.,:,t! inro an
::scrijc,elly tansferablc format (ASCII). Some of tte major features of N.A.PLPS are th: f,:.llowing.
' :Ihe Nr'.PLPS c.ode is compac( and is roughly about l0 perccnt in comparison qiii thc olher

fcrmats.

'

The gaphic format uscd is resolution-independent. As a result. if the ourput prr-.J::ccd on a

lc'"r'er rcsoluiion s1'stem is displaved on a highcr rcvolutiern s)'stcm the ourpu'i u,ct:l,j be more

'
.

The N,{PLP-s is ca;rble of

t:ievision broadcasting signals.

JT

cclow.
;mitit'es
:ansion

Tr.a;i-,a,:

ear.
be

ing i;rtcgraled inro

iii

ccnrirunicat;(ln nel*,r:1 . -such

as

r.iCeo tapes, elc.

The colour look-up tables form pad of NAPLPS transmission .,r.hich enabl: a l:i;,, ,.a,rge of
colours lo L' produced instantaneousi;- on the hcst s).siein.
\\:iS the developments irr rhe VI-Si rechnologi, these graphic standards air..,:r,,:i1,sra;ieC
-::=:"an! in lta,-d*a.e iir thc fr,rni ol g;'aphic adaptcr carcs oi
spec;al ;.urpcsc c;r;ps ii'-' j rc iiiplr.r'e
--

.rn: lbr ca::

lcnii fiei c-::

: .-;lpl

c pcrfornranc e.

Iritial Graphics Ercirange Specifica{iou (IGES)

-: - 3'. e:'. lhe i6ES is rhe mosl conprchc;rsi.,e sta.rdard a-i k duisncd Io trdnsmi! the:t:
..:-=:::tn including that ol nanufacturing anC onl
er sssoctarcd infornrc
rinc

ri-a nh;1..c..-l-..

.^f

- iri--r'

l: t-dES Lt,e recorc-s are Die-(cn: ''r,il; E-1 coiurni f;ei;s, rrj:h cclur:rs I tc ?l p:r.., i:.r. ,--.e cetz
::.,.r.ns
?-l to 80 prc'. iC;ng d s3ri'uc.n:i t'.u,;bcr icl the record r,'ith identiilcaiion as lo ix: Jocali(rn
--:
:-1.-seciiJr
1Li: scq,ejrcr r.,::,1'c',, ;, -' :::.:- as :,..1,i:,:il l-cr Lhc d:r;r. I:. ial'!:,t::.--i.sists
--:
-: ',..:r.in! i

s-:l-se::rcn:.
!

.r'-

9S19:11550

(a) Flag Seaion

This is optional and is

userJ ro indicrte thc fcrnn in *'hrch rhe da(a is spccifi*d. Orieir.:r]ii,. -<
versions containcd thc data in ASCII format *'iih a ter1, dctcilcd stnrcrure . This has b.cen r.r.:
a nunrbcrof peoplc in viewof the tery luge filc sizcs From version J 0 onwards, thc lormal
standardizcd in the follo*ing rhrce modcs.
. ASCII mode default oprion

'
r

Binary firrm

Compressed ASCII form

The otha lwo options provided will hclp in reducing rhe butk of rhe dra*'ing exchange file
c'g'J?lf. su.nf'rr !::s a siarting char:c!:: signiiylng thc sub-secticn. They:-.::
S for Start scction
C for Clobal section
D for Direcrory enu1y sccrion
T for tcrminate scction

P for Parametcr entry scction

(b) Start Scaion

This scctioo contajns a man-readabtc prologue to thc filc. The informarion containcd in this
csscntially for tJre prson who would bc post processing rlris for aly orher application. Any nu
lines can bc contained in this section. A sample li-sting an IGES fitc for the diawing shown in F
(c) Global Scction
This contains information about dctails of the product, t-hc pcrson originaring tlre producr, nar::3 i
comP$y originating it, datc, the dctails of thc system which generarca ir, &anlng standard u:.::
rcme information requircd for iS post processing on the host computer.

