1. Coagulation...

Surface waters must be treated to remove turbidity, color and bacteria. The object of coagulation (and
subsequently flocculation) is to turn the small particles of color, turbidity and bacteria into larger flocs,
either as precipitates or suspended particles. These flocs are then conditioned so that they will be readily
removed in subsequent processes. Technically, coagulation applies to the removal of colloidal particles.
We define coagulation as a method to alter the colloids so that they will be able to approach and adhere to
each other to form larger floc particles.

Colloid Stability...
Before discussing colloid removal, we should understand why the colloids are suspended in solution and
cannot be removed by sedimentation or filtration. Very simply, the particles in the colloid range are too
small to settle in a reasonable time period and too small to be trapped in the pores of a filter. For colloids
to remain stable they must remain small. Most colloids are stable because they possess a negative charge
that repels other colloids particles before they collide with one another.

Colloid Destabilization...
Since colloids are stable because of their surface charge, in order to destabilize the particles, we must
neutralize this charge. Such neutralization can take place by addition of an ion of opposite charge to the
colloid. Since most colloids found in water are negatively charged, the addition of sodium ions (Na +)
should reduce the charge. As we would have predicted, then higher the concentration of sodium we add,
the lower the charge, and therefore the lower the repelling forces around the colloid. If, instead of adding
a monovalent ion such as sodium, we add a divalent or trivalent ion, the charge is reduced even faster. In
fact, it was found by schulze and Hardy that one mole of a trivalent ion can reduce the charge as much as
30 to 50 moles of a divalent ion and as much as 1,500 to 2,500 moles of a monovalent ion.

Coagulants...
The purpose of coagulation is to alter the colloids so that they can adhere to each other. During
coagulation a positive ion is added to water to reduce the surface charge to the point where the colloids
are not repelled from each other. A coagulant is the substance (chemical) that is added to the water to
accomplish coagulation. There are three key properties of a coagulant :
1. Trivalent cation : As indicated in the last section, the colloids most commonly found in natural waters
are negatively charged, hence a cation is required to neutralize the charge. A trivalent cation is the most
efficient cation.
2. Nontoxic : This requirement is obvious for the production of a safe water.
3. Insoluble in the neutral pH range : The coagulant that is added must precipitate out of solution so that
high concentrations of the ion are not left in the water. Such precipitation greatly assists the colloid
removal process.
The two most commonly used coagulants are aluminum (Al+3) and ferric iron (Fe+3). Both meet the above
three requirements and their reactions are outlined here.
Aluminum...
Aluminum can be purchased as either dry or liquid alum [Al2(SO4)3.14H2O]. When alum is added to a
water containing alkalinity, the following reaction occurs :

Such that each mole of alum added uses six moles of alkalinity and produces six moles of carbon dioxide.
The above reaction shifts the carbonate equilibrium and decrease the pH. However, as long as sufficient
alkalinity is present and CO2 is allowed to evolve, the pH is not drastically reduced and is generally not an
operational problem. When sufficient alkalinity is not present to neutralize the sulfuric acid production,
the pH may be greatly reduced :

If the second reaction occurs, lime or sodium carbonate may be added to neutralize the sulfuric acid. Two
important factors in coagulant addition are pH and dose. The optimum dose and pH must be determined

from laboratory tests. The optimal pH range for alum is approximately 5.5 to 6.5 with adequate
coagulation possible between pH 5 to pH 8 under some conditions. One of the most common methods to
evaluate coagulation efficiency is to conduct jar test. Jar tests are performed in an apparatus such as
shown in figure given below. Six beakers are filled with water and then each is mixed and flocculated
uniformly by a gang stirrer. A test is often conducted by first dosing each jar with the same alum dose and
varying the pH in each jar. The test can then be repeated by holding the pH constant and varying the
coagulant dose.

Iron...
Iron can be purchased as either the sulfate salt (Fe2(SO4)3.xH2O) or the chloride salt (FeCl3.xH2O). An
example of the reaction of FeCl3 in the presence of alkalinity is :

Forming hydrochloric acid which in turn lowers the pH. Ferric salts generally have a wider pH range for
effective coagulation than aluminum, that is, pH ranges from 4 to 9.

