Professional Documents
Culture Documents
FUNDAMENTALS OF NURSING
OVERVIEW
I.
Nursing
Concepts of Health and Illness
Concepts of Stress
Homeostasis
Adaptation
Adaptation to Stress Physiological Response (Hans Selye)
Physiologic Indicators of Stress
II.
III.
PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSE
A. Task Oriented Behaviors
B. Defense Mechanisms
C. Common Defense Mechanisms
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
A. Purposes
B. Preparation of Examination
C. Order of Examination
D. Skills in Physical Assessment
E. Examples of Adventitious Breath Sounds
VIII.
IX.
X.
Chain of Infection
Modes of Transmission
Course of Infection
Inflammation
Immune Response
Nosocomial Infection
Factors Increasing Susceptibility to Infection
Diagnostic Tests Used to Screen for Infection
THEORIES OF PAIN
A. Specific Theory
B. Pattern Theory
C. Gate Control Theory
D. Current Developments in Pain Theory
XI.
TYPES OF PAIN
A.
B.
XII.
Acute Pain
Chronic Pain
PAIN ASSESSMENT
A. TOOLS/INSTRUMENTS USED
B. A B C D E method of pain assessment
C. P Q R S T assessment for pain perception
D. Pain History
ADMINISTRATION OF MEDICATIONS
XIII.
XIV.
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
URINARY CATHETERIZATION
A. Purposes
B. Necessary Equipment for Catheterization
C. Preparation of the Patient
D. Retention or Indwelling Catheter (Foley)
E. Procedure for Insertion
F. Caring for the Patient with an Indwelling Catheter
G. Removing the Indwelling Catheter and Aftercare of the Patient
XIX.
XX.
TYPES of ENEMAS
A. Cleansing
B. Oil-Retention
C. Carminative
D. Astringent
XXI.
XXII.
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Description
Developed the first theory of nursing.
HILDEGARD PEPLAU
MYRA LEVINE
DOROTHY JOHNSON
MARTHA ROGERS
DOROTHEA OREM
IMOGENE KING
BETTY NEUMAN
SISTER CALLISTA
ROY
LYDIA HALL
JEAN WATSON
ROSEMARIE RIZZO
PARSE
MADELEINE
LENINGER
2.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
I.
Life events
Control perceptions
Viability emotions
Health outcomes
iii.
b. Rehabilitation
i.
A dynamic, health oriented process that assists individual who is ill or
disabled to achieve his greatest possible level of physical, mental,
spiritual, social and economical functioning.
ii.
Abilities not disabilities, are emphasized.
iii.
Begins during initial contact with the patient
iv.
Emphasis is on restoring the patient to independence or regain his preillness/predisability level of function as short a time as possible
v.
Patient must be an active participant in the rehabilitation goal setting
an din rehabilitation process.
c.
Focuses of Rehabilitation
i.
Coping pattern
ii.
Functional ability focuses on self-care: activities of daily living (ADL);
feeding, bathing/hygiene, dressing/grooming, toileting and mobility
iii.
Mobility
iv.
Integrity of skin
v.
Control of bowel and bladder function
C. Concepts of Stress
I. Stress
(Theory by Hans Selye)
a. Non specific response of the body to nay demand made upon it
b. Any situation in which a non specific demand requires an individual to respond or
take action
II. Characteristics of Stress
a. Stress is not nervous energy. Emotional reactions are common stressors
b. Stress is not always the result of damage to the body
c.
Stress does not always result in feelings of distress (harmful or unpleasant stress)
d. Stress is a necessary part of life and is essential for normal growth and
development
e. Stress involves the entire body acting as a whole and is an integrated manner
f.
c.
iii. Third Phase The last phase is repair of tissue by regeneration or scar
formation. Regeneration replaces damaged cells with identical or similar cells.
Stressor
Shock Phase
Epinephrine
Tachycardia
Myocardial contractility
Blood clotting
Metabolism
Norepinephrine
Blood to kidney
Renin
Cotisone
Protein catablism
Gluconeogenesis
Stage of Resistance
Adaptation
Stage of Exhaustion
c.
The heart rate & cardiac output increase to transport nutrients and by-products of
metabolism more efficiently.
d.
e.
Sodium & water retention increase due to release of mineralocorticoids, which results
in increased blood volume.
f.
The rate & depth of respirations increase because of dilation of the bronchioles,
promoting hyperventilation.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Coping dealing with problems & situations or contending with them successfully.
Coping Strategy innate or acquired way of responding to a changing environment or specific
problem or situation.
According to Folkman and Lazarus, coping is the cognitive & behavioral effort to manage specific
external and/ or internal demands that are appraised as taxing or exceeding the resources of the
person.
A. Coping Strategies: 2 Types
I. Problem-focused coping efforts to improve a situation by making changes or taking
some action
II. Emotion-focused coping does not improve the situation, but the person often feels
better.
Coping strategies are also viewed as:
a. Long-term coping strategies can be constructive & realistic
b. Short-term coping strategies can reduce stress to a tolerable limit temporarily
but are in the end od ineffective ways to deal with reality.
Coping can be adaptive or maladaptive:
B. Adaptive Coping helps the person to deal effectively with stressful events &
minimizes distress associated with them.
C. Maladaptive Coping can result in unnecessary distress for the person &
others associated with the person or stressful event.
*Effective coping results in adaptation; ineffective coping results in maladaptation.
