Introduction

1.1. Significance of Power and Coal in World and India

Development is driven by energy and energy is driven by coal and coal is mainly
obtained from opencast coal mining, if not carried out properly is detrimental for the
environment. World energy demand is growing. US Department of Energy (DOE, 2010)
predicts that world energy demand will increase by nearly 44% from 2006 to 2030. The
World marketed energy consumption from 1980 and projection up to 2030 is shown in
Fig. 1 which clearly indicates a sharp growth of approximately 140%.

Fig-I
I

1.2 Indias Energy scenario and Coal

Power Sector is at a crucial juncture of its evolution from a controlled environment to a
competitive, market driven regime which endeavors to provide affordable, reliable and
quality power at reasonable prices to all sectors of the economy. The Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) of our country has been growing at the rate of about 8% for the last
several years. The liberalization and globalization of the economy is leading to an
increased tempo in industrial and commercial activities and this, coupled with
penetration of technology and I.T. in the day-to-day life of the common man, is expected
to result in a high growth in power demand. It is accordingly essential that development
of the Power Sector shall be commensurate with the overall economic growth of the
nation.

The Indian power sector is one of the most diversified in the world. Sources for
power generation range from commercial sources like coal, lignite, natural gas, oil,
hydro and nuclear power to other viable non-conventional sources like wind, solar and
agriculture and domestic waste. The demand for electricity in the country has been
growing at a rapid rate and is expected to grow further in the years to come. In order to
meet the increasing requirement of electricity, massive addition to the installed
generating capacity in the country is required. While planning the capacity addition
programme, the overall objective of sustainable development has been kept in mind.
India is currently among the top three fastest growing economies of the world.
As a natural corollary India's energy needs too are fast expanding with its increased
industrialization and capacity addition in Power generation. Since its structured growth
post Independence, Indian power sector has made substantial progress both in terms of
enhancing power generation and in making available power to widely distributed
geographical boundaries. The Installed generation capacity in the Utility sector has
increased to about 1, 81,500 MW at the end of August 2011. The Indian power sector is
largely coal based with the total Installed Capacity comprising of 99,503 MW ( 55 %)
coal based,
MW (21%)

17,706 MW (10%) gas based, 1200 MW (1%) diesel generation, 38,206

hydro,

4,780 MW (2 %) nuclear and 20,162 MW ( 11%) from renewable

energy sources as given in fig.3.

Fig.3

Development of Renewable Energy Sources is being accorded special emphasis

in view of their inherent advantages. The Installed Capacity from Renewable Sources
has grown to 20,162 MW in June 2011 comprising 3,226 MW in State Sector & 16,936
MW in Private Sector. The total annual power generation has grown to about 811 BU,
whereas the thermal generation has grown to 665 BU in 2011. The performance of
thermal power plants in the country has steadfastly improved and the Plant Load Factor
of coal based stations has increased from 52.4% during 1985-86 to 77.68 % in 20092010 & 75.06% during 2010-11. The Installed Capacity of captive power plants having
more than or equal to 1MW capacity has grown to more than 30,000 MW at present.
This is where 'Coal' steps in. In India coal is the critical input for major infrastructure
industries like Power, Steel and Cement. Coal is the most dominant energy source in
India's energy scenario. As it meets around 52% of primary commercial energy needs in
India against 29% the world over. Around 66% of India's power generation is coal based
and India is the 3rd largest coal producing country in the world after China and USA.
1.3 .Coal Resources in India
The existing coal resources in India are 70 billion tonnes, and account for 5.7% of
the proved resources of coal in the world (Mathur 1996). Indian coal consumption is
about 5.5% of world consumption. The share of coal as a source of energy in the
commercial sector went up to 66% in 19941995(Kumar 1995). In India, coal production
will have to be increased to meet the energy demand over next2025 years at the rate
of 2025 M tonnes/year. Indian coal production, which was of the order of 320 M
tonnes/year, supporting some 70,000 MW of thermal power generation; and with
developments being planned for the year 2010, this quantum of power generation, is
expected to increase to150, 000 MW (Ghose 2003). More specifically, to meet the
3

proposed energy needs, India must produce nearly double the quantity of coal it was
mining , as fuel requirements will be in the region of 550 M-tonnes/year by 2010 (Ghose
and Majee 2000a) By2002, the coal production from opencast mines had risen to about
80% of the total coal production.
1.4. INVENTORY OF GEOLOGICAL RESOURCES OF COAL IN INDIA
As a result of exploration carried out up to the maximum depth of 1200 meters by the
GSI, CMPDI, SCCL, MECL, DGM(Maharashtra) and DGM(Chhattisgarh) etc., a
cumulative total of 2,93,497 Million Tonnes of Geological Resources of Coal have so far
been estimated in the country as on 1.4.2012. The details of state-wise geological
resources of coal are given in table 1(A) &
: GONDWANA COALFIELDS :(in Million Tonnes)
State
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chhattisgarh
Jharkhand
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Orissa
Sikkim
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
Total

Proved
9566.61
0
0
13987.85
40163.22
9308.70
5667.48
25547.66
0
884.04
12425.44
117551.01

Geological Resources of Coal

Indicated
Inferred
9553.91
3034.34
2.79
0
0
160.00
33448.25
3410.05
33609.29
6583.69
12290.65
2776.91
3104.40
2110.21
36465.97
9433.78
58.25
42.98
177.76
0
13358.24
4832.04
142069.51
32383.99

Total
22154.86
2.79
160.00
50846.15
80356.20
24376.26
10882.09
71447.41
101.23
1061.80
30615.72
292004.51

(B) : TERTIARY COALFIELDS :(in Million Tonnes)

State
Proved
Arunachal
Pradesh
Assam
Meghalaya
Nagaland
Total

31.23
464.78
89.04
8.76
593.81

Geological Resources of Coal

Indicated
Inferred Inferred(Mapping)
(Exploration)
40.11
42.72
16.51
0
99.34

12.89
0.50
27.58
8.60
49.57

6.00
2.52
443.35
298.05
749.92

Total

90.23
510.52
576.48
315.41
1492.64

(Source: Geological Survey of India)