Coagulant Aids...
The four basic types of coagulants aids are pH adjusters, activated silica, clay and polymers. Acids and
alkalies are both used to adjust the pH of the water into the optimal range for coagulation. The acid most
commonly used is sulfuric acid and the most commonly base is lime [Ca(OH)2]. When activated silica is
added to water, it produces a stable solution that has a negative surface charge. The activated silica can
unite with the positively charged aluminum or with iron flocs, resulting in a larger, denser floc that settles
faster and enhances enmeshment. The addition of activated silica is especially useful for treating highly
colored, low-turbidity waters cause it adds weight to the floc. However, activation of silica does require
proper equipment and close operational control and many plants are hesitant to use it. Clays can act much
like activated silica in that they have a slight negative charge and can add weight to the flocs. Clays are
also most useful for colored, low turbidity waters.
Polymers can have a negative charge (anionic), positive charge (cationic), positive and negative charge
(polyamphotype) or no charge (nonionic). Polymers are long-chained carbon compounds of high
molecular weight that have many active sites. The active sites adhere to flocs, joining them together and
producing a larger tougher floc that settles better. This process is called interparticle bridging. The type of
polymer, dose and point of addition must be determined for each water and requirements may change
within a plant on a seasonal, or even daily basis.

Factors Which Affect the Coagulation...

The factors which affect coagulation are :
(i) Kind of coagulant
(ii) Quantity of coagulant
(iii) Amount, character of colour and turbidity of water
(iv) pH value of water

(v) Time of mixing and flocculation

(vi) Temperature
(vii) Violence of agitation

Function of Coagulation...
These are to remove :
(i) Turbidity
(ii) Organic and inorganic matter
(iii) Colour
(iv) Harmful and other pathogenic bacteria
(v) Algae, planktons and other organisms
(vi) Taste and odour producing substances
Problem 1...
Two sets of jar tests were conducted on a raw water containing 15 TU and an HCO3- alkalinity
concentration of 50 mg/l expressed as CaCO3. Given the data below, find the optimal pH, coagulant dose,
and the theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be consumed at the optimal dose.

2. Flocculation...
Clearly, if the chemical reactions in coagulating a water are going to take place, the chemical must be
mixed with the water. Mixing as it is called is the process whereby the chemicals are quickly and
uniformly dispersed in the water. During coagulation the chemical reactions that take place in rapid
mixing form precipitates, such as aluminum hydroxide or iron hydroxide. The precipitates formed in these
processes must be brought into contact with one another so that they can agglomerate and form larger
particles, called flocs. This contacting process is called flocculation and is accomplished by slow, gentle
mixing.
In the treatment of water and wastewater the degree of mixing is measured by the velocity gradient, G.
The velocity gradient is best thought of as the amount of shear taking place; that is, the higher the G
value, the more violent the mixing. The velocity gradient is a function of the power input a unit volume of
water. It is given by :

From literature, experience, laboratory or pilot plant work it is possible to select G value for a particular
application. The total number of particle collisions is proportional to G.t 0, where t0 is the detention time in
the basin. For time dependent reactions, the time that a fluid particle remains in the reactor obviously
affects the degree to which the reaction goes to completion. In ideal reactors the time in the reactor
(detention time or retention time) is defined as :

While rapid mix is the most important physical factor affecting coagulant efficiency, flocculation is the
most important factor affecting particle removal efficiency. The objective of flocculation is to bring the
particle into contact so that they will collide, stick together, and grow to size that will readily settle.
Enough mixing must be provided to bring the floc into contact and to keep the floc from settling in the
flocculation basin. Too much mixing will shear the floc particles so that the floc is small and finely
dispersed. Therefore, the velocity gradient must be controlled within a relatively narrow range. Flexibility
should also be built into the flocculator so that the plant operator can vary the G value by a factor of two
to three. The heavier the floc and the higher the suspended solids concentration, the more mixing is
required to keep the floc in suspension. This is reflected in table given below :

Flocculator...
Flucculation is normally accompolished with an axial flow impeller), a paddle flocculator or a baffled
chamber. The baffle-mixing basin is called also up and down baffle mixing basin. In this, the water
(with coagulant) enters at P, flows down through the channel under baffle, rise up through the channel,
sweeps across the top of baffle and then flows through other channels until it finally flows out at Q. The
velocity is nearly 30 cm/s.