The effectiveness of an
individuals coping is influenced by a number of factors:
The number, duration & intensity of the stressors
Past experiences of the individual
Support systems available to the individual
Personal qualities of the person
*If the duration of the stressors is extended beyond the coping powers of the
individual, that person becomes exhausted and may develop increased
susceptibility to health problems.
*Reaction to long term stress is seen in family members who undertake the care of
a person in the home for a long period. This stress is called caregiver burden &
produces responses such as chronic fatigue, sleeping difficulties & high BP.
*Prolonged stress can also result in mental illness.
D. Relaxation Techniques used to quiet the mind, release tension & counteract the fight or
flight responses of General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS).
I. Breathing Exercises
II. Massage
III. Progressive Relaxation
IV. Imagery
V. Biofeedback
VI. Yoga
VII. Meditation
VIII.Therapeutic Touch
IX. Music Therapy
X. Humor & Laughter
3. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESPONSE
Exposure to a stressor results in psychological and physiological and physiological adaptive
responses. As people are exposed a stressors, their ability to meet their basic needs is threatened.
This threat whether actual or perceived, produces frustration, anxiety and tension. Psychological
adaptive behaviors assist the persons ability to cope with stressors. These behaviors are directed
at stress management and are acquired through learning and experience as a person identifies
acceptable and successful behaviors.
Psychological adaptive behaviors are also related to as COPING MECHANISMS. It involves:
A. Task Oriented Behaviors Involve using cognitive abilities to reduce stress, solve problems,
resolve conflicts and gratify needs. It enables a person to cope realistically with the demands of
a stressor.
Three General Types
I. Attack Behavior Is acting to remove or overcome a stressor or to satisfy a need
II. Withdrawal Behavior Is removing the self physically or emotionally from the
stressor
III. Compromise Behavior Is changing the usual method of operating, substituting
goals or omitting the satisfaction of needs to meet other needs or to avoid stress.
B. Defense Mechanisms Unconscious behaviors that offer psychological protection from a
stressful event. They are used by everyone and help protect against feelings of worthlessness
and anxiety. Frequently activated by short-term stressors and usually do not result in psychiatric
disorders.
4. TYPES OF NURSING DIAGNOSES
A. Formulating the Nursing Diagnosis
I. Actual
a. Clients demonstrates defining characteristics of a problem
b. Nurse intervenes to resolve or help client cope with the problem
II. High-risk
a. A problem is likely to develop based on assessment of risk factors
b. Nurse intervenes to reduce risk factors or increase protective factors
c. Example: encourage smoking cessation
III. Wellness
a. Client is presently healthy but wishes to achieve a higher level of function
b. Nurse intervenes to promote growth or maintenance of the healthy response
B. Collaborative Problems
I. Definition: a potential problem the nurse manages using both independent and
interdependent interventions
II. Example: potential complication of head injury: loss of consciousness, epidural or
subdural hematoma, seizures
III. Usually occurs when a disease is present or a treatment is prescribed
IV. Clients with similar disease or treatment will have the same potential for
complications, which must be managed collaboratively; however, their responses to
the condition will vary, so a broad range of nursing diagnoses will apply.
a. Example: a client with asthma will always be at risk for lowered oxygen
saturation; however, the clients response to this condition will be unique based
on his/her developmental level, past experiences and family configuration
b. Refer to Table for examples of collaborative problems
Example:
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Disease/Situation
Potential complication
of childbirth
Potential complication
of diuretic therapy
Complication
Hemorrhage
Related to
Related to
Dysrhythmia
Related to
Etiology
1.Uterine atony
2. Retained placental
fragment
3. Bladder distention
Low serum potassium
II. Interview
a. The purpose of an interview is to gather and provide information, identify
problems of concerns, and provide teaching and support.
b. The goals of an interview are to develop a rapport with the client and to collect
data
c. An interview has 3 major stages
i.
Opening: purpose is to establish rapport by creating goodwill and
trust; this is often achieved through a self introduction, nonverbal
gestures (a handshake), and small talk about the weather, local
sports team, or recent current event; the purpose of the interview
is also explained to the client at this time.
ii.
Body: during this phase, the client responds to open and closedended questions asked by the nurse.
iii.
Closing: either the client or the nurse may terminate the interview,
it is important fro the nurse to try to maintain the rapport and trust
that was developed thus far during the interview process.
d. Types of questions
i.
Closed questions used in directive interview
Re____ short factual answers; e.g. Do you have pain?
Answers usually reveal limited amounts of information
Useful with clients who are highly stressed and/or have
difficulty communicating
ii.
iii.
Leading questions
Direct the clients answer; e.g. You dont have any questions
about your medications, do you?
Suggests what answer is expected
Can result in client giving inaccurate data to please the nurse
Can limit client choice of topic for discussion
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b. Subjective data
i.
May be called covert data
ii.
Not measurable or observable
iii.
Obtained from client (primary source), significant others, or health
professionals (secondary sources).
iv.
For example, the client states, I have a headache
c.
Objective data
i.
May be called overt data
ii.
Can be detected by someone other than the client
iii.
Includes measurable and observable client behavior
iv.
For example, a blood pressure reading of 190/110 mmHg.
General assessement
Integumentary system
Head, ears, eyes, nose, throat
Breast and axillae
Thorax and lungs
Cardiovascular system
Nervous system
Abdomen and gastrointestinal system
Anus and rectum
Genitourinary system
Reproductive system
Musculoskeletal system
V. Psychosocial assessment
a. Helpful framework for organizing data
b. A suggested format for psychosocial assessment is found below:
c.