CATEGORIZATION OF RESOURCES:The coal resources of India are available in older Gondwana Formations of
peninsular India and younger Tertiary formations of north-eastern region. Based on the
results of Regional/ Promotional Exploration, where the boreholes are normally placed
1-2 Km apart, the resources are classified into Indicated or Inferred category.
Subsequent Detailed Exploration in selected blocks, where boreholes are less than 400
meter apart, upgrades the resources into more reliable Proved category. The
Formation-wise and Category-wise coal resources of India as on 1.4.2012 are given in
table 1.(C)
(in Million Tonnes)
Proved
Formation
Gondwana Coals
Tertiary Coals
Total

Indicated

117551.01
593.81
118144.82

142069.51
99.34
142168.85

Inferred
32383.99
799.49*
33183.49

Total
292004.51
1492.64
293497.15

* Includes 749.92 M.T. of Inferred resources established through mapping in North-Eastern

region.

Status of Coal Resources in India during Last Five Years:

As a result of Regional, Promotional and Detailed Exploration by
GSI, CMPDI and SCCL etc, the estimation of coal resources of India has reached to
2,93,497 Million Tonnes. The estimates of coal resources in the country of last five
years are given below in table 1(D).

(In Million Tonnes)

Geological Resources of Coal

As on
1.4.2007
1.4.2008
1.4.2009
1.4.2010
1.4.2011

Proved
99060
101829
105820
109798
114992

Indicated
120177
124216
123470
130654
137471

Source .Geological survey of India*

Inferred
38144
38490
37920
36358
34390

Total
257381
264535
267210
276810
285862

COALFIELD IN ODISHA
(Geological Reserve 71.45 BT as on 01.04.2012)

Out of 47 Gondawana & 14 Tertiary coalfields for the national inventory of coal, Odisha
state has only two coalfields. Yet its share in the reserve are so far established in the
country amounts to 24.57 %( 63.23).In Terms of spatial spread of prognostic coal
bearing area, the coalfields of the state of Odisha have about 7.6% area (2723 Sq.Km).
This goes to illustrate the high ratio of coal to non coal strata in the two hitherto known
coal bearing basin viz.lb River coalfield and Talcher coalfield. As a sequel to which
these coalfields have an added advantage of being accorded most favoured coalfields
status by the nature as far as quarriable potentiality is concerned.

Mahanadi Coalfields Limited (MCL) is a subsidiary of Coal India Limited (CIL) dealing
with coal mines of Odisha State. It was established on 03.04.1992 and has now become
the second largest coal company in CIL (www.mahanadicoal.nic.in).There are two
coalfields in MCL, Ib-Valley in Jharsuguda and Sundergarhdistricts and Talcher in Angul
district with Hq. at Jagruti Vihar, Burla, Sambalpur. Running mines in IbValley Coalfields
are Lakhanpur, Belpahar, Samaleswari, Lilari, Lajkura, Basundhara (West) and
Kulda.Running underground mines are Orient Mine No 1 and 2, Mine No. 3, Mine No. 4,
Himgir Rampur Colliery and Hirakhand Bundia Incline. Running opencast mines in
Talcher Coalfield are Ananta, Jagannath, Bharatpur, Kalinga, Lingaraj, Hingula,
Chhendipada and Bhubaneswari.Running underground mines in Talcher Coalfield are
Talcher, and Nandira.Out of Indias total coal reserves of 267.21.38 B T Odisha has 65
B T (24.6%) and ranks 2 Indias recoverable coal reserves of 73 B T Orissa has 23 B T
(32 %) and ranks 1 in India (http://www.gsi.gov.in). Coal resources of India as per GSI
estimates. Ib-Valley Coalfield contains 35 % of the total coal reserves of Orissa while
Talcher Coalfield contains 65 % of the coal reserve.

The trend of coal production in MCL since inception it may be observed that coal
production in the year of inception was 23.14 Mte which is going to touch 140 Mte in the
year 2012-13, registering a whopping growth of 493% compared with the year of
inception.
Historically Talcher coalfield was discovered by Lt. kittoe in 1839 and lb River
coalfield by V.Ball in 1871 yet the real impetus for resource assessment by systematic
exploration efforts was accorded only in the post nationalization era of the coal industry
since 1973, the importance of Odisha coalfields further enhanced due to their vicinity to
east coast

Talcher Coalfield was first discovered at Gopalprasad in the 1837. Lateron GSI
surveyed and mapped in 1855. M/s East India Prospecting Syndicate in Talcher Town in
1920 Handidhua Colliery was opened by M/s Villiers Ltd in 1921. NCDC opened mines
at South Balanda, Nandira & Jagannath in the year 1960,1962 and 1972 respectively.
After formation of CIL all mines were in CCL then in SECL before formation of MCL in
1992. Production of coal raised from 0.91 M.T. in 1972-73 to 120 M.T. in 2011-12.

Environmental impact of Coal mining and scope of the work

The increasing trend of opencast mining, along with adaptation of large-scale
mechanization, leads to the release of huge amounts of dust and gaseous pollutants. In
opencast mining, massive overburden (OB) will have to be removed to reach the
mineral deposit (Ghose 1989). This may require the use of excavators, loaders,
dumpers, conveyor belts etc, which will result in massive discharge of fine particulate
from overburden materials. Similarly, normal operation will require excavation, size
reduction, waste material transportation, loading and unloading, stock piling, etc. All will
release particulate matter. A closed mine is also similar to an open one for a short
period (Ghose and Majee 2000b).
Mining operations in general have adverse environmental impacts. The magnitude and
significance of environmental pollution caused by mining depends
on the type of mineral, method of mining and various other factors. India ranks among
the top 10 countries in its coal resources. A recent coal production survey
shows that India has already emerged as the third largest coal-producing country in the
world next to China and USA (Anon 20032004). The national plan envisages further
exploitation of coal resources at a tremendously rapid rate, which subsequently would
pose an even greater environmental problem. Underground coal mining is less
detrimental to environmental degradation than opencast mining. But due to various
problems in underground mines, some amount of technology shifted in favor of
opencast mining (Ghose and Majee 2001a, b).
Since future plans envisage a large share for opencast mining in overall coal
production, it is essential to quantify the amount of dust generation in order to assess
the impact on air environment arising from a planned project. As there is no specific
work has been carried out for quantifying the generation of dust due to mining activities
and to estimate the amount of dust captured by the plants existing in the locality which
may be a viable method of dust control.
Hence the project work aims to be carried with the following broad objectives.
1. To identify the sources of generation of dust due to coal mining activities.
2. To quantify the amount of dust generation due to coal mining activities.
3. To study the dust capturing potential of the plants existing in the locality.

