Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FM 31-71
CHAPTER 1
GENERAL
Section I. INTRODUCTION
1-1. Purpose and Scope ing and complete evaluation. Comments should be
a. This manual provides doctrinal guidance to prepared on DA Form 2028 (Recommended
commanders and staffs for operation and adminis- Changes to Publications) and forwarded direct to
tration of combat, combat support, and combat the Commanding General, United States Army,
service support units in the northern regions of Alaska, APO Seattle 98749. Originators of pro-
the world. The material contained in this manual posed changes which would constitute a signifi-
is directed primarily toward operations below di- cant modification of approved Army doctrine may
vision level. Operations at division level and above send an information copy, through command
will be essentially the same as those in other areas channels, to the Commanding General, United
of the world. It is the forward elements of divi- States Army Combat Developments Command,
sions or task forces that must overcome the many Fort Belvoir, Virginia 22060, to facilitate review
summer and winter problems inherent in north- and followup.
ern operations. Commanders and staff officers at
all levels must understand and appreciate the ef- 1-2. Area of Northern Operations
fects of the northern environment on the opera- a. The area of northern operations (fig l-l),
tions of these foward units and carefully consider for purposes of this manual, is defined as those
them when planning each operation. The reader northern areas of the Northern Hemisphere
should refer to FM 31-70 and FM 31-72 and to which lies north of the temperate zone where en-
other manuals of the arms and services for fur- vironmental conditions require the application of
ther information concerning northern operations special techniques and equipment that normally
(app A). The contents of this manual are applica- are not required for operations in a more temper-
ble to– ate climate. Included in both summer and winter
(1) General war, to include a consideration operations are the considerations of mountain op-
of the employment and protection from nuclear erations and inadequate land lines of communica-
munitions and chemical, biological, and radiologi- tions. Although the area of northern operations is
cal agents; and operations in nuclear, chemical, or graphically described, the doctrine and techniques
biological environments. put forth in this manual may be applicable in any
area of the world that has snow and cold weather.
(2) Limited war.
(3) Cold war, to include stability operations b. The term northern operations, as applied to
assistance in internal defense and internal devel- this manual, includes both the Arctic and subarc-
opment operations. tic. About 45 percent of the North American con-
tinent and 65 percent of the Eurasian land mass
b. The provisions of Standardization of Opera- lie in these regions.
tions and Logistics (SOLOG) Agreement 23R,
Arctic Doctrine are implemented in this manual. c. For purposes of this manual, the terms, cold
weather operations, operations in the subarctic,
c. Users of this manual are encouraged to sub- arctic operations, operations in the far north, op-
mit recommendations to improve its clarity or erations in northern latitudes, polar operations,
accuracy. Comments should be keyed to the spe- and operations on polar ice, will be considered
cific page, paragraph, and line of text in which synonymous and will be combined under the all
the change is recommended. Reasons should be encompassing term, “northern operations.” This
provided for each comment to insure understand- term embraces operations in both summer and
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winter and is applicable to North America and informed, and maintain close coordination with
Eurasia. adjacent and supporting units.
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FM 31-71
greatly increased engineer effort and the use of 1-10. Weather Phenomena
special equipment. The many rivers and streams a. Whiteout. A milky atmospheric phenomena
can sometimes be used for the movement of troops in which the observer appears to be engulfed in a
and supplies. uniformly white glow. Neither shadows, horizon,
d. Poor drainage may cause low lying country nor clouds are discernible. Sense of depth and
to become isolated from the surrounding terrain. orientation is lost. Only very dark nearby objects
Roads may become flooded. Poorly constructed can be seen. Whiteouts occur over an unbroken
roads disintegrate. Often, the only means of snow cover and beneath a uniformly overcast sky.
transportation is by aircraft and low ground pres- With the aid of the snow blink effect, the light
sure vehicles or watercraft. Attempts to maintain from the sky is about equal to that of the snow
normal ground mobility are very exhausting to surface. Blowing snow can cause the same effect.
troops and hard on equipment. In brief, other The whiteout phenomena are experienced in the
than during the period from midwinter until early air as well as on the ground.
spring, offensive operations which require long-
range mobility will be dependent for the most b. Greyout. Greyout is a phenomenon which
part on air movement. occurs over a snow covered surface during twi-
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FM 31-71
light conditions or when the sun is close to the tinguishable under greyout conditions and not
horizon. There is an overall greyness to the sur- distinguishable during a whiteout.
roundings, and when the sky is overcast with c. Ice Fog. The phenomenon of ice-particle fogs
dense cloud there is an absence of shadows, result- is a very common occurrence around inhabited
ing in a loss of “depth perception” which in- areas during cold winter weather. They are found
creases the hazard in landing an aircraft, driving most of the time when temperatures drop below
a vehicle along a road, skiing or even when walk- -35°F. Their origin, in marked contrast to that
ing, with the effect greatest when a person is fa- of ordinary super-cooled fogs, lies in the copious
tigued. Under certain greyout conditions, it has local production of water vapor by human activi-
been found almost impossible when driving to dis- ties, coupled with an inability of the stagnant air
tinguish the road from the ditch or from the at such low temperature to hold the water vapor.
snowbanks along the roadside. The phenomenon is Such sources of water vapor may include the ex-
similar to whiteout except that the horizon is dis- haust from vehicles and aircraft, the vents of
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FM 31-71
steam from permanent type heating systems, the when firing. Ice fog obscures the gunner’s vision
air ventilated from humid rooms, and the stove along the line of fire and may disclose the location
pipe from space heaters. In the field, such a fog of weapons, vehicles, and troops. During darkness
may appear over a body of troops, bivouac areas, ice fog limits or negates the effectiveness of night
motor parks, airfields, convoys, and gun positions vision devices.
CHAPTER 2
OPERATIONS
Section I. PLANNING
2-1. Concept operation depending upon climatic conditions.
a. Extended areas of responsibility, reduction With sufficient ice thickness, they are easily
in troop density, and battle area isolation, plus crossed and may be used as natural routes of com-
difficulties in command and control, require the munication or airstrips. In some instances, drifted
use of mission type orders that give maximum and hard packed snow makes landing on ice diffi-
latitude to subordinate commanders. Northern op- cult, requiring further preparation of the airstrip.
erations require that tactical commanders be In the summer, waterways may either be major
given every possible opportunity to exploit local barriers or lines of communications. Many of the
situations and take the initiative when the oppor- streams are glacier-fed and carry great volumes
tunity is presented. of water in the summer. The amount of water in
glacier-fed streams may vary considerably during
b. Planning of any scope must emphasize the any 24-hour period, particularly near its source
logistical impact of any tactical scheme on the and when daytime temperatures are warm and
overall support problem. The lack of roads and nighttime temperatures are near freezing. Careful
shelter, plus climatic severity and other environ- reconnaissance is required to determine the daily
mental difficulties, require that logistical plans be changes in the volume of water throughout the
flexible and adaptable enough to permit adjust- day. Location of the main channel often changes
ment of supply means without endangering the from year to year.
overall effort. Restrictions imposed by extremes of
climate and terrain constitute the major change d. Mapping. Occasionally, maps maybe unrelia-
from operations in temperate areas. These restric- ble or even nonexistent. Therefore, the require-
tions may, unless proper provisions are made, ment for timely aerial photographs must be uti-
constitute major obstacles to the successful lized as a source of terrain information. With
conduct of the operation. Mobility is a prerequi- proper preplanning, suitable aerial photography
site to success. It can be achieved only through can be made and converted into a photomap by
careful planning, training, and the use of special- supporting engineer topographic units. Unless
ized equipment. properly laid out, annotated and referenced to
known survey points, the aerial photograph will
2-2. Special Factors not provide necessary “map-like” accuracies for
navigation and employment of indirect fire weap-
The following special factors will influence opera- ons.
tional planning:
a. Low Population Density. Settlements, sup- e. Navigation. Difficulty of land navigation is
plies, quartering facilities, and lines of communi- increased by lack of landmarks, large forested
cation are limited. Their control or destruction areas, periods of reduced visibility, difficulty of
becomes highly important. cross-country movement, and by large magnetic
declinations.
b. Roads and Railroads. Roads and railroads
may be limited and those that exist usually are f. Weather. Weather is an important factor to
vulnerable to enemy action. In addition, climatic be considered in the estimate of the situation and
conditions may greatly affect their use. may dictate a course of action. As an example, the
c. Lakes and Waterways. Lakes and waterways attacker or defender in a snow storm with the
are prevalent and may either aid or hinder the wind at his back has a marked advantage.
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g. Forested Areas. Forested areas offer con- transition must be carefully considered. Climatic
cealement and present excellent opportunities for changes become more abrupt and the appearance
ambushes and hit-and-run tactics. They provide of terrain features changes rapidly. A frozen
comparatively good protection against wind and river may one day present little problem and the
snow storms but present a serious obstacle to next day be a major obstacle.
cross-country mobility. In the summer, forests
burn easily, and fires may become a major prob- n. Atmospheric Disturbances. Extended opera-
lem. Units in forested areas are highly vulnerable ting distances and atmospheric distrubances make
to the blast effect from nuclear weapons. military communications difficult.
h. Snow Cover. Snow enhances the movement of o. Delayed Personnel Responses. The extreme
troops suitably equipped and trained, but reduces environmental problems encountered by personnel
the mobility of troops lacking proper equipment require that delay and time lag be considered in
and training. all planning.
i. Ice Cover. Freezing of rivers, lakes, and 2-3. Fire Support
swamps aids movement and operations.
a. General. Fire support planning for northern
j. Extreme Cold. The effects of extreme cold operations basically is no different than that re-
must be considered in planning operations. The quired for more temperate regions. However,
propser use and care of clothing and equipment limited ground mobility of artillery weapons, and
will largely overcome most difficulties; however, ammunition supply, and increased time of opera-
extremely low temperatures combined with wind tion increase the requirements for Army aviation
can be very hazardous to personnel operating out- aerial rocket artillery and aerial fire support, and
side. The effect of these two elements occurring tactical air support.
together is called windchill, which greatly in-
creases the speed at which exposed flesh will b. Tactical Air. The importance of tactical air
freeze and the length of time personnel can operate support is increased greatly in northern opera-
in the open (fig 2-1). The human body is contin- tions, primarily because of the remoteness of
ually producing or losing heat. Wind increases the northern areas and the lack of suitable routes of
loss of heat by reducing the thin layer of warm supply and communications, and the resulting rel-
air next to the skin. This loss increases as the ative unavailability of normal fire support ele-
speed of wind increases Any movement of air past ments.
the body has the same cooling effect as wind. This c. Fighter-Bomber Support.
may be produced by walking, running, skiing, or (1) Tactical air strikes by fighter-bombers
riding in an open vehicle. may often be used to supplement fire support nor-
k. Sudden Changes in Weather. These changes mally obtained from organic support means. In
include extreme temperature changes, snow mountainous terrain or in glacier operations, air
storms, strong winds, and dense fog. Changes strikes may be the only fire support means availa-
may be sudden and must be anticipated. Every ble other than mortars or recoilless weapons.
advantage must be taken of favorable conditions (2) Movement of forward air controllers
of even short duration. The commander who has (FAC) to points where they can control air
the ability to predict, with accuracy, the sudden strikes is a problem in northern operations. Light
changes in the weather will have a distinct advan- aircraft, particularly helicopters, are the best
tage over the enemy forces. The importance of means for placing the FAC in a position to see the
local weather prediction capability cannot be ov- target and direct the fighter aircraft. Ground
eremphasized. transportation for the FAC is inadequate as he
l. Daylight and Darkness. The long night of the cannot move rapidly from the area of one air
winter must not be considered a bar to operations. strike to the area of another.
For example, movement, camp building and
breaking, scouting, and patrolling must be consid- 2-4. Additional Considerations
ered normal night activities. The proper utiliza- a. Lack of large population densities and in-
tion of the available daylight hours assumes dustrial complexes in the north have direct impact
major importance in planning. on unconventional warfare activities. Low sub-
m. Seasonal Transition. The periods of seasonal sistence levels, lack of shelter, and primitive com-
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FM 31-71
munications also are of importance in designating expected to utilize all available propaganda media,
unconventional warfare operational areas. The (radio, printed matter, loudspeaker, rumor, etc.)
impact of terrain, extended frontage, extreme to emphasize discomfitures due to the environ-
weather conditions, and extended periods of dark- ment in attempting to reduce the morale of our
ness on the logistical operations of regular forces forces.
is highly favorable to guerrilla operations. Ex-
tended lines of communication restrict ground c. The strategic location of certain remote
movement to a few routes which are highly vul- northern areas and their characteristically severe
nerable to such operations. climate, low population density, possible govern-
b. Psychological warfare opportunities inherent mental neglect or disinterest resulting in antipa-
in the environmental extremes, isolation, and per- thy, ignorance, or restlessness of the inhabitants,
sonal discomfort present in northern operations provides a target or breeding ground for subver-
are exploitable. Winterization of loudspeaker sion. Although generally not regarded likely areas
equipment and printing presses is a requirement. for insurgency, control of northern areas within
Low troop density, difficulty in positive identifica- the context of a larger plan, may be a cold war
tions, and relatively limited movement of troops objective. If insurgency occurs, internal defense
in tactical localities make accuracy in leaflet dis- operations must take place to maintain control of
semination and radio broadcasting critical. those areas for friendly forces exploitation of
Enemy psychological warfare operations may be their strategic value (FM 31-16 and FM 31-22).
(1) What is the enemy capability for moving these indicators are not recognized by the intell-
cross-country? igence staff officer, the tactical commander will not
(2) What is the enemy capability for living be given a complete intelligence estimate on which
and fighting for prolonged periods in extreme to base his decisions.
cold? (1) Examples of cold weather indicators that
b. A checklist to assist in determining the an- may indicate the presence of or passage of a hos-
swers to these two questions might include– tile forces are–
(1) Is the enemy equipped with skis or (a) Signs of former bivouac areas:
snowshoes? 1. Packed snow.
(2) What is the enemy status of training in 2. Emergency shelters.
their use? 3. Remains of fires.
(3) Does the enemy have oversnow or 4. Trail networks.
through the snow vehicles? What kind? 5. Trash left in the area.
6. Freshly cut wood.
(4) Does the enemy have any snow removal (b) Tracks in the snow that were made by:
equipment? What kind?
(5) What types of artillery are being used by 1. Men on skis or snowshoes.
the enemy (SP or towed)? 2. Tracked vehicles.
3. Helicopters.
(6) Are guns ski-equipped? 4. Aircraft using skis.
(7) Is the enemy using sleds or some other 5. Air cushion vehicles.
type of oversnow transport to move unit 6. Sleds.
equipment? 7. Wheeled vehicles.
(8) Is the enemy using heated shelters? What (c) Improvement of winter trails.
kind? (d) Presence of winter landing fields.
(9) Can shelters be moved cross-country (e) Presence of ice bridges.
without vehicles?
(f) Ice fog.
(10) Is the enemy using improvised shelters?
(g) Smoke.
(11) What type of winter clothing is used by
the enemy? What protection will it afford? (h) Manmade or mechanical sounds.