Vocation/education/financial
Home and Family
Social, leisure, spiritual and cultural
Sexual
Activities of daily living
Health Habits
Psychological
VI. Consultation
a. The nurse collects data from multiple sources: primary (client) and secondary
(family members, support persons, healthcare professionals and records)
b. Consultation with individuals who can contribute to the clients database is
helpful in achieving the most complete and accurate information about a client
c. Supplemental information from secondary sources (any source other then the
client) can help verify information, provide information for a client who cannot
do so, and convey information about the clients status prior to admission
VII. Review of literature
a. A professional nurse engages in continued education to maintain knowledge of
current information related to health care
b. Reviewing professional journals and textbooks can help provide additional data
to support or help analyze the client database
6.
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I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Fact information about clients and their care must be factual. A record should contain
descriptive, objective information about what a nurse sees, hears, feels and smells
Accuracy information must be accurate so that health team members have confidence
in it
Completeness the information within a record or a report should be complete,
containing concise and thorough information about a clients care. Concise data are
easy to understand
Currentness ongoing decisions about care must be based on currently reported
information. At the time of occurrence include the following:
a.
Vital signs
b.
Administration of medications and treatments
c.
Preparation of diagnostic tests or surgery
d.
Change in status
e.
Admission, transfer, discharge or death of a client
f.
Treatment fro a sudden change in status
Organization the nurse communicate in a logical format or order
Confidentiality a confidential communication is information given by one person to
another with trust and confidence that such information will not be disclosed
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P Plan
I Intervention
E Evaluation
R- Revision
Advantages of POMR:
It encourages collaboration
Problem list in the front of the chart alerts caregivers to the
clients needs & makes it easier to track the status of each
problem.
Disadvantages of POMR:
Caregivers differ in their ability to use the required charting
format
Takes constant vigilance to maintain an up-to-date problem list
Somewhat inefficient because assessments & interventions
that apply to more than one problem must be repeated.
III. PIE (Problems, Interventions, and Evaluation)
a. Groups information in to three (3) categories
b. This system consists of a client care assessment floe sheet & progress notes
c. FLOW SHEET uses specific assessment criteria in a particular format, such
as human needs or functional health patterns
d. Eliminate the traditional care plan & incorporate an ongoing care plan into the
progress notes
IV. Focus Charting
a. Intended to make the client & client concerns & strengths the focus of care
b. Three (3) columns fro recording are usually used: date & time, focus &
progress notes
V. Charting by Exception
a. Documentation system in which only abnormal or significant findings or
exceptions to norms are recorded
b. Incorporates three (3) key elements:
i.
Flow sheets
ii.
Standards of nursing care
iii.
Bedside access to chart forms
VI. Computerized Documentation
a. Developed as a way to manage the huge volume of information required in
contemporary health care
b. Nurses use computers to store the clients database, add new data, create &
revise care plans & document client progress.
VII. Case Management
a. Emphasizes quality, cost-effective care delivered within an established length
of stay
b. Uses a multidisciplinary approach to planning & documenting client care, using
critical pathways.
D. Nursing Care Plan (NCP)
Two Types:
I. Traditional Care Plan written fro each client; it has 3 columns: nursing diagnoses,
expected outcomes & nursing interventions.
II. Standardized Care Plan based on an institutions standards of practice; thereby
helping to provide a high quality of nursing care
E. KARDEX widely used, concise method of organizing & recording data about a client, making
information quickly accessible to all health professionals. Consists of a series of cards kept in a
portable index file or on computer generated forms. Information may be organized into
sections:
I. Pertinent information about the client
II. List of medications
III. List of IVF
IV. List of daily treatments & procedures
V. List of Diagnostic procedures
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VI. Allergies
VII. Specific data on how the clients physical needs are to be met
VIII.A problem list, stated goals & list of nursing approaches to meet the goals
F. Nursing Discharge / Referral Summaries completed when the client is being discharged &
transferred to another institution or to a home setting where a visit by a community health nurse
is required. Regardless of format, it include some or all of the following:
I. Description of clients physical, mental & emotional state
II. Resolved health problems
III. Unresolved continuing health problems
IV. Treatments that can be continued (e.g. wound care, oxygen therapy)
V. Current medications
VI. Restrictions that relate to activity, diet & bathing
VII. Functional/self-care abilities
VIII.Comfort level
IX. Support networks
X. Client education provided in relation to disease process
XI. Discharge destination
XII. Referral Services (e.g. social worker, home health nurse)
7. PHYSICAL EXAMINATION
A. Purposes
The nurse uses physical assessment for the following reasons:
I. To gather baseline data about the clients health
II. To supplement, confirm or refute data obtained in the nursing history
III. To confirm and identify nursing diagnoses
IV. To make clinical judgments about a clients changing health status and management
B. Preparation of Examination
I. Environment A physical examination requires privacy. An examination room that is
well equipped for all necessary procedures is preferable
II. Equipment Hand washing is done before equipment preparation and the
examination. Hand washing reduces the transmission of microorganisms
III. Client
a. Psychological Preparation clients are easily embarrassed when forced to
answer sensitive questions about bodily functions or when body parts are
exposed and examined. The possibility that the examination will find something
abnormal also creates anxiety so reduction of this anxiety may be the nurses
highest priority before the examination
b. Physical Preparation the clients physical comfort is vital to the success of the
examination. Before starting, the nurse asks if the client needs to use the toilet.
c. Positioning during the examination, the nurse asks the clients to assume
proper positions so that body parts are accessible and clients stay comfortable.
