Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Alexandra M. Lamont
School of Psychology,
Keele University, U.K.
a.e.greasley@psy.keele.ac.uk
School of Psychology,
Keele University, U.K.
a.m.lamont@psy.keele.ac.uk
and organise the music they own; and the way in which
people use music as a form of self-therapy especially
for purposes of mood-regulation. Adults are consciously
aware of the many ways in which they use and engage with
music, and emphasise music as a meaningful and important
personal and social undertaking. The research provides a
rich soil from which to develop hypotheses about the nature of peoples engagement with music, and highlights
important dimensions of preference for further investigation.
ABSTRACT
A wide range of psychological approaches have been used
in the study of music preferences and music in everyday
life, yet none of these have successfully approached the
complexities of meaning involved in peoples everyday use
of music. Two studies were carried out which aimed to
map individual levels of engagement with music; to tap
into the content and quality of peoples emotional experiences with the music they prefer and why this valued; to
investigate how technology affects the ways people engage
with music; and to discover what it is about the specific
characteristics of the music that is preferred. Qualitative
methodology was used to ground the research in peoples
experiences with music, to identify how they account for
their listening behaviour, and to focus on what they perceive to be important in shaping their music preferences.
23 participants (aged 18-47) were interviewed and the transcripts were analysed using thematic analysis. Themes
identified include the use of technology in music listening
behaviour; changes and fluctuations in music preferences
over time; the number of different styles people used; the
complex and idiosyncratic ways in which people categorise
INTRODUCTION
It is undisputed that music is everywhere in our daily lives
even if an individual does not engage in music listening
regularly, it is likely that they will be exposed to music on
a daily basis as a result of the cultural and social environment in which they live. Researchers argue that the prevalence of music in daily life constitutes an informal learning
environment through which we learn and develop our
preferences for music (Folkestad, 1998; Batt-Rawden &
DeNora, 2005). More specifically, it is stated that our music listening practices are methods of getting by and making do in real time and rapidly shifting circumstances
(Batt-Rawden & DeNora, 2005, p. 292). This has been
clearly demonstrated in studies which explore peoples
uses of music in everyday life. People choose to listen to
different types of music for different reasons (i.e. people
have goals and purposes that engagement with music fulfills), and their motivations for listening are contextdependent (DeNora, 2000; North, Hargreaves & ONeill,
2000; North, Hargreaves & Hargreaves, 2004; Sloboda,
ONeill & Ivaldi, 2001).
Of particular interest are the two studies which used Experience Sampling Methodology (ESM) to investigate mu960
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that musics meaningful powers are stabilised through discourse; through consumption practice, and through patterns
of use of time (DeNora, 1986). Both studies (Batt-Rawden
& DeNora, 2005; MacDonald, 2000) emphasise that music
does not simply act a stimulus on an individual peoples engagement and enjoyment of music is shaped by
previous associations they have with the particular piece of
music, and with music in general.
The last study of relevance here is a qualitative study of the
meaning of music in the lives of older people (Hays &
Minichiello, 2005). This study focused on the emotional,
social, intellectual and spiritual well-being roles that music
plays in the lives of 52 older people (age range 60-98 yrs
old). In-depth interviews were carried out in peoples
homes with a focus on life experiences, the importance of
music in their daily lives, the ways in which music functioned in their lives, and the perceived benefits of being
engaged in music-making or music listening. Results demonstrated that music plays a role in identity and understanding of the self; an individuals connection with themselves
and with others; well-being, therapy and health; emotions,
arousal and alignment; stimulus, fantasy and imagination;
and beauty, aesthetics and spirituality. Hays and Minichiello (2005) conclude that peoples experiences with
music are individualistic and intensely personal (p.449),
which resonates with the findings from MacDonald (2000)
and also earlier research which also argued that people listen to music differently, and respond to music in a variety
of different ways (Hargreaves & Colman, 1981). It seems
axiomatic therefore, that researchers interested in the beneficial effects of music listening should use methodology
that focuses on peoples own accounts of their engagement
with music, i.e. how they perceive, interpret, and evaluate
their experiences with music in everyday life.