(d) Dircctory Entry Seaion

For cach entity present in thc drawing is fixcd in size and conbins 20 ficlds of 8 characrcn r
purPose of this section is to provide an index for the file and to contain anribute informalion.
lhc atributc information such as colow. tine t1'pc, transformation matrix, ctc. may be prescnr
or through a pointcr (to a record in the sarne file) wherq lhe necessary- infogrlration is srored .
contains the pointer to tie parameter data scclion enrry u'hich actually. contajns the :'equisitc prr

d8t8.

(e) Paramcter Data Section

This contains the data associated u'ith the entities. A free format is allcq'ed for rnu
convcnicncc. It may con,,ain any nurnber of records. The total number of entities tlrat are pr::-:

IGES vcrsion 5.1.

fi

Terminatc Section

This contains the sub-totals c,f the reccrds p!'cscnr in

contain a single rccord,

Ee

Frof,

S:,-:,"a!-'

98ig

Z<-+55i1

eac-h

of

r.hc earlier

sections. TJris

Admission Details at

L2 . TEAruRE

RECOGNNION

b' a
A fcarure is a scometric shapc spccificd
rsrsF 'ri"rii"'i"i"rmadon a highcr r:rnceprual lcvcl. Thc
dcsig! 9t ryuf:"Yng engrnccr5'
dcsie,,"1"*ffi
at
crc',
t'"-?11l1Y:t;.
rhread, Itoove'
sloq rhY:'^g*ve'
ciher applications
(likc bolc,.slo,,
,1,, cther
'lrrs's'vsi;;;;
nccdce ,'i:r
t-rir."ioi.,
n..,ccArv information
informatioi;.?;;;
cgunlcd
manuiacruring'
maruracruring'
a.rd
and
use of such g4ups o' g-co*"tty
l.riu,:.
dcsigi:'
nf
rhc
T1-O--,,-, mcars of
linkirrn
orrinking

ffJ:"#'"#'f

ffi":'S"fl?;*fr*#""?J?Jffi ;;'o*"-

:lir,. tic
/..:r;.:

'-*lfili;fi f1::,'"::r:IiL5: 51lltirfft3#

l,i'*:::f ;:il$::J#Jffl'i:;:l'#
-.o,<

c^- ^ --..,i.r'l'r

twr. of ioh aft

Y:, ll'l-T';ii?li f i iT ;;,li?";:T ;: T : il;

",i' ",
rhc co mprc'1c
*,""1ltlJ$":3gi:Tqi:'"'Jl'iliir1':if:.i'**ii#*#'il:::;::
"'0"
:?"1ff ?H :'fi:i' ;:#[-1',T::::'3,,:l'l'.,;:;;:'
le
b
avai
adc
m
giaph c mcnu s

';;;;'*
;T*ff
rf-ffiff [ il ,il r

r:nat haj

*rst

em,.

at

vc,*'i rh prope r

",cracri

"T

Typical iorm fear"res uscful for mode lling in a majority of axi'symmetric components widi all
the addlliona! milling featurcs such as holcs, slots, ctc. Here the user would start from one end to
asscmbtc rh' fCaturcs as rcquircd in thc final comPoncnt.

file sir.c

I.. is pos:ib!e r: i:ccrpcrale any ryl:tl of feanues. b,ot} cxtemal a-nd intcmal. Though it is nrost
convcnient for tumcd parts, a numbcr of such systcms hsvc becn dcsigncd and a-'c in con(inucus usc.
It is possible to incorporatc into the modelling systcm, such features which a-rc not csscnrial ly axi'
qmmctric but are found on these cornponents. Exarnples arc - kcyu'a1's, flats, pitch circlc d:-illing on
the flange, gears, erc. l',tajority of rhc hig}-cnd CAD/CAM systems are providing supPon for a variery
of fcaturcs, but mostly from thc geomctric vier*point only.