(12) What kind of weapons does the enemy (i) Hot spots on IR sensors.
have? Are they effective in extreme cold? What is (2) Examples of cold weather indication that
their effect in deep snow? Can their heavy weap- may indicate the size of a hostile force in an area
ons follow infantry units in cross-country are–
movements? (a) Site and configuration of bivouac
(13) What kind of aircraft does he use in areas.
transport or fire support? (b) Size and number of shelters or tents
(14) What logistical support capability does present in a bivouac area.
the enemy have? (c) Number of hot spots present on IR
(15) What is the enemy’s airmobile sensors.
capability? (d) The number of trails present within a
c. For summer operations, units should deter- given area.
mine if the enemy has cross-country vehicles e. Detailed knowledge of the terrain and clima-
capable of negotiating muskeg or swampy ter- tology of the area of operations is essential. The
rain: if he has boats is he using them and for location and condition of the existing road net and
what purposes; and if he has bridging equipment railroads, if any, must be determined. Informa-
and units. tion regarding soil trafficability, vegetation, water
d. Personnel must be aware of intelligence indi- routes and expected ice thickness, snow condi-
cators that are present in a cold weather and tions, wind velocity and direction, and average
northern environment. These indicators can be snow depth should be available to the commander.
broken down into two categories—those that indi- The general features of the terrain from the view-
cate the presence of a hostile force in the area, point of cross-county movement should also be
and those that indicate the size of the force. If known by the commander. For summer opera-
2-5
tions, it will be necessary to determine water moving targets on the ground. This information
routes suitable for transpotation and dry ground (location and size of element) provides the field
routes in barren lands. commander with vital intelligence for immediate
f. The increased effect of weather on military and future operations. Data link of IR and SLAR
operations in northern areas makes it mandatory provides instant readout of information at the
that continual and accurate weather forecastle command post location. The day and night photo
rapidly disseminated to the lowest level. capability can be used to identify friendly and
enemy personnel, equipment, and base camps. The
g. Collection agencies are essentially the same panoramic, vertical, and oblique photos can pro-
as for temperate zone operations although their vide aid for advance planning or provide current
methods of operation may be different. Increased indigence data in a static situation.
emphasis must be placed on effective use of air k. Unattended ground sensors can be employed
reconnaissance by both Army aircraft and the during the summer season in the same manner as
supporting Air Force units. During seasons when they are used in other areas of the world. Their
waterways are open, boat patrols are useful in use during the winter may be limited because of
gathering information.
battery failure caused by extreme cold.
h. It is especially important during the plan-
ning phase of northern operations to secure de- 2-8. Patrolling
tailed information of the operational areas from a. Patrolling to provide information of the
strategic intelligence agencies. Every effort should enemy and to provide security increases in impor-
be made to procure basic airphoto coverage of the tance since combat units will seldom have any
area for each season. Streams, lakes, swamps, and close neighboring units.
the general conformations of the ground may
show clearly on aerial photographs taken during b. Reconnaissance and combat patrols may op-
warm months but may be extremely difficult to erate behind enemy positions for extended peri-
distinguish on aerial photography taken when wa- ods, depending upon climatic conditions and the
terways are frozen and the ground is covered with capacity to provide support. Subject to equipment
snow. The enemy’s need to rely heavily on radio issued and weather conditions, such patrols can be
also provides a valuable and often times easily self-sustaining for periods of from 3 to 5 days
accessible source of intelligence. Support Army Se- without resupply except for ammunition that may
curity Agency elements should be tasked to assist become expended. Ideally, personnel employed on
in providing input to the EEI in the form of sig- these patrols should be specially trained, including
nal intelligence. mountain and glacier operation. Whenever possi-
ble, qualified skiers should be used in order to
i. After operations are initiated, some collection increase the cross-country mobility of patrols.
means, such as long range patrols, lend them- Provision should be made for such patrols to
selves to more than usual exploitation in obtain- carry, in addition to weapons, communications,
ing information deep in enemy territory. Because etc., minimum equipment for survival including
of the unusually great operating distances, these tent, stove, and fuel. Prearranged supply drops
patrols can often pass undetected through flank may be used for replenishment of supplies.
and frontal areas. Indigenous personnel assume
increased importance as a source of information. c. The most economical way to move long range
Use of special forces working with the inhabi- patrols into enemy territory is by aircraft. At
tants in the area of operations prior to full scale times, it may be feasible to pick up patrols from
operation will enhance the information-gathering enemy rear areas by aircraft. During winter,
capability of the ground forces. escort patrols should be sent with long-range
ground patrols to insure that the long range pa-
j. Aerial surveillance by the OV–l Mohawk can trols get through enemy lines, to carry additional
be advantageously employed by the use of its var- rations for later use by the long range patrols,
ious sensors. The infrared (IR) detectors can be and make deceptive tracks on both sides of the
used to locate enemy or friendly base camps and route of the long range patrol.
isolated groups of men during the long hours of
darkness in the winter as well as during daylight d. Air cavalry units with attack helicopters are
hours. The side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) ideally suited for security and reconnaissance in
capability provides for detection and location of northern operations.
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FM 31-71
e. In long-range patrolling communications are not available, snow and logs can be used as substi-
a prime consideration. Normally, radio is the tute materials. All deceptive measures must be
principal means of communication; however, be- well planned and carefully executed to give them
cause of extended distances and difficulty in radio every appearance of reality. Electronic deception
transmissions in northern areas, aerial relays or is equally important, as the enemy can be ex-
message pick up and drop techniques may have to pected to gain intelligence by monitoring our nets,
be employed. in locating our positions by direction finding and
employing SLAR and IR devices to detect our lo-
2-9. Counterintelligence cation and movement. The use of manipulative
a. Camouflage. electronic deception, in coordination with tactical
(1) Camouflage during the winter is exceed- cover and deception, is essential in concealing the
ingly difficult. Reliance should be placed on decep- location of major headquarters and operating ele-
tion techniques. Commanders must place special ments.
emphasis on camouflage and deception techniques. c. Concealment.
(2) Summer camouflage techniques do not (1) Excellent concealment for troop move-
differ from those applicable in temperate zones. ments is afforded by darkness, fog, or falling
b. Deception. Deception has an important role snow. In forests, clearings are avoided, and troops
in northern warfare. False ski or snowshoes trails and vehicles leaving roads should do so only in
are made to mislead the enemy as to the size of places where the forest is near the road.
the force, direction of movement, and scope of (2) In bivouac areas and supply points maxi-
activity. Establish rules for track discipline in mum use should be made of dispersion and vege-
snow such as; using single file to conceal troop tation for concealment.
strength where possible and; restricting the blaz-
ing of new trails. Restrict the use of individual 2-10. Security
warming fires. Open camp fires can be started in
dry tree stumps in many locations to deceive the Tactical security measures employed in normal
enemy as to size and location of forces. Dummy operations remain essentially the same in north-
gun positions can be constructed from materials ern operations. Because of the long periods of
at hand. Sound and flash simulators should be winter darkness and the tendency for sound to
used in these positions to give them a semblance of travel great distances in cold air, light and noise
reality. If dummy rubber vehicles and weapons are discipline deserve special security consideration.
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ble. It may be necessary to establish distributing or snowshoes should be conducted downslope.
points in forward areas. Troops do not disperse or halt to fire until reach-
h. Aerial photos of enemy positions, terrain and ing the assault position or enemy fire becomes
routes thereto should be taken when possible prior effective. Final coordination lines should generally
to the attack. be closer to the enemy during winter than during
summer especially if the assault is made on foot
through snow. The decision as to whether the as-
2-16. Preparation for the Attack sault is to be conducted on skis, snowshoes, or
a. When reconnaissance is completed and other foot must be made by the commander based upon
preliminary measures taken for the attack, trails existing conditions. If skis or snowshoes are re-
are opened to assembly areas. If the distance is moved in the attack they should be brought for-
not too great, these trails are not opened until the ward during reorganization.
day before troops plan to move. Wire communica-
tions, when used, are laid simultaneously with c. In continuing the attack, special efforts are
breaking of trails. directed toward rapid displacement of close-sup-
port weapons using sleds or vehicles. Supply
b. Movement to assembly areas is executed the routes are prepared as far forward as possible to
night before the attack unless conditions of low facilitate unit distribution.
visibility deny enemy daytime observation. Guides
must be provided. d. The relief of committed units is executed as
under normal conditions with consideration being
2-17. Movement to Line of Departure given to rapid relief of assault elements to bring
them back to warm shelter. Warming tents, if
A halt is made in the assembly areas only long needed, are moved to the closest available conceal-
enough to feed and prepare troops for the attack. ment by each unit responsible.
Vehicles are dispersed and artillery moved to pre-
pared positions and camouflaged or concealed.
Troops remain in the assembly area for the mini- 2-19. Pursuit
mum length of time necessary to prepare for the The exploiting force is aided by cross-country ve-
attack. Supporting weapons are moved to selected hicles and aircraft. The pursuit force, which must
firing positions. have high mobility, is mounted, on skis, vehicles,
or helicopters. Airborne or airmobile troops are
2-18. Conduct of the Attack positioned near defiles to block the retreat of the
a. The attack may be conducted by the infantry enemy. During summer, waterways may be used
by the pursuing force as a means of moving pa-
on foot, skis, and snowshoes or transported by trols behind the enemy to destroy bridges and
tanks or personnel carriers or helicopters. Tech- erect road blocks along the enemy lines of retreat.
niques of conducting the attack are as in normal
operations, except when troops are using skis or
snowshoes. 2-20. Security in the Offensive
b. When the attack is conducted on skis or When attacking units have large gaps between
snowshoes, the attack formation should facilitate them and ffanks are vulnerable, patrol and sur-
use of trails broken by the lead elements of the veillance requirements increase. Basically, how-
attacking force. Every attempt is made to get as ever, security requirements in the offense during
close as possible to the enemy before delivering northern operations are no different than in more
assault fire. Whenever possible, the attack on skis temperate zones.
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Section VI. RETROGRADE OPERATIONS
2-24. General 2-25. Withdrawals
Retrograde operations are executed as in normal Withdrawal is best effected at night or under
operations. In the north, suitable conditions are conditions of reduced visibility when enemy reac-
frequently present for leaving strong combat pa- tions are slowest. Trails are broken rearward
trols up to a strength of one or two platoons to from positions before withdrawal commences and
may be mined as the rear guard withdraws. If a
harass or ambush the advancing enemy. Surprise daylight withdrawal becomes necessary, smoke
attacks can be launched against columns of vehi- may be used to good effect. Oversnow mobility is
cles and troops at natural defiles. In some cases, it exploited to the maximum. During the with-
may be desirable, prior to the withdrawal, to es- drawal, troops destroy all abandoned shelter that
tablish hidden caches of food and ammunition for can be used by the enemy. Maximum use is made
of mines, traps, and abatis. Airmobile covering
the use of the troops that have been left behind to forces or air cavalry may be employed to good
ambush the enemy. advantage to cover withdrawals.
Section VII. AIRMOBILE OPERATIONS
2-26. General b. Loading Plans. SOP should contain detailed
Airmobile operations are particularly adaptable to primary and alternate loading plans for all types
ground operations in northern regions. Generally, of helicopters available in the theater. The avia-
northern areas are devoid of the vast air, rail, and tion mission commander or the aviation unit liai-
road networks common in temperate areas. The sion officer advises and assists the airmobile task
northern areas are sparsely settled and small com- force commander in preparing loading plans
munities are often separated by great distances based on the lift capabilities of the aircraft. Spe-
and isolated from the outside except by small air- cific considerations must be given to increased
craft, watercraft or other, often slow and primi- weight and to the special equipment required for
tive, means of transportation. The terrain pre- cold weather, mountain and glacier operations. On
sents numerous formidable obstacles such as most missions fully loaded rucksacks will be car-
mountains, swift rivers, extensive lake systems, ried. So far as is possible, the ahkio, with shelter
snow, large expanses of swamp, muskeg, and and supplies and skis or snowshoes must accom-
dense stands of timber and brush. Airmobile pany the personnel on the same aircraft. Addi-
forces can bypass these obstacles and move rap- tional time is required for loading and unloading
idly with ground combat and support forces arriv- with winter clothing and equipment. Protection
ing in the objective area ready to fight. Reinforce- against subzero temperatures and other adverse
ments can be rapidly deployed to the battle area weather conditions may be required when consid-
in minimum time. Support can be accomplished ering external loads.
rapidly and effectively under all but the most ad- c. Missions. Missions for the northern airmobile
verse weather conditions. Conventional doctrine force are the same as those in other areas with
is as applicable to northern operations as it is to two possible exceptions, these are mountain and
the more temperate regions of the world. How- glacier, and search and rescue operations.
ever, some modifications to operating procedures
are required to overcome the limitation imposed d. Weather. Weather minimums must be estab-
by the environmental conditions. lished early in the planning to prescribe the least
acceptable weather in which the task force com-
2-27. Special Factors Affecting Northern mander will permit the operation to be mounted.
Airmobile Operations Weather factors which must be considered in
a. Standard Operating Procedure. The capabil-
ity of ground combat units and Army aviation planning and conducting northern airmobile oper-
units to conduct airmobile operations must be de- ations include: temperature, density altitude,
veloped through the conduct of frequent airmobile wind speed and direction, icing, visibility, turbul-
unit training exercises and the development of ence, and snow and ice conditions. Current avia-
unit standard operating procedures (SOP) for tion weather forecasts are mandatory. Weather
northern operations. forecasts notwithstanding, the best source of
2-11
FM 31-71
weather information is an on the scene report ing subzero temperatures individuals must carry
made by a pilot in flight in the area of interest. If their existence load (FM 31-70) at all times. So
possible, a weather reconnaissance flight should far as is possible loading plans must provide room
be made if weather is marginal or shows signs of for the squad ahkio with shelter and supplies on
deteriorating. the same aircraft as the personnel.
e. Aeromedical Evacuation. Plans must be made (2) During the winter, skis and snowshoes
for aeromedical evacuation-of the airmobile task for all personnel must be carried on each helicop-
force casualties. The evacuation problem is of ter and should be tied together to conserve space
immediate urgency during periods of subzero and for ease and speed in loading and off-loading.
temperatures, because in addition to battle cas- Skis not tied in a bundle must be carried under
ualties, casualties from cold injury are likely to the arms parallel to the ground to prevent them
increase. from striking the rotor blades on the helicopters.
f. Night or Limited Visibility Operations. The The situation permitting, a trail should be broken
tactical situation may dicate the conduct of airmo- to the exact landing site, a landing pad should be
bile operations during darkness or periods of lim- prepared and the individual’s skis or snowshoes
ited visibility. This is particularly true in the removed and lashed together to reduce loading
northern latitudes because of the short periods of time. Troops must not be on the landing site at
daylight during the winter months. Flares, heli- time of touch down.
copter-mounted searchlights, night vision devices, i. Landing Zone.
and other suitable techniques may be used to illu- (1) During winter operations, frozen lakes
minate the area of operations. Airmobile opera- should be used as landing zones. Ice thickness
tions may be conducted during bright moonlight should be checked by pathfinders before landings
nights on snow covered terrain, with little or no are attempted (table 2). The use of lakes as land-
artifical light. Areas with deep powdered snow ing zones offer many desirable characteristics; ap-
should be avoided or the interval between helicop- proaches to and from the LZ will be relatively
ters greatly increased if more than one aircraft is unobstructed; snow depth will in most cases be
to land simultaneously. less than in sheltered areas; troops can find ready
g. Security Forces. Because of the greatly ex- concealment in trees and vegetation around the
panded area of responsibility found in a perime- lake; and the lake offers a ready-made landing
ter-type formation of an airmobile operation, it strip for ski equipped fixed wing aircraft.
usually is necessary to economize on the use of (2) Because of the slowness in unloading
security forces. The security force is further re- troops and equipment from helicopters during
duced because of the requirements to off-load winter operations, initial landings should not be
equipment and construct warming shelters during made in a defended or “hot” landing zone. The
cold weather operations. A single security echelon landing zone should therefore be in an undefended
forward of the objective area defense line may be or lightly defended area as close as possible to the
all that is practicable. When combating highly objective area.
trained ski troops, it is desirable that all-around j. Landing Operations in Deep Snow. When
perimeter security be maintained because of the landing operations are conducted in deep snow,
secrecy and speed with which ski troops can specific techniques are necessary by the airmobile
attack. The forces for the security echelon nor- force.
mally are provided by the forward elements. To (1) Because of blowing snow and loss of visi-
enhance early security for the airmobile assault bility near the ground (fig 2-2), helicopters may
and to avoid the tiresome tasks of breaking trail have to be spaced as much as 100 meters (110
through deep snow, thick brush or soft muskeg, yds) apart or may be staggered into the landing
security forces may land directly on their posi- zone at 20 to 30 second intervals in powder snow
tions. Air cavalry or other armed aircraft, may be conditions. On wind blown, hardpacked, or
employed to extend the range of security opera- crusted snow, the interval between helicopters
tions. may be reduced.
h. Planning. (2) Individuals exit utility helicopters with
(1) The small unit leader must be assured their own equipment and move perpendicular to
that he has all of the equipment required to the line of flight, breaking trail through the snow.
accomplish the mission and to sustain his unit On medium cargo helicopters, personnel should
under the most adverse climatic conditions. Dur- move to the rear following the helicopter ski
2-12
FM 31-71
tracks when debarking. Other personnel follow or snowshoes, are unloaded as soon as the person-
the trail made by the lead man. Personnel should nel have exited the aircraft. The equipment must
move approximately 50 meters (55 yds) or one- be pulled away from the skis of the helicopter.
half the distance to other helicopters to avoid the Small items of equipment must not be thrown into
maximum wind chill effect and blowing snow the snow where they may become lost or blown up
created by the rotor downwash of the helicopters. into the rotors.