Research aims
Given that preference is commonly defined as an act of
choosing, esteeming, or giving advantage to one thing over
another (Price, 1986, p. 154), and given that the above
research provides comprehensive evidence that we consciously choose music in our everyday lives to serve different purposes (Batt-Rawden & DeNora, 2005; DeNora,
2000; Hays & Minichiello, 2005; North et al., 2004; Sloboda et al., 2001), it follows that further understanding of
the way people use music as a resource in their daily lives;
the level of engagement people have with different styles
of music; and the meaning of their everyday experiences
with music, would benefit from a direct investigation of
participant chosen music. One of the main aims of the
research is therefore to explore and identify the psychological benefits that can arise from peoples deliberate
choices of music in everyday life. Qualitative methodology
is used to ground the research in peoples experiences with
music; to identify how they account for their listening be-
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Enjoy
listening
(n=120)
28
84
(1.3%)
(3.8%)
(17.9%)
(53.8%)
STUDY ONE
Importance
20
58
35
(n=120
(0.6%)
(3.8%)
(12.8%)
(37.2%)
(22.4%)
How much
18
59
29
(n=119)
(3.2%)
(37.8%)
(18.6%)
(5.1%)
(11.5%)
STUDY TWO
Method
First and second year Psychology students were recruited
from two universities in England (Keele and Aston) and
asked to fill out the short questionnaire. In addition, they
were asked to leave their contact details if they were willing to be interviewed (which most did). The sample contained 120 participants in total (mean age = 19.77, SD =
2.92), of which 92 were female, 21 were male and 7 did not
state gender.
A short questionnaire was developed which required participants to rate (on a 5pt. Likert scale) how much they
enjoy listening to music; how important they considered
music in their life, how much music they own, and what
styles of music they listened to. The scale ranged from
dislike very much to like very much for music listening
enjoyment; from not at all to extremely for the importance of music; and a few CDs to 500+ CDs for the
amount of music owned.
Method
This study consisted of twenty-three participants (11 female, 12 male), aged between 18 and 47 (mean age =
27.45, SD = 9.34) who were recruited by convenience sampling in three different ways. Some of the participants
were personal acquaintances; some were recruited through
a messaging board on the University email server asking
for volunteers who would be willing to talk about their
music preferences; and some were either first or second
year undergraduate students chosen specifically by the researcher in response to the short questionnaire they had
completed regarding their general level of engagement with
music. The resulting sample contained people of varying
ages, with varying levels of engagement with music, and
preference for many different musical styles.
Results
This simple questionnaire was useful in differentiating between participants with a high level of engagement with
music (for example, owning 500+ CDs and rating 5 for
importance of music in life), and those with a lower level
of engagement (for example, owning a handful of CDs, and
rating 1 or 2 for the importance of music in their life). The
results of the questionnaire can be found in table 1 below.
The average ratings for enjoyment of music listening; importance of music, and the amount of music owned were
4.62; 4.00 and 3.16 respectively. With the exception of the
amount of music owned, the data was skewed a far
higher percentage of the sample find listening to music
very enjoyable and feel music to be important in their lives.
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main ways in which downloading programs have influenced their music preferences. Firstly, downloading programs have increased the breadth of musical styles people
have access to, which has in turn, opened people up to new
music. Secondly, with mass storage facilities, downloading
programs have increased the speed and ease with which
one can acquire music, often listing (and making available
to download) all the music that a given artist has written /
produced, or featured on. Thirdly, the participants reported
listening to music on the Internet as a means of checking
the extent of their liking, and thus deciding whether it is
good enough to buy; and lastly, participants reported that
the Internet was particularly useful when it came to preference for specific tracks: (theres often artists that you only
like one track of theirs, but you really, really like it, and
that sort of thing, and thats where downloading comes in
as well, thats where downloading is the best M:24yrs).
This seems to have revolutionised peoples engagement
with music, as they no longer have to wait until the weekend to go and hunt through the record stores to find the
music they like within a matter of minutes, they can access and download the music onto computers, Ipods,
phones and various other pieces of technology that store,
hold and playback music. The participants report using
this process as a filter enabling them to listen to new music
and decide whether they really like it before copying it to a
CD, copying it from a friend or actually buying it.