Chapter:2
Literature Review
2.1. Different activities associated with mining operations
2.2. Dust: Definition and Classification
2.3. Sources of Dust Generation due to mining activities
2.4. Emission Factors
2.5. Prediction equations
2.6. MORPHOLOGICAL, ANATOMICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL FEATURES
OF PLANT SPECIES & ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS FACILITATIVE
FOR DUST CAPTURING EFFICIENCY

10

2.1. Different activities associated with mining operations

The economic progress of particular country depends on the production and
consumption of minerals, including fuel minerals (i.e. coal, iron, etc.). For this, expansion
of mining activities is needed [10]. Mining consist of mainly two process i.e. surface
mines and underground mines. Surface mine is the most important contributors to
modern societies. It is a type of mining in which soil and rock materials are removed to
get economic minerals. This mining method is applicable to minerals located at shallow
depth. Surface mining consist of different unit operations which are described below.
Overburden removal: Overburden removal is first unit operation in surface mining.
During this activity, overlying materials are removed to expose the mineral. Air pollution
is a major concern during the removal and transports of the overburden materials. This
operation therefore, is the first stage of PM production for a surface mine.
Drilling: Drilling is second step of unit operation of surface mining. Drilling produce
significant amount of PM depend on size, shape and dispersion parameter, then PM
may remain in atmosphere for a very long time. Drill holes are then charged with
explosives and blasted to loosen the mineral.
Blasting: blasting is third step of unit operations of surface mining by which the
overburden and minerals is loosened so that these can be excavated by excavations
and loaded on to dumpers or other transport system. Blasting results in short term
exposure of particulate pollutant, but the concentration of pollutant is very high.
Loading of material: this process involves loading of blasted material onto the
transporting mechanism. Material is composed of particles of sizes. Depending on air
velocity these particles become airborne.
Transport: Over burden and extracted coal from mine site is transported to processing
site by transport machines. The pollution is very high at the point of loading and
unloading point. During transport, hauls road becomes a major source of airborne
particle due to road-tyre interaction. For friable material, if uncovered, direct emissions
during transport also contribute to air pollution.

Unloading of material: When the material is unloaded from dumpers, depending on the
height of discharge and air current, the severity of air pollution varies. Transfer points in
conveyor system are the locations where dust generation is maximum.

11

2.2. Definition of Dust

Dust is defined as the generation of solid particles that are dispersed into the air by
means of handling, crushing and grinding of organic or inorganic materials, which
include rock, ore, metal, coal, wood or grain (Stanton et a/., 2006). The definition of
dust, according to the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA), is: finely divided
solids that may become airborne from their original state without any chemical or
physical change, other than fracture (MSHA, 2008). During the above-mentioned dustgenerating processes, different particle sizes are produced. Some particles remain in
the air indefinitely because of how small they are, whilst others are too large to remain
airborne and they settle. Dust sizes are measured in micrometers, commonly written as
microns (Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA), 1987; Stanton et a/.,
2006).

Among the industries that contribute the most to atmospheric dust levels are
construction, agriculture and mining. In operations where minerals are processed,
mining dust is emitted through breaking of the ore by impact, abrasion, crushing and
grinding. The release of dust that was previously generated during loading, dumping
and transferring operations is also a source of mining dust. The recirculation of dust that
was previously generated by wind or the movement of workers and/or machinery can
cause dust exposure as well. The physical characteristics of the material and the way in
which the material is handled determine the amount of dust emitted by these activities.

Dust is found in many types, of which fibrogenic dust is one and this includes dusts such
as free crystalline silica or asbestos. These dusts are biologically toxic and can form
scar tissue and impair lung functioning ability when they are retained in the lungs.
Nuisance dust is usually dust with less than 1% quartz, which therefore has little
adverse effect on the lungs, as reactions to nuisance dusts are usually reversible, other
than reactions to fibrogenic dusts (OSHA, 1987).

12

2.2.1 Classifications of Dust

Dust can be divided into three primary categories, according to particle size:

i)

respirable dust, ii) inhalable dust and iii) total dust (OSHA, 1987).

Respirable dust is the dust of which the particles are very small, i.e. less than 10
microns (m) in diameter (Stanton et al., 2006; OSHA, 1987). As per definition,
respirable dust is the dust that contains particles that are small enough to enter the gas
exchange region of the human lung, and are less than 10 m in aerodynamic diameter
in accordance with the ISO/CEN curve (SKC, 2005). These particles are likely to be
retained, as they are generally beyond the natural clearance systems of the body, in
other words the cilia and mucous in the respiratory tract (OSHA, 1987). The defence
mechanisms of the lungs can still remove particles that reach the airway walls in the
tracheobronchial tree, but approximately 30% of the particles, in the range of one to
three microns, will be deposited in the lung tissue itself (White, 2001). Silica dust and
coal dust can be classified as respirable dust (Health and Safety Executive (HSE),
2002; Belle & Stanton, 2007). These fine dust particles that contain free silica pose a
major risk and concern, for the main reasons that (HSE, 2002):

These particles are invisible to the naked eye under normal lighting conditions

These respirable particles can, for extended periods of time, be airborne in a

person's breathing zone; and

After inhalation, these particles penetrate, or can penetrate, to the lungs and
exert their effects here

Dust particles classified as inhalable dust can be deposited in the respiratory tract after
their entrance through the mouth and nose during breathing. These dust deposits in the
respiratory tract may accumulate in the sputum or mucus and in this way be swallowed
to be absorbed in the digestive system, or they may be coughed out and back into the
air (Belle & Stanton, 2007). These particles are usually smaller than 50 m in
aerodynamic diameter (Burrows et al., 1989).