Personnel within the radius of the rotor down- (4) When the enemy does not have an aerial
wash must protect their faces by turning away surveillance capability, various dyes may be used
from the main blast and pulling the winter hood on the snow to mark the landing zone for easier
over their heads and around the face. After de- identification on subsequent lifts.
parture of the aircraft, individuals should check (5) When unloading in the landing area,
each other for frostbite. troops will frequently be completely disoriented.
(3) Unit equipment, ahkios and bundled skis A crew member of individual aircraft should tell
2-13
FM 31-71
the troop commander, as a minimum, which direc- approach and departure from the aircraft. When
tion is north in relation to which way the aircraft operating in deep snow the vertical clearance
is facing. Direction can easily be established for under the rotor blades is drastically reduced, thus
the ground commander by landing the helicopter creating a hazard for personnel departing and ap-
in a predetermined direction. Troop commanders proaching the aircraft. The UH-1D may sink in
should orient themselves as completely as possible the snow approximately 61 cm (2 ft), reducing
prior to touch down so that squad, platoon, and the normal 236 cm (7 ft 9 in) clearance to ap-
company assembly can be accomplished with the proximately 152 cm (5 ft). The helicopter should
least practicable delay. be approached and departed only when cleared by
k. General Procedures and Safety. the crew chief. Do not walk directly forward or
aft of utility helicopters. Equipment such as indi-
(1) During extreme cold conditions, troop vidual weapons, skis and snowshoes must be car-
warming areas must be established in the immedi- ried under the arms parallel to the ground to pre-
ate vicinity of the pickup zone and also in the vent them from striking the rotor blades. Under
vicinity of the landing zone, if the tactical situa- no conditions should items be carried on the
tion permits. Delays caused by below weather mini- shoulder when loading or off-loading the aircraft.
mums are frequent in northern areas. Weather (3) Door gunners normally will not be used in
decisions should be made as close to the pickup cold weather operations because of the possibility
time as possible. Locating troops in warming of the gunners, flight crew, and passengers get-
areas immediately adjacent to the pickup zone ting frostbite because of the open doors. Suppres-
simplifies operational requirements. Troops are sive fires must then be conducted by attack heli-
then readily available and can react to the most copters. It may also be desirable to eliminate door
recent developments with least delay and are not gunners at other times in order to increase ground
exposed to the cold during periods of relative in- combat power when limited lift is available or
activity when delays are encountered. Reserve distances are greatly extended.
units which must be immediately available for (4) During lengthy flights the interior tem-
pickup will require warming tents at the pickup perature of theo helicopter should be kept rela-
zone while waiting to be committed. tively cool (40 F.) to avoid overheating troops
(2) Certain procedures and safety require- dressed in cold weather clothing.
ments are similar for both loading and off-loading (5) Attack helicopters provide aerial escort
helicopters. In cold weather and deep snow condi- and fire support to the airmobile force the same as
tions, certain precautions take on increased im- in summer operations; however, over-reliance on
portance and must be continuously emphasized aircraft rocket point detonating munitions should
during training and in all operations. The aircraft be avoided because the fragmentation achieved by
commander is the responsible person regarding thin-skinned ground burst munitions will be mini-
safety procedures. To insure maximum safety, all mal in deep snow.
personnel should be frequently briefed on the dan-
gers of loading and off-loading. The most crucial l. Detailed Doctrinal Guidance. For detailed
areas to be concerned with in this briefing are the doctrinal guidance on airmobile operations, see
main and tail rotor blades, and the methods of FM 57-35.
2-14
FM 31-71
clear night, with a full moon without snow cover. attack should be carried out downwind, if possi-
On windless nights during periods of extreme ble, forcing the enemy to face into it.
cold, sound carries for great distances. Under c. In the defense, particular precautions against
such conditions, all troops must realize the need surprise must be taken during blizzard conditions.
for silence. Otherwise, surprise is impossible to The number of listening patrols must be increased
achieve and security difficult to maintain. and continual checking will be necessary to insure
b. If the snow has thawed during the day, it that sentries maintain a vigilant watch, particu-
usually freezes at night making movement noisier larly to the windward and most dangerous flank.
but easier than by day. During the spring break-
up, daytime thawing usually will restrict the use 2-31. Combat Under Whiteout
of roads to night hours. and Fog Conditions
In snow covered terrain, ground irregularities are
2-30. Combat During Snowstorms visible only by the shadow they cast. Under over-
cast the contrast is diminished, and in whiteout or
a. Combat operations are sometimes assisted by fog it disappears entirely. Movement under such
high winds and snow storms which cover sound conditions is extremely difficult, and progress is
and obscure movement. Close reconnaissance and appreciably reduced. In hilly or mountainous
attack are possible under the cover afforded by country, it may be dangerous since angles of slope
such conditions. The associated high windchill and cannot be estimated nor can changes in terrain be
the lack of visibility demand a high degree of recognized.
training on the part of all troops. Compact forma-
tions, simple plans, detailed instructions, limited
objectives, and positive means of identification 2-32. Recognition
should be employed. At night and under other conditions of low visibil-
ity, there is marked difficulty in distinguishing
b. Accurate timing is required so that troops do friendly from enemy troops when both are wear-
not remain exposed for prolonged periods of time. ing white. Distinctive markings and signals are
If the equivalent chill temperature is low, the necessary.
2-15
FM 31-71
CHAPTER 3
COMBAT AND COMBAT SUPPORT
Section I. INFANTRY
3-1. General built by using peat rocks, surface gravel, clumps
of soil, and vegetation. Because of the difficulties
a. The role of infantry in northern operations of concealment, dispersion and deception must be
remains essentially the same as in other climates, practiced. During these periods, units must use
although the technique of accomplishing a mission caution in their movements, as the advantage will
may vary considerably. Units usually are organ- lie with the observer who can remain motionless.
ized into highly mobile, self-sustained tactical
groupings with only those weapons and equipment 3-3. Effect of Terrain on the Accomplishment
suited to the operation. of the Infantry Role
b. The value of surprise is greatly increased in Terrain and climate combine to decrease mobility
forested areas under conditions of cold and snow. of infantry units. In summer, muskeg swamps
Skillful use of weather conditions, such as fog or and lakes form barriers which must be sur-
blowing snow, can be of great advantage. To in- mounted or bypassed. When frozen, lakes,
sure success, plans for infantry operations must swamps, and rivers may often be used as roads.
be made in detail and be made known to every
individual before action is initiated. 3-4. Effect of Cold on Infantry Weapns
(TM 9-207)
3-2. Cover and Concealment a. In extreme cold, metal becomes brittle. In-
a. In the forested areas, troop movements are creased parts breakage occurs in all types of
concealed by the trees. Cover from hostile fire weapons.
may be constructed from existing timber, by dig- b. Many weapons create ice fog which, on a still
ging emplacements, and the use of icecrete, snow, day, may obscure the gunner’s vision; thus requir-
and ice. Log and snow covered bunkers may be ing movement to alternate positions or the use of
used for additional protection. a flank observer to direct the fire.
b. In the treeless barren lands, few recognizable c. Mortars experience an increase in breakage
terrain features exist. Observation will, at times, of firing pins and cracking of base plates. When
be aided by the extreme clarity of the air. In the ground mounted mortars are used, the base plates
open tundra and barren lands of the Arctic, the must be cushioned against the frozen ground by
ground is permanently frozen except in some sand using sandbags, small branches or bushes, ever-
and gravel areas, raised beaches, or lakes and green boughs, small logs or similar type material
river banks. Even here, frost often lies within a which will provide a suitable cushion. Precautions
few centimeters of the surface. Consequently, the must be taken to prevent the mortar mount from
siting, construction, and concealment of defense becoming frozen to the ground, and the power
positions are more difficult than farther south. In supply for aiming past lights should be secured in
winter, snow normally is the only construction a warm tent or shelter.
material, but fortunately deep hard-packed drifts
usually are associated with tactical features. Even d. Experience firing data should be used for
during the summer, it will often be difficult to dig recoilless rifles and rocket launchers, and back
in because of permafrost and poor drainage. Ad- blast areas must be increased to compensate for
vantage must be taken of every natural object and the slower buring propellant. Rocket launcher
surface depression which will provide any degree gunners must wear the, face mask for protection
of cover and concealment. Breastworks may be from the flying particles of propellant.
3-1
FM 31-71
e. Special care should be taken to avoid touch- the minimum amount consistent with the health
ing metal parts of weapons with exposed skin. of the troops and the success of the mission.
This is especially true when an individual assumes Snowshoes or skis are essential for individual
a firing position and the side of the face contacts movement; and sleds must be provided for each
the weapon. small group to carry tentage, stoves, fuel, and
other equipment necessary for sustained combat.
3-5. Effect of Ice and Snow Consideration of mountainous terrain and gla-
on Infantry Weapons (TM 9-207) ciers is treated in FM 31-72.
a. Infantry weapons will function under north- b. In attaining individual mobility, the primary
ern conditions when men have been trained in consideration is how much a man can leave behind
their proper maintenance, lubrication, and use. without impairing his capability as a combat sol-
dier. Only ammunition and indispensable items,
b. The main problem is to keep snow and ice out including lightweight rations and existence loads
of the working parts, barrels, and sights. Special should be carried. Items not necessary for fighting
breech and muzzle covers should be provided and or survival are transported in unit trains.
troops trained in their use. Special light lubri-
cants are necessary because of the effect of cold on c. Because of the dampening effect of deep snow
normal lubricants. or mud, impact bursts of artillery and mortars are
less effective. Mines often fail to explode when
c. As a result of bringing a weapon into a warm stepped on or when driven over by tanks. The use
shelter, condensation or the melting of accumu- of such weapons, accordingly, is weighed carefully
lated snow may occur which will cause it to freeze in the light of the specific requirements of each
and malfunction when taken back into the outside operation. A plentiful supply of ammunition for a
cold temperatures. This condition can be pre- few weapons is more desirable than a wide vari-
vented by leaving the weapons outside, under ety of weapons with little ammunition.
guard, or thoroughly cleaning them inside the
shelter. 3-7. Tactical Considerations
(Detailed operations are covered in chap 2.) The
3-6. Environmental Effect on situation will dictate the tactical composition of
Infantry Operations the forces. The factors of METT (mission, enemy,
a. Infantry operations may become restricted terrain and weather, troops) and fire support
because of limited roads and lines of communica- available, govern the tailoring of task forces. The
tion. Terrain is less accessible in all seasons than attachment and detachment of units is ideally
in temperate zones. Troops require more time to suited for northern operations. The use of airmo-
devote to problems of living and shelter during bile forces for deep penetrations gives the com-
winter months. Efforts must be directed toward mander greater flexibility in the formulation of
oversnow mobility. Infantry must not become his operational plans, and should be considered
road bound. The guiding principle in providing normal rather than special operations in northern
equipment for infantry should be to provide only areas.
3-3
FM 31-71
attempted. Recovery in muskeg is exceptionally 3-16. Handling of Tank Ammunition
difficult because tanks “belly down” and tracks
do not regain the surface. It is frequently neces- Certain difficulties in handling ammunition are
sary to winch the tank to a spot where the mus- present. The binding tape around the fiber carton
keg is solid enough for the tracks to regain the is difficult to remove while wearing mittens; am-
surface before recovery can recompleted. Seldom munition cannot be touched with the bare hands
can recovery be accomplished with less than two without danger of metal burns. Ammunition tends
additional vehicles. to freeze in the wooden fuze-protective-ring, mak-
ing it necessary to cut ammunition from the fiber
cases. Cold ammunition placed in the warm inte-
3-14. Preparation for Winter Operations rior of a tank will “grow” frost crystals if the
The commander is responsible for insuring that tank interior is even slightly warmer than the
tanks and other equipment are completely winter- outer air. These crystals increase the difficulties of
ized in accordance with the pertinent lubrication ammunition handling. Ammunition racks are dif-
order (LO), with TM 9-207 for added informa- ficult to operate while wearing mittens; however,
tion, to insure use of correct materials prior to operation is expedited by the use of leather thongs
the advent of cold weather. Failure to winterize or extensions on rack latches and other handles.
tanks will render them inoperative in cold or ex-
treme cold. Winterization of equipment should be 3-17. Operations in Extreme Cold
undertaken on a priority basis. Units embarking a. Crew Comfort. Tank compartments are more
for the north during the winter months should crowded and entry and exit through hatches is
have all winterization completed prior to depar- made more difficult by heavy clothing necessary
ture in order to be operational immediately upon for northern operations. Confined crew positions
arrival. Tank crews should be provided with in tanks cause parts of the body to become
snowshoes, tents, and heating equipment. cramped, thereby restricting circulation. In these
confined positions, clothing is drawn tight or be-
3-15. Observation of Fire comes compressed and loses its insulation value.
a. Visibility in the north, as it affects tank gun- The drivers and commanders are subject to in-
nery, presents many problems. The formation of creased windchill as they are frequently required
ice fog, blowing snow, snowfall in driving winds, to ride with their heads outside the hatches and are
and snow blown up by muzzle blast all reduce exposed to the wind generated by the movement
visibility. Soft snow blown by the muzzle blast of the tank. Constant supervision is necessary to
will probably exist under any condition where insure against frostbite. Halts, regulated to fit the
light dry snow is on the ground. The burning situation, must be made. Personnel must be re-
propellant will create ice fog. The explosion of a quired to dismount and move around to restore
high explosive shell will create a similar condition circulation, and warm body parts chilled by loss
in the target area. Masses of dry snow are also of insulation and to rotate crew positions. Wind-
blown into the air by the burst. First round hits breaks should be used during movement in ex-
assume even greater importance. When these con- treme cold to reduce the windchill factor.
ditions cause the gunner’s vision to be obscured, b. Tank Operations. After the tank engine is
observation from another tank maybe the quick- started and warmed up, the tank should move out
est means of adjusting fire. The tank commander, slowly. The power train should be broken loose
because of his elevated position and the availabil- gently to prevent failures due to sudden shock.
ity of magnifying sights and field glasses, has Sharp turns should be avoided until the transmis-
much better visibility and depth perception on sions and differentials have had time to warm up.
snow covered terrain than have troops on the Initial movement should be restricted to low gear
ground. operations for some distance until final drives,
wheels bearings, and support rollers have become
b. Extreme cold decreases muzzle velocity and free. At each halt, packed snow should be removed
hence the accuracy of tank ammunition. Correc- from the suspension and drive sprockets to pre-
tions for firing table data and for ballistic com- vent track throwing.
puter setting must be furnished by ordnance for
types of ammunition issued in the northern lati- c. Avoid Exploring. Avoid driving in deep
tudes. If these corrections are not furnished, then snow, snowdrifts, or on ice unless the route is
using units must determine them by actual firing. prescribed and reconnoitered or the mission re-
3-4
FM 31-71
quires it. Plunging through woods is dangerous as with the hands will result in supercooling due to
tops of frozen trees may break off and fall evaporation, and hands can be painfully frozen in
straight down on the tank. If necessary, trees a matter of seconds. For detailed maintenance in-
should be pushed down slowly and cautiously with structions see TM 9-207.
the tank hatches closed.
b. Time Required to Perform Maintenance. At
d. Carbon Monoxide. Crews must remain con- temperatures below —40° F., as much as five
stantly alert for carbon monoxide. Open flame times the normal maintenance time may be re-
heaters or engine exhaust must not be used to quired. Starting and warmup time is also in-
heat closed areas. creased, and may approach 2 hours in tempera-
o
e. Vehicle Starting. tures of —50 F. Complete winterization, diligent
(1) Vehicles should be exercised frequently maintenance, and well-trained tank crews are nec-
to prevent the power train from becoming cold essary in winter operations. The degree to which
soaked. Engines not equipped with external en- cold affects operation can be stated in three gen-
gine heaters should be started periodically to keep eral temperature ranges.