his scct

ly

Thc major advanage of this kind of modelling is that thc fcaturc clcmcnls ate more convcnicnl
for the pcnple involvcd in tlre manufacturing proccss than thc gconrttric clcmenLs, and tjic modelling
proc.ss is generally faster. Hence, macro languages available in the geometnc modclling s)'slems are
somc times uscd ro generale thc library of these 'featurcs' and provided lo thc user as menu for easicr

nuTl

rinFi

modelling.

nanc of

ud

Furrhcr advantage of this mcthods of modclling is that it can bc eariiy uscd to extend tlre
tcchnotogic{ processing of functions such c idcntifying the manufacrurin, rtquircmcnts- Process
and CNC part program generation.
plarning
Fcaturc availablc in a qpical solid modclling softwaic arc:
Thin
Revolvc
Ertrudi
Cut
Slot
Blcnd

uscd

cach.
Sonn:
scnr di

ln.

red. lt

Progtsion

ie Par

Round

Shaft
Flange

Hole
Chamfcr

Rib
Domc
hcil

Push

Offset

Ew
Lip

Pipe

Srveep

Drafl

i- Chamfer2x2@45
l0 dia .i Holcs
\-"
I
I xI

ruld alna

l'16 x

I LHT

UTOOVC

75

-._

i!_ _ _ _ -

[-

I
I

i=n.j

ay ggl-o 744550

S::ricear Ercia::c:

t3,

lbc most trmclarncntej

--

tfdurc-bascd

concept in urdcntanding bow to creste a solid inodel is thc

d"sigr. ln rpical 2-D cAD applicariiru, a acsigrrer

drar+.s a part by ad
geooctric elcmcats such as lines, arcs, circlcs and splines. ThJn dimensions
arc added
*"{"1[og a 3-D desigr is crcated by adding fcatures, one ar a tirnc, unril onc has an acc
complct r.?rscdation of thc part's geometry.

A festuG is a basic building block thar dcscnbcs rhc dcsign, likc a &cpray on sh.ea
fcaturc indicrtcs how to.add marerial flike a rib) or rsnovc a portioi
ormarcrjllit<. .ur
Fcatures adjnst automatically ro changes in thc desigrr n"r"
"
uy
This dso saves timcs r+'hen design changes arc madc. Becausc
fcarur., f,ru. rhaabiliry ro

ailo;; ,h"';il';;;;

c'

i"ili

refcrencc otber fcalurcs, thc changcs madc will navigare through dcsign
updating rhe 3-D rn;
affected areas. Figure shows a ribbcd structurc. lt coruisrs of flarure
fik.;U, and hojcs.

A Rlbbod Structure.

Similarly, If a flangcd parr shoum in figurc (a) is to bc created, rhe onc

approach is ro sk
cro:s scction as shown in figurc (b) and then rcr,olve through 36Q'

rL
---,l
I
{a)

'

(u)

In a typical solid moderJing softrvare the designer c&q create

a featuie in
is to sketch a seclion of tlc shape to be added end then
extrude. ,rcyolye,

shapc. Thcsc arc calred skcrchcd

gas;s

.,y61._=

i.ur*.s. An":h;;li;;f f*rl,? irit,. pr.*-*d-prace feariuc

you simply performs an engineeririg operaticn such

as'piacing a hore,

edges, or shelling out the model.

1',,'q

or su,eep ir !o crea::

.i#r*riJr;;;;;;

"

i
...