Clients abilities to assume positions will depend on their physical strength and
degree of wellness.
C. Order of Examination
I. General Survey includes observation of general appearance and behavior, vital
signs, height and weight measurement
II. Review of systems
III. Head to toe examination
D. Skills in Physical Examination
I. Inspection to detect normal characteristics or significant physical signs. To inspect
body parts accurately the nurse observes the following principles:
a. Make sure good lighting is available
b. Position and expose body parts so that all surface can be viewed
c. Inspect each areas fro size, shape, color, symmetry, position and abnormalities
d. If possible, compare each area inspected with the same area of the opposite
side of the body
e. Use additional light (for example, a penlight) to inspect body cavities
II. Palpation the hands can make delicate and sensitive measurements of specific
physical signs, so palpation is used to examine all accessible parts of the body. The
nurse uses different parts of the hand to detect characteristics such as texture,
temperature and the perception of movement.
15
III. Percussion examination by striking the bodys surface with a finger, vibration and
sound are produced. This vibration is transmitted through the body tissues and the
character of the sound depends on the density of the underlying tissue
IV. Auscultation is listening to sound created in body organs to detect variations from
normal. Some sounds can be heard with the unassisted ear, although most sounds
can be heard only through a stethoscope.
a. Bowel sounds
b. Breath sounds
i.
Vesicular
ii.
Bronchovesicular
iii.
Bronchial
E. Examples of Adventitious Breath Sounds
I. Crackles (previously called rales)
II. Rhonchi
III. Wheeze
IV. Friction rub
Therapeutic Communication Techniques
1. Using silence
2. Providing general leads
3. Being specific & tentative
4. Using open-ended questions
5. Using touch
6. Restating to paraphrasing
7. Seeking clarification
8. Perception checking or seeking consensual validation
9. Offering self
10. Giving information
11. Acknowledging
12. Clarifying time or sequence
13. Presenting reality
14. Focusing
15. Reflecting
16. Summarizing & planning
B. Barriers to Communication
1. Stereotyping
2. Agreeing & disagreeing
3. Being defensive
4. Challenging
5. Probing
6. Testing
7. Rejecting
8. Changing topics & subjects
9. Unwarranted reassurance
10. Passing judgment
11. Giving common advice
Phases of the Helping Relationship
12. Pre-interaction Phase
13. Introductory Phase
a. Opening the relationship
b. Clarifying the problem
c. Structuring & formulating the contract
14. Working Phase
a. Exploring & understanding thoughts or feelings
b. Facilitating & taking action
15. Termination Phase
8. PRINCIPLES of ASEPSIS and INFECTION CONTROL
A. Chain of Infection
I. The chain of infection refers to those elements that must be present to cause an
infection from a microorganism
16
II. Basic to the principle of infection is to interrupt this chain so that an infection from a
microorganism does not occur in clients
III. Infectious agent; microorganisms capable of causing infections are referred to as an
infectious agent or pathogen.
IV. Modes of transmission: the microorganism must have a means of transmission to
get from one location to another, called direct and indirect
V. Susceptible host describes a host (human or animal) not possessing enough
resistance against a particular pathogen to prevent disease or infection from
occurring when exposed to the pathogen; in humans this may occur if the persons
resistance is low because of poor nutrition, lack of exercise of a coexisting illness that
weakens the host.
VI. Portal of entry: the means of a pathogen entering a host: the means of entry can be
the same as one that is the portal of exit (gastrointestinal, respiratory, genitourinary
tract).
VII. Reservoir: the environment in which the microorganism lives to ensure survival; it
can be a person, animal, arthropod, plant, oil or a combination of these things;
reservoirs that support organism that are pathogenic to humans are inanimate
objects food and water, and other humans.
VIII.Portal of exit: the means in which the pathogen escapes from the reservoir and can
cause disease; there is usually a common escape route for each type of
microorganism; on humans, common escape routes are the gastrointestinal,
respiratory and the genitourinary tract.
Modes of Transmission
1. Direct contact: describes the way in which microorganisms are transferred
from person to person through biting, touching, kissing, or sexual
intercourse; droplet spread is also a form of direct contact but can occur
only if the source and the host are within 3 feet from each other;
transmission by droplet can occur when a person coughs, sneezes, spits,
or talks.
2. Indirect contact: can occur through fomites (inanimate objects or materials)
or through vectors (animal or insect, flying or crawling); the fomites or
vectors act as vehicle for transmission
3. Air: airborne transmission involves droplets or dust; droplet nuclei can
remain in the air for long periods and dust particles containing infectious
agents can become airborne infecting a susceptible host generally through
the respiratory tract
B. Course of Infection
I.