Power Requirements...
In the design of mixing equipment for rapid mix and flocculation tanks, the power imparted to the liquid
in a baffled tank by an impeller may be described by the following equation for fully turbulent flow
developed by Rushton :

Mixing, flocculation and clarification may be conducted in a single tank. The influent raw water and
chemicals are mixed in the center cone-like structure. The solids flow down under the cone. As the water
flows upward, the solids settle to form a sludge blanket. This design is called an upflow solids-contact
basin. The main advantage of this unit is its reduced size.
Problem 2...
The city of Redpherric is planning for the installation of a water treatment plant to remove iron. A lowturbidity iron coagulation plant has been proposed with the following design parameters :
Q = 2 m3 / sec
Rapid mix t0 = 10 sec
Rapid mix G = 1,000 sec-1
Floc t0 = 20 min
Floc G = 30 sec-1
Water temperature = 18 OC
Design the rapid-mix and flocculation basins and size of the equipment.

3. Sedimentation...
Particles that will settle within a reasonable period of time can be removed in a sedimentation basin (also
called clarifier). Sedimentation basins are usually rectangular or circular with either a radial or upward
water flow pattern. Regardless of the type of basin, the design can be divided into four zones; inlet,
settling, outlet, and sludge storage.
The purpose of the inlet zone is to evenly distribute the flow and suspended particles across the cross
section of the settling zone. The inlet zone consists of a series of inlet pipes and baffles placed about 1 m
into the tank and extending the full depth of the tank. The outlet zone is designed so as to remove the
settled water from the basin without carrying away any of the floc particles. A fundamental property of
water is that the velocity of flowing water is proportional to the flow rate divided by the area through
which the water flows, that is :

To remove the water from the basin quickly, it is desirable to direct the water into a pipe or small channel
for easy transport, which will produce a significantly higher velocity. If a pipe were to be placed at the end
of the sedimentation basin, all the water would rush to the pipe. This rushing water would create high
velocity profiles in the basin, which would tend to raise the settled floc from the basin and into the
effluent water. This phenomenon of washing out the floc is called scouring, and one way to create
scouring is with an improper outlet design. Rather than put a pipe at the end of the sedimentation basin, it
is desirable to first put a series of troughs, called weirs, which provide a large area for the water to flow
through and minimize the velocity in the sedimentation tank near the outlet zone. The weirs then feed into
a central channel or pipe for transport of the settled water.

Sedimentation Concepts...

There are two important terms to understand in sedimentation zone design. The first is the particle (floc)
settling velocity, vs. The second is the velocity at which the tank is designed to operate, called the
overflow rate, v0. The easiest way to understand these two concepts is to view a upward-flow
sedimentation tank.
In this design, the particles fall downward and the water rises vertically. The rate at which the particle is
settling downward is the particle-settling velocity, and the velocity of the liquid rising is the overflow rate.
Obviously, if a particle is to be removed from the bottom of the clarifier and not go out in the settled
water, then the particle-settling velocity must be greater that the liquid-rise velocity (vs,nu v0). If vs, is
greater than v0, one would expect 100 percent particle removal, and if vs is less than v0, one would expect
0 percent removal. In design, the procedure would be to determine the particle-settling velocity and set
the overflow rate at some lower value. Often v0 is set at 50 to 70 percent of vs for an upflow clarifier. Let
us now consider why the liquid-rise velocity is called an overflow rate and what its units are. The term
overflow rate is used since the water is flowing over the top of the tank into the weir system. It is
sometimes referred to all the surface-loading rate because it has units of m3 / day . m2. The units are flow
of water (m3 / day) being applied to a m2 of tank surface area per day, which is similar to loading rate.
Recall from :

that the velocity of flow is equal to the flow rate divided by the area through which it flows, hence an
overflow rate is the same as a liquid velocity :