This process tePreser(s irue dcsicn. unJike many C,{D applications

in u.lrich dL-sr{nrir( nr:dra*irrg a picrurc-of the pe"t r,"'rrrkirg ui(h thc reailL-;-based
saiid n:odclling r-neihoc lJ rno:-e i
s;iiipiirrg dcsigns frr;rn sciic rr,a:e i:3
j

F l'':f . :*e:-

g
= i. t I e z/1/ F. :. i-,

Admrssron Uetarls

at@

I yJzu5q163t

1+. coLLABoRNTTVe ENGINEERTNG

is the

by adding
added. ln
an accutat:

_pEF{!!Ij-9.!_-:' (,gtJa'borqfive

UlJd.J L^hb

bo ursnx

ib O pLlos"pLy i n rqh,.ch 1a$Jd

t fnltr.,rf o.rrr brotjt-ur ln u,5e for &{{er,.-tr Lca.*t
teg*tv,l 0n 6L'verse p\qhRrr"*: tn 3.og*- F *talt,

diat"'butrd

on shaft.

aculora
rf dcsign

duvelsrm.nr

/ lo intell

l-D rnodcl
(

E+gtnlrx'nX.

LBcaltona Ond corr,fle&

e-fi ictt

thr prv&r* j-ratgn

d!

Laige engineering projects involve co-ordinated n'ork of hundreds of engiaeers working

in small or large teams. Cornputer integrated manufacturing environmenr makes thi!

possible because of the possibility of data harsfer betrl'een different applications. Hos,ever,
to day the necessily to collaborate befvr'een tea-s"rs worl.ing in places far apart 5as
arjse;r.
For example, the design of an add on board for a new generafion computer ma), De
carrjeci
out jn the Silcon Yal)ey, USA. The eng"i-neers working in the development group generate

tJreproductdata.Thetestingmaybeundertakenatchennai.TheproductaaLjst
ui-rsrurr"a
ria lnternet to the manuJactuing company in Sout-l'r Korea to make the chips. The printe,J
citflrit board ma1'be made in Malaysia- A fuu'r in Singapore may asrembie the product.
Thjs is shor+n in Fig. ' ' 1. The members in entire team involved collaboratjveiy work

using the Internet.

Gr the facb of it may appear to be a sequenrial tasl- In realify Inkanet and Internet
ry*'tit the des:gn, manufachrring and testing tearns to collaborate during the developrnent

; to sketql

phase itseU so that the product can be infroduced in the market as earl-y
porsiUti". ft e
"s
comPany can also share the design data rr'ith the prmpective use,rs long before
the product
is rnanufactured. For example, let us assume that a company is developing
eO GB d.isc drives.
long before the product is launched in the market the rranufacturer can pass on the data
on
this disk drive so that the cornputer manufacturens can start devetoping new conrputers
*'ith this Cisk Crive. As soon as the disk drive is made available,-new computel ian
incorporate the same. In-add-ilion the designers, manufacturers and
the cusi.,,mers c,o
collaborate effectively_to develop a product, r*'hich meets the customer,s
perfor'rarce ang
qua-bty requiremnts. Thjs collaboraSon carr te both interdeparfnental
and intradepartnentrl

EEEE

E &m

oEs}Gr.l rE/r,{ I
(S{. Yailyl

TESTP'iG

{Jr*yei}

wa1's.

IH
r=-t*tlF--.lt

Cr

create rE

atiuc. H:=
Ing a

sc(

riabies

i:

tl:

:C Lhc sol :

block oi :
I'rr rlr<ird

l',-. .

(S./rc)'

Fig.

l.Collaborattve producl Aevelopmen! Scenarlo

IIAI{'FACTLRNG (PC8)

se'eral consulting groups have de'eloped collabor"ritu uffiring

environmenEl

r"'hich pror-ide ciesign engirecrs the abiliti. to beiter understand the

cr.,,ss Jiscipline effecti
of ciesign changes, operations changes, budeetan'limitahons, and ne.*'lechnrlofo
adoption,

These integiate vaiious engineering cisciplines into cne centraiized fuly-Jistributej

p;o,iuct daia nanagtn:eitt svsim that enconip.asses numerous applicatioi; and
stand.
alc'ne letecv toolsl In the case of aerospace engineering, su.h
integratg
"n"ironments
discipline-< -such as launch tra;ecton'enalr.sis, r.ehicle sizi.g, thermal
anal-l,sis, rt,rjrroi
:r.:1"'s:s.:osii:.:. Ci'i,.:r,iis ari-j coni:ols. l.liien-,atlcs. anri instrumentatio;r
operations.