0
lubricants and engines warm. (1) Down to —10 F., operation is not diffi-
(2) Frozen power trains and engines of ex- cult, but resembles operation in the northern por-
tremely cold vehicles are easily damaged by tow- tion of the United States during the hardest
ing in attempts to start these vehicles. In many winters.
cases, it is impossible to start track vehicles by 0 0
(2) From —10 F. to –40 F., operations are
towing because the suspension and final drives are more difficult. At the warm end of the range, lack
so cold that the tracks will not rotate. Extreme of winterization will result in only a slight loss in
care must be used in towing or pushing to insure efficiency; at the bottom of the range, lack of win-
that no sudden shocks are applied. Metal is very terization and training will result in many fail-
brittle in cold; tow cables, final drives, or push ures.
bars may fail under shock loads. However, an en- 0
gine may be started by towing if no other means (3) Below –40 F., operations become in-
of starting is possible. creasingly difficult; at temperatures in the vicin-
ity of –60°F., the maximum efforts of well-
3-18. Maintenance in Extreme Cold trained men are required to perform even a sim-
a. Maintenance Difficulties. Maintenance of me- ple task with completely winterized materiel.
chanical equipment in extreme cold is exception- c. Maintenance Shelter. Performance of0 field
ally difficult in the field. Shop maintenance time is maintenance at temperatures of below —20 F., is
also increased because equipment must be allowed extremely difficult unless some type of heated
to thaw out and warm up before repair can be shelter is provided. Maintenance shelter tents,
accomplished. Extreme care must be exercised in portable shelters, or large tarps and air duct heat-
performing maintenance in extreme cold as bare ers are necessary whenever tanks are operated in
hands will stick to cold metal. Also, fuel in contact the northern latitudes.
3-7
FM 31-71
(100 yds per 1000 yds) of range are not uncomm- 3-25. Field Artillery Communications
on. Great care must be taken when firing the
initial round to assure clearance of friendly posi- a. Wire and radio nets used in temperate zones
tions. Whenever possible, metro plus velocity are valid in the north and require no expansion.
error (VE ) techniques should be used. When a Due to difficulty of laying and maintaining exten-
metro message is not available, known or esti- sive wire lines, radio normally is used as the pri-
mated experience factors regarding range K mary means of communications. However, this
should be utilized. If any doubt exists as to what does not imply that there should be any relaxation
range K can be expected, high burst techniques in the attempt to establish wire nets in the shor-
may be utilized to determine the point of impact test time possible in order to back up the existing
of the initial round. means of communication. If available, an internal
radiowire integration system should be estab-
f. Special care should be taken when selecting lished. The utilization of track-mounted VHF
fuzes. This will vary with the type of target area equipment will reduce the serious communication
terrain. Keep snow and unfrozen muskeg will problems faced by the artillery.
reduce the effect of impact bursts by as much as b. Since cold weather reduces the battery life
80 percent. Fuze time and variable time (VT) are and the operating range of the small man-carried
particularly effective against personnel in the forward observer portable radios, a requirement
open. Some types of VT fuzes will malfunction often exists for a relay between the firing ele-
when temperatures are below 0°F. When possible, ments and the forward observers (FO). Use of
these fuzes should be warmed by placing them Army aircraft may be exploited for this purpose.
inside the gun carriages (self-propelled), prime However, this method is less desirable than
movers, special warming tents, or shelters con- ground stations during extended operations.
structed from gun tarpaulins. Low temperatures
will also cause malfunctioning of illuminating c. Communication problems encountered in
rounds by the freezing of the parachute and its northern operations and their solutions are dis-
components. Warming of these rounds will cussed in detail in chapter 6.
greatly reduce this probability.
3-26. Air Defense Artillery
g. Chemical munitions are adversely affected by
deep snow. The canisters from base ejection shells a. Air defense artillery missions in northern
may be smothered in the snow. Phosphorous areas are the same as those in other areas, subject
shells, although producing the desired smoke, con- to modification of techniques caused by climate,
taminate the area of impact with phosphorous terrain, and nature of the operations. Lack of
particles which remain buried in the snow. roads may reduce mobility and make resupply op-
erations more difficult. Cold weather causes longer
h. The field artillery digital automatic computer warmup times for electronic equipment, use of
(FADAC) is capable0 of operating in extremes of special heating devices for ready missiles, and, in
cold ranging to –25 F. with the addition of the air defense missile units, may require launchers to
back over this temperature can be lowered to be exercised at frequent intervals. Helicopter lift
–40°F. Extreme care should be taken by allowing capabilities should be considered for resupply. In
a gradual warmup period to decrease the condensa- northern latitudes the intense cold, with its at-
tion that occurs when a cold soaked machine is tendant unpleasantness and complicated living
brought into a warm humid room or tent. If tem- conditions, aflects military operations but does
peratures are not exceedingly cold, the machine not stop them.
can be turned on immediately upon entering a b. The type of air defense artillery units em-
room or tent thus decreasing the possibility of ployed in northern operations are dictated by mis-
condensation by allowing rapid heating of inter- sion, terrain, and available transportation. MTOE
nal circuitry. The back cover should be left on the often must be augmented to accomplish the as-
machine during this warming period. All switches signed mission. Winterization and modification of
and buttons on the front panel of FADAC are equipment where necessary should be accom-
concave in design to facilitate them being oper- plished prior to entrance into a northern area.
ated by pressing with a pencil rather than remov- Special clothing is required due to two types of
ing the Arctic mittens and increasing the possibil- cold encountered: Wet-cold and dry-cold.
ity of frostbitten fingers. c. Air defense artillery positions should be se-
3-8
FM 31-71
lected for their tactical utility and consideration The effects of extreme cold on cables require that
of the logistical factors involved. Air defense miss- they be heated before coiling and uncoiling. Cable
ile units should, if possible, occupy previously heads, plugs and connectors must be kept dry and
prepared positions. Light air defense artillery free of snow. Metal becomes brittle when cold and
weapons mounted on full track vehicles may even a slight jerk or blow may cause a pin to
occupy hastily prepared positions and effectively shear or a hook to break.
accomplish their mission. In adverse terrain, or f. Commanders whose force includes Nike Her-
under winter conditions, it maybe difficult to dig in cules missiles should not neglect the secondary
positions. Explosives may be used to expedite ground support capability of these weapons.
protection of the position, or parapets may be (1) Muskeg and tundra areas afford suitable
built up from logs or ice and snow. Alternate posi- landing sites to ski equipped aircraft during the
tions should be chosen early and prepared as time winter, with some engineer effort. A good recon-
permits. Siting of air defense artillery such as naissance must be conducted to detect the pres-
Nike Hercules system in arctic terrain is the same ence of clumps of vegetation, rocks, and other
as anywhere else. Movement during winter hazards to landing. Movement of aircraft and
months is not impossible but is impractical. For ground handling of equipment is extremely diffi-
most efficient operation, previously prepared posi-
tions must be used. Level and orientation is af- cult in these areas.
fected by earth tremors that occur frequently in (2) Snow covered glaciers make suitable
the northern part of the North American Conti- landing fields for ski equipped aircraft. Ground
nent. During spring thawing, leveling would have reconnaissance should be made prior to landing.
to be done several times daily due to permafrost Crevasses, often hidden by snow, constitute a
on other than solid rock foundations. threat to any movement on glaciers.
(3) When ice floes are solid enough in winter,
d. Both friendly and enemy forces may use they can be used for landing ski-equipped air-
aviation to overcome scarce road network, craft. Solidity of an ice flow can be judged from
strengthen signal communications, improve target the air by the color of the ice. Dark patches indi-
acquisition, and to move and support small units. cate near-surface water showing through. These
As forward area weapons units become available, patches make the ice floe too thin and unsuitable
they may be used to provide protection against as a landing area. This color factor can also be
aircraft. For use of nonair defense weapons used to judge the safety of frozen lake or river
against aircraft see paragraphs 6-35 through surfaces. The thickness of the ice above the water
6-38. is another indication of the solidity of a floe. How-
e. Surface-to-air missile units using nuclear ever, this thickness can vary from 8 to 25 cm (3”
warheads provide protection from any high alti- to 10”) depending on the type of ice composing
tude threat. Due to the electronic equipment for the floe.
air defense artillery fire control systems, person- (4) In a fixed wing landing on either a floe or
nel must attain a high state of training to per- frozen lake surface, the pilot should lay a set of
form efficiently in the north. Heated shelters will tracks on the intended landing surface by making
be required for maintenance personnel to perform a touch and go landing. A visual reconnaissance is
their duties. Generators, fire control equipment, then made of the tracks; any discoloration indi-
and launching equipment must be operated at fre- cates that the landing surface is too thin for the
quent intervals during periods of extreme cold. airplane.
3-13
FM 31-71
frost must be kept clear of the inlet valves. As vents maybe used for limited decontamination of
soon as possible after removing the mask, it essential equipment such as weapons, vehicle
should be dried out in a warming shelter to insure doors, and loading ramps, etc. The M13 decontam-
that it will be functional if required again in the inating and reimpregnating kit, individual, will
near future. Frostbite of the face may occur if most probably not be affected by cold.
head harnesses are adjusted too tightly. (5) The multilayer clothing normally worn in
(2) Freezing and thawing does not affect the freezing weather offers fairly good protection
therapeutic value of atropine; however, atropine against skin absorption of chemical agents and
injectors must be protected from freezing to pre- almost complete protection against these agents
vent damage from freezing rupture and to insure when frozen. However, there is a great danger to
proper functioning. personnel wearing contaminated clothing in a
(3) Reagents in the chernical agent detector heated shelter. The heat will volatilize the chemi-
kits must be protected from freezing. This can be cal agents and can thus produce casualties. Addi-
accomplished by carrying the kits underneath tional clothing should be available for changing
outer clothing. Although the validity of tests are prior to entering heated shelters and separate
not affected by extremes of temperature, some tents or storm entrances should be provided for
test may require longer periods of time for ap- personnel to change clothing after they have been
proximate color changes under cold temperature exposed to contamination.
conditions. In extreme cold, the vapor concentra-
tions above chemical contamination may be low 3-38. Defense Against Enemy
enough to escape detection. The detection of these Biological Operations
agents may be facilitated by warming a small The principles for defense against biological
sample of the contaminated material or by con- agent attack in cold climates are identical to those
centrating the vapor beneath an inverted box or for temperate climates; however, it will be more
other suitable substitute and sampling from a difficult to assure the requirement for food, water,
small hole in the container. rest, and cleanliness in cold weather. Troops suf-
(4) Water, the most common ingredient in fering from dehydration, or from lack of nourish-
decontamination operations,0
is useless if tempera- ment or rest, will be particularly vulnerable to
tures are much below 32 F. Certain organic sol- biological attack.
a. Base ejection artillery smoke shells contain- d. Mechanical smoke generators present no op-
ing canisters filled with HC smoke mixture are erating problems if properly winterized. Before a
not considered effective for use on terrain covered decision is made to employ mechanical smoke gen-
by loose snow because the canisters bury them- erators the commander should assure himself that
selves in the snow and the effectiveness is reduced the logistical problem of supplying large quanti-
because of the cooling effect of the melting snow. ties of fog oil to the generator sites can be solved.
A cable block consists of a piece of l-inch wire available through map, ground, and aerial recon-
cable painted white stretched diagonally across naissance is mandatory to assure proper route
the road about 60 cm (24”) above the surface of selection and avoid needless dissipation of con-
the ground. It is most effective if placed so that it struction effort. Route selection criteria vary by
is approached by vehicles coming downhill or season; summer routes being selected for ground
from behind a blind curve. Antitank mines should bearing (in most instances areas with deciduous
be placed in the ditch toward which the vehicle is trees offer best trafficability), whereas grades
deflected by the diagnonal block. Icing the road generally dictate winter routes because of the dif-
near the cable increases the effectiveness. This ficulties encountered in earthmoving during sub-
type of block has the advantage of being easy to zero weather. Tracked vehicles do not eliminate
construct, difficult to detect, and simple to remove the need for roads, regardless of the season.
for the passage of friendly troops or vehicles. In b. Roads made by combat troops under winter
forested areas, abatis can reconstructed by using conditions will be improved only to the extent of
fallen trees and barbed wire. the capabilities of organic equipment. Roads must
l. Wire barriers are practical, but tend to lose be made wide enough to accommodate vehicles
their effectiveness as depth of snow increases and, which will be using them but, because of the ne-
therefore, require continuous surveillance (FM cessity for concealment from enemy air, unneces-
5-15). When constructing wire barriers iron pick- sary clearing is avoided. On roads with a width of
ets are more practicable than wooden pickets in less than 7 meters (23’), frequent turnouts must
frozen ground. Explosives, power drills, steam be provided to permit two-way traffic.
jets, or heated iron rods can be used to sinkholes. c. Tractor trains operating on properly con-
Wire can easily beset at the necessary height in structed trails can move large tonnages. They can
woods and forests by attaching it to trees. The be used to advantage on lines of communication
wire should be placed close to the ground to pre- and in rear areas, but because of their slow speed
vent the enemy from tunneling underneath the bar- and vulnerability to attack they normally are not
rier. If time is lacking or there is uncertainty as used forward of the brigade supply point.
to the amount of snowfall, long pickets are used
and the upper strands of wire can be added later d. The vast roadless areas of the north become,
as the snow accumulates. Constant maintenance of under summer conditions, even more difficult for
wire installations is necessary, especially during overland vehicular movement than during the
heavy snowfall. Concertinas are the best wire ob- winter months when the ground and waterways
stacles for use in deep snow, however, they must are frozen. Combat troops are frequently required
be moved or replaced when hard packed snow to construct temporary summer roads and bridges
covers them. Prefabricated wire devices of trian- along the routes of communication without engi-
gular cross sections (Lapland fence), with six neer support. In contrast, winter roads generally
wires on the enemy side and four wires on the are constructed on the ice of waterways or along
friendly side and on the base, may be placed on the frozen swamps and muskeg areas, the summer
snow for temporary use. In case of snow accumu- routes are selected to follow the high ground,
lation, the tripods can be lifted out of the snow flood plains of the braided streams, shallow rivers,
with poles or other means and reset on top of and the shore lines of gravel bottomed lakes—ail
newly fallen snow. On the soft ground, the base characteristic terrain features of the northern re-
strutting of tripods and the base wires give gions. If a swamp must be crossed, it is done at
enough bearing surface to prevent the obstacle the narrowest point requiring the least ground
from sinking. The small reflective surfaces of the reinforcement. In heavily forested areas, existing
wire are invisible from the air at relatively short game trails, clearings, and lanes through the trees
lateral and oblique distances. Screwpickets, how- maybe widened and used for roads. Techniques of
ever, should be painted white. road construction under summer conditions are
contained in TM 5-330.
3-46. Roads and Trails e. The construction of snow roads for wheeled
a. Since routes of communication inmost north- and tracked vehicles and snow removal or com-
ern areas are generally limited to an extremely paction on all types of roads and trails is impor-
primitive road and trail network, a major con- tant. Normally, snow is removed by snow plows,
struction effort to assure movement and resupply graders, angledozers, and drags. Early winter
is necessary. Full utilization of all intelligence snow clearance accelerates the penetration of
3-18
FM 31-71
frost into any unstable subgrade, consolidating for a route over ice must be conducted by person-
the subgrade. The snow removed from the road is nel qualified to interpret ice characteristics to pre-
scattered away from road ditches. Piling of snow vent men and equipment from being needlessly
or forming of snow banks along the road creates a endangered. The entire route over ice must be
condition favorable to the deposit of snowdrifts. checked as the ice can differ in many ways in a
Deep-rutted snow which is hardened by traffic or relatively short distance.
freezing can be leveled with harrows, drags, grad-
ers, dozers, or by packing loose snow into ruts. d. Strength of Ice. The strength of ice varies
Road surfaces, culverts, bridge channels, and with its structure and temperature. A snow cover
ditches are maintained and kept clear to provide or a warm current will affect the ice temperature
melted snow drainage. Maintenance of roads and generally will produce a thinner and weaker
made by combat troops for tracked vehicles nor- ice cover. Table 2 provides working capacity fig-
ures for planning purposes.
mally consist of such tasks as straightening sharp
curves, filling holes, building turnouts, and drain- e. Expedient Crossing. An expedient for a tacti-
ing surface water. Frequently, winter traffic ef- cal crossing of skiers, snowshoes, and oversnow
fects on snow roads will result in a loose snow-soil vehicles may be used when a detailed prior recon-
mixture which cannot be compacted. If tempera- naissance is impossible. Leading men of the trail-
tures are sufficiently low, this condition can be breaking party are roped together. The lead trail
corrected by adding water and restoring stability breaker in a prone position drives an axe into the
by freezing. In the more common case, traction ice at arm’s length; if the ice sounds solid he
can only be restored by removing the unstable moves forward 5 meters (5 yds ) and tests again.
material. f. Ice Bridges. If the conditions are favorable,
an ice bridge may be easily constructed. Construc-
3-47. Ice Routes tion of an ice bridge requires pumps or some
a. General. In some areas, the best sites for other means of flooding the ice, and0 freezing tem-
winter road routes will be found along frozen wa- peratures. Temperatures below 10 F. are desira-
terways. They have an advantage in that they are ble. If the ice is exposed 0to direct sunlight or the
relatively easy to prepare, requiring only snow temperature is above 25 F., flooding should be
removal and possible strengthening of the ice in done in the evening to take advantage of the
places, and the only slopes found on such routes colder night temperatures. Time spent selecting a
are at the entrance and exit to the waterway. good site will be well repaid in reduced construc-
However, disadvantages are many: A sudden tem- tion and maintenance effort. It takes less effort to
perature rise can make the route unusable, many conduct an adequate reconnaissance of a crossing
men and much equipment must be stationed along site than to extract a vehicle which has broken
the route to effect continuous maintenance and through the ice. A site should be located which,
repair, convoy speed is limited, and recovery oper- within the tactical limitations, provides the best
ations of vehicles which break through the ice combination of shortest distance, gradual sloping
may force traffic to seek alternate routes. embankments, and low turbulence. The natural ice
should be at least 10 cm (4”) thick at the site
b. Planning. Tactical plans should not be based selected in order to support men and equipment
on ice routes and bridges unless there are no other required to construct the ice bridge. A check
alternative solutions. The many variables con- should be made to insure that there is water flow-
nected with ice routes and bridges make tactical ing under the ice, and that there are no hot
plans based on ice bridges and routes risky at springs present; otherwise, construction of the
best. If ice bridges are used, fixed bridging should bridge would be impossible. For details of ice
be installed as soon as possible to insure continu- bridge construction, see TM 5-349.
ous use during warming and high traffic density
periods. 3-48. Airfields
c. Reconnaissance. Road routes over and across a. The preparation of airfields for fixed wing
lakes and streams are selected only after intensive aircraft depends upon the conditions encountered.
and detailed reconnaissance of ice conditions. This In deep snow, the surface must be smoothed and
reconnaissance is concerned mainly with deter- packed by the use of a drag or by driving vehicles
mining the ability of the ice to support the heavi- over it. With a small amount of pioneer work,
est load which it must bear. The reconnaissance hard wind-packed areas can be made usable for
3-19
FM 31-71
aircraft equipped with skis (TM 5-330 and TM (5) Sites in cleared areas, fields, and road-
5-349). ways are easily prepared for landing. When ex-
b. Deep soft snow presents difficulties in the tremely dusty conditions prevail, it may be desira-
landing and takeoff of airplanes, even when they ble to prepare the ground with oil or other form
are equipped with skis. The deeper a ski sinks of soil stabilizer. Small trees are felled, holes filled
into the snow, the longer will be the ground run in or marked, and all loose rubble must be cleared
required for takeoff. Repeated pulverizations each from the area. Loose objects, such as inadequately
followed by light compaction and backfill will den- secured panels, may be drawn into the rotor sys-
sify the supporting snow structure for aircraft tem and cause damage, or loose rubble or debris
traffic. may be blown against personnel on the ground
c. Preparation of Landing Sites for Helicopters. resulting in injury.
(1) The amount of effort exerted toward im- (6) It is especially important that all commu-
proving landing sites will depend on their in- nication wires strung between trees or across val-
tended use. The procedures discussed here are pri- leys in the vicinity of landing sites be removed or
marily for sites in forward areas that are to be lowered to the ground. If the wires are in use and
used frequently. Even though no elaborate prepa- cannot be strung along the ground, they must be
rations are necessary for this type operation, the marked. This can be done with strips of cloth of
unit commander should realize that the state of highly contrasting colors hung across them at in-
development of sites adjacent to his unit will tervals to make them clearly -
visible to the pilot
greatly influence the reliability of support he re- during takeoff and landing.
ceives from helicopter units. Inasmuch as site lo- (7) It maybe advantageous at times to use
cations seldom will be found that satisfy all re- portable airfield surfacing materials such as pre-
quirements, some preparation usually will be re- fabricated steel or aluminum mats or membrane
quired. surfaces. However, this material normally will not
(2) If trees must be cut to clear a landing be available and its use may create handling prob-
site or approaches thereto, stumps in the immedi- lems during extreme low temperatures.
ate vicinity of the landing spot should be cut flush
with the ground or removed, if possible. Other- 3-49. Camouflage
wise, they should not exceed 30 cm (12”) in a. Camouflage techniques include the correct
height because of the possibility of puncturing the use of camouflage clothing; the camouflage of
bottom side of the helicopter fuselage. Also, it is shelters, weapons, defensive positions, camps, and
seldom desirable to prepare a wooded area by bivouacs; and the selection of site making the best
burning because of the dust problems which will use of natural camouflage. Camouflage will often
be created. require the use of nets and natural materials, the
(3) Landing sites may be prepared on the enforcement of track discipline, control of lights,
sides of hills by blasting a ledge. However, the smoke, noise, and practice in deception using
slope gradient and clearances must be considered available natural materials and specially con-
when preparing such sites. structed dummies.
(4) Even though the terrain surrounding the b. Snow exaggerates contrasts and makes cam-
troop unit’s position is hilly and wooded, a suita- ouflage essential. If possible, tracks that reveal
ble landing site still may be prepared. First, positions should be covered. Deceptive track plans
enough trees are felled in the vinicity to provide a are essential. Snow and other natural materials
clearing for the site. These are wedged among the should be used to conceal trenches and foxholes by
stumps on the lower side of the slope to provide a placing loose snow on the side of the enemy. The
foundation for the site. Earth above the proposed slope of the snow should be gentle with all sharp
site is then dug out and filled in around the tree angles hidden. Locations of emplacements and ve-
trunks on the site. Care must be taken to insure hicles are chosen to take advantage of existing
that the filled-in portion is solid enough to sup- dark patterns. Dummy installations should be
port the weight of a cargo helicopter. For security erected profusely (FM 5-20 and FM 31-70).
reasons, the site should not be cleared or filled
more than necessary so that its position will not c. Issue camouflage nets, wire mesh, and gar-
be easily detectable by the enemy. Unnecessary nishing materials used for camouflage on snow
digging should be avoided as this creates a dust covered terrain should be whitewashed or painted
hazard. with white paint to improve their effectiveness.
3-21
FM 31-71
Vehicles, aircraft, artillery pieces, and tanks width may be blown depending on the thickness of
should be painted white to blend with their sur- the ice and the number of mines used. Defen-
roundings. Camouflage painting is generally best sively, they can be used to restrict the enemy
accomplished by painting the entire vehicle with from using ice on lakes or rivers as avenues of
an extremely light coat of white so that a trace of approach or as routes of withdrawal. In an ap-
basic color shows through to form varying shades proach march or an attack over ice, they can be
of gray. Pattern painting is then applied to this. used to protect open flanks.
Special care must be given to tracks and wheels d. Antipersonnel mines are used for mining ski
since, as a general rule, painting will not prove and other trails in snow. When a pressure type
satisfactory because of wear. Vehicle crews must firing device is used, the mine must be placed
be trained, upon halting, to pile snow around about 2 cm (1”) under the snow surface because
tracks and wheels. Deceptive track plans in snow the weight of an individual is distributed over the
are essential. Tent camouflage can be accom- length of the ski. When a pull type firing device is
plished by scattering snow and branches on the used, the trip wire is placed at various heights
tent after it is erected. above the snow surface by tying it to the trees
and saplings off of the trail. All extra tracks must
3-50. Mines and Mine Fields be swept away.
a. For use in snow, mines should be white and
the tracing tapes colored. As much work as possi- 3-51. Employment of ADM
Me should be done in warm shelters to increase Principles governing tactical employment of
the efficiency of both the men and the mines. Arm- atomic demolition munitions are covered in FM
ing of mines in quantity is a difficult task in low 5-26, FM 101-31-1, and are applicable to north-
temperatures. When mines are laid in the snow,
track discipline is important. With no snowfall ern operations. Technical aspects of systems are
imminent, a well-tracked terrain is best for mine contained in the TM 39-series.
fields. To insure activation, pressure type antiper-
sonnel mines should be placed on a firm bearing 3-52. Problems for Engineers
surface such as boards or large rocks. Antiper- and Commanders
sonnel mines activated by pull or pressure type a. Commanders must be capable of employing
fuzes are effective on ski trails. ADM in northern operations. Conditions of
b. Antitank mines are not always effective weather and terrain must be considered and plans
under heavy snow cover. When they are buried must include—
too deeply, the snow causes them to become (1) Protection of personnel and equipment.
bridged over. The mines may be placed on the (2) Loading and unloading equipment.
ground where the snow has been removed or near (3) Tactical transporting equipment.
the surface of the snow on other support. A thaw (4)Communications.
or concentrated traffic often renews the effective-
ness of a snow-covered mine. The mine may fail b. Existing engineer organizations can be
to detonate if water has entered it and become adapted without difficulty to northern conditions,
frozen. In deep snow, antipersonnel mines need however, modifications will usually be required in
bearing devices to keep them near the surface. the type and nature of their equipment. In gen-
Minefields should be inspected periodically and eral, the amount of engineer heavy construction
necessary maintenance performed. White painted equipment must be increased with crawler replac-
trip wires are effective. Mines should not be lifted, ing wheeled tractors; tracked personnel and cargo
when they are equipped with antilift devices, or carriers must be added to permit equal mobility of
when frozen to the ground. Under such conditions supported and supporting units; and special pur-
they should be destroyed in place. poses equipment (ice augers, portable duct heat-
c. To emplace mines under ice, holes are drilled, ers, and extra maintenance shelters) added to
and mines are suspended by cords about 60 compensate for the environmental conditions.
cm (24”) below the ice. The field is laid out so This in turn will necessitate some revision of spe-
that the mines are staggered about 3 meters (3 cialist requirements. Such modifications and the
yds) apart. The field is sympathetically detonated overall requirement for engineer units, however,
by electrically exploding one or more of the mines vary much more widely in the north than in other
in the field. Gaps 10 to 15 meters (10 to15 yds) in regions with the season, the operational theater,
3-22
FM 31-71
and the mission of the force. During the planning (1) In the provision of shelters, it should be
stages, all these factors must receive detailed borne in mind that less fuel is required to provide
study to determine the proportion of engineers in adequate heat for one large space than if the same
the task force, the type of equipment needed, and space is divided between two or more structures.
the organization they require. This is because of the reduced area of outer walls,
c. Environmental characteristics of northern in the former case, through which heat escapes.
areas which complicate engineer tasks are— (2) Gasoline burning, portable tent heaters
(1) Permafrost. of the airduct type which rely on a small gasoline
(2) Extreme and rapid temperature changes. motor to operate the blowers can be modified, if
(3) Wind, snow, and ice storms. electric power is available, by replacing the gaso-
(4) Flooding. line engine with an electric motor to make them
(5) Alternate thawing and freezing. more reliable in operation and to be less of a fire
(6) Terrain such as mountainous, muskeg, hazard.
or tundra regions. (3) In semipermanent camps, where gasoline
(7) Hot springs. or fuel oil stoves are employed, the usual 5-gallon
d. Specific engineer tasks complicated by north- gasoline can should be replaced with tanks made
ern conditions are— from one or more 56-gallon drums set up on
(1) Water supply. stands outside the tent or building, with fuel
(2) Fire protection systems. piped inside to the stove. Frequent inspections for
(3) Road construction and maintenance. fuel leakage must be made and corrective action
(4) Bridge construction and shore work. taken to eliminate all fire hazards.
(5) Construction of appropriate defensive
systems. 3-53. Water Supply
(6) Mine and antimine warfare and reduc-
tion of other obstacles. a. The problem of supplying water in the north
(7) Construction of airfields, airstrips, and to units up to battalion size or reinforced brigades
helicopter landing sites. is much greater than that of individual supply.
(8) Installation and maintenance of camou- For instance, melting snow and ice on stoves,
flage and decoys. burners, or open fires in sufficient quantities to
(9) Construction of storage and supply dis- provide water for all needs of large units is im-
tribution areas. practical because a large amount of fuel is needed
(10) Construction of troop shelters and ad- to obtain a small amount of water. Seventeen
ministrative facilities. cubic inches of loose snow, when melted, yields
only 1 cubic inch of water. Melting of snow is not
e. In the north, as in any undeveloped area, recommended for supplying water in quantity
much is required of the engineers to facilitate the except in an emergency. The chief sources of
movement of the command. Extreme cold adds to water supply for large units in the order of their
the importance of efficient organization for engi- efficiency and economy are: drawing water from
neer work. Parties forced to stand about idle in under river or lake ice, melting ice, melting snow,
the open rapidly become chilled and lose much of and well drilling (semipermanent and permanent
their efficiency. Tasks must be laid out, and equip- camps).
ment and materials should accompany work par-
ties. Firefighting equipment and techniques differ b. When possible, water points on lakes and
in extreme cold because of the problem of procur- rivers are located on the leeward side where there
ing and transporting water. Fire prevention mea- is generally clearer water, less snowdrifting, and
sures and inspection are of the utmost importance more shelter from the wind. Sites on a lake are
and must receive constant attention. Water that is located as far from the shore as possible, within
stored for firefighting purposes should have effective camouflage limitations. To cut holes in
calcium chloride added to keep it from freezing. ice at water points, ice augers, air tools, steam
The chief reliance is upon nonfreezing firefighting jets, or other such equipment prove most effective,
chemicals. It is unsafe to rely on the use of snow holes can also be drilled through ice by the use of
to extinguish fires because the snow is usually hand augers, however, shaped charges are far su-
tramped clown around structures within a camp perior to hand tools in preparing water holes in
and is therefore unavailable in sufficient quanti- thick ice since hand tools are generally inefficient
ties. if ice is over 60 cm (24”) thick. A point to note in
3-23
FM 31-71
this connection is that the ice usually will be thin- units is handled in several ways. For immediate
nest where it is covered by the most snow. The use, men or units may fill their containers directly
methods used, however, vary with the condition of from the source. If they do this, they sterilize the
the ice and with the equipment, personnel, and water by boiling it for at least 5 minutes or treat-
time available. At low temperatures, ice rapidly ing it with individual water purification tablets if
forming over the water in the hole can be kept it is not already sterilized. As the water is
clear by placing the suction strainer about a foot pumped from beneath the ice, unit mobile storage
below the surface when pumping. Continual tanks are filled and the water then dispensed to
pumping or insulating the surface keeps the hole men. Individuals may furnish their own cooking
clear. and drinking water by melting snow or ice. All
c. If snow is used as a water source for large field water distribution units are insulated or
units, it may be shoveled into any available tank equipped with some form of heating device to
or container and heated by any method available. keep the water in liquid state.
When powdered or loosely packed snow is used h. (1) Transportation of water by truck is
for water, pack it tight in the container and tamp practicable only when there is a road net estab-
down or stir it frequently while melting to in- lished. The best way to transport water in the
crease the moisture content and so increase its north is by the use of tracked vehicles which are
heat conductivity. Granular snow, usually obtain- not dependent on a road for maneuverability. If
able near the ground, has a higher water content 5-gallon cans are used to carry water, they are
than the lighter snow of the surface layers. filled only three-quarters full to allow agitation of
d. In extreme cold, heated shelters are neces- the water during transit. Cans are stored off the
sary in which to operate water purification units. floor in heated shelters as soon as delivered. Sled-
For highly mobile situations, an inclosed, heated mounted 250 to 300 gallon water tanks in which
truck-mounted unit can be used to advantage as a immersion-type heaters have been installed have
mobile water supply unit. Water supply tents proved satisfactory.
should be situated on the ice, directly over the (3) For small units of two to four men, the
hole through which water is pumped or as close 5-gallon insulated food container is satisfactory.
thereto as possible, to reduce the possibility of These can be filled each night with water from
water freezing in the intake hose. melted snow or ice or from unit water dispensers.
They hold enough water for the minimum daily
e. Because of the normnal low turbidity, it is needs of about four men. The insulation is suffi-
probable that safe water can be provided by chlo- cient to keep water from freezing for as long as
rination without pretreatment, if filtration is 0
40 hours at an ambient temperature of –20 F., if
accomplished by means of an improved diatomite the temperature of the water was at the boiling
or ceramic filter. Some of the treatment problems point when the container was filled.
encountered in the North are—
(1) Water in certain areas requires heavy (3) Disposition of waste water is a constant
chlorination to obtain a standard residual test of problem in extreme cold and, even in the summer,
0.4 parts per million after a 30-minute contact in the presence of underlying permafrost. For pe-
period in active parts of distribution systems at riods of up to 6 months, satisfactory drains can be
fixed installations, and of 1 part per million after constructed by digging or blasting deep pits filling
a 10-minute contact period under field conditions. these with large rocks and then recovering with
(2) Water softeners and controlled acidity about 50 cm (1½’) of earth.
are required in most cases to prevent scaling in (4) The steam generator-type snow and ice
heating systems and power plant cooling systems. melting device has many potential uses, including
f. For units in the field, water maybe stored in jetting in ice and frozen soil; thawing frozen
insulated 5-gallon cans. Immersion-type heaters equipment and water and fuel lines; freeing
may be used to prevent freezing of a water supply equipment, tanks. and vehicles frozen into mud or
tank or trailer. ice; and assisting in the placing of obstacles and
g. Field distribution of water to men and small mines in frozen materials.
3-24
FM 31-71
CHAPTER 4
COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT
Section I. GENERAL
4-1. Purpose 4-3. Logistic Mobility
This chapter contains information relative to a. Tactical mobility is limited by logistic mobil-
combat service support in northern combat opera- ity. Logistic mobility requires rapid, convenient,
tions. Procedures for support of task forces in and economic supply storage and handling meth-
cross-country operations are emphasized. ods; responsive resupply systems; effective main-
tenance and service support systems; and effec-
4-2. Factors Affecting Northern tive ground and air transport, all integrated into
Logistic Operations competent support organizations.
Logistic support in northern areas is critically af-
fected by— b. Logistical organizations are limited in mobil-
ity and organic transportation, particularly air
a. The long and difficult terrain distances over transport. Dedicated air transport will be essen-
which support must be rendered. tial for the conduct of urgent logistical missions
b. The lack of ground communications systems, and functions in northern operations. In the ab-
even in the approaches to population centers sence of air transport organic to the logistical
c. The general lack of civil and industrial facili- units, the tactical unit (customer) must provide
ties that can be adapted for military purposes. transportation on a case by case basis, which may
d. Environmental factors, including winter detract from the tactical unit’s mission. Priority
cold, permafrost phenomena, low bearing capacity air transportation provided by the Air Force may
soils in summer, vegetation cover, and terrain be responsive in terms of days on highest priori-
barriers. ties when response in terms of hours is required.
4-17
FM 3l-71
CHAPTER 5
COMMUNICATIONS
Section I. GENERAL
5-1. Role while capable of spanning the extended distances
Military operations in northern latitudes may be dictated by tactical requirements, are subject to
characterized by the employment of independent interference by magnetic storms, aurora borealis,
task forces, usually beyond mutual supporting dis- and ionospheric disturbances, which may com-
tance of each other. The lack of major land lines pletely black out reception for hours, or even
of communication, the necessity of relying upon days. Transmission and reception under most con-
air lines of communication, and the great disper- ditions is possible providing proper installation
sion between forces means that primary reliance and operation procedures are followed.
must be placed on radio as a means of communi- b. The combined effects of terrain, cold, ice,
cation. Operations over extended areas will re- dampness, and dust on communications equipment
quire augmentation of radio equipment and per- increase maintenance and supply problems to the
sonnel. When these factors are considered in extent that the full effort of operators and repair
conjunction with the extreme cold and deep snow, personnel is required to provide satisfactory com-
it can be seen that, under some circumstances, munications.
operations of isolated task forces will be prac-
tically impossible unless these forces are able to
communicate with higher and adjacent units to 5-3. Support of Signal Communications
arrange for support and supply. Activities by Army Aviation
Army aviation should be used whenever possible
5-2. General Effect of the Environment to assist in overcoming the communication diffi-
on Communications culties caused by terrain and extreme climatic
a. High frequency transmission and reception, conditions.
5-3
FM 31-71
(2) Operators should keep the radio set d. The following techniques and expedients can
clean, dry, and as warm as possible. be used to increase the range and reliability of
(3) They should handle the set carefully. Ra- radio nets.
dios that are exposed to extreme cold are particu- (1) Use the radiotelegraph (RATG) method
larly sensitive to jars, shocks, and rough han- of operation rather than the radiotelephone
dling. (RATEL).
(4) Preventive maintenance procedures take (2) For tactical FM radios, elevate the anten-
on added importance. Operators should detrained nas as high as possible either by siting the set on
to setup a routine inspection and check procedure hills and mountains, using an elevated ground
covering the following points: plane antenna, an improvised elevated half-wave
(a) Plugs and jacks should be clean. antenna, or an improvised vertical half-rhombic
(b) Antenna connections should be tight. antenna.
Insulators must be dry and clean; snow and ice (3) Use remote control devices in order that
removed. stations may be sited in advantageous positions.
(c) Power connections must be tight. (4) Use intermediate voice or automatic re-
(d) Motors and fans should run freely. transmission stations for both FM or HF nets.
Radio sets using a retransmission device can be
(e) Knobs and controls should operate used as intermediate relay stations.
easily. (5) Use Army aircraft for radio retransmit-
(f) Lubrication must be checked more fre- sion or relay when out of normal range, or other
quently.
means or retransmission as practicable. Either in-
(g) Dry batteries must be fresh and kept termediate voice or automatic retransmission
warm. from the aircraft can reemployed in many situa-
(h) Operating spares must be on hand. tions. This will often prove to be the only means
(i) Breath shields should be used on all of successful communication to isolated teams and
microphones. units, and for long range patrols.
(j) Additional guying for antenna masts is
required to prevent mast failure cause by severe 5-11. Radio Communications
cold and extremely high winds. a. Command radio nets must be established first
(k) Insure that the proper antenna length and priority given to maintenance throughout the
is used relative to operating frequency. tactical operation. When an element moves out of
(l) Check to assure that the antenna has ground wave range from its base of operations,
been erected and oriented properly. retransmission points must be established or sky
(m) Operators should insure that radios wave propagation will have to be depended upon
are turned off whenever vehicles are started. This when it is not possible to establish intermediate
is necessary to avoid a sudden surge of power. retransmission points. When it can be anticipated
Before the radio is turned on the vehicle should be that distances are so long as to preclude communi-
allowed to warm up inside. cations with equipment normally available, higher
headquarters should be requested to furnish com-
c. With equipment in good shape, lack of com- munications support. Situations may arise where
munication can be caused by the following: radio communications will not meet full expecta-
(1) Excessive distance between sets. tion. Alternate means, such as messenger service,
must always be included in the signal communica-
(2) Bad intervening terrain, such as hills tion plan.
and mountains.
(3) Poor choice of location of one or both b. The establishment of air-ground circuits is of
ends of the radio net. major importance in all tactical operations in
northern latitudes because of the dependence on
(4) Poor choice of operating frequency for aircraft for airmobile operations, logistical sup-
sky wave. port, observation, and messenger missions.
(5) Poor choice of antenna; improper an- c. The use of low or medium channel-capacity
tenna orientation. VHF-UHF radio relay equipment mounted on
(6) Not enough transmitter power. small tracked vehicles will provide the most relia-
(7) Excessive noise and interference. ble means of communications to mobile task
5-4
FM 31-71
forces as low as battalion size organizations. Such the wire circuit is to remain in place during the
equipment configurations should retain the same warm season, particular care must be given to its
mobility and concealment requirements as the placement through areas, such as lakes and mus-
supported unit while providing reliable telephone keg, which may be impassable in summer and
communications not subject to northern propaga- make maintenance impossible. Similar care should
tion difficulties. be taken to avoid locating wire lines in areas sub-
d. The use of the radio wire integration tech- ject to snow and earth avalanches. Consideration
nique to extend both radio and wire circuits will must also be given to the effects of frost thrust
be an important factor in successful communica- and the shifting of ice masses.
tions. b. Telephones, teletypewriters, facsimile equip-
ment, wire carrier terminals, and telephone
5-12. Factors Affecting Wire Communications switchboards, must be operated in heated shelters.
Tactical wire communication has the same capa- Batteries and battery operated equipment should
bilities and limitations in northern latitudes as in be kept warm even when low temperature batter-
temperate zones. Due to the distances involved and ies are used. Microphones, telephones, and opera-
the difficulty of overland movement, wire commu- tors’ sets must be provided with breathshields to
nications may be limited to telephones serving prevent frost formation from disabling them.
local installations. If long distance wire communi- Further difficulties can be expected from switch
cation trunk (telephone, teletype, facsimile, and malfunctioning and stiffening or breaking of asso-
data transmission) are required, radio relay sys- ciated cord and plug assemblies.
tems which can be integrated into the wire system c. Grounds are extremely difficult to obtain in
must be considered because of relative ease of in- frozen soil. Grounding of wire equipment is neces-
stallation, economy of transport, and other logis- sary; however, special cold weather ground stakes
tic factors. The installation of radio relay systems should be used and should penetrate the frozen
on mountain tops normally will be necessary for surf ace of the earth 1 meter (3’) below the sur-
extension of long distance wire circuits. Extensive face. It may be necessary to use special blasting
planning for installation, maintenance, and sup- devices to obtain a suitable ground. When a
port of equipment and support and survival of grounding rod cannot be driven 1 meter into the
personnel operating these mountain-top relay soil, it should be driven in at least 30 cm (12”)
sites is mandatory. Consideration must be given and water poured around the base to increase con-
to the fact that more time is required to install ductivity. Because of the difficulty of obtaining
and maintain field wire lines during periods of grounds and the high resistance of the soil, sim-
extreme cold and deep snow. Batteries which are plex telephone and teletypewriter circuits, which
used to operate field telephones and switchboards utilize a ground return to complete the circuit,
are subject to the same temperature limitations as should not be used.
those used to power the small portable tactical
radio sets. d. Due to the difficulties of resupply and the
necessity of limiting basic loads to the bare essen-
5-13. Special Considerations Applicable tials, the communications-electronics staff officer
to Northern Latitudes must make every effort to recover all available
a. Aside from the logistical considerations, the wire for subsequent reuse. He must plan his cir-
most difficult task in providing wire communica- cuits, so far as possible, to facilitate recovery,
tion is that of constructing and maintaining the taking into account that wire or cable laid in or
necessary circuits. Field wire may be laid on the on the snow is extremely difficult to recover be-
snow, but must be suitably marked to facilitate cause of the melting, refreezing, and drifting
maintenance. Below the tree line, trees, if high action that takes place around the wire. The ini-
enough, may be used to support the lines. Initial tial supply of wire, supplemented by limited re-
circuit layout should include consideration of wire supply, may constitute the only source of field
and cable routes with respect to expected vehicu- wire.
lar and oversnow traffic, so as to minimize the
damage from tracklaying vehicles and ski troops. 5-14. Techniques of Wire Construction
Field wire lines should not be laid on ski trails in the North
which are used for troop movement; a separate a. Field wire is most conveniently laid from the
communication trail should be broken and used. If dispenser MX-306/G. When these dispensers are
5-5
FM 31-71
used, communication can be maintained con- the pilot and the terminal points of the circuit
stantly to check the continuity of the circuits and marked by smoke, panels, or lights. In making
to furnish a means of communication to the wire plans for construction using this method, allow
team. The dispenser can be attached to a standard for a 50 percent slack factor, and consider the
packboard and the wire laid by a lineman on skis wire beyond recovery and extremely difficult to
or snowshoes. When the distance is such as to maintain.
preclude the use of lineman on foot and the ter- d. Often the communications officer will find it
rain prevents the use of oversnow vehicles, wire necessary to use a combination of the previously
can be laid from dispenser by Army aircraft. mentioned techniques to install a single circuit.
b. Oversnow vehicles equipped with reel units Lines to isolated relatively inaccessible detach-
can be used to lay field wire or cable. If recovered ments, such as weather stations, radar sites, and
field wire is available and has been properly serv- observation posts, may require the use of vehicle-
iced, it should be used in preference to wire from towed cargo sleds or man-pulled 200-pound sleds
the dispensers, thus conserving the dispenser wire to transport the additional amount of wire neces-
for critical situations. Field cable can be most sary to complete the circuit. Rockets and rifle gre-
effectively laid from drums mounted on reel units nades in conjunction with the dispenser can be
installed on the vehicle itself. However, the under- used to carry field wire several hundred meters
taking of a major cable construction project in across ravines and crevasses.
temperatures below 0ºF. presents a formidable e. It is extremely important, both from the
obstacle. The cable sheath and insulation, unless viewpoint of conserving labor and considerably
warmed, is no longer pliable. The act of unwind- reducing required quantities of wire, to keep field
ing it, by force, without preheating it for several wire and cables from being drifted over by the
hours could damage it to the point of uselessness. snow. Cables and wire that interconnect two or
A heated shelter should be provided for wire-lay- more units in a command can be covered with
ing crews. An arctic personnel shelter mounted on snow so deeply in a single day that the loss of
a truck or tracked vehicle provides a good facility many man-days in recovering or maintaining the
for tactical wire or cable laying. The wire or cable circuits may result. This can be avoided by pulling
can be kept reasonably warm and pliable as it is the cable from under the snow after each snowfall
played out of the shelter. The wire or cable should and allowing it to rest on top of the snow, or
be dressed immediately before it has a chance to better still, by using trees or cut poles to support
become stiff from the cold. All cable for tactical the wire for overhead type construction. Make al-
use should be stored in heated storage areas be- lowance for drifting snow in deciding on the
fore being transferred to the portable shelters height above ground at which to support the lines.
used for laying the cable.
c. Army aircraft can be used very effectively to 5-15. Tactical Employment of Field Wire
install field wire circuits between points difficult Distances involved and the difficulty of supply will
to reach by ground transport means. The wire is govern the extent to which field wire is employed.
laid from the dispenser, MX–306/G. Individual Every effort must be made to integrate the wire
dispensers are connected prior to payout to pro- system with the radio system so that a complete
vide the required length. The course over which electrical communication system is available for
the wire is to be laid must be suitably described to command and control.
Section V. PHOTOGRAPHY
5-22. General ered by the cold and at –50°F, will be approxi-
mately one lens opening slower than at 60ºF.
Photographic equipment is generally designed to (2) Film will become progressively more
operate in temperate climates, under cold brittle as the temperature drops. Care should be
weather conditions camera equipment will operate taken to retain film in its original container until
in a sluggish manner and film emulsions acquire it is ready for use. It has been determined that
different sensitivity. The information below was film that retains its moisture content will remain
provided through the courtesy of the Eastman more flexible at low temperatures than film that
Kodak Company. This information is designed to has been allowed to dry out. Film can be bent
minimize the cold weather effects on cameras and with the emulsion side in with less chance of
associated equipment. breaking them if bent with the emulsion side out.
a. Effects of Cold on Photographic Equipment. Whether the film breaks at low temperatures will
(1) Leather, rubber, and photographic film depend on the care taken in handling it and the
become stiff and brittle at low temperatures. The type and condition of the camera using it.
lubricating oils used in cameras congeal so that b. Camera Equipment.
moving parts will not operate. Film speed is low- (1) Whether or not photography will be suc-
5-7
FM 31-71
cessful during cold weather operations depends on lint to the lens. This lint should be removed prior
the selection of the proper camera. Some cameras to taking a picture.
wind the film with the emulsion side out, this c. Batteries. All types of batteries lose efficiency
places undue strain on the film and will sometimes when cold. After a few hours of exposure to cold,
cause film breakage. Cameras that wind the film the batteries used in flash holders and electronic
with the emulsion side in will generally perform flash power packs become so weak that they will
satisfactorily. not operate the flash equipment. Photographers
(2) Cameras that use the film to cock the should keep their batteries underneath outer
shutter should be avoided because they will almost clothing to obtain body heat. For extended shoot-
always break the cold film. ing several sets of batteries should be used so that
(3) Cameras using film packs should be one set can be warming while the other is opera-
avoided because of the sharp bend the film has to ting. Since fresh batteries will operate at colder
make when the tab is pulled. temperatures than partially used ones, every cold
(4) Generally it is better to use a motion weather shooting session should start with the
picture camera that uses a film magazine because freshest batteries available.
of the difficulty encountered in threading roll film d. Picture Taking Techniques.
during cold weather conditions. A lightweight (1) Certain cold weather precautions should
portable camera is desirable. Electric power, if be observed with any type of camera. Breathing
available, from a reliable source is more dependa- on the lens will cause condensation that freezes
ble than spring-driven motors. Under field condi- instantly and is difficult to remove. Unpainted
tions, however, the spring-driven motor may be metal surfaces should not be touched with the
more reliable than an electric motor drive that bare skin because of the possibility of the skin
depends on batteries for its power. freezing to the surface. A painful loss of skin is
(5) Cameras should be winterized prior to the end result. Cameras, and other equipment
use in cold temperature areas. This is accom- with optical lenses should not be brought into
plished by dismantling the camera and removing heated rooms without careful, slow warming. This
all old oil or grease. Relubrication should be is necessary to prevent cracking of optics and to
accomplished with special low temperature lubri- prevent condensation. Conversely, a warm camera
cants. Cameras that have been winterized should cannot be taken out into a snowstorm because the
not be used in a temperate climate unless they are snow hitting the camera will melt and turn into
relubricated. ice.
(6) Motion picture cameras that have been (2) Camera shutters, especially focal-plane
winterized should be thoroughly broken in prior shutters, operate more slowly as the temperature
to actual use. This can be accomplished by splic- falls. In general, faster shutter speeds are more
ing a piece of film 3 to 4 feet long end-to-end affected than the slower speeds, although no two
threading it in the camera and allowing the shutters behave the same. When taking pictures
camera to run 3 or 4 hours. In magazine type during cold weather the shutter should be snapped
cameras the loop should be formed in a dummy several times at 1/10-second to insure that the
magazine. After the breaking in period, the shutter is operating. It is also a good practice to
camera should be checked for speed and general leave the shutter uncocked until just prior to tak-
behavior. Still cameras should be given break-in ing the picture. This will prevent the shutter from
conditioning by operating all moving parts freezing in a cocked position. Because of the
enough to insure that they operate smoothly. slow-down in shutter speed, exposure determina-
(7) All cameras should be protected from tion becomes problematical. It is therefore advisa-
cold winds as much as possible during use. When ble to make several exposures broadly bracketing
battery driven motors are used on cameras they the correct exposure.
should be kept as warm as possible. Miniature (3) Since shutter controls, focusing mecha-
cameras and small motion picture cameras should nisms, and diaphragms may freeze, it is well to
be carried underneath the parka or field jacket to preset the camera indoors. Set the shutter and
obtain body heat. diaphragm for the nominal value of exposure to
(8) The lens should be inspected each time be expected under prevailing conditions. Then set
before use. Static electricity generated during pe- the focus for the hyperfocal distance for the se-
riods of cold-dry conditions will attract pieces of lected aperture. Focusing the lens on the hyperfo-
5-8
FM 31-71
cal distance gives the greatest depth of field for slide is withdrawn. This can be avoided by not
any particular aperture. With the camera preset pulling the slide all the way out. If this is not
in this fashion, even if all of the controls freeze, practical, cover the back of the camera with the
as long as the shutter continues to operate, pic- focusing cloth when removing the slide, during
tures can be made. the exposure, and while reinserting the slide.
(4) Film in any camera can be changed dur- When reinserting the slide, do it squarely, not one
ing a driving snow storm if a dark plastic bag big corner first.
enough to fit over the head and shoulders is used. e. Selection of Film.
A deep lens hood should be used for filming in the
snow because it will help keep the lens dry even (1) In general, field photography in cold
during a fairly severe storm. weather areas involves subjects of extremely low
brightness scale and very high levels of illumina-
(5) Flash bulbs have a greater tendency to tion. For this reason, high-speed emulsions are
shatter at low temperatures, so caution must be not generally used outdoors. The best choice of
exercised in their use. Light reflected from snow film is a medium-speed material or even slower,
close to the camera can cause lens flare, even finer-grained film.
though standard lens hoods are used. To insure
better synchronization at low temperatures, it is (2) Under field conditions during periods of
advisable to set the shutter at l/25. cold weather, one camera is all that one photogra-
pher can efficiently manage. Therefore, if pictures
(6) Roll film must be advanced slowly and are desired in both color and black-and-white, a
steadily to avoid static marks and breaking the color negative film should be used. From the color
film. For the same reason, filmpack tabs must be negatives prints can be made in either color or
pulled slowly, steadily, and straight. Static mark- black-and-white and color slides can be made from
ings are caused by an electrostatic discharge and the same negatives.
they appear on the developed film emulsion as
marks resembling lightning, tree branches, or neb-
ulous spots. When static difficulties occur, they 5-23. Aerial Photography
can usually be traced to the use of film which has a Aerial photos of snow covered terrain will not
low moisture content or rapid handling of the film disclose as much terrain detail as one of the same
which build up static electricity. area barren of snow. On the other hand trails and
(7) Sheet-film holders are often a source of tracks in snow show up in great detail on aerial
trouble when they become cold. The plush light- photographs and are excellent sources of informa-
trap becomes rigid and does not close after the tion.
5-10
FM 31-71
CHAPTER 6
OTHER TACTICAL OPERATIONS
6-2
FM 31-71
aged or become temporarily inoperative by expo- problem. Even with due precaution, there will be
sure to extreme temperatures and moisture are a high loss rate of bundles which are dropped in
packed in special bundles. Supply agencies at the deep snow or in marshy tundra. Bright colored
marshaling area must be capable of preparing parachutes and streamers attached to bundles aid
and modifying equipment bundles up until the in recovery.
time final loading is completed. Equipment bun-
dles to be free dropped need special preparation e. When loading, troops are cautioned to keep
and protection. This may vary with the season. clear of propeller blast which picks up fine snow
Every precaution is taken to reduce the recovery and drives it into clothing.
after break-up until all the ice and debris has attaching the boats to maneuver elements as
cleared from the waterway. Operations can be needed.
continued until freezeup and the waterways start
to ice over. d. Boat elements. Normally, an element moving
on the water consists of at least two boats to
provide some depth, flexibility, and safety if one
6-13. Characteristics of Northern boat comes under enemy fire, is swamped, or is
Inland Waterways swept into obstructions. The number of men,
Northern inland waterways are characterized by weapons, and boats necessary for the movement
the following: depends on the mission. Units of more than eight
boats normally form into smaller maneuver ele-
a. Many channels (braided). Main river chan- ments.
nels may change significantly from year to year.
b. Water is normally filled with silt, sand, and 6-15. Basic Formations
debris. The tactics of waterborne units are similar to
c. Current is normally swift (5 to 10 knots). those of other mounted and dismounted units.
Normal formations (column, parallel columns,
d. Rivers and streams are shallow (61 cm to vee, wege, and echelon) are applicable to water
305 cm (2’ to 10’). In glacier fed streams the movement. The situation, mission, and width of
depth of water may double between early morning the river or stream influence the choice of forma-
and noon. This is because of the increased melting tion (see FM 31-75).
of the glacier caused by warmer daytime tempera-
tures. 6-16. Control and Coordination
e. The rivers and streams will contain many A simple, rapid, and reliable means of boat-to-
sand bars. boat communication is necessary. Standard arm
and hand signals (FM 21-60) are satisfactory,
6-14. Organization but waterborne elements require additional imme-
a. Tactical Unity. Tactical unity should be diate-action procedures and backup communica-
maintained as far as possible when loading boats. tion means to insure smooth function. This nor-
Unit SOP must contain loading plans for all avail- mally can be accomplished with the squad and
able boats. Personnel in the boat perform addi- platoon radios. The commander assigns check-
tional duties to fulfill the requirements for navi- points along the route. These must be easily rec-
gation, observation, rowing and poling, etc. These ognizable features, i.e., hills, tributary streams,
duties are assigned by the boat commanders. etc. Reconnaissance aircraft communicate directly
with the waterborne force either by radio or mes-
b. Boat Commander. The boat commander is sage drop. Use of a simple, rapid means of identi-
normally the commander of the largest tactical fication is necessary to coordinate the waterborne
organization aboard the boat. As an example, if a movement with other friendly forces in the area.
squad is being carried, the squad leader is the boat
commander. If no tactical unity exists in the boat 6-l7. Night operations
team, the boat commander must be appointed
from within the personnel on the boat. The boat Because of the difficulties encountered in reading
commander is responsible for the overall opera- the river and navigating, night operations should
tion of the boat to include its safe operation and be conducted based on thorough prior reconnais-
tactical operation. To accomplish his mission in a sance and complete communication systems. To
satisfactory manner, the boat commander must be avoid operational losses, minimum light condi-
trained in the fundamentals of boat operation and tions should approximate twilight illumination.
river navigation.
c. Boat Operators. To prevent loss of combat 6-18. Camouflage
strength boat operators must be procured from Every effort must be made to camouflage boats
resources outside the tacical units, i.e., the engi- and equipment. Camouflage nets and natural foli-
neer company or the transportation company. In age can be used to camouflage the boat. Individu-
the brigade, during sustained operations, it may als can break up the outline of the boat by drap-
be advisable to form a provisional boat company, ing the poncho over their heads and the sides of
6-6
FM 31-71
the boat. At halts the boat should be hidden under the magnetic compass caused by local ore deposits
overhanging trees or removed from the water and and the nearness of the magnetic north pole. Reli-
camouflaged on shore. ance must be placed on the use of aerial photo-
graphs and air reconnaissance.
4-19. Offensive Operations (9) The difficulty in navigation dictates the
a. General. The concept of riverine operations establishment of firm control measures. These will
on the major navigable waterways in northern take the form of boundaries, coordination points,
areas is basically the same as in other areas of the phase lines, and no-fire lines. These control mea-
world. Once the force leaves the major waterways sures must be part of the unit SOP.
and proceeds up the shallow, fast moving tribu-
tary rivers and streams, the operation comes 6-20. Fire Support
under complete control of the Army. Army forces, a. Fire support for Army waterborne opera-
supported by close air support aircraft, will tions will be difficult and in some situations non-
conduct the waterborne operation utilizing Army existent. Field artillery can support within
watercraft and indigenous river boats. range limitations. Because of the shallow depth
b. Factors Influencing Operations. Operations and fast current of the rivers and streams, dis-
will be influenced by the following factors pecul- placement and ammunition resupply may be expe-
iar to northern areas: dited by helicopter. Field artillery units that are
(1) The long hours of daylight during the displaced by helicopter must be prepared to estab-
summer in northern areas allow operations to be lish an all-around defense.
easily conducted 24 hours a day. This factor also b. Attack helicopters can support the water-
allows the operation to be easily detected by the borne force subject to weather conditions, and
enemy. radius of operation capability.
(2) With few exceptions, major population c. A high dependence must be placed on close
centers are nonexistent along the navigable or air support. If this support is not available, the
tributary rivers in northern areas. waterborne force must depend on its organic
(3) Weather is unpredictable and can change weapons as the only means of fire support. Every
rapidly. effort must be made to kill the enemy with artil-
(4) Maintenance requirements are greater lery and/or air delivered weapons.
especially on boat motors.
(5) Flooding may submerge or sweep away 6-21. Combat Service Support
landing sites (piers, docks, etc.). During flooding a. AS far as possible, units should carry all
periods the current may increase to a torrent items of supply necessary to complete the mission.
making the river unnavigable. It may, in mean- This includes rations, ammunition, and POL. If
dering streambeds, clog existing channels, cut the length of the mission precludes this, resupply
new ones, or deposit shallow banks in channels can be accomplished by helicopter within range
and backwaters. limitation; air cushion vehicles; air boats; or a
(6) Low water may reduce the channel depth combination of all three. If time permits it is
below minimum requirements and reduce or tem- sometimes advisable to establish and prestock re-
porarily eliminate the usefulness of the waterway supply points up and down the river. Resupply
as a means of transportation. may also be accomplished by Air Force heavy
(7) All available forces must be employed in drop.
northern riverine operations. In the area of oper-
ations (AO), one element of the riverine force b. Prescribed load lists (PLL) must be estab-
may enter the area by watercraft, another may lished for motors and related equipment. Special
employ airmobile tactics to enter the area, and effort is required for stockage of nonstandard mo-
another may proceed overland, either mounted or tors and equipment. This PLL must be made a
unmounted. part of the unit SOP. The list must contain items
(8) Land and river navigation take on in- with a high usage factor, i.e., propellers, water
pumps, spark plugs, etc.
creased importance in northern riverine opera-
tions. This is caused by excessive declination, lack c. Medical evacuation may be extremely diffi-
of identifiable landmarks, and the unreliability of cult. Plans should be made for helicopter evacua-
6-7
FM 31-71
tion. If the waterborne force is operating out of (5) Rules of water safety.
helicopter range, casualties can be transported by (6) Techniques of river charting.
boat to predetermined helicopter pickup areas. (7) Chart sketching and sketching equip-
ment.
6-22. Defense of Base Areas (8) Boat operation.
The mission of units defending base areas in the (9) River patrolling.
northern riverine environment is to maintain a (10) Individual equipment.
secure base from which to support and conduct (11) Loading procedures.
offensive operations. For details concerning de-
fense of base areas see FM 31-75. b. Small Unit Leaders. Squad leaders should be
as well trained in boat operation as the boat oper-
6-23. Training ators. Platoon leaders and company commanders
should be trained in the techniques of river navi-
The most important single facet of conducting gation and river reading.
successful northern riverine operations is training
(app B). c. Unit Training. Unit training starts with
learning the fundamentals of riverine operations
a. Boat Operators. The capability of the indi- to include familiarization with the boats. SOP
vidual boat operator to operate his watercraft in a must be developed by each unit and should contain
safe efficient manner spells the difference between detailed loading plans for all types of watercraft
success and failure. In addition to the primary available to the unit. (See FM 31-75.) Loading
boat operator, each boat should contain, as a mini- must be rehearsed until all personnel know their
mum, one other qualified operator. The training duties, their boat and associated boat equipment.
course contains the following subjects: All training afloat must be conducted under simu-
(1) Fundamentals of river reading. lated tactical conditions.
(2) River navigation.
(3) Characteristics and nomenclature of the 6-24. Guidance
outboard motor. For detailed doctrinal guidance on riverine opera-
(4) First echlon maintenance of the boat, tions, see FM 7-20, FM 21-50, FM 31-75, and FM
motor, and related equipment. 61-100. For boat procedures see appendix D.
Section V. RAIDS AND REAR AREA OPERATIONS
6-25. General rear areas. Their operation will be supplemented
In northern operations there usually are no con- by the activities of small groups, airdropped or
tinuous fronts. Units may operate independently airlanded, for special or long term destruction
many mile apart. Installations and communication and intelligence tasks.
centers are often isolated. Lines of communica- b. As an integrated part of overall planning,
tions, where they exist, are long and vulnerable to combat patrols will be used in the attack, for wide
attack. Surprise is always a possibility, and secu- encircling movements to ambush and harass
rity can only be guaranteed by accurate knowl- enemy flanks and communications and to report
edge of enemy disposition, composition, movement, on and obstruct the movement of enemy reserves.
capabilities, and constant vigilance. The enemy is
equally vulnerable. Conditions, both operational c. In retrograde movement, stay-behind forces
and environmental, facilitate raids on communica- may be left to ambush reserves, destroy lines of
tions centers, headquarters; and installations of communication, mine defiles, and demolisth
all types. Patrols, stay-behind forces, and special bridges. They will obtain and transmit informa-
forces are well suited for these operations. Severe tion on enemy strength, composition, and activity.
weather conditions enhance the effect of such op-
eration. 6-27. Control
Patrols and enemy rear area operations must be
6-26. Tasks part of the overall plan. For this reason, control
a. The primary tasks of long range patrols will must be vested in the commanders responsible for
be reconnaissance missions and raids in enemy their area of operation. When the tactical situa-
6-8
FM 31-71
tion demands, special arrangements must be made To achieve this standard, a rigorous reduction in
for cooperation with, and recognition by, local the weight of equipment and rations is necessary.
troops so as to exploit fully the tactical potential The weight and number of arms must be kept to a
of special operations groups. minimum and firepower must be obtained by use
of lightweight automatic weapons and grenades.
Communication with the base is by long range
6-28. Composition and Employment radio.
a. Long range patrols have no fixed organiza-
tion. Their strength, organization, composition, 6-29. Selection of Personnel
and equipment are determined by the particular The effectiveness of long range patrols and intelli-
mission.
gence groups, fundamentally, depends on their
b. Operations can be carried out in all weather ability to live under rigorous conditions and on
and throughout all seasons. In the winter, skis or the speed with which they can move across coun-
snowshoes will be used. In summer, movement on try. A high degree of endurance and expertness
foot is possible in most areas. on skis or snowshoes are of paramount impor-
c. The great distances necessitate increased use tance. In addition, every man must be proficient
of aircraft for the transport, supply, and the evac- in all those subjects classified generally under the
uation of patrols, casualties, prisoners, or docu- term “survival.” Personnel must be specially se-
lected from men with a wide practical experience
ments. in the northern regions and be, if possible, volun-
d. Patrols must be capable of rapid movement teers. Included in each group should be at least
on foot or skis over long distances and must be one person with a knowledge of the language, the
able to operate without resupply for long periods. people, and terrain of the combat theater.
6-11
FM 31-71
CHAPTER 7
TRAINING
Section I. GENERAL
7-1. Scope of Training 7-3. Instructor Requirement
a. Units selected for employment in northern Provision of qualified instructor is a critical
areas should have completed normal individual problem in preparing a force for northern opera-
and unit training prior to beginning cold weather tions. Minimum requirements are one officer for
training. each company sized unit and two noncommis-
b. Training falls into two categories—summer sioned officers for each platoon or equivalent unit.
and winter. Because of the special factors intro-
duced by the northern environment, training dif- 7-4. Training of Qualified Instructors
fers more widely from that of temperate zones. It
demands higher standards of physical fitness, and A preliminary course for unit instructors must be
emphasis is placed on conducting as much train- conducted before the commencement of northern
ing as possible out-of-doors. Training to familiar- training. This course must be supervised by in-
ize troops with special equipment must precede structors who are thoroughly experienced in the
unit training in the application of northern tech- various techniques peculiar to northern opera-
niques to tactical principles. Preliminary training tions. Practical field experience should be pro-
in using special equipment can be taught without vided unit instructors prior to starting the unit
the environmental factors of snow and cold, thus training program.
gaining time for technical and tactical training.
In all training, emphasis should be placed on oper- 7-5. Training Objective
ations conducted during hours of darkness. Train-
ing in summer is the same as in temperate zones To train individuals and units to accomplish their
except for environmental conditions. combat mission under all conditions of weather,
climate, and terrain encountered in northern op-
7-2. Training Areas erations and to develop and stress leadership and
Care must be taken in the selection of suitable individual initiative by small unit commanders.
training areas to insure that all possible condi- The standards of training must be high since
tions of climate and terrain, likely to be encoun- units will often be in small groups. Leadership by
tered during subsequent operations, are experi- small unit commanders and individual initiative
enced during training. must be developed and stressed.
essary between the indoctrination and specialist minor repairs to the special items of equipment
training): (sleds, skis, and snowshoes) that are issued for
a. Indoctrination training (common to all these areas.
arms) ---------------------------------------------- 8 weeks d. Navigators. In certain regions and for cer-
b. Specialist training-------------------------2 weeks tain types of operation, the force may require per-
c. Unit/combined arms training (over and sonnel trained in celestial navigation using a theo-
dolite or a sextant.
above in doctrination training)------------2 weeks
A typical program for indoctrination training to- e. CBR Training. Training for operations
gether with appropriate subject schedules for a under CBR conditions is best accomplished by
integration of CBR situations and procedures into
unit is shown in appendix B. the normal training routine. Since CBR protection
7-8. Indoctrination Training procedures will vary in extreme cold from those
used in temperate climates, individuals must re-
Individual and small unit indoctrination training learn masking, first aid, decontamination, opera-
should cover clothing, small unit living and cook- ting in toxic atmosphere or on contaminated
ing, weapons training, dismounted movement, ground, and CBR defense in general as modified
snowshoe and ski training, land navigation, field by extreme cold conditions.
fortifications, camouflage, and first aid and hy-
giene, as outlined in FM 31-70. f. Other Specialized Training. It is to be noted
(app B) that special attention must be given to
7-9. Specialized Training the training of radio operators, vehicle drivers,
weapons crews, medical and engineering person-
a. Drivingand Maintenance. The highest stand- nel, and specialists of all other supporting arms
ards of driving and maintenance must be main- and services. All specialists should have an indoc-
tained. To overcome the obstacles encountered trination course. This training would provide for
during winter operations, close supervision by of- the necessary knowledge and proficiency in
ficers and noncommissioned officers is required to common techniques such as: use of clothing and
insure that these standards are maintained. Spe- equipment and the ability to move, live, and oper-
cial training is required in the use of winterized ate under northern conditions. The remainder of
equipment, engine heaters, and other special de- the training period must provide for instruction
vices; care of batteries; and treatment of fuel to in those special techniques and functions peculiar
avoid condensation (TM 9-207, TM 9-273 and to their specialty.
TM 9-8662). Extensive practice in driving under
the more difficult conditions of terrain, snow, and
ice, and in recovery of vehicles is essential. Driv- 7-10. Officer and Noncommissioned
ers must be trained to make on-the-spot emer- Officer Training
gency repairs and in the use of field expedients. a. Leadership. The qualities of leadership de-
b. Communications. Commanders should be manded of officers and noncommissioned officers
aware of the environmental factors that affect by northern operations are far higher than those
communications and the necessary measures to normally required for any other type of warfare.
overcome them. All communications personnel Fear of the area of operations must be overcome,
must learn the special techniques necessary to and leaders must be impressed with the exacting
prepare and maintain their equipment and com- nature of their responsibilities in this respect.
munication nets at operational efficiency under all b. Land Navigation. All officers and senior non-
conditions. commissioned officers must be proficient in dead-
c. Equipment Repair. reckoning navigation. They should thoroughly un-
(1) The conditions of northern warfare cause derstand the use of the magnetic compass in the
a high rate of damage to all equipment. Unit me- North since it is the most common direction-find-
chanics will require training for repair work ing instrument used by the individual and small
under these conditions and, either a higher pro- unit.
portion of mechanics than normal are provided, or c. Elementary Meteorology. Officers must be
special courses in field equipment repair must be able to interpret meteorological reports since
organized for selected enlisted men. weather will be a major influence in the planning
(2) Individuals should be trained to make and execution of operations.
7-2
FM 31-71
d. Bearing Capacity of Ice. Each officer and means of maintaining mobility when confronted
noncommissioned officer should be thoroughly with obstacles or equipment failure.
acquainted with the various factors effecting the (5) Proper care of feet.
strength of ice and the rules or calculations neces-
sary for determination of its bearing capacity. (6) Importance of hot food.
(7) Troop safety to include carbon monox-
7-11. Training Emphasis ide, fire hazards, and cold weather injury.
a. Correct procedures must be emphasized at (8) Proper camouflage discipline.
all times during training to insure that the basic (9) Preparation of sleeping areas.
techniques of northern operations are thoroughly
mastered and correctly applied. Even the very (10) Movement at night or during conditions
minor errors must be pointed out and the proper of low visibility.
corrective action demanded. If men are properly (11) Importance of detailed, simple, and flexi-
training during the training cycle, they will con- ble plans.
tinue to perform the necessary tasks when con- (12) Land navigation.
fronted with the extreme conditions found in the
area of northern operations. The troops must be (13) Rapid deployment and cross-country
impressed with the fact that their job is still movement on skis and snowshoes.
“success in combat” and not one of survival. (14) Route selection.
b. Some of the more common areas requiring (15) Trailbreaking.
emphasis are– (16) Using the terrain and weather to advan-
(1) Keeping the body clean. tage.
(2) Preventing dehydration, constipation, (17) Proper employment of weapons.
and overheating. (18) First aid and self-aid techniques.
(3) Proper care of weapons and equipment. (19) Glacier crossing techniques.
(4) Taking positive action and improvising (20) Mountain climbing skills.
7-4
FM 31-71
APPENDIX A
REFERENCES
A-2
FM 31-71
APPENDIX C
COMMANDERS’ GUIDE LINES FOR NORTHERN OPERATIONS
C-3
FM 31-71
APPENDIX D
BOAT PROCEDURES
D-2
FM 31-71
(3) Do not allow the motor to run for long Clean the bottom regularly and flush the motor
periods at idle or very slow speed. Carbon builds with clean, freshwater.
up rapidly in slow-running, 2-cycle engines. (3) Include a set of spare spark plugs with
(4) Slow the engine before changing from each motor. Operators remove, inspect, and clean
neutral to forward or reverse. A fast improper or replace them according to the TM for the par-
shift can cause engine breakdown in a critical ticular motor.
situation. (4) If the boat strikes an object in the water,
(5) Allow the motor to warm up before oper- the hull and motor lower unit require inspection,
ating at high speed. Accelerate and decelerate both for cracks and for damage, to the propeller,
smoothly to avoid straining the engine. propeller cap, cotter key, and shearpin.
b. Preventive Maintenance. (5) Handle the fuel line with care to prevent
(1) Keep the boat and motor clean and lubri- damage where it joins the connectors.
cated according to the technical manual (TM) for c. Motor Modification. Motors for use on the
the item. Particular emphasis is necessary on boat silty shallow waters prevalent in northern areas
fittings, underwater body, and motor lower unit. should be modified by the addition of a heavy-duty
(2) When operating in brackish or salt water pump and the reinforcement of the skeg on
water, take the boat out of the water after use. the motor lower unit.
D-8
FM 31-71
APPENDIX E
MEASUREMENT CONVERSION FACTORS
Multiply By To Obtain
Centimeters ---------------------------- .03281 Feet
Centimeters ---------------------------- .3937 Inches
Meters ----------------------------- 3.281 Feet
Meters ----------------------------- 39.37 Inches
Meters ----------------------------- 1.0936 Yards
Kilometers ----------------------------- .62137 Miles
Inches ----------------------------- 2.54 Centimeters
Inches ----------------------------- .0254 Meters
Feet ----------------------------- 30.48 Centimeters
Feet ----------------------------- .3048 Meters
Yards ----------------------------- .9144 Meters
MPH ----------------------------- 1.6093 KMPH
MPH ----------------------------- .8684 Knots
Knots ----------------------------- 1.1516 MPH
E-1
PIN: 021644-000