As long as vs is greater than v0, the particles will settle downward and be removed from the bottom of the
tank regardless of the depth. The percentage of particles removed, P, with a settling velocity of vs in a
sedimentation tank designed with an overflow rate of v0 is :

Problem 3...
The town of San Jose has an existing horizontal-flow sedimentation tank with an overflow rate of 17 m 3 /
day . m2, and it wishes to remove particles that have settling velocities of 0.1 mm / sec, 0.2 mm / sec and
1 mm / sec. What percentage of removal should be expected for each particle in an ideal sedimentation
tank ?
Problem 4...
Determine the surface area of a settling tank for the city of Urbanas 0.5 m3 / sec design flow with design
overflow rate of 32.5 m3 / day . m2. Compare this surface area with that which results from assuming a
typical overflow rate of 20 m3 / day . m2. Find the depth of the clarifier using detention time of 95
minutes.
Problem 5...
Design a sedimentation tank to treat 9.092 M1 per day of turbid water. Assume the detention period as 5
hours and velocity of flow as 15 cm / minute.

4. Filtration...
The water leaving the sedimentation tank still contains floc particles. The settled water turbidity is
generally in the range from 1 to 10 TU with a typical value being 3 TU. In order to reduce this turbidity to
0.3 TU a filtration process is normally used. Water filtration is a process for separating suspended or
colloidal impurities from water by passage through a porous medium, usually a bed of sand or other
medium. Water fills the pores (open pores) between the sand particles, and the impurities are left behind,
either clogged in the open spaces or attached to the sand itself.
There are several methods of classifying filters. One way is to classify them according to the type of
medium used such as sand, coal, dual media (coal plus sand) or mixed media (coal, sand and garnet).
Another common way to classify the filters is by allowable loading rate. Loading rate is the flow rate of
water applied per unit area of the filter. It is the velocity of the water approaching the face of the filter :

Based on loading rate, the filters are described as being slow sand filters, rapid sand filters, or high-rate
sand filters.

Slow Filters...
Slow sand filters were first introduced in the 1800's. The water is applied to the sand at a loading rate of
2.9 to 7.6 m3 / day . m2. As the suspended or colloidal material is applied to the sand, the particles begin
to collect in the top 75 mm and to clog the pore spaces. As the pores become clogged, water will no longer
pass through the sand. At this point the top layer of sand is scraped off, cleaned and replaced. Slow sand
filters require large areas of land and are operator intensive. Basically, all the filters have the graded
layers of gravel or other porous material (sand) through which water filters. An underdrain system is
provided for collecting the filtered water. The slow sand filter is described below.
( i ) Adaptability : They are not preferred nowadays and rapid sand filters are replacing them. But still
they are economical and are more suited to warm climate where covers on the filters are not required to
protect the filters from freezing. They are simpler in mechanism and operation and have a high bacterial
efficiency as compared to rapid sand filters.
( ii ) Bacterial removal efficiency : It is 99 %
( iii ) Turbidity limitation : The raw water from lake or river has turbidity up to 100 ppm. The slow sand
filters cannot handle this load and even 50 ppm turbidity gives unsatisfactory results. The presedimentation is the solution of the problem.
( iv ) Colour limitation : The raw coloured water over 30 ppm cannot be treated satisfactory.
( v ) Flexibility : A rapid change in rate is not permitted. They are not flexible to change in load. ( vi )
Cleaning : The cleaning of slow sand filter is done in 2 or 3 months depending upon the type of water and
turbidity. Cleaning is done by scarping 5 cm top layer or a thick depth up to which the turbidity has
penetrated.