Incubation: the time between initial contact with an infectious agent until the first
signs of symptoms - - > the incubation period varies from different
pathogens; microorganisms are growing and multiplying during this stage
II. Prodromal Stage: the time period from the onset of nonspecific symptoms to the
appearance of specific symptoms related to the causative pathogen
- - > symptoms range from being fatigued to having a low-grade fever with
malaise; during this phase it is still possible to transmit the pathogen to
another host
III. Full Stage: manifestations of specific signs & symptoms of infectious agent;
referred to as the acute stage; during this stage, it may be possible to transmit the
infectious agent to another, depending on the virulence of the infectious agent
IV. Convalescence: time period that the host takes to return to the pre-illness stage;
also called the recovery period; - - >the host defense mechanisms have responded
to the infectious agent and the signs and symptoms of the disease disappear; the
host, however, is more vulnerable to other pathogens at this time; an appropriate
nursing diagnostic label related to this process would be Risk for Infection
17
C. Inflammation The protective response of the tissues of the body to injury or infection; the
physiological reaction to injury or infection is the inflammatory response; it may be acute or
chronic
Bodys response
I. The inflammatory response begins with vasoconstriction that is followed by a brief
increase in vascular permeability; the blood vessels dilate allowing plasma to escape
into the injured tissue
II. WBCs (neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages) migrate to the area of injury and
attack and ingest the invaders (phagocytosis); this process is responsible for the
signs of inflammation
III. Redness occurs when blood accumulates in the dilated capillaries; warmth occurs as
a result of the heat from the increased blood in the area, swelling occurs from fluid
accumulation; the pain occurs from pressure or injury to the local nerves.
D. Immune Response
I. The immune response involves specific reactions in the body to antigens or foreign
material
II. This specific response is the bodys attempt to protect itself, the body protects itself
by activating 2 types of lymphocytes, the T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes
III. Cell mediated immunity: T-lymphocytes are responsible for cellular immunity
a. When fungi , protozoa, bacteria and some viruses activate T-lymphocytes, they
enter the circulation from lymph tissue and seek out the antigen
b. Once theantigen is found they produce proteins (lymphokines) that increase
the migration of phagocytes to the area and keep them there to kill the antigen
c. After the antigen is gone, the lymphokines disappear
d. Some T-lymphocytes remain and keep a memory of the antigen and are
reactivated if the antigen appears again.
IV. Humoral response: the ability of the body to develop a specific antibody to a specific
antigen (antigen-antibody response)
a. B-lymphocytes provide humoral immunity by producing antibodies that convey
specific resistance to many bacterial and viral infections
b. Active immunity is produced when the immune system is activated either
naturally or artificially.
i.
Natural immunity involves acquisition of immunity through
developing the disease
ii.
Active immunity can also be produced through vaccination by
introducing into the body a weakened or killed antigen (artificially
acquired immunity)
iii.
Passive immunity does not require a host to develop antibodies,
rather it is transferred to the individual, passive immunity occurs
when a mother passes antibodies to a newborn or when a person
is given antibodies from an animal or person who has had the
disease in the form of immune globulins; this type of immunity only
offers temporary protection from the antigen.
E. Nosocomial Infection
I. Nosocomial Infections: are those that are acquired as a result of a healthcare
delivery system
II. Iatrogenic infection: these nosocomial infections are directly related to the clients
treatment or diagnostic procedures; an example of an iatrogenic infection would be a
bacterial infection that results from an intravascular line or Pseudomonas aeruginosa
pneumonia as a result of respiratory suctioning
III. Exogenous Infection: are a result of the healthcare facility environment or personnel;
an example would be an upper respiratory infection resulting from contact with a
caregiver who has an upper respiratory infection
IV. Endogenous Infection: can occur from clients themselves or as a reactivation of a
previous dormant organism such as tuberculosis; an example of endogenous
infection would be a yeast infection arising in a woman receiving antibiotic therapy;
18
the yeast organisms are always present in the vagina, but with the elimination of the
normal bacterial flora, the yeast flourish.
F. Factors Increasing Susceptibility to Infection
I. Age: young infants & older adults are at greater risk of infection because of reduced
defense mechanisms
a. Young infants have reduced defenses related to immature immune systems
b. In elderly people, physiological changes occur in the body that make them
more susceptible to infectious disease; some of these changes are:
i.
Altered immune function (specifically, decreased phagocytosis by
the neutrophils and by the macrophages)
ii.
Decreased bladder muscle tone resulting in urinary retention
iii.
Diminished cough reflex, loss of elastic recoil by the lungs leading
to inability to evacuate normal secretions
iv.
Gastrointestinal changes resulting in decreased swallowing ability
and delayed gastric emptying.
II. Heredity: some people have a genetic predisposition or susceptibility to some
infectious diseases
III. Cultural practices: healthcare beliefs and practices, as well as nutritional and hygiene
practices, can influence a persons susceptibility to infectious diseases
IV. Nutrition: inadequate nutrition can make a person more susceptible to infectious
diseases; nutritional practices that do not supply the body with the basic components
necessary to synthesized proteins affect the way the bodys immune system can
respond to pathogens
V. Stress: stressors, both physical and emotional, affect the bodys ability to protect
against invading pathogens; stressors affect the body by elevating blood cortisone
levels; if elevation of serum cortisone is prolonged, it decreases the anti-inflammatory
response and depletes energy stores, thus increasing the risk of infection
VI. Rest, exercise and personal health habits: altered rest and exercise patterns
decrease the bodys protective, mechanisms and may cause physical stress to the
body resulting in an increased risk of infection; personal health habits such as poor
nutrition and unhealthy lifestyle habits increase the risk of infectious over time by
altering the bodys response to pathogens
VII. Inadequate defenses: any physiological abnormality or lifestyle habit can influence
normal defense mechanisms in the body, making the client more susceptible to
infection; the immune system functions throughout the body and depends on the
following:
a. Intact skin and mucous membranes
b. Adequate blood cell production and differentiation
c. A functional lymphatic system and spleen
d. An ability to differentiate foreign tissue and pathogens from normal body tissue
and flora; in autoimmune disease, the body has a problem with recognizing its
own tissue and cells; people with autoimmune disease are at increased risk of
infection related to their immune system deficiencies.
VIII.Environmental: an environment that exposes individuals to an increased number of
toxins or pathogens also increases the risk of infection; pathogens grow well in warm
moist areas with oxygen (aerobic) or without oxygen (anaerobic) depending on the
microorganism, an environment that increases exposure to toxic substances also
increases risk
IX. Immunization history: inadequately immunized people have an increased risk of
infection specifically for those diseases for which vaccines have been developed.
X. Medications and medical therapies: examples of therapies and medications that
increase clients risk for infection includes radiation treatment, anti-neo-plastic drugs,
anti inflammatory drugs and surgery
G. Diagnostic Tests Used to Screen for Infection
I. Signs and symptoms related to infections are associated with the area infected; for
instance, symptoms of a local infection on the skin or mucous membranes are
localized swelling, redness, pain and warmth
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II. Symptoms related to systemic infections include fever, increased pulse &
respirations, lethargy, anorexia, and enlarged lymph nodes
III. Certain diagnostic tests are ordered to confirm the presence of an infection.
9. THEORIES OF PAIN
A. Specific Theory
I. Proposes that bodys neurons & pathways for pain transmission are specific, similar
to other senses like taste
II. Free nerve endings in the skin act as pain receptors, accept input & transmit
impulses along highly specific nerve fibers
III. Does not account for differences in pain perception or psychologic variables among
individuals.
B. Pattern Theory
I. Identifies 2 major types of pain fibers; rapidly & slowly conducting
II. Stimulation of these fibers forms a pattern; impulses ascend to the brain to be
interpreted as painful
III. Does not account for differences in pain perception or psychologic variables among
individuals.
C. Gate Control Theory
I. Pain impulses can be modulated by a transmission blocking action within the CNS.
II. Large-diameter cutaneous pain fibers can be stimulated (e.g. rubbing or scratching
an area) and may inhibit smaller diameter fibers to prevent transmission of the
impulse (close the gate).
D. Current Developments in Pain Theory Indicate that pain mechanisms & responses are far
more complex than believed to be in the past.
I. Pain may modulated at different points in the nervous system.
a. First-order neurons at the tissue level
b. Second-order neurons in the spinal cord that process nociceptor information
c. Third-order tracts & pathways in the spinal cord & brain that relay/process this
information
II. The role of the pain experience in the development of new nociceptors and/or
reducing the threshold of current nociceptor is also being investigate
10. TYPES OF PAIN
A. Acute Pain
I. Usually temporary, sudden in onset, localized, lasts for 6 months; results from tissue
injury associated with trauma, surgery, or inflammation.
Types of Acute Pain
a. Somatic: arises from nerve receptors in the skin or close to bodys surface;
may be sharp & well-localized or dull & diffuse; often accompanied by nausea
& vomiting
b. Visceral: arises from bodys organs; dull & poorly localized because of minimal
noriceptors; accompanied by nausea & vomiting, hypotension & restlessness
c.
Referred pain: pain that is perceived in an area distant from the site of stimuli
(e.g. pain in a shoulder following abdominal laparoscopic procedure).
II. Acute pain initiates the fight-or-flight response of the Autonomic Nervous System
and is characterized by the following symptoms:
a. Tachycardia
b. Rapid, shallow respirations
c. Increased BP
d. Sweating
e. Pallor
f. Dilated pupils
g. Fear & Anxiety
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B. Chronic Pain
I. Prolonged, lasting longer than 6 months, often not attributed to a definite cause, often
unresponsive to medical treatment.
Types of Chronic Pain
a. Neuropathic: painfuil condition that results from damage to peripheral nerves
caused by infection or disease; post-therapeutic neuralgia (shingles) is an
example
b. Phantom: pain syndrome that occurs following surgical or traumatic amputation
of a limb.
i.
The client is aware that the body part is missing
ii.
Pain may result of stimulation of severed nerves at the site of
amputation
iii.
Sensation may be experienced as an itching, pressure, or as
stabbing or burning in nature
iv.
It can be triggered by stressors (fatigue, illness, emotions,
weather)
v.
This experience is limited for most clients because the brain
adapts to amputated limb; however, some clients experience
abnormal sensation or pain over longer periods
vi.
This type of pain requires treatment just as any other type of pain
does.
c.
II. Depression is a common associated symptom for the client experiencing chronic
pain; feelings of despair & hopelessness along with fatigue are expected findings.
11. PAIN ASSESSMENT
A. TOOLS/INTRUMENTS USED
I. A VERBAL REPORT using an intensity scale is a fast, easy & reliable method
allowing the client to state pain intensity & in turn, promotes consisted
communication among the nurse, client & other healthcare professionals about the
clients pain status; the 2 most common scales used are 0 to 5 or 0 to 10. With 0
specifying no pain & the highest number specifying the worst pain
II. A VISUAL ANALOG SCALE is a horizontal pain-intensity scale with word modifiers at
both ends of the scale, such as no pain at one end and worst pain at the other,
clients are asked to point or mark along the line to convey the degree of pain being
experienced
III. A GRAPHIC RATING SCALE is similar to the visual analog scale but adds a
numerical scale with the word modifiers, usually the numbers 0 to 10 are added to
the scale.
IV. FACES PAIN SCALE children, clients who do not speak English & clients with
communication impairments may have difficulty using a numerical pain intensity
scale; the FACES pain scale may be used for children as young as 3 years old; this
scale provides facial expressions (happy face reflects no pain, crying face represents
worst pain)
V. PHYSIOLOGIC INDICATORS OF PAIN may be the only means a nurse can use to
assess pain for a non-communicating client, facial & vocal expression may be the
initial manifestations of pain; expressions may include rapid eye blinking, biting of the
lip, moaning, crying, screaming, either closed or clenched eyes, or stiff unmoving
body position
B. A B C D E method of pain assessment
I. This acronym was developed for cancer pain; however, it is very appropriate for
clients with any type of pain, regardless of the underlying disease.
II. A = Ask about pain
III. B = Believe the client & family reports pain
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II. Generic Name is given by the manufacturer who first develops the drug before it
receives official approval. Protected by law, the generic name is given before a drug
receives official publications.
III. Official Name is the name under which drug is listed in official publication
IV. Trade, Brand or Propriety Name is the name under which a manufacturer markets.
B. Classification Nurses categorized medications with similar characteristics by their class.
Drug classification indicates the effects on a body system, the symptoms relieved or the
desired effect. Each class contains drugs prescribed for similar types of health problems. The
physical and chemical composition of drugs within a class is not necessarily the same. A drug
may also belong to more than one class. For example, aspirin is an analgesic and antipyretic
and an anti-inflammatory drug.
C. Forms Drugs are available in a variety of forms preparations. The form of the drug
determines its route o administration. For example, a capsule is taken orally and a solution may
be given intravenously. The composition drug is designed to enhance its absorption and
metabolism within the body. Many drugs are available in several forms such as tablets,
capsules, elixirs and suppositories. When administering a medication, the nurse must be
certain to give the metabolism in the proper form.
D. Principles in Administering Medications
I. Observe the 7 RIGHTS of Drug Administration:
a. Right Drug
b. Right Dose
c. Right Time
d. Right Route
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e. Right Patient
f. Right Recording
g. Right Approach
II. Practice asepsis
III. Nurses who administer medications are responsible for their own actions. Question
any order that you can consider incorrect.
IV. Be knowledgeable about medications that you administer
V. Keep narcotics & barbiturates in locked place
VI. Use only medications that are in clearly labeled containers
VII. Return liquid that are cloudy or have changed in color to the pharmacy
VIII.Before administering a medication, identify the client correctly
IX. Do not leave the medication at the bedside
X.
If the client vomits after taking an oral medication, report this to the nurse in charge
and/or physician
XI. Preoperative medications are usually discontinued during the post operative period
unless ordered to be continued
XII. When a medication is omitted for any reason, record the fact together with the
reason
XIII. When a medication error is made, report immediately to the nurse in charge and/or
physician
13. BASIC HUMAN NEEDS
A. Abraham Maslow developed the five (5) levels of human needs:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Physiologic Needs needs such as air, food, water, shelter, rest, sleep, activity and
temperature maintenance are crucial for survival
Safety and Security Needs the need for safety has both physical and physiologic
aspects
Love and Belonging Needs the third level of needs includes giving and receiving
affection, attaining a place in a group and maintaining the feeling of belonging
Self-Esteem Needs the individual needs both self-esteem and esteem from others
Self-Actualization when the need for self-esteem is satisfied, the individual strives
for self-actualization, the innate need to develop ones maximum potential and realize
ones abilities and qualities
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I.
A. Purposes
I. To relieve urinary retention
II. To obtain a sterile urine specimen from a woman
III. To measure the amount of residual urine in the bladder
IV. To obtain a urine specimen when a specimen cannot secure satisfactory by other
means
V. To empty bladder before and during surgery and before certain diagnostic
examinations
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***Several BASIC FACTS about the lower urinary tract system should be borne in mind when
considering catheterization.
B. Necessary Equipment for Catheterization
Catheters are graded on the French scale according to the size of the lumen. For the
female adult, No. 14 and No. 16 French catheters are usually used. Small catheters are
generally not necessary and the size of the lumen is also so small that it increases the
length of time necessary for emptying the bladder. Larger catheter distends the urethra
and tends to increase the discomfort of the procedure. For male adult, No.18 and No.
20 French catheters usually used, but if this appears to be too large, smaller catheter
should be used. No. 8 and No. 10 French catheters are commonly used for children.
C. Preparation of the Patient
I. Adequate exploration
II. Position dorsal recumbent for the female and supine for the male using a firm
mattress or treatment table, Sims or lateral position can be an alternate for the
female patient
III. Provision for privacy
D. Retention or Indwelling Catheter (Foley) A catheter to remain in place for the following
purposes:
I. The gradual decompression of an over distended bladder
II. For intermittent bladder drainage
III. For continuous bladder drainage
An indwelling catheter has a balloon which is inflated after the catheter is inserted into the
bladder. Because the inflated balloon is larger than the opening to the urethra, the catheter is
retained in the bladder.
E. Procedure for Insertion
I. Inflate the balloon with the prefilled syringe before inserting the catheter to check for
balloon patency. Aspirate the fluid back into the syringe when it is determined that the
balloon is patent.
II. Hold the catheter with one hand and inflate the balloon according to the
manufacturers instructions, as soon as the catheter is in the bladder and urine has
begun to drain from the bladder. Usually 5 ml to 10 ml of sterile water is used
III. If the patient complains of pain after the balloon is inflated, allow it to empty and
replace the catheter with another one. The balloon is probably located in the urethra
and is causing discomfort owing to distention of the urethra
IV. Exert slight tension on the catheter after the balloon is inflated to assure its proper
placement in the bladder
V. Connect the catheter to the drainage tubing and drainage bag if not already
connected
VI. Tape the catheter along the interior aspect of the thigh fro a female patient. Be sure
there is no tension on the catheter when it is taped to the patient
VII. Hang the drainage bag on the frame of the bed below the level of the bladder
F. Caring for the Patient with an Indwelling Catheter
I. Be sure to wash hands before and after caring for a patient with an indwelling
catheter
II. Clean the perineal area thoroughly, especially around the meatus, twice a day and
after each bowel movement. This helps prevent organisms for entering the bladder
III. Use soap or detergent and water to clean the perineal area and rinse the area well
IV. Make sure that the patient maintains a generous fluid intake. This helps prevent
infection and irrigates the catheter naturally by increasing urinary output
V. Encourage the patient to be up and about as ordered
VI. Record the patients intake and output
VII. Note the volume and character of urine and record observations carefully
VIII.Teach the patient the importance of personal hygiene, especially the importance of
careful cleaning after having bowel movement and thorough washing of hands
frequently
IX. Report any signs of infection promptly. These include a burning sensation and
irritation at the meatus, cloudy urine, a strong odor to the urine, an elevated
temperature and chills
X. Plan to change indwelling catheters only as necessary. The usual length of time
between catheter changes varies and can be anywhere from 5 days to 2 weeks. The
less often a catheter is changed, the less the likelihood than an infection will develop
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are too hot or too cold, or solutions that are instilled too quickly, can cause cramping
and damage to rectal tissues
II. Allow solution to run through the tubing so that air is removed
III. Place client on left side in Sims position
IV. Lubricate the tip of the tubing with water-soluble lubricant
V. Gently insert tubing into clients rectum (3 to 4 inches for adult, 1 inch for infants, 2 to
3 inches for children), past the external and internal sphincters
VI. Raise the water container no more than 12 to 18 inches above the client
VII. Allow solution to flow slowly. If the flow is slow, the client will experience fewer
cramps. The client will also be able to tolerate and retain a greater volume of solution
VIII.After you have instilled the solution, instruct client to hold solution for about 10 to 15
minutes
IX. Oil retention: enemas should be retained at least 1 hour. Cleansing enemas are
retained 10 to 15 minutes.
20. NASOGASTRIC and INTESTINAL TUBES
A. Nasogastric Tubes
I.
II. Salem Sump Tube double lumen (smaller blue lumen vents the tube & prevents suction
on the gastric mucosa, maintains intermittent suction regardless of suction source)
a. Suctioning gastric contents
b. Maintaining gastric decompression
Key Points:
a. Prior to insertion, position the client in High-Fowlers position if possible.
b. Use a water-soluble lubricant to facilitate insertion
c. Measure the tube from the tip of the clients nose to the earlobe and from
the nose to the xiphoid process to determine the approximate amount of
tube to insert to reach the stomach
d. Flex the clients head slightly forward; this will decrease the chance of entry
into the trachea
e. Insert the tube through the nose into the nasopharyngel area; ask the client
to swallow, and as the swallow occurs, progress the tube past the area of
the trachea and into the esophagus and stomach. Withdraw tube
immediately if client experiences respiratory distress
f. Secure the tube to the nose; do not allow the tube to exert pressure on the
upper inner portion of the nares
g. Validating placement of tube.
Aspirate gastric contents via a syringe to the end of the tube
Measure ph of aspirate fluid
Place the stethoscope over the gastric area and inject a small amount
of air through the NGT. A characteristic sound of air entering the
stomach from the tube should be heard
h. Characteristics of nasogastric drainage:
Normally is greenish-yellowish, with strands of mucous
Coffee-ground drainage old blood that has been broken down
in the stomach
Bright red blood bleeding from the esophagus, the stomach or
swallowed from the lungs
Foul-smelling (fecal odor) occurs with reverse peristalsis in
bowel obstruction; increase in amount of drainage with
obstruction
B. Intestinal Tubes provide intestinal decompression proximal to a bowel obstruction.
Prevent/decrease intestinal distention. Placement of a tube containing a mercury weight and
allowing normal peristalsis to propel tube through the stomach into the intestine to the point of
obstruction where decompression will occur
I.
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i.
ii.
iii.
b. Miller-Abbot Tubes
i.
Approximately 10 feet long
ii.
Double lumen
iii.
One lumen utilized for aspiration of intestinal contents
iv.
Second lumen utilized to instill mercury into the rubber bag after
the tube has been inserted into the stomach
II. Nursing Implications
a. Maintain client on strict NPO
b. Initial insertion usually done by physician and progression of the tube may be
monitored via an X-ray
c. After the tube has been placed in the stomach, position client on the right side
to facilitae passage through the pyloric valve
d. Advance the tube 2 to 4 inches at regular intervals as indicated by the
physician
e. Encourage activity, to facilitate movement of the tube through the intestine
f. Evaluate the type of gastric secretions being aspirated
g. Do not tape or secure the tube until it has reached the desired position
h. Tubes may attached to suction and left in place for several days
i. Offer the client frequent oral hygiene, if possible offer hard candy or gum to
reduce thirst
j. Removal of the tube depends on the relief of the intestinal obstruction
i.
May be removed by gradual pulling back (4-6 inches per hour) and
eventual removal via the nose or mouth
ii.
May be allowed to progress through the intestines and expelled via
the rectum.
21. LOSS AND GRIEF
A. Loss absence of an object, person, body part, emotion, idea
or function that was valued
I. Actual loss is identified and verified by others
II. Perceived Loss cannot be verified by others
III. Maturational Loss occurