INTRODUCTION

An autonomous car, also known as a driverless car, self-driving car or robot car, is
an autonomous vehicle capable of fulfilling the human transportation capabilities
of a traditional car. As an autonomous vehicle, it is capable of sensing its
environment and navigating without human input. Robotic cars exist mainly as
prototypes and demonstration systems, but are likely to become more widespread
in the near future.

Fig.-1.1 -A look of a Driverless Car

Autonomous vehicles sense their surroundings with such techniques as radar, Lidar
GPS, and computer vision. Advanced control systems interpret sensory
information to identify appropriate navigation paths, as well as obstacles and
relevant signage. Some autonomous vehicles update their maps based on sensory
1

input, allowing the vehicles to keep track of their position even when conditions
change or when they enter uncharted environments.
Some quasi-autonomous demonstration systems date back to the 1920s and the
1930s.The first fully practical system was developed in the 1950s by RCA Labs.
Since the 1980s, when Mercedes-Benz and Bundeswehr University, Munich built a
driverless car through the EUREKA Prometheus Project,) significant advances
have been made in both technology and legislation relevant to autonomous cars.
Numerous major companies and research organizations have developed working
prototype autonomous vehicles, including Mercedes-Benz, General Motors,
Continental Automotive Systems, Autoliv Inc., Bosch, Nissan, Toyota, Audi,
Vislab from University of Parma, Oxford University and Google. In 2010, four
electric autonomous vans succesfully drove 8000 miles from Italy to China. The
vehicles were developed in a research project backed by European Union funding,
by Vislab of the University of Parma, Italy. In july 2013 Vislab world premiered
BRAIVE, a vehicle that moved autonomously on a mixed traffic route open to
public traffic.As of 2013, three U.S. states have passed laws permitting
autonomous cars: Nevada, Florida and California. In Europe, cities in Belgium,
France and Italy are planning to operate transport systems for driverless cars.

HOW THE CAR WILL DETECT TRAFFIC LIGHTS

A sensor ACTINOMETER is used to detect the intensity of radiation

Light of different colors will radiate different -2-intensity of radiation
Which will be detected by the sensor
If the detected intensity is of red colour or yellow colour then controller
will send a command to stop the vehicle .
The command will be followed by robot (to convert the computer command
into mechanical input)

Fig 1.2--An Infrared image seen from a Driverless car

ACTINO METER:Actinometers are instruments used to measure the heating power of radiation.
They are used in meteorology to measure solar radiation as pyrheliometers. An
actinometer is a chemical system or physical device which determines the
number of photons in a beam integrally or per unit time. This name is commonly
applied to devices used in the ultraviolet and visible wavelength ranges. For
example, solutions of iron (III) oxalate can be used as a chemical actinometer,
while bolometers, thermopiles, and photodiodes are physical devices giving a
reading that can be correlated to the number of photons detected.

Fig 1.3 - An Actinometer

TECHNOLOGIES MAKING SYSTEM FULLY AUTONOMOUS

(2) ANTI-LOCK BREAKING SYSTEM :-

Fig 2.1-Anti-lock Breaking System

Anti-lock braking system (ABS) is an automobile safety system that allows the
wheels on a motor vehicle to maintain tractive contact with the road surface
according to driver inputs while braking, preventing the wheels from locking up
(ceasing rotation) and avoiding uncontrolled skidding. It is an automated system
that uses the principles of threshold braking and cadence braking which were
practiced by skillful drivers with previous generation braking systems. It does this
at a much faster rate and with better control than a driver could manage.
ABS generally offers improved vehicle control and decreases stopping distances
on dry and slippery surfaces for many drivers; however, on loose surfaces like
gravel or snow-covered pavement, ABS can significantly increase braking distance,
although still improving vehicle control. Since initial widespread use in production
5

cars, anti-lock braking systems have evolved considerably. Recent versions not
only prevent wheel lock under braking, but also electronically control the frontto-rear brake bias. This function, depending on its specific capabilities and
implementation, is known as electronic brake force distribution (EBD), traction
control system, emergency brake assist, or electronic stability control (ESC).

Fig 2.2-Diagram showing how ABS works

The anti-lock brake controller is also known as the CAB (Controller Anti-lock
Brake). Typically ABS includes a central electronic control unit (ECU), four wheel
speed sensors, and at least two hydraulic valves within the brake hydraulics. The
ECU constantly monitors the rotational speed of each wheel; if it detects a wheel
rotating significantly slower than the others, a condition indicative of impending
wheel lock, it actuates the valves to reduce hydraulic pressure to the brake at the
affected wheel, thus reducing the braking force on that wheel; the wheel then
turns faster. Conversely, if the ECU detects a wheel turning significantly faster
6

than the others, brake hydraulic pressure to the wheel is increased so the braking
force is reapplied, slowing down the wheel. This process is repeated continuously
and can be detected by the driver via brake pedal pulsation. Some anti-lock
systems can apply or release braking pressure 15 times per second. Because of
this, the wheels of cars equipped with ABS are practically impossible to lock even
during panic braking in extreme conditions. The ECU is programmed to disregard
differences in wheel rotative speed below a critical threshold, because when the
car is turning, the two wheels towards the center of the curve turn slower than
the outer two. For this same reason, a differential is used in virtually all road
going vehicles. If a fault develops in any part of the ABS, a warning light will
usually be illuminated on the vehicle instrument panel, and the ABS will be
disabled until the fault is rectified.
Modern ABS applies individual brake pressure to all four wheels through a control
system of hub-mounted sensors and a dedicated micro-controller. ABS is offered
or comes standard on most road vehicles produced today and is the foundation
for electronic stability control systems, which are rapidly increasing in popularity
due to the vast reduction in price of vehicle electronics over the years. Modern
electronic stability control systems are an evolution of the ABS concept. Here, a
minimum of two additional sensors are added to help the system work: these are
a steering wheel angle sensor, and a gyroscopic sensor. The theory of operation is
simple: when the gyroscopic sensor detects that the direction taken by the car
does not coincide with what the steering wheel sensor reports, the ESC software
will brake the necessary individual wheel(s) (up to three with the most
sophisticated systems), so that the vehicle goes the way the driver intends. The
steering wheel sensor also helps in the operation of Cornering Brake Control
7

(CBC), since this will tell the ABS that wheels on the inside of the curve should
brake more than wheels on the outside, and by how much.
ABS equipment may also be used to implement a traction control system (TCS) on
acceleration of the vehicle. If, when accelerating, the tire loses traction, the ABS
controller can detect the situation and take suitable action so that traction is
regained. More sophisticated versions of this can also control throttle levels and
brakes simultaneously. Upon the introduction of the Subaru Legacy in 1989,
Subaru networked the four channel anti-lock brake function with the all wheel
drive system so that if the car detected any wheel beginning to lock up, the
variable assists the all wheel drive system installed on vehicles with the automatic
transmission would engage to ensure all wheels were actively gripping while the
anti-lock system was attempting to stop the car.
COMPONENTS:There are four main components of ABS: speed sensors, valves, a pump, and a
controller. Speed sensors
A speed sensor is used to determine the acceleration or deceleration of the
wheel.These sensors use a magnet and a coil of wire to generate a signal. The
rotation of the wheel or differential induces a magnetic field around the sensor.
The fluctuations of this magnetic field generate a voltage into the sensor.Since
the voltage inducted on the sensor is a result of the rotating wheel, this sensor
can become inaccurate at slow speeds. The slower rotation of the wheel can

cause inaccurate fluctuations in the magnetic field and thus cause inaccurate
readings to the controller.

Valves
There is a valve in the brake line of each brake controlled by the ABS. On some
systems, the valve has three positions: In position one, the valve is open; pressure
from the master cylinder is passed right through to the brake. In position two, the
valve blocks the line, isolating that brake from the master cylinder. This prevents
the pressure from rising further should the driver push the brake pedal harder. In
position three, the valve releases some of the pressure from the brake. The
majority of problems with the valve system occur due to clogged valves. When a
valve is clogged it is unable to open, close, or change position. An inoperable
valve will prevent the system from modulating the valves and controlling pressure
supplied to the brakes.
Pump
The pump in the ABS is used to restore the pressure to the hydraulic brakes after
the valves have released it. A signal from the controller will release the valve at
the detection of wheel slip. After a valve release the pressure supplied from the
user, the pump is used to restore a desired amount of pressure to the braking
system. The controller will modulate the pumps status in order to provide the
desired amount of pressure and reduce slipping.

Controller
The controller is an ECU type unit in the car which receives information from each
individual wheel speed sensor, in turn if a wheel loses traction the signal is sent to
the controller, the controller will then limit the brake force (EBD) and activate the
ABS modulator which actuates the braking valves on and off.
(3) AUTOMATIC BRAKING :-

Fig 3.1- Driverless car is sensing other car by sending radiations

Automatic braking by the system after sensing an obstacle can be executed in two
modes. In collision avoidance, the collision is avoided by the automatic braking,
but the driver will not be warned in this type of system. There is a very good
chance of wrongly interpreting the signals, especially in the case of radars or
lasers. So this is not so effective method of automatic braking. In collision
mitigation system,the sensors detect the possibility of collision but will not take
immediate action. A warning will be sent to the driver in the form of a signal or a
voice message. There is a threshold safe distance calculated by the system and if
the driver fails to respond even when the vehicle crosses that region, then only

10

brakes will be applied automatically. Even if there is a mis-interpretation of

signals, there is no problem because, the decision to apply brakes is left with the
driver and the brakes are applied automatically only in the most emergency
situations. Many vehicles are provided with the option of turning on or off the
automatic system based on their surroundings. In some automobiles even though
they cannot be completely disabled, they can be limited to warning the driver
about coming obstacle. Even this emergency braking initiates ABS which help the
driver to retain the control over vehicle without any skidding. Automatic braking
system is only effective if the mode of sensing the obstacles is reliable, or else any
kind of false interpretation may cause a lot of damage.

(4) ELECTRONIC STABILITY CONTROL (ESC):Electronic Stability Control (ESC) helps drivers to avoid crashes by reducing the
danger of skidding, or losing control as a result of over-steering. ESC becomes
active when a driver loses control of their car. It uses computer controlled
technology to apply individual brakes and help bring the car safely back on track,
without the danger of fish-tailing.

Fig 4.1- Figure showing difference between vehicle with or without ESC

11

Why do we need it?

Australian research shows that ESC reduces the risk of:
Single car crashes by 25% Single 4WD crashes by 51% Single car crashes in
which the driver was injured by 28% Single 4WD crashes in which the driver was
injured by 66%* No other active safety device has such potential to reduce single
car crashes.
How does ESC work?
ESC works by using a number of intelligent sensors that detect any loss of control
and automatically apply the brake to the relevant wheel, putting your car back on
the intended path.
ESC is of assistance to the driver in:correcting impending oversteering or understeering; stabilising the car during
sudden evasive manoeuvres; enhancing handling on gravel patches, such as road
shoulders; and improving traction on slippery or icy roads.
Not all ESC systems are identical. The hardware is similar, but there are variations
in how ESC systems are programmed to respond once loss of control is detected.
Naturally, the degree of effectiveness of ESC is dependent upon the amount of
traction between the road and the car. Therefore on a car with old, worn or
inappropriate tyres (eg : non winter tyres on ice and snow), ESC will be less
effective than on a car with new tyres or tyres specific to a road environmental
condition.

12

How popular is ESC?

ESC technology is being adopted rapidly by Australian manufacturers and
importers particularly as Victoria has mandated that all new cars registered from
January 2011 must be fitted with ESC. This mandate came into effect almost one
year ahead of the rest of Australia and also Europe and America. Fitment of ESC
has grown enormously since 2004, with the fitment rate increasing from around
12% in 2004 to 76% in early 2011. The highest rate of ESC fitment is in Sweden
with a fitment rate of around 96%. Before you choose your next car, be sure to
look for models with ESC.
Is ESC different to Antilock Braking (ABS) and Traction Control?
ABS and Traction control are integral components of an ESC system. Whilst
every car with ESC has ABS and Traction Control, those with ABS and Traction
control do not necessarily have ESC. ABS and Traction Control only work in the
driving (longitudinal) direction. ESC can help drivers to cope with sideways
(lateral) movements which create instability. Unlike ABS and Traction Control,
ESC is a holistic system that can control a cars entire movements.
Do I need training to drive a car with ESC?
No. Those who manufacture these systems say that ESC supports the driver but
does not require changes to skill levels or driving styles.
Are there different names for ESC?
Yes. Some of the names that we know about in Australia are: Electronic Stability
Program (ESP) - Holden, HSV, Hyundai, Kia, Mercedes Benz, Jeep, Renault,
Saab, Chrysler, Citroen, Peugeot, Ssangyong Dynamic Stability Control (DSC) Ford, FPV, BMW, Mazda, Land Rover, Jaguar Vehicle Stability Control (VSC) 13