errd

15

@)

ENGINEERING DATA MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

*tp-io

will bave hundreds of tj

Some largi
will bc
filcs, drawing files and orher cAD data 6les in storc, and il some cases thcy
a large
of
design
the
,.*ir,g 11ls5isvcr a period of may years (considcr for exampie
of a generating steiion). Thel' Lherefore necd systems to Lndex and manage these laige c
data in a sort of clccrronic drawing vaull Tlese systms are used by designers to cnouire
availablc on a particular project; nherc it is storcd; when models wcre constrdcted and b;'
oa. Designers spend a.r cnonnous aJnotrnt of timc searcbing for data of all sorts: some cs1
suggest that they spcnd a-< much as 30/o of their time actually searching for or through ir:f:
is containcd in existing drar*'ings and otber product data. A systcm to assist a design rcan :
indexing, browsing and searchiog of their design data may bc termed an engineering data r
si'slern (ED[,{S). ln aCdition to a data rcpository, an EDMS also provides:
or

Mcchanisnns for daa sccurity thal cnsutc that data is available and casily accessi: :
nccd acccss, but that only thosc with utrc appropriate autlority can access dala;
Clrccks that particular data iteins are u':iquc - that is, fcr a given refcrence, onl." ;
ma/ exlsl t; iJie S)'SIeni;
Versioncontrol mecha;iisms thal log changcs and issucs of drawings ard other fil:s

Thc mora cornprchcnsive EDMS's are also used to rnanage data across multirl:
systcms - for exarnple, to allow llles to be ransfcned bef':/cen a CAD s)'sletx
nctwork of worksradons and a main-frame computcr uscri for archiving..

16.

Suggest how attributes may be used in conjunction u'irh geometric entjties to incorporare
part number and guantity inforination ;ii an assembly drawing and
suggest how this aftribure
informalion rnight be combined wirh part namc, dia'',^{ng numocr and suppiier data
in an

engineering design database system.

Thc rcJationa.l algcbra provid.: r concjrc hn!,uagc
A !,r x . for rcprcscalljng gucrics, but ic not
''

vJ'

I
I

:::'ff:iffi1,::.T::'j:*::::f:.6
:F F;l
- in cffcct high-lcvcl oro_gtat"tni"g l^ansuagi spccializrd
for
widcly
t-g:g:i:

*scd relationai
(o;no6cd .sequcl.; _
-sql
developcd by IBM in rhe mid- l 920s,
urj now aNSl

sQL

io rhe dever opmenr or query rarsu

data o,

ioroilif,Jo"#.ff:t;:ffi

6i-r.'..r.,*.a

query languagc _

"*a.ra.
uscs qucr) exprcssions that rcsult in
relations, Exprcss.ions arc of thc form

:PIECT Attributel, Atiribure2,.. ... ., Atrribure:.

Il-oll
3*tjon1. Relation',. . .. . . .. Retarion,
RTIER-E
Prcdicarc:
.

clcus ),5 u.frd

AgSj

('rod^rc^d

n*

q,1.l-,_f

ll

l.r;t- t1".i' oJf\rb*t, dra6d ih

11,!

The

FRolrllclause is used to spcpi$, thc ljst

of relarions to be used
cxccuting the guery, a.rd the 11TIERE
clausc conesponds to tJre sclecoon
prcd,ierc

of

al gebra

the

For exanrple:

SELECT Machine-name

FROh{

Machine-rool

I\,HERE plant = .Bristol,;

i'iclcjs a li-.t contprising ,CNC larhe.
ard ,I{achjnine centi.c, a,id

SEL'ECT Prodrrct PArl-name (\:,.