Rapid Filters...
These filters have graded (layered) sand within the bed. The sand grain size distribution is selected to
optimize the passage of water while minimizing the passage of particulate matter. Rapid sand filters are
cleaned in place by forcing water backwards through the sand. This operation is called backwashing. The
washwater flow rate is such that the sand is expanded and the filtered particles are removed from the
bed. After back washing, the sand settles back into place.
There are different valves which are operated for different operations as described below :
( a ) Working of filter : Open valve 1 and allow the pre-coagulated and settled water to flow into the filter.
This water percolates through various layers of graded sand and gravel and through underdrains it is
collected in one main pipe, then by opening valve 4 it flows into the clear water well.
( b ) Washing the filter : Close valve 1 to stop the flow of pre-settled water to filter and also close valve 4.
Open valves 2 and 5 to allow the washwater from the overhead tank to rise up through the underdrains
and layers of gravel and sand. The dirt etc is washed and the dirty water through the trough is carried
away by the drains.
( c ) Running the filtered water to waste : This is done for a few minutes for conditioning the filter before

it is put into service again. For this, close valves 2,4 and 5 and open valve 1 which will allow the
coagulated and settled water to flow through the filter and underdrain and to run the waste water to the
waste water drain by opening valve 3.
( d ) Resuming filtration : Now, keep valve 1 opened and close valve 3 and instead open valve 4 to allow
the filtered water to go into filtered water reservoir.
The largest particles settle first, resulting in a fine sand layer on top and a coarse sand layer on the
bottom. Rapid sand filters are the most common type of filter used in water treatment today.
Traditionally, rapid sand filters have been designed to operate at a loading rate of 120 m 3 / day . m2.
In general, the rapid filter characteristics are :
( i ) Adaptability : It is adopted in case of municipal water supply for colour and turbidity removal and for
softening pre-treatment with lime and soda ash.
( ii ) Bacterial removal efficiency : It is 90-99% if properly operated.
( iii ) Turbidity limitation : The rapid sand filter is very efficient in handling a highly turbid water.
( iv ) Colour limitation : It is quite efficient in colour removal also.
( v ) Flexibility : The rate of filtration can be varied. But skilled operators are required for these filters to
operate the mechanical equipment.
Problem 6...
As part of Urbana new treatment plant, they are going to install rapid sand filters after their
sedimentation tank. The design loading rate to the filter is 200 m3 / day . m2. How much filter surface area
should be provided for their design flow rate of 0.5 m3 / sec ? If the surface area per filter box is to be
limited to 50 m2, how many filter boxes are required ?

Grain Size Characteristics...

The size distribution or variation of a sample of granular material is determined by sieving the sample
through a series of standard sieves (screens). The grain size analysis begins by placing the sieve screens
in ascending order with the largest opening on the top and the smallest opening on the bottom. A sand
sample is placed on the top sieve and the stack is shaken for a prescribed amount of time. At the end of
the shaking period, the mass of material retained on each sieve is determined. The cumulative mass is
recorded and converted into percentages by mass equal to or less than the size of separation of the
overlying sieve (See table given below).

Filter Hydraulics...
During filtration the filter bed will become more and more clogged. As the filter clogs, the water level will
rise above the sand as it becomes harder to force water through the bed. Eventually, the water level rise
to the point that the filter bed must be cleaned. This point is called terminal head loss.
When water passes through filter and underdrain, it experiences frictional resistance and therefore a loss
of head occurs. The top layer offers maximum resistance. This effect reduces greatly the rate of filtration
and so a negative head more than 1.5 m should not be allowed.
The loss of pressure (commonly termed head loss) through a clean stratified-sand filter with uniform
porosity was described by Rose in the following form :

Problem 7...
Estimate the clean filter had loss in Urbanas proposed new sand filter using the sand described in the
table given below. Use the following assumptions :
- Specific gravity of sand is 2.65
- The shape factor is 0.82
- The bed porosity is 0.45
- The water temperature is 10OC
- The depth of sand is 0.5 m

Pressure Filters...
Pressure filters are which the water enters at 2.8-4.2 kg / cm2 pressure, which is developed by pumps.
Pressure filters have media (sand, anthracite, or calcite) and underdrains contained in a steel tank. Water
is pumped through the filter under pressure and the media washed by reversing flow through the bed,
flushing out the impurities. Pressure filters have the same general characteristic as rapid sand filters.
Pressure filters may be grouped as shown in the tree :

Horizontal Pressure Filter (HPF)...

The horizontal pressure filter system is applied for all filtration applications where the flow rate is more
than 1 MGD and less than 5 MGD. Single or dual media beds are available. A gravel support bed is used
with all media combinations.

Vertical Pressure Filter (VPF)...

The vertical pressure filter system is applied for all filtration applications with flow rates of 2 MGD or less.

5. Disinfection...
Disinfection is used in water treatment to reduce pathogens (disease producing microorganisms) to an
acceptable level. Disinfection is not the same as sterilization. Sterilization implies the destruction of all
living organisms. Drinking water need not be sterile. Three categories of human enteric pathogens are
normally of consequence: bacteria, viruses and amebic cysts. Purposeful disinfection must be capable of
destroying all three. To be of practical service, such water disinfectants must possess the following
properties :
1. They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be introduced into water within a
practicable period of time over an expected range in water temperature.
2. They must meet possible fluctuations in composition, concentration and condition of the waters or
wastewaters to be treated.
3. They must be neither toxic to humans and domestic animals nor unpalatable or otherwise objectionable
in required concentrations.
4. They must be dispensable at reasonable cost and safe to store, transport, handle and apply.
5. Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be determined easily, quickly, and
automatically.
6. They must persist within disinfected water in a sufficient concentration to provide reasonable residual
protection against its possible recontamination before use or because this is not a normally attainable
property-the disappearance of residuals must be a warning that recontamination may have taken place.

Disinfection Kinetics...
Under ideal conditions, when an exposed microorganism contains a single site vulnerable to a single unit
of disinfectant, the rate of die-off follows Chicks law, which states that the number of organisms
destroyed in a unit time is proportional to the number of organisms remaining :

This is a first-order reaction. Under real conditions the rate of kill may depart significantly from Chicklaw.
Increased rates of kill may occur because of a time lag in the disinfectant reaching vital centers in the cell.
Decreased rates of kill may occur because of declining concentrations of disinfectant in solution or poor
distribution of organisms and disinfectant.

Chlorination...
Chlorine is the most common disinfecting chemical used. The term chlorination is often used
synonymously with disinfection. Chlorine may be used as the element (Cl 2), as sodium hypochlorite
(NaOCl), or as calcium hypochlorine [Ca(OCl)2].when chlorine is added to water, a mixture of hypochorous
acid (HOCl) and hydrochloric acid (HCl) is formed :

This reaction is pH dependent and essentially complete within a very few milliseconds. In dilute solution
and at pH levels above 1.0, the equilibrium is displaced to the right and very little Cl 2 exists in solution.
Hypocholorous acid is a weak acid and dissociates poorly at levels of pH below about 6. Between pH 6.0
and 8.5 there occurs a very sharp change from undissociated HOCl to almost complete dissociation :

Thus, chlorine exists predominantly as HOCl at pH levels between 4.0 and 6.0. Below pH 1.0, depending on
the chloride concentration, the HOCl reverts back to Cl2. At 20OC, above about pH 7.5, and at 0OC, above
about pH 7.8, hypochlorite ions (OCl-) predominate. Hypochlorite ions exist almost exclusively at levels of
pH around 9 and above. Chlorine existing in the form of HOCl and / or OCl- is defined as free available
chlorine. Hypochlorite salts dissocuate in water to yield hypochlorite inos :

The hypochlorite ions establish equilibrium with hydrogen ions, again depending on pH. Thus, the same
active chlorine species and equilibrium are established in water regardless of whether elemental chlorine
or hypochlorites are used. The significant difference is in the resultant pH and its influence on the relative
amounts of HOCl and OCl- existing at equilibrium. Elemental chlorine tends to decrease pH; each mg/l of
chlorine added reduces the alkalinity by up to 1.4 mg/l as CaCO3. Hypochlorites, on the other hand,
always contain excess alkali to enhance their stability and tend to raise the pH somewhat. We seek to
maintain the design pH within a range of 6.5 to 7.5 to optimize disinfecting action.

Chlorine-Disinfecting Action...
Chlorine disinfection involves a very complex series of events and is influences by the kind and extent of
reactions with chlorine-reactive materials (including nitrogen), temperature, pH, the viability of test
organisms, and numerous other factors. Such factors greatly complicate attempts to determine the
precise mode of action of chlorine on bacteria and other microorganisms. Microorganism kill by
disinfectant is assumed to follow the CT concept, that is, the product of disinfectant concentration (C) and
time (T) yields a constant. CT is widely used as a criteria for CYST and virus disinfection. CT is an empirical
expression for defining the nature of biological inactivation where :

This relationship means that the required combination of concentration and time (CT) for reduction in
Giardia cysts by free chlorine can be estimated if the free chlorine concentration, pH and water
temperature are known.

Chlorine / Ammonia Reactions...

The reactions of chlorine with ammonia are of great significance in water chlorination processes. When
chlorine is added to water that contains natural or added ammonia, the ammonia reacts with HOCl to form
various chloramines, which like HOCl, retain the oxidizing power of the chlorine. The reactions between
chlorine and ammonia may be represented as follows :

The distribution of the reaction products is governed by the rates of formation of monochloramine and
dichloramine, which are dependent upon pH, temperature, time, and initial Cl2 : NH3 ratio. In general, high
Cl2 : NH3 ratios, low temperatures, and low pH levels favor dichloramine formation. Chlorine also reacts
with organic nitrogenous materials, such as proteins and amino acids, to form organic chloramines
complexes. Chlorine that exists in water in chemical combination with ammonia or organic nitrogen
compounds is defined as combined available chlorine.

Practices of Water Chlorination...

Evolution : Early water chlorination practices (variously termed plain chlorination, simple chlorination
and marginal chlorination) were applied for the purpose of disinfection. Chlorine-ammonia treatment was
soon thereafter introduced to limit the development of objectionable tastes and odors often associated
with marginal chlorine disinfection. Subsequently, super-chlorination was developed for the additional
purpose of destroying objectionable taste-and odor producing substances often associated with chlorine
containing organic materials. The introduction of breakpoint chlorination and the recognition that
chlorine residuals can exist in two distinct forms established contemporary water chlorination as one of
two types.
Combined residual chlorination : Combined residual chlorination practice involves the application of
chlorine to water in order to produce, with natural or added ammonia, combined available chlorine
residual, and to maintain that residual through part or all of a water treatment plant or distribution
system. Combined available chlorine forms have lower oxidation potentials than free available
chlorineforms and, therefore, are less effective as oxidants. Moreover, they are also less effective
disinfectants. In fact, about 25 times as much combined available residual chlorine is necessary to obtain
equivalent bacterial kills under the same conditions of pH, temperature, and contact time. And about 100
times longer contact is required to obtain equivalent bacterial kills under the same conditions and for
equal amounts of combined and free available chlorine residuals.
When a combined available chlorine residual is desired, the characteristics of the water will determine
how it can be accomplished :
1. If the water contains sufficient ammonia to produce with added chlorine a combined available chlorine
residual of the desired magnitude, the application of chlorine alone suffices.
2. If the water contains too little or no ammonia, the addition of both chlorine and ammonia is required.
3. If the water has an existing free available chlorine residual, the addition of ammonia will convert the
residual to combined available residual chlorine. A combined available chlorine residual contain little or no
free available chlorine.
The practice of combined residual chlorination is especially applicable after filtration (posttreatment) for
controlling certain algae and bacterial growths and for providing and maintaining a stable residual

throughout the system to the point of consumer use.

Although combined chlorine residual is not a good disinfectant, it has an advantage over free chlorine
residual in that it is reduced more slowly and therefore persists for a longer time in the distribution
system. Thus, it is useful as an indicator of major contamination. Water plant personnel routinely monitor
the chlorine level in the distribution system. The presence of available chlorine either combined or free
indicates that no major contamination has occurred. If major contamination does take place, the
combined chlorine residual will be depleted, albeit at a slow rate. This depletion serves as warning that
contamination may have taken place.
Because of its relatively poor disinfecting power, combined residual chlorination is often preceded by free
residual chlorination to ensure the production of potable water.
Free residual chlorination : Free residual chlorination practice involves the application of chlorine to water
to produce, either directly or through the destruction of ammonia, a free available chlorine residual and to
maintain that residual through part or all of a water treatment plant or distribution system. Free available
chlorine forms have higher oxidation potentials than combined available chlorine forms and therefore are
more effective as oxidants. Moreover, as already noted, they are also the most effective disinfectants.
When free available chlorine residual is desired, the characteristics of the water will determine how it can
be accomplished :
1. If the water contains no ammonia, the application of chlorine will yield a free residual.
2. If the water does contain ammonia that results in the formation of a combined available chlorine
residual, it must be destroyed by applying an excess of chlorine.
With molar Cl2 : NH3, concentrations up to 1:1 monochloramine and dichloramine will be formed. The
relative amounts of each depend on pH and other factors. Chloramine residuals generally reach a
maximum at equimolar concentrations of chlorine and ammonia. Further increase in the Cl 2 : NH3 ratio
result in the oxidation of ammonia and reduction of chlorine. These oxidation/reduction reactions are
essentially complete when two moles of chlorine have been added for each mole of ammonia present.
Sufficient time must be provided to allow the reaction to go to completion. Chloramine residuals decline to
a minimum value, the breakpoint, when the molar Cl2 : NH3 ratio is about 2 : 1. At this point,
oxidation/reduction reactions are essentially complete.

6. Aeration...
The aeration can be accomplished by various means. It may be done by spraying the air through nozzles
under a pressure of about 1.05-1.40 kg / cm2 or it can be done by allowing the water to flow over
cascades or series of steps or weirs. It can also be done by blowing compressed air through diffuser
porous plates at the bottom of the settling tanks. The water due to aeration absorbs oxygen and allows
carbon dioxide gas to escape. The aeration improves the taste and odour. It also removes the excess of
iron from ground waters. Soluble iron is readily oxidized by the following reaction :

Aeration also removes corrosiveness to some extent. Too much aeration should be avoided. For the waters
which are drawn from great depths and are pure sufficiently and do not require filtration etc, the aeration
is the only process adopted to further improve the quality.

Water Treatment System...

The raw (untreated) surface water enters the plant via pumps. Usually screening has taken place prior to
pumping. During mixing, chemicals called coagulants are added and rapidly dispersed through the water.
The chemical reacts with the desired impurities and forms precipitants (flocs) that are slowly brought into
contact with one another during flocculation. The objective of flocculation is to allow the flocs to collide
and grow to a settleable size. The particles are removed by gravity (sedimentation). This is done to
minimize the amount of solids that are applied to the filters. For treatment works with a high quality
raw water, it may be possible to omit sedimentation and perhaps flocculation. This modification is called
direct filtration. Filtration is the final polishing (removal) of particles. During filtration the water is passed
through sand or similar media to screen out the fine particles that will not settle. Disinfection is the
addition of chemicals (usually chlorine) to kill or reduce the number of pathogenic organisms. Disinfection
of the raw water is neither economical nor efficient. The color and turbidity consume the disinfectant thus
requiring the use if excessive amounts of chemical. In addition, the presence of turbidity may shield the
pathogens from the action of the disinfectant and thereby prevent efficient destruction. Storage may be
provided at the plant or located within the community to meet peak demands and to allow the plant to
operate on a uniform schedule. The high lift pumps provide sufficient pressure to convey the water to its
ultimate destination. The precipitated chemicals, original turbidity, and suspended materials are removed
from the sedimentation basins and form the filters. This sludge must be disposed of properly.