Suzuki, Toyota Vehicle Dynamic Control (VDC)- Nissan, Subaru, Alfa Romeo
Dynamic Stability And Traction Control (DSTC)- Volvo Electronic Stabilisation
Program (ESP) - Audi, Volkswagen Active Stability Control (ASC) Mitsubishi
Vehicle Stability Assist (VSA)- Honda Vehicle Stability/Swerve Control (VSC) Lexus Automatic Stability Control + Traction (ASC+T) - Mini Electronic Stability
Programme (ESP) - Dodge, Skoda Maserati Stability Program (MSP)- Maserati
Porsche Stability Management - Porsche Stability and Traction Control - Fiat
Can ESC affect my resale value?
European Research shows that ESC can contribute to reducing a cars depreciation.
New cars purchased now with ESC will assist in the resale of that car in the future.
It is anticipated that after the European Union mandate for ESC which begins in
September 2011, that it will become increasingly difficult to resell a car without
ESC**.
ESC mandation for new cars:From 1 January 2011, all newly registered vehicles in Victoria must be fitted with
ESC. This requirement applies to all passenger cars, off-road passenger vehicles,
and

forward-control

passenger

vehicles

(e.g.

passenger

vans)

with

compliance/identification plate date of 01/11 or after.

Fig 4.2-ESC Process

14

(5) CRUISE CONTROL SYSTEM:-

Fig 5.1-Figure showing Cruise Control between two vehicles

Cruise control (sometimes known as speed control or auto cruise, or tempomet in

some countries) is a system that automatically controls the speed of a motor
vehicle. The system takes over the throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as
set by the driver. Cruise control is a system that automatically controls the speed of
an automobile. The driver sets the speed and the system takes over the throttle of
the car to maintain the speed. The system thereby improves driver comfort in
steady traffic conditions. In congested traffic conditions, where speeds vary
widely, these systems are no longer effective. Most cruise control systems do not
allow the use of cruise control below a certain speed.
In modern designs, the cruise control may need to be turned on before use in
some designs it is always "on" but not always enabled (not very common), others
have a separate "on/off" switch, while still others just have an "on" switch that
must be pressed after the vehicle has been started. Most designs have buttons for
"set", "resume", "accelerate", and "coast" functions. Some also have a "cancel"
button. Alternatively, depressing the brake or clutch pedal will disable the system
so the driver can change the speed without resistance from the system. The system
15

is operated with controls easily within the driver's reach, usually with two or more
buttons on the steering wheel spokes or on the edge of the hub like those on Honda
vehicles, on the turn signal stalk like in many older General Motors vehicles or on
a dedicated stalk like those found in some Toyota, Mercedes-Benz and Lexus
vehicles. Earlier designs used a dial to set speed choice.
The driver must bring the vehicle up to speed manually and use a button to set the
cruise control to the current speed. The cruise control takes its speed signal from a
rotating driveshaft, speedometer cable, wheel speed sensor from the engine's RPM,
or from internal speed pulses produced electronically by the vehicle. Most systems
do not allow the use of the cruise control below a certain speed (normally around
40 km/h (25 mph)). The vehicle will maintain the desired speed by pulling the
throttle cable with a solenoid, a vacuum driven servomechanism, or by using the
electronic systems built into the vehicle (fully electronic) if it uses a 'drive-by-wire'
system. All cruise control systems must be capable of being turned off both
explicitly and automatically when the driver depresses the brake, and often also the
clutch. Cruise control often includes a memory feature to resume the set speed
after braking, and a coast feature to reduce the set speed without braking. When the
cruise control is engaged, the throttle can still be used to accelerate the car, but
once the pedal is released the car will then slow down until it reaches the
previously set speed. On the latest vehicles fitted with electronic throttle control,
cruise control can be easily integrated into the vehicle's engine management
system. Modern "adaptive" systems (see below) include the ability to automatically
reduce speed when the distance to a car in front, or the speed limit, decreases. This
is an advantage for those driving in unfamiliar areas.
The cruise control systems of some vehicles incorporate a "speed limiter" function,
which will not allow the vehicle to accelerate beyond a pre-set maximum; this can
16

usually be overridden by fully depressing the accelerator pedal. (Most systems will
prevent the vehicle accelerating beyond the chosen speed, but will not apply the
brakes in the event of over speeding downhill.) On vehicles with a manual
transmission, cruise control is less flexible because the act of depressing the clutch
pedal and shifting gears usually disengages the cruise control. The "resume"
feature has to be used each time after selecting the new gear and releasing the
clutch. Therefore cruise control is of most benefit at motorway/highway speeds
when top gear is used virtually all the time.

Table No-5.1 Block diagram showing Cruise Control process

17

Electronic Cruise Control:Daniel Aaron Wisner invented Automotive Electronic Cruise Control in 1968 as an
engineer for RCA's Industrial and Automation Systems Division in Plymouth,
Michigan. It was the first electronic gadgetry to play a role in controlling a car and
ushered in the computer-controlled era in the automobile industry. Two decades
lapsed before an integrated circuit for his design was developed by Motorola Inc.
as the MC14460 Auto Speed Control Processor in CMOS. As a result, cruise
control was eventually adopted by automobile manufacturers as standard
equipment and nearly every car built and many trucks are fitted with a
configuration

of

the

circuitry

and

hardware

nearly

identical

to

his

prototype.[citation needed] The advantage of electronic speed control over its

mechanical predecessor, which was featured on luxury models but never gained
wide acceptance, was that it could be easily integrated with electronic accident
avoidance and engine management systems.

Fig 5.2-Self speed adjustment of Cruise Control Method

18

How to use cruise control on a car:In many of the new cars of today, they are adding cruise control into them. Cruise
control (sometimes known as speed control or automatic cruise) is a system that
automatically controls the speed of a motor vehicle. The system takes over the
throttle of the car to maintain a steady speed as set by the driver. Using cruise
control can give your feet a rest and stabilize the vehicle while using it on a
straight road.
Step-1
Start out on a road and drive until you are past 60 kilometers an hour or 40 miles
an hour.

Fig 5.3-Cer showing speed limit above 60

19

Step-2
On your steering wheel or on the levers on the steering wheel, there should be a
button or a toggle to activate cruise control. Hold your foot steadily on the gas
pedal so it does not drop its speed.

Fig 5.4-The cruise button is pressed on

Step-3
On your steering wheel, while still holding the gas pedal steady, hit cruise on/off
and a button that says Set Coast or just coast. On a steering wheel that has a lever
to activate the cruise control, look at the arrow on the cruise that says which way to
hit it in order to activate the cruise control.

Fig 5.5-Gas pedal is being pressed

20

Step-4
When you let go of the gas pedal, you may notice that your engine's Revolutions
Per Minute have dropped. This is normal it just means that your vehicle's cruise
control has been activated. A cruise light in the gauge pod may tell you that you
have cruise control on.

Fig 5.6-Cruise control meter

Step-5
To deactivate cruise control, press on the brake pedal or press the cruise on/off
button again and you will gain control of your vehicle's accelerator.

Fig 5.7-Cruise is Pressed Off

21

(6) AUTOMATIVE NIGHT VISION :-

Fig 5.6 An automotive Night Vision Front Camera

An automotive night vision system is a system to increase a vehicle driver's

perception and seeing distance in darkness or poor weather beyond the reach of the
vehicle's headlights. They are currently offered as optional equipment on certain
premium vehicles.
Mercedes-Benz uses an active system or near-IR system that illuminates the night
with projected infrared light, much like optics found in military-issue night-vision
goggles. BMW's passive system, on the other hand, uses far-IR or FIR technology
in its onboard night-vision systems.
Unlike night-vision optics used for military applications, BMW's system registers
images based on body heat and produces images that resemble a photo negative.
While that works well for deciphering between animals and people, it doesn't do
much for revealing a dead animal in the middle of the road or perhaps a large rock
or a fallen tree. BMW's infrared system uses complementary metal oxide
semiconductor (CMOS)-based sensors on the front of the car that pick up heat
from objects and processes the thermal signature to display images on a quarter
22

video graphics array (QVGA) display (320x240-pixel resolution) mounted on the

dash in the center of the vehicle's console. In a nutshell, the BMW's system picks
up the heat of the animal or pedestrian and displays it as a bright image. The
warmer the target, the brighter the image displays. It has a range of around 980 feet
(299 meters) and can pan in the direction the vehicle is heading. The FIR night
vision system illuminates what's directly in front of the vehicle reasonably well,
but doesn't offer the clarity found in the Mercedes system.
In contrast, the Mercedes system uses NIR technology and produces an even, clear
picture in the dark. This system is similar to night-vision goggles soldiers use. Like
the military-issued night-vision goggles, the NIR system in the Mercedes
illuminates everything as if it were in the high beams of the vehicle. By utilizing a
series of projection bulbs and cameras, the Mercedes' active night-vision system
picks up the faintest traces of light and transforms it into a clear picture. The
advantage is that the Mercedes system can see warmer living things just as clear as
it can spot colder, dead animals or non-living objects. The drawback to the
Mercedes system is its range: The system has a maximum effective range of less
than 600 feet (183 meters). Another drawback is the Mercedes' NIR system doesn't
handle fog well, while the BMW's FIR system can see through the dense
conditions. But unlike the BMW's system, the Mercedes monitor is located behind
the steering wheel, directly in the driver's line of sight to the road, and the image
quality is also crisper on the NIR system.
Both systems can be turned on or off by the driver with controls found near the
high-beam lever and neither system is affected by oncoming bright lights. Both are
easy on the eyes too, so sensitivity to light should not be a problem for most
drivers. Researchers from the two companies are also in the process of perfecting
warning indicators on the night-vision systems. The challenge is to be able to
23

decipher what's a hazard and what's merely a heat signature. The goal is for the
systems to be able to set off an alarm when a pedestrian or animal is close enough
to the road to be hazardous.
Cars currently using Automative Night Vision :Active
2002-2007 Lexus LX 470 (windshield)
2009 Lexus LS (instrument cluster)
2006 Mercedes CL-class (instrument cluster)
2009 Mercedes E-class (navigation screen)
2005 Mercedes S-class (instrument cluster)
2009 Mercedes S-class (instrument cluster)
2008 Toyota Crown Hybrid (instrument cluster)
2002 Toyota Land cruiser Cignus (windshield)
2011 Under development Bright Eye Gated long range system
Passive
2011 Audi A6 (instrument cluster)
2010 Audi A8, Audi A7 (instrument cluster)
2005 BMW 5-series (navigation screen)
2008 BMW 5-series (navigation screen)
2005 BMW 7-series (navigation screen)
2008 BMW 7-series (navigation screen)
2011 BMW 6-series (navigation screen)

24

(7) LANE DEPARTURE WARNING SYSTEM:-

Fig 7.1- Functioning of lane departure warning system

The visual based Lane Departure Warning System (LDWS) is one of the emerging
systems for reducing traffic accidents. In this paper, we extend our peak-finding
based lane detection algorithm and the spatiotemporal based dual warning
mechanisms to an integrated H/S co-design system. The proposed digital hardware
scheme was built by extracting the regular high-computation modules from the
entire LDWS algorithm. An innovative buffering circuit design, the Vertical
Shifter (VS), is presented to speed up the in-circuit communication time. The
whole system has been developed in an FPGA platform embedded with Nios II
processor. Generally, our integrated H/S LDWS is capable of more flexible control
capability associated with novel hardware accelerator in a system on a
programmable chip (SOPC).
Lane departure warning employs a simple camera that costs a few dollars. It could
save you thousands in crash repairs. The camera plus processing software watch
25

how close you are to road surface markings. It alerts you when youre about to
drift across, but only if your turn signal isnt on. Lane departure warning has
emerged as a key tool for driver safety. The technology has evolved over the last
few years to lane keep assist where the car automatically corrects course if it
reaches the lane markings, and now a higher level of lane keep assist that
automatically keeps the car centered on the road. The corrections are subtle and the
driver can always override the car and turn the wheel manually.
Lane departure warning is part of the so-called circle of safety: adaptive cruise
control pacing you against the car in front, lane departure warning or lane keep
assist watching ahead and to the side, blind spot detection watching for cars
coming up in adjacent lanes, and rear parking sonar and a camera behind
(sometimes on all four sides) watching behind when youre backing up. Lane
departure warning/lane keep assist is so good now, the best systems could keep
you centered for miles and miles. Its really a self-driving car at that point. All of
them cut out after a few seconds if they detect no hands on the steering wheel.

Fig 7.2- Process how lane departure warning system works

26

How it works: windshield camera tracks lane markings:-

Fig 7.3-Camera tracking Lane

The most common LDW system is a camera mounted high up in the windshield
(photo above), often as part of the rear view mirror mounting block. It captures a
moving view of the road ahead. The digitized image is parsed for straight or
dashed lines the lane markings. As the driver, youre supposed to center the car
between the two lines. As the car deviates and approaches or reaches the lane
marking, the driver gets a warning: a visual alert plus either an audible tone, a
vibration in the steering wheel, or a vibration in the seat. If the turn signal is on, the
car assumes the driver is intentionally crossing over the lane, and theres no alert.
Thats lane departure warning. Then theres lane keep assist. When the car reaches
the lane marking, the car nudges itself away from the marker, sort of like bouncing
off the walls in Pac-Man. Sometimes the steering change is effected by braking the
opposite front wheel and the car pivots back into the lane. The car can also move
you back by turning the steering wheel. In either case, the driver can easily
overcome the cars intentions by turning the wheel.

27

(8) ADAPTIVE HIGHBEAM :-

Fig 8.1-A Car self adjusting lead lamp range

Adaptive High beam Assist from Mercedes-Benz makes night-time driving even
safer. The system adjusts the headlamp range automatically to the distance of
oncoming traffic or vehicles in front with their lights on. This provides the driver
with the ideal headlamp range at all times, enabling better and earlier recognition
of the course of the road, pedestrians or other dangers. The Adaptive Highbeam
Assist of Mercedes-Benz is based on a camera on the inside of the front
windscreen which monitors the traffic situation in front of the car. An intelligent
image processing algorithm enables the camera to identify other vehicles and to
calculate their distances. The range of the variably adjustable headlamps is set
accordingly and adjusted continuously according to the distance of the vehicle
ahead or oncoming traffic.
The system is extremely fast, relaying fresh data to the headlamps every 40
milliseconds. On the basis of this information, the headlamps are switched to low
beam and the range of the adjustable bi-xenon headlamps in dipped-beam mode is
set within a maximum reach of 300 meters.

28

(9) AUTOMATIC SELF PARKING SYSTEM:-

Fig 9.1-A self parking scene of Driverless Car

A self-parking system is an autopilot technology for automobiles that allows a car

to park itself. It is available on some Lexus, Toyota, Volvo, Ford, Kia, Volkswagen
and Skoda models. The basic components of such a system are a rear-mounted
camera, servo-motors for turning the steering column and activating brakes, and a
micro-computer based control system to perform the parking maneuver.
Self-parking technology is mostly used in parallel parking situations (although new
cars of VW/koda has a next generation parking system that parks itself in
horizontal spaces, like small garages). Parallel parking requires cars to park
parallel to a curb, in line with the other parked cars. Most people need about six
feet more space than the total length of their car to successfully parallel park,
although some expert drivers can do it with less space.
29

To parallel park, the driver must follow these five basic steps:
He pulls ahead of the space and stops beside the car in front of it. Turning the car's
wheels towards the curb, he backs into the space at around a 45-degree angle.
When his front wheels are even with the rear wheels of the car in front of him, he
straightens them and continues backing up. While checking his rear view to be sure
that he doesn't come too close to the car behind him, the driver turns his wheels
away from the curb to swing the front end of his car into the space. Finally, the
driver pulls forward and backwards in the space until his car is about one foot
away from the curb.
Self-parking cars currently on the market are not completely autonomous, but they
do make parallel parking much easier. The driver still regulates the speed of the
vehicle by pressing and releasing the brake pedal (the car's idle speed is enough to
move it into the parking space without pressing the gas pedal). Once the process
begins, the on-board computer system take over the steering wheel. The car moves
forward into position beside the front car, and a signal lets the driver know when
he should stop. Then the driver shifts the car into reverse and releases the brake
slightly to begin moving backward. Using the power steering system, the computer
turns the wheel and perfectly maneuvers the car into the parking space. When the
car has backed far enough into the space, another signal lets the driver know that
he should stop and shift the car into drive. The car pulls forward as the wheels
adjust to maneuver it into the space. A final signal (on the British Toyota Prius, it's
a female voice that intones, "The assist is finished.") tells the driver when parking
is complete. On the British Toyota Prius, a large computer screen mounted on the
dashboard gives the driver notifications such as when to stop, when to shift into
reverse, and when to slowly ease off the brake to move the car into the parking
spot.
30

Different self-parking systems have different ways of sensing the objects around
the car. Some have sensors distributed around the front and rear bumpers of the
car, which act as both transmitters and receivers. These sensors transmit signals,
which bounce off objects around the car and reflect back to them. The car's
computer then uses the amount of time that it takes those signals to return to
calculate the location of the objects. Others systems have cameras mounted onto
the bumpers or use radar to detect objects. The end result is the same: the car
detects the other parked cars, the size of the parking space and the distance to the
curb, then steers it into the space.

Fig 9.2-A self parking scene of a Car

31

(10) ADVANTAGES OF DRIVERLESS CAR

Relieving vehicle occupants from driving allowing them to concentrate on

other tasks or to rest during their journeys.
To avoid accidents .
Increasing roadway capacity by reducing the distances between cars.
Managing traffic flow to increase road capacity.
The current location of vehicle can be determine using global positioning
system (G.P.S) .
Less (or no more) accidents. Sensors and V-to-V communication are more
accurate (and less able to be distracted) that a human driver.
Elderly and disabled people are able to drive wherever they want to.
No more boring driving on highways (and no more tickets for speed excess
Stop looking for a parking spot. Alight where you need, and your car finds a
spot all by itself and picks you up when youre finished.
Work while you drive your car drives! If you can work during your 2-hour
commute, you might possibly be able to leave your office earlier, and enjoy
more free time with your family and friends.

32

(11) DISADVANTAGES OF DRIVERLESS CAR

If the vehicle is using internet which is have less security then From the
hackers point of view in some cases the vehicle can be switched off on the
road (in rare cases)
Hackers can change the rout which is plotted in the system(in rare cases)
In case of failure of main sensor and backup sensors the vehicle can create a
chance of accident
Another worry for the motor industry is that car use seems to be peaking in
the most congested cities. Yet automated cars would drive nose-to-tail,
increasing the capacity of existing roads; and since they would be able to
drop off their passengers and drive away, the lack of parking spaces in town
might not matter so much.
Difficult to drive on a busy road where there is always heavy traffic.

33

(12) CONCLUSION
But Leach (R & D head of Toyota Motors) believes it will be another 10 years
before autonomous cars take to the road, able to interact with the oldfashioned driver piloted vehicles and still allowing a human to take control. It
is thought that it will take at least 30 years for for completely autonomous
vehicles to be the norm.
"The technology will also enable a lot of people - the elderly, disabled or blind
who might otherwise not be mobile," he added. The biggest challenge to start
with will be integrating autonomous cars with established, driver operated
vehicles and how they can cope with the unpredictability of human behaviour.
Where could the technology roll out first? While many believe the emerging
infrastructure in China could take a lead, Leach thinks the US or Japan would
make the ideal launch pads. "Historically, technologies which exercise some
sort of control have been slow to take up in the US because of the cost of
litigation and settlement if something goes wrong, but then the driving
environment in America, with its long straight roads, lends itself well to
autonomous technology.
"In Japan there is a lot of density and congestion but there is also very good cooperation in terms of government policy, the road system and car
manufacturers. China could be a possibility, but cars are still relatively new
there and the emotional attachment people have to them now is more like what
we were like in the 50s and 60s."

34

(13) REFERENCES

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/driverless car
http://autocontrols.com.au/
http://www.howstuffworks.com/cruise-control
http://www.howstuffworks.com/electronic stability control
http://www.youtube.com

35