Il

.qBg

P,"d.; _'.J":;:li:"ut'
Qty t :

WHER_E

_t_,:ti..
f:,i j5
[f

iist of,procucts and their co:rsrir_.ie:.:i:ais

a-1i c.:anl:iies
tJ,a.; lu..r. l.\ai i_c

3:ii:

roduct

,Drii-1,'ele

ia:"t-.\.0 [)rr.

Geo-Lap $ennU 28et

fi:,r

rrnich lie lumt,ei reouired

i:

Adrnissicn Details at
6ousaads

laige q
n,?uire wha:

and by

necessa4' tc l:rrr;s'{i ' '

I:: haadling of georne..iical infrr;nation. rnan)' a times it bccornes
from onc coOrdinate Systcm l'i liir i'f !'' '
The trai-,sformatiorc actually conven t-be geomctr,v

1,

me esti

rgh infon::

i team in
g

data

.l:

rta,

cnly

one

':eo-r?uJ*'

Translstion
I I'i:
rtorneric
It is rhc rnost co111mon urd eeily undcrstood bansfomratjon in Cr4-D'
1;
pi'i;:i,
ltity. .A.
'
enriry in spacc in such e n'ay that lhc ne'*'entity is ttt"ll:l et eJl
coti."r.i'$I
;r
on th?
now
I11.u
,.prr..or.don is sbo*r in follcwing figurc for an object.
end
d'a n?\'t
by
J''axes
and
objccr" rrprcsented by P u'bich is-tnoslatcd along x
porition

ccessible

Transformations

Chapter No. 09

e p8.sse

i The new coordinaics affcr ransformation a:e given

P'= lx', )'1

x,:x*dX

by

follotl'ir':: equatio:

--'{l)
-<2)

Y'= Y + dt'

her files;

s)'stern

)rale
bute

)an
ol
r language

Ihe mos
rge

Translation of the Polnt

Puning equations (3) back into equations

(l)

r*'c can

writc

an

hornogQnl:'

Il
# lr':'1]: l:r

,p,'
L' = ['rl

--lr*a{1
) Lt',J-lv+d.r1

"

This can also bc urittcn in matrix form as follo.*'s. il

)J+fdxd:j

tp.t- tx')"j=.Lr

tliis is normajly the opcration uscd in

Ff.l &

re relatc:

.')

j .., i{,i rj

ol
0l
-rl

li

ll

CAD systems as )'{Ol/E cotrurra rii.

Scaling

S:ali;rg is the uansfonnation applicd to changc tlre sca.le of an entiq'. .4,s shc*n ir\
fcllo*"ing figure, this alters the size of the entity by the scaling factor epplied. Fei Exampic
in fello*ing figure, to achiei'c scajing, the origlqaj coordinates u'ould i'r nruJtiplied
uniformli' b1' the scaling factor.

f" = tf , i^l = [S, x{

This equalion

ca-n

51.x

r.icie
of h:
irj-iir

|I J-\
L

{l

t;

ciil

aiso be iepiesentei in a n.ratrix forn as fcllo"r's.

l-"j= ix :l [S:
lo
iPl = lrl isl
reC

tJre

';

ol
S)J

j-n fi3-qtnte*1

[o--

. ^
C*
\
f1
L^ J -)
LP'la

o t'I''l
[s." s5
lo
lc o i_l

tP'l

= [P] [R]

ior=[:"'f
5..

x:;

Concetenation of Transformrtions
f'fany a times

it

bccomes ncccssary to combine the aforernentioned jndividual

ransfor-

in order to achievc the reguircd results. In such cases the combined transformarion mar
bc obtaincd by mulriplying the rcspeaive ransforniation matriccs. Howa,cr, care shoul:
talen that the order of the matrix multiplication be donc in rhe samc wav as thal r

rarsformations

[p']=
6.

as fol

ows.

ritTt ii;l ---. ..- [r^l

HomogeneousRcpresentation

ln ordcr to concalcnate thc tr'ansformation as shown in equarion (16), &ll the transfo:
matriccs should be multiplicative rypc. Howcvcr, as scen eerlicr, rhc translarion
(equation (5)) is vector additivc, whilc all othcrs arc marrix multjplications. -lhe
fc,.:
form should bc uscd ro convc?r rhe transtarion inro a mulriplicarion form.

[t'J'tl
lF l=

= [a

' []" j, i]

Hcnce thc translation matrix in muttiplication form can be given as

fr o ol
U,nl= lo r o{
la^
L- d5 lJ
|

This is lermed as homogcneous represerttarion. In hgmggepqgu-! I-epl_e.s-_gntarion, :_dimensional spacc is mapped into (n + i) dimensionai space. Thus a z J;meni;oni poinr
1,
represented by 3 dimensions as [x y lJ.
This greatll' facilities the computer graphics operaiions uhere the concalenation of rn-j-transfonnalions can be easill'carried ou1. This can be experienced in the follou.ing situari::-1

o.l.-i-j:: 11955

Admission Details at

@
Yir Fctt

Window

I*'mu
)You

)'*'o)n

Pnia

msformn
)n matrix

shoulC

s that

ci
XV e,in

D'min

rX'mu

- x1+'rin _ xl'- rvrin

.I-r'-_., - X'r*'-1n .fyrr, - }}-in
n+'

lll -

ano

)'ltror*

W7'^:-

,1'-

- Fmin

Solving above tu'o equaliocs, we get

Irr= rr'-.n +(nr'--o.*) S,

I tt = ;.''- . +(Y4'- )Y'^in)St

1t

wtrere scaling factors

.ar=-

n,r-

-.liym'n

r}1'mu

)ry.- ^
r'=fi1fii

)rymin

rl+min

,e{ndow ll'rc vicw Port aIc ji)

5ince rhe eight coordinarc values that dcfine the
(xv,2v)
from (rw, p<z) in tem:
ian e\prcss theset!\.o formulas for computing
lt'
rale-traxsl aie lransformaiion

1-l -

[=rr 'jV
!lon,

roint

.an

[r

[:(u3 :u)

nts, we'
rrrSlate

!l tNl

U.-r.l.r,u,

-;-

of muh
s i

tuaticr:s

N:

Ir

lo

L-.*''"

Stes

ls

-YUmln

illi I illi".

ca.

rotiinates

lrt

maPF

<tatlon i1:

^tt

.! - "ri

:_f... ,

ai i:e-

a-

.
J _) sra\.
.r', -!1+,) clf

Frcf. Sanjav t)8ig

7/44550

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YVen

ol
0l
I

, 1l
--J

8,

Rotation About an Arbitrarl Point

The transformation given eartier for rotatjon is about ttre origin of the axes system. t
sometimes be rreccssal' to gcl &c rotation about any arbitrary base point as shown in foll:
figure. To derive the necessarl transformatlon matrix, the folloq'ing complcx pr
eomprising thc ficllowing thrcc points would be rcquircd.
I.
2.
3.

Translate the point P to O, thc origin of thc axcs system.

Rotaie the objcct b1'the givcn angle.
Translate thc point back to its original position.

The rransformation matrices for thc abovc opcrations in the given scquencc are the

/-)/
\
o

dx

Rotation about an Arbltrary Poinl

lr

. ol

[n]=lo

tar -d
fcos

[rzJ=

ol

rJ
sin

0l

cosO

f,sin e
I-

L0

rJ

j'r o oJ
0l
[rrJ=f o

,J:

d:
[ax

fhe requiieri fansformation matrix is given b1,

[r]= [rr] [r"][rr]

n'-

["r,

i
')-jcls6

N,/

i, ij[*' T. flt;
4

-s|r9

[iJ=lsind

lnP
I'J

r I uI

-:]-i-y,

cosg

nr

ol

_J_

_ol

.l ti

d-\ {l -cosd)- c1 sj;r ct I

4
.l

-dYsinS +al'(l-msd)

1l

+-:rfll

F.

-)

'r'it;ie.fiarEu #,e

rl.J

9:Ju.r5

follo*::

Adrnission Details at

+-?.

9!?ii:,J,:$Ss

Refiection dbout en arbitrary tine

Similar lo tlc above, rhere arc tjmes when the reflectioa is ro be taken abcrl ai a:i:,,if:rr1,
Jjne as
sltorrn in following figurc.

system. It
,wn ln

rplex proce
Translate the

minor line along the r axis

such that linc passes

througl

rir

Route the rnirror line such that it coincides *irlr thc Xaxis

I{irror the objecr through thc Xaxis.

Rotate the mirrcr
he

follo*'in;

linc back to thc original

Translate the rninor line along the

angle rlith X-axis

f-aris back ro rhe original posirioa.

Fol.lorving are rhe uansformation rnatriccs for thc above opcrations in gi..'*

I
I

U
col
os 0

s!r d
s!n
tssir B
@s;0

I
21.
-ttl=

\|
T.

tf

UI

Ir

lr ,t

-l/l

n.l

olrl
I
0lII
rl
.J

c
llI

-l

II

I
I

{
0

L0
I

lr

)st
os
osd

cos;0

0j

-I
=

lo
In
I

L
L

tireedtlr
uir'

Reflection Transformation aboui .,,i Arbitr' :.y Lini,.

rl
')

)l
I0)l
0
(

.l

U
0

ir I = fi

0l
I
0l

II

I
I

.{,o|.r
r2l'

ion

[rT1'ltL ltt;I Ir,rl

1t!!

Ll +-l

lrlx

d;t.--vri L,.
rs 6"
r,'

LTsJ

_: 11 u olf(st -S;nt
'
ln
lv

o | | sr''e

L0 -c r_J[

i
'l = -

cos26
sii-.

i0

sin20

lJ - cos 2d
LI

-t,T

-'--- "-+ J

Ir
t

'"-:';*\

ssintd

lr rl_ I .:J inB

n(0?
[/ 4J.
- l_
'JJ=l
I
I

ll

0
I

tl

t'

[7
T'
T',-t:-l.f o
j-l

"l

^l
UI

csaB

- C sin2e
c(cos 26

ol ,
f

flo

r)Lo

-1
ll

[*t
oll-sn?
ol

sin?
rol

olI I

ULO

"t)

F.
Prof. 5anja1' - 96197{i5 : .

4".,

1i3;{,11e6

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L-T'l =

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t.t'l
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1+ taJ

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Admission Details at

ne Clippin

hen-

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| 98203418ss
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Thisisoneoftheoldestandmostpopularline-clippingalgorithmdevelopedbyDanCohenand lvan
Sutherla n d.

To speed up the processing this aigorithm perforrns initiai te:;ts that reduce the number of
intersections that must be calculated..

This algorithrn proceeds in follovring steps:

fr

Aisign a 4-bit code to each endpoint of the line. The four bit.codes are called region codes or out
codes. These codes identifv- the location cf a point relatir,,e to the boundaries of
winCov;.

The rightmost bit is the first bit & the bits are st to 1 based on the follorving scheme:Set Eit 1

5et 8it 2 -

if the end point is to

the left of the windorv

lml

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1m

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if the end point is to the right of the window

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Sutherland - Cohen algorithm begins the

clippin! process f or a partially visible line by
comparing an outside endpoint to a clipping
boundary to cjetermine how much of the line can be
di;carded.

P1

fi

Then

the remaining part of the fine is checked against the other boundaries, and the p

continued until either the line is totally discarded or a section

is

found inside the vrindow.

The interscciion puirits r,,,itlr a ciipping bcundary can be calculated using tire siope-rntercep:

the line equation.

through points Pr (xr, yr) and P; (xz, yJ, the y coordinates of the intersect
with the vertical bound )ry can be obtained by the equaticn For a line passing

Y= Yr+m{x-xr)
where,
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n'r

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calculated

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x=xl* |-yllm

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