13

2.2.2 Coal Dust

2.2.2.1 Composition, characteristics and types of coal dust
The WCI (2005) defines coal as a fossil fuel and a combustible, sedimentary, organic
rock that is mainly composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. The oxides of coal dust,
as well as its mineral contents, vary between different seams. Smaller quantities of
nitrogen and sulphur are found in coal dust and in all cases mineral matter is found in
coal dust that remains ash when it is burnt. A small proportion of quartz or silicates,
usually less than 5%, are found in respirable coal mine dust and these particles are
mostly found in the dirt bands within the coal stratum.
According to the report of the SIMRAC Project GAP 802 of 2003, the average
measured silica content of coal seams in South Africa was 3.5%

(Biffi & Belle,

2003). When the overburden is removed by the miners or when they tunnel through rock
to get to the coal that has to be mined, elevated silica exposures may occur (Stanton et
a/., 2006). When coal matures from peat to anthracite, the process is known as
"coalification" and this process has important influences on coal's physical and chemical
properties, and hence the rank of the coal (WCI, 2005). The coal rank sequence is as
follows: anthracite (86-98% carbon content) has a higher rank than that of bituminous
(45-86% carbon content), which is followed by Sub-bituminous (35-45% carbon content)
and lignite (25-35% carbon content) (Ross & Murray, 2004). Anthracite is sometimes
referred to as "hard coal", as it is hard, black and lustrous and has a low sulphur
content, low moisture content and produces more energy. Bituminous coal is a black,
hard and dense coal, with bands of bright and dull material often found in it. Lignite is a
soft brownish-black coal, with high moisture content; it can also be called "brown coal".
Sub-bituminous coal, which is also called "black lignite", has a slightly lower moisture
content than lignite (American Coal Foundation, 2005; WCI, 2005).

Coal dust from opencast mining and underground mining differs as a result of the
different mining processes, although these dusts are also highly heterogeneous. In
underground mining, the coal itself is being cut, as the underground coal seams are
followed by the different underground mining methods. In opencast coal mining, the
overburden and the rock strata that cover the coal seams are removed. The result is
that there is a much higher mineral content in surface coal mining than there is coal
content, where the opposite is found in underground coal mining. Thus, opencast coal
dust is dominated by mineral grains and is often referred to as "shale dust" (Reynolds
et al., 2003). The most significant coal dust sources are found in the underground coal
mines where mining operations generate large amounts of dust. The underground coal
14

miners are exposed to higher levels of coal dust than surface mine workers because of
the large amounts of coal dust found in these environments. Coal dust in surface or strip
coal mines is diluted by outdoor air; however, one occupation associated with a greater
risk of developing silicosis in surface coal mines is rock-drilling (Castranova &
Vallyathan, 2000).

15

2.3. Sources of Dust Generation due to mining activities

The main air pollution problem in a mining area is due to the presence of
particulates, which may be coal, soil or rock dust (Ghose and Maje e 2000c).
Particulates find their way into the atmosphere from wind-scavenged soil surface,
combustion source, material transfer points, or other source s a t the mine site. Stripmine air pollution sources can be divided into two categories, point sources and fugitive
source s. Point source s typically include stationary exhaust stacks (Ghose and Majee
2000d ). In contrast, fugitive sources are open sources like the exposed soil of OB and
coal (Ghose and Majee 2000e). A subset of point sources would include line sources
and mobile sources of particulates. During dry and windy conditions, the surface soil
would be scavenged by wind, causing particulate matter (dust) to be suspended and
transported downwind. Most important is the identification of source s of dust emission
and quantification of dust emission at the mine site to evaluate impact of mining
activities on air quality. It is essential to develop appropriate air pollution control
measures.

Vehicular traffic on haul roads has been identified as the most prolific source of
fugitive dust, and can contribute as much as 80% of total dust. Cowherd et al. (1979)
estimated that about 50% of the total dust is released during the journey time of a
dumper on an unpaved haul road, with 25% being released during both loading and
unloading of the dumper respectively. Chadwick et al. (1987) estimated that 0.02% of
the coal is lost during loading and unloading. Nair and Singh (1990) estimate d that
road dust contains more than 4% of respirable dust.
Another major source of fugitive dust is wind erosion from stockpiles.

Jacko (1983)

has given estimates of fugitive dust from mining operations. The exposure of workers in
opencast mining varies from 3 5 mg/m3in coal faces and 1 2 mg/m3 in overburden
faces. After the haul road, drilling is perhaps the next important source of fugitive dust.
During drilling in overburden benches, the dust concentration varies from 20 25 mg/
m3, and in coal benches it varies from 15 30 mg/m3.
.

16

2.4. Emission Factors

In coalmine planning, an estimate of dust generation needs to be made to check the
likely level of air pollution in the mining area due to proposed project activities. Typically,
this can be obtained by using emission factors or prediction type equations. Dust is
produced at the opencast mine by drilling, blasting, overburden removal, shovel and
truck loading, the haul road, truck dumping, coal cleaning, conveyer transfer point s,
waste disposal and land reclamation.

The particulate and gaseous emissions from these operations can be estimated
using the technique of emission factors. The emission factor is a statistical average of
the rate at which a pollutant is released to the atmosphere as a result of some activity
multiplied by the level of that activity. Thus the rate of emission of a pollutant for a given
activity is known as the emission factor, and expressed as per tonne of mineral mined,
per tonne of mineral crushed, per kg of explosive used, etc. Clearly every mine was not
inspected and measured. Rather, individual processes were studied and emission
factors were deployed for those. An estimate was then made of the number of such
processes. The total emission then equals the product of emission factor times the
number of such sources. Emission factors thus represent best values for the particular
processes studied. Other similar processes may not give the same emissions. In some
cases, very large samples were studied so that the emission factors might become more
accurate for average type computations
.
Table 1: Estimated quantities of fugitive dust from some mining operations
Operation

Number of estimates

Emission factor

Overburden removal

0.008 0.451b/t of ore

Shovel/truck loading

0.048 0.10 1b/t of OB

Haul roads

0.8 2.2 1b/mile traveled

Truck dumping

0.00034 0.04 1b/t of ore

Waste disposal
Reclamation

1
1

up t o 14.4 t/acre-y
Variable depending on soil and climate

17

Table 2: Emission factors from Powder River Basin, Wyoming Surface Mine
Source

Emission

Apparent emission

factor at source

at 500 m

Haul road

22.0 1b/VMT*

8.5 1b/ VMT*

7.8 1b/ VMT*

Coal dump

0.066 1b/ton

0.024 1b/ton

0.022 1b/ton

Train load

0.028 1b/ton

0.010 1b/ton

0.009 1b/ton

0.004 1b/ton

0.004 1b/ton

Overburden

0.012 1b/ton

Apparent emission at 500 m

replacement
Top soil removal

0.058 1b/t

0.021 1b/t

0.019 1b/t

Wind erosion

0.38 t/acre year

N.A

N.A

@ 4.7 m/s mean

*Vehicle miles traveled ource: Jutze .(1976

Source: Shearer et al. (1981).

18

Jacko (1983) gave estimates of fugitive dust from some mining activities

(Table 1).

The wide range in the estimates reflects the difficulty of predicting surface mine fugitive
emissions. Table 2 contains measured emission factors from surface coal mining
operations in the Powder River Basin of the Wyoming Surface Mine (Shearer et. al
1981), and this table also includes emission factor data as a function of distance from
the source. It is important that the emission facto r estimates in Tables 1 and 2 are used
properly. Some emission factors are based on field test, and carry a relatively high
quality rating. Others are based on only one observation and are, there fore, very site
specific and of unknown variability. Care and good engineering judgment are to be
exercised when using these emission factors.

The U.S. Environment al Protection Agency (EPA) published a compilation of air

pollution emission factors (commonly referred as AP-4 2), a handbook which uses the A
to E quality rankings. The compilation of emission factors was originally developed from
the technical literature and a report by Mayer (1 965). More editions appeared including
Duprey (1968), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1972, 1973). A list o f
uncontrolled particulate emission factors f or open dust sources a t Western surface coal
mines as collected from USEPA - A P4 2

is given in Table 3.

Sinha (1995 ) illustrated the technique of the exposure profiling method, specially
designed and fabricated for the study to develop methods to quantify fugitive dust
emission for vehicular traffic on unpaved haul roads. The value of emission factors was
found to vary

from 2 .8 6 Kg/ VK T for the unpaved haul road of the Muraidih

opencast project during 1994. The number of vehicle movements on the unpaved haul
road was counted during the study period, and the rate of fugitive dust emission
obtained there was of the order of 1 5 30 g/sec. U S Federal Register part 11. 33 (219)
of Nov 197 0 contains emission factors for heavy duty diesel-powered vehicles, which
are based on studies on 30 short ton (i.e., 27.2 t) vehicles giving 5 miles/gall on (2.2
kg/1) of diesel consumption with 0.2% sulphur content of the fuel

19

Table 3:

Uncontrolled particulate emission factors for dust sources at western surface coal mines

Source

Material

Mine
location

Overburden

Any

Drilling
Coal

Any

Emission
factor ratings

TSP Emission
factor

units

1.3

1b/hole

0.59

1 Kg/hole

0.22

1b/hole

0.10

1 Kg/hole

0.058

1b/T

0.029

Kg/mg

0.44

1b/T

0.22

Kg/mg

0.012

1b/T

0.0060

Kg/mg

0.037

1b/T

0.018

Kg/mg

0.028

1b/T

Top soil

Topsoil removal by scraper

IV

Overburden replacement

Overburden

Any

Overburden

Truck loading by Power shovel (batch

drop) c

Coal

Train loading (batch of continuous drop) c

Any
III

0.014
1b/T
0.0002

D
1b/T

Bottom dump truck unloading

(batch drop) c

Overburden

Coal

IV

III

II

Any

Source
End dump truck unloading (batch drop)c

0.002

1b/T

0.001

kg/Mg

0.027

1b/T

0.014

kg/Mg

0.005

1b/T

0.002

kg/Mg

0.020

1b/T

0.010

kg/Mg

0.014

1b/T

0.0070

kg/Mg

0.066

1b/T

0.033

kg/Mg

Emission
factor ratings

Material

Mine
location

TSP Emission
factor

units

Coal

0.007

1b/T

0.004

kg/Mg

20

Scraper unloading (batch top)c

Wind erosion of exposed areas

Topsoil

IV

Seeded land stripped

overburden, graded
overburden

Any

0.04

1b/T

0.02

kg/Mg

0.38

T (acre) (yr)

0.85

Mg (hec.) (yr)

Source: USEPA-AP-42 (1973 ). Roman numerals I through V refer to specific mine locations for which the corresponding emission
factors were developed.

21

2.5. Prediction Equations

The above-mentioned norms are rules of thumb only. Because of the site-specific nature
of dust, emission factors derived for one site may not give the correct results for another
sit e. Many factors such as brittleness and hardness of the materials being handled, clay
or silt and moisture content of the rock material, wind speed of the region, the size of the
earth -moving machinery in operation, etc control the amount of dust being formed and
dispersed in the area. The prediction equations (Sendlein et al. 1983) give a better
estimation of dust formation in opencast mines. A few prediction equations are given
below.
2.5.1. Continuous load in operations
Bucket-wheel excavators with stacker conveyors are being used in many of the surface
mines. The following equation allows an estimation of the fugitive particulate emissions
from such an operation (Cowherd et a l . 1979 ).

cont in = 0 :0018 (S/5) (U/S) (h/10)(1)

(M/2)2 5

Where
e

cont in = Particulate emission expressed as1b/ton of materials loaded in

S=Silt content of aggregate or road surface materials %

U = Mean wind speed 4m above the ground; mi/h
h= Drop height (ft)
M = Unbound moisture content of material %
2.5.2 Batch load in operations
Included in batch load in operations are the dragline, front-end loaders and rail-car
dumping. The equation was originally developed for front-end loaders; railcar dumping
and operations for shovel, but has been extrapolated for dragline. (Cowherd 1982;
Cowherd et al. 1978)
e

batch in =0.0018 (S/5) (U/5) (h/5)..(2)

(M/2)2 (Y/6) 0.33

Where e batch- in =Particulate emission expressed as 1b/ton of materials loaded in

U = Mean wind speed 4m above ground; mi = h
Y = Dumping device capacity; yd3
For a 100-yd3 dragline operating on a material with S=13%, M=8%, at 8-mi/h wind speed
and 60-ft drop height, e batch-in = 0 .0022 lbs-particulate /ton of material loaded in.
22

2.5.3 Unpaved haul roads

Cowherd (1982) suggested the use of the following equation for estimation of particulate
emission from haul trucks on an unpaved road surface.
eu =5.9(S/12) (S/30) (n/3)0.7(W/4)0.5 (d/365).(3)

Where eu =Unpaved road emissions as 1b-particulates vehicle make traveled

(Particles smaller than 30 with a density of 2: 5g/cm3)
V=Average vehicle speed; mi. / h
W =Average vehicle weight; tons
n= Average number of vehicle wheels
d =Number of dry days per year

4.4 Active OB storage pile wind erosion

e

pile=0.05(S/1.5) (d / 235) (F/15)( D/90.(4)

Where F = % time unobstructed wind speed exceeds 12 mph at a mean pile height
D = Duration of material storage in days

23

2.6. MORPHOLOGICAL, ANATOMICAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF PLANT

SPECIES & ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS FACILITATIVE FOR DUST CAPTURING
EFFICIENCY
2.6.1 MORPHOLOGICAL FEATURE OF PLANT LEAVES FOR DUST CAPTURE
EFFICIENCY

Different types of leaves tend to have differences in several aspects of their surfaces.
Some types of leaves have greater surface rigidity or roughness than other leaves,
which may affect their stickiness or particle solubility. Stickier leaves are better for
collecting particles because more particles would stick to their surface. Therefore,
certain plant leaves may be more useful for efficient dust capturing than other plants.
The various morphological features are also major factors for dust capturing by leaves.
The crown area of plants is depending upon the morphological features of the leaf. The
various types of Morphological features viz. shape, size, and surface texture of leaf are
discussed below:
Leaves can be of many different shapes. Primarily, leaves are divided into simple - a
single leaf blade with a bud at the base of the leaf stems; or compound leaf -

a leaf

with more than one blade. All blades are attached to a single leaf stem. Where the leaf
stems attaches to the twig with an axial bud.

24

There are three main parts to a leaf:

The base, which is the point at which the leaf is joined to the stem.
The stalk or petiole is the thin section joining the base to the lamina - it is generally
cylindrical or semicircular in form.
The lamina or leaf blade is the wide part of the leaf.

Leaves may be arranged on the stem either in an alternate arrangement - leaves that
are staggered or not placed directly across from each other on the twig; or in an
opposite arrangement - 2 or 3 leaves that are directly across from each other on the
same twig

25

SIMPLE LEAVES - MARGIN STRUCTURE

Compound leaves may be palmate - having the leaflets arranged round a single point
like fingers on the palm of a hand; or pinnate - when the leaves are joined on the two
sides of the stalk, like the vanes of a feather.

26

COMPOUND LEAVES
The form of leaves is related with all their functions and their environment. In addition to
photosynthesis, the leaf also carries out other exchanges with the atmosphere. It is
through the leaf that the plant "breathes" (absorbs oxygen and releases carbon dioxide
and generate energy) and transpires. Epidermic tissues in the leaf contain stomata microscopic openings like valves which regulate opening or closing, permitting or
preventing transpiration, through which the plant loses the major part of the water it
absorbs so as to allow further absorption by the roots. In most plants the stomata are
located on the underside of the leaves. Their function is regulated so that plants living in
dry climates have a substantially smaller number of stomata than those in humid
climates, where stomata are numerous and prominent. Where humidity is low the
stomata may actually be recessed or partly protected by soft hairs which can prevent
excessive transpiration.
2.6.2 ANATOMICAL FEATURES OF PLANT LEAF FOR EFFICIENT DUST CAPTURE
The anatomical features of leafs are different from plant to plant. The general
anatomical features of a leaf are given below:
Origin of leaves
Leaves originate as primordia in the buds. Leaf primordia resemble apical meristems.
Mature leaves are then formed by the coordinated efforts of several meristems in
specific positions.
Continued growth of a leaf involves cellular expansion and division o Vascular tissue
differentiates acropetally (i.e., from the base into the tip of the leaf).
Other tissues differentiate basipetally (i.e., from the tip toward the base). Leaves are
the most diverse of all plant organs (shape, size, texture, color, etc.)

Phyllotaxis
It is the arrangement of leaves on a stem. It is determined at the shoot apex and is
species-specific. The arrangement may be three types:
Alternate or spiral (one leaf per node, example - Poplar, Pea)
Opposite (two leaves per node, example - Maple, Coleus)
Whorled (three or more leaves per node; oleander, horsetail)
External Structure of Leaves
Most leaves consist of:

Blade or lamina (flattened, expanded part). It has a network of veins (vascular
bundles)
27


Petiole (stalk that connects the blade to the stem; collenchyma and sclerenchyma
fibers), which is absent in sessile leaves ( Zinnia)

Stipules (pair of appendages of varying size, shape, and texture present at the
base of the leaves of some plants)
Kinds of leaves

Simple (undivided blade, may be lobed; maple)

Compound (blade divided into leaflets in various ways)
Pinnately compound (leaflets in pairs along a central, stalklike rachis; rose,walnut)
Bipinnately compound (subdivided leaflets)
Palmately compound (leaflets attached at the same point at the end of the petiole;
trifoliate shamrock, lupine)
Peltate (petiole attaches to the middle of the blade; tubular leaves of carnivorous
plants)
Perfoliate (sessile leaves that surround and are pierced by stems)
Venation (arrangement of veins in a leaf or leaflet blade)
Netted (one or a few prominent mid-veins from which smaller minor veins branch into
a meshed network - dicots and some non-flowering plants) * Pinnate (main vein -midribwith secondary veins branching from it) * Palmate (several main veins fan out from the
base of the blade)
Parallel (several prominent and parallel veins interconnect with smaller, inconspicuous
veins - monocots)
Dichotomous (no midrib or other large veins; veins fork evenly and progressively from
the base of the blade to the opposite margin Ginkgo)

28

ANATOMICAL INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF LEAVES

Leaves consist of epidermis, mesophyll and vascular tissues a. Epidermis (usually a
single layer of cells covering the entire surface of the leaf). b. Mesophyll (mainly
parenchymatic [photosynthetic] tissue between the two epidermal layers) c. Vascular
tissues or Veins (vascular bundles scattered throughout the mesophyll)
Epidermis
Cell types

Parenchyma (flat, tile like cells, transparent, lacking chloroplasts) Specialized cells
(guard cells, trichomes, bulliform cells; some cells modified as

glands)

Sclerenchyma
Cuticle

Protective layer, on outer walls of epidermal cells, made of a fatty substance called
cutin often covered by epicuticular wax

Functions: protection from desiccation, microbes, abrasion, wind
Stomata

pores or openings in the epidermis, each flanked by two specialized guard cells

Variable frequency and distribution in different species
Guard cells Contain
chloroplasts, lack plasmodesmata, distinctly thickened cell Walls. These are Kidneyshaped (dicots), dumbbells (monocots), Surrounded by subsidiary cells (distinctively
shaped).

Function: regulate exchange of gases (e.g., CO2, H2O,

O2)

by opening

and

closing the stomata pore

Mesophyll
Several cell types (chlorenchyma, storage parenchyma, sclerenchyma )
Main function is Photosynthesis
Horizontally oriented leaves (e.g., bean, pumpkin) may have either Palisade
mesophyll (columnar chlorenchyma cells, densely packed, usually in two rows,
photosynthesis).
Spongy mesophyll (irregularly shaped cells, loosely arranged with abundant
intercellular spaces, gas exchange).
Vertically oriented leaves (e.g., corn) have uniform mesophyll cells and uniform
chlorenchyma surrounds a photosynthetic bundle sheath (some grasses)
Vascular tissues
Single or several closely associated vascular bundles form the veins, which are
scattered throughout the mesophyll

29

Xylem forms on the upper side of a vein (next to the stem) and phloem forms on the
lower side (away from the stem)
Veins are supported by fibers and usually surrounded by a layer of parenchyma cells
called the bundle sheath
The veins, in addition to their conducting function, give the leaf its "skeleton" (support)
2.6.3 PHYSIOLOGICAL FEATURES OF PLANT LEAF FOR EFFICIENT DUST
CAPTURE
The following Leaf functions are directly or indirectly help in efficient dust capture by
plants
Photosynthesis (production of carbohydrates from CO2 and H2O using light energy)
Transpiration (water absorbed by the roots and transported throughout the plant
evaporates into the atmosphere)
Water movement and Cooling
Abscission (seasonal shedding of leaves in deciduous plants) Nutrient recycling and
waste elimination
There are two physiological Features, which are controlled by Leaf morphology &
anatomical feature, help in dust capturing efficiency of leaf as well as plants. These are
- Photosynthesis Process; and Transpiration Process.

2.6.4. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS FOR EFFICIENT DUST CAPTURE BY PLANTS

The following environmental Factors influence the dust capturing efficiency of plants:
Light Intensity
The photosynthesis & Transpiration process of plants are depending on the light
intensity. The leaves may be categorized into two based on light intensity.
Sun leaves (smaller, thicker; with smaller and more numerous chloroplasts)
Shade leaves (larger, thinner; with fewer chloroplasts and fewer well defined
mesophyll layers)
Moisture
Mesophytes (grow in environments with intermediate amounts of water) and have
extensive role in Dust Capture from environment.
Xerophytes (grow in habitats characterized by seasonal or persistent drought)
* Small, thick leaves with well-developed spongy and palisade layers
* Thick cuticle, often sunken stomata overlaid with trichomes (hairy coverings)
* Some species with multi seriate epidermis or hypodermis
30

* Some species with succulent or no leaves

Hydrophytes (grow in habitually wet, aquatic environments)

* Large, thin leaves with poorly developed spongy and palisade layer (large
aerenchyma)
* Thin cuticle, stomata on upper surface of floating leaves
* Relatively little xylem and supporting tissue
Wind Velocity:
The wind velocity is also influence the dust deposition & dust capture by the
leaves/plants.

31

CHAPTER:

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. Description of the study area and selection of study sites

3.2. Methods for measurement of dust fall on the plants existing in the locality

32

3.1 Description of the study area and selection of study sites:

3.1.1Quantification of Dust generated from a coal mine
Bhubaneswari Open Cast Project, of Jagannath Area of Mahanadi coalfields Limited
is selected for the study purpose i.e. for identifying the source of dust generation due to
coal mining activities and to quantify the amount dust generated from various mining
activities using the emission factors and prediction equations as discussed in the
literature review part.
As said earlier Bhubaneswari OCP is selected for the study purpose as it is the highest
coal producing project in MCL. Bhubaneswari OCP is located at Bhubaneswari Block of
Talcher coalfields of Angul district in Odisha State of India. The Project is located
between latitudes 20 57 59 N to 20 58 43N and Longitudes 85 9 10 E to 85
1137E and is covered by Survey of India Toposheet No 73 H/1. The geological block
area is 577 hectares (out of which an excavation area of 462.641 hectares. The
adjacent geological blocks are Arakhpal-A towards north, Lingaraj and ananta extension
towards the south, Sakhigopal-A block towards the east and Subhadra A block towards
the west. The total geological reserve of the block is 741.091 million tones. The net
geological reserve of Bhubaneswari Open cast Project is about 430.33 Million Tones.
The annual production is 20 Million Tones with an average stripping ratio of 1:0.49
The coal produced from the mine is of non-coaking type with D to G grade. The coal
seem ranges from seam-II to seam IX with depths ranging from 44.99 meters to 1 mtr.
The shovel dumper combination is being used to excavate the overburden as well as
coal. The shovels of 4.6 m

bucket capacity and dumpers are of 100 Ton capacities

have been deployed in the field. Backfilling is also practiced simultaneously with the
production of coal.
The region has a tropical monsoon - type climate. The general wind direction is
from the west with few clouds from December to February. Air originating from the sea
to the east and the south brings about 80 85% of annual rainfall in June through
August. The winter season extend s from November to February, with temperature s as
low as 8C. The summer season is from March to June and the highest temperature
experienced is 50C. The rainy season starts in lat e June and ends in September. The
southwest monsoon brings the major precipitation. The annual average rainfall in this
region is 1421 mm.

33

The potential sources of air pollution in the area were: (a) drilling and blasting, (b)
loading and unloading of coal and overburden (OB), (c) the movement of heavy vehicles
on the haul road, ( d) wind erosion , ( e) presence of fire, and (f) exhaust of heavy earth
mover machinery (HEMM).
3.1 Methods
The geological setting of the area was recorded. Different machineries used for drilling,
mining, removal of overburden, and transportation system is also recorded. Different
mining activities such as topsoil removal, overburden removal, coal extraction, size
reduction, etc and total quantity handle d per day in each case were also record ed.
Parameters such as mean wind speed, drop height , unbound moisture content,
dumping device capacity, silt content, average vehicle speed, average vehicle weight,
average number of vehicle wheels, number of dry days per year, percentage of timeunobstructed vehicle wheels, wind speed greater than 12 mph at a mean pile height,
duration of material storage , etc is evaluated.
The data obtained is put in the prediction equations developed for different operations,
and emission factors were evaluated for each activity. The statistical average of the rate
at which dust was released as a result o f some activity was multiplied by that activity.
Thus the rate of emission of dust per unit of a given activity was computed, which is
known as the emission factor and expressed as per tonne of mineral mined, per tonne
of mineral crushed, etc. An estimate was made for the number of such processes. The
total emission then equals the product of emission factor times of the number of such
sources. These emission factors thus will represent the best values for different mining
activities.

34

3.2 Methods for measurement of dust fall on the plants existing in the locality
About 240 Hectares of Forest land under Talcher forest division is being used for
mining activities of Bhubaneswari OCP. Nine polluted study sites were selected in
Rabipur Forest and rakish village forest those lie under talcher forest division

with

increase in distance from the source of pollution: site1 situated adjacent to the coal
transporting road in which coal is transported from mines to stock yard and railway
siding. (Highly polluted), site2 &3 situated farther 500 north and 500m west
(moderately polluted), site 4 &5 farther 1km north and 1 km west ,site 6 & 7 farther 2
km north and 2 km west and site 8 & 9 farther 4km north and 4 km west.
Selection of tree species Dominant tree species in these two forests is Sal (Shorea
Robusta), Mohul or Mohua (Madhuka indica), Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus citriodora),
Sonajhuri (Acacia moniliformis) and Mango (Mangifera indica). Two broad-leaved tree
species, namely, Shorea robusta and Madhuca indica were selected for studying the
effects of stone dust on foliar parameters. The lower branches were selected for
collection of leaf samples. Almost similar branch locations (at a height of 2-4m) were
selected among all the study sites.
Dust fall jars are being installed at these experimental sites, as per standard procedures
& major Species of Plants that are exposed adjacent. The Plants are to be washed
before exposure. The weekly observations on Dust deposition in Dust Fall Jar & on plant
leaves were recorded without changing any environmental conditions. Dust Quantity on
Dust Fall Jars & Leaf was measured along with the Leaf Area Measured Graphically as
well as with Leaf Area Meter. The dust retention capacity was calculated.
Amount of dust fall on the leaf surface of the selected tree species was measured.
Surfaces were cleaned gently and repeatedly with the help of wet cotton. The leaves
were plucked after seven days and dust fall was calculated using the following formula
(Rao, 1971):
Particulate matter (g/m2/month) = (g particulates 30)/ (AC n) Where, AC is the m2
cross sectional area (R2) of the jar mouth, 30 is the average number of days per month
and

n is the number of days for which the jar was exposed.

On the basis of compiled information during the period of study, indexing of dust
resistant species of plants is to be identified, which will also help in
Assessment in the region.

35

Air Quality

The findings those will be obtained during the study will be technically interpreted and
compared with the standards wherever applicable. On the basis of various findings,
Low, Medium & High Dust Capturing plant species have to be identified and
recommended.
The repeated visual observations, quantitative analysis of dust deposits on Herbs,
Shrubs & Trees plant species have been undertaken during the present studies. The
percentage efficiency of dust capture of plant species have been calculated as below
Crown Area of Plant Species
Percentage of Dust Capture = ------------------------------------------------------Quantity of Dust Deposits on Canopy Area of Plant

x 100

The plant species are to be classified based on percentage dust capture into three
frequency classes:
Low
Medium
High

< 10% dust capture

- 11 20% dust capture

-

> 21 % dust capture

Discussion:
As the results of this project work is associated with certain calculations and to get any
conclusion the work is being carried out.

36

References
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control of dispersion in Mahanadi Coalfields of Odisha, The Bioscan, Special issue, Vol. 2; pp
479-500.
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37