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pants reported going back to the music in relation to specific time periods:
All of the participants identified early adulthood as a period in which their music listening behaviours developed
and music preferences fluctuated. In this time period, participants reported that they had acquired, bought and listened to more music; made different choices about which
genres they preferred; and made decisions about what
styles of music to purchase in the future. In particular, reference was made to university years and to the important
(and positive) relationship between social interaction and
breadth of preference. Whilst it might be self-evident that
the more people you meet the more likely it is that you will
be introduced to new styles of music, participants explicitly
mention the role of others in increasing the breadth of their
music preferences. Every participant reported acquiring
music through friends, and/or gaining knowledge of different styles of music/artists through friends. In some cases,
participants acknowledged that they would not have heard
about some of their preferred artists if it were not through
friends (youre never gonna hear it [Aphex Twin] unless
you know someone that listens to it theyre never gonna
play it on the radio M:25yrs).
Differences in engagement
Two areas of clear difference were identified between more
engaged and less engaged participants: style preferences
and categorisation processes.
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if youre feeling down, you know, you dont want something that
takes you down but you cant necessarily be brought up, if you put
on happy musicit makes you feel worse, so youve gotta have
something that kind of gets the right levelits something that is,
kind of, helping where you are and making you feel good about that
and then so you are able to get back (M:24yrs)
one song in particular on this album can make me cry, can make
me jump for joy, can make me believe that the worlds a brilliant
place, it can make me believe that the worlds a terrible place, you
know what I mean, its just got so much to it that, erm, I couldnt, as
soon as I heard this song, I couldnt believed that Id lived without
that song for so long (laughs)if that makes sense, its number,
erm, 5, Jolene, oh it just gets me everytime. F: 26yrs)
One of the more engaged participants drew an analogy between the interview and a specific event from his past
which served to highlight that musics value in peoples
lives may be implicit, and that talking about music actually
makes it explicit: (I was just chatting like I am now, and I
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ended up saying, you know, talking about it made me appreciate how much I appreciated it, you know, I, I, it was
always there but I hadnt consciously realised how much I
appreciated it M:24yrs). As a consequence of this enhanced conscious awareness, the interviews with more engaged participants often lasted for several hours, exploring
their musical engagement in considerable detail. Conversely, less engaged participants often found it more difficult to articulate why they liked music (its got me annoyed now, cause I cant explain why I like it, but I just
do theres very few songs I could explain why I like it
M:22yrs).
CONCLUSION
This study builds on recent research showing the importance of music in adults everyday lives (DeNora, 2000;
North & Hargreaves, 2003; North et al., 2004; Sloboda,
1999; Sloboda et al., 2001), by highlighting subtleties in
both patterns of engagement and ways of thinking about
music and its functions.
North, A. C. & Hargreaves, D. J. (2003). Is music important? The Psychologist, 16 (8) pp. 406-410.
North, A. C., Hargreaves, D. J. & Hargreaves, J. J. (2004).
Uses of music in everyday life. Music Perception, 22, 4177.
Sloboda, J. A., ONeill, S. A. and Ivaldi, A. (2001) Functions of music in everyday life: An exploratory using the
experience sampling method. Musicae Scientiae, 5, pp. 932.
Tarrant, M., North, A. C., & Hargreaves, D. J. (2001). Social categorization, self-esteem, and the estimated musical
preferences of male adolescents. Journal of Social Psychology, 141, 565-581.
REFERENCES
Batt-Rawden, K. & DeNora, T. (2005). Music and informal
learning in everyday life. Music Education Research, 7, pp.
289-304.
Tarrant, M., North, A. C., & Hargreaves, D. J. (2000). English and American adolescents reasons for listening to
music. Psychology of Music, 28, 166-173.
DeNora, T. (1986). How is extra-musical meaning possible? Music as a place and space for work. Sociological
Theory, 4, pp. 84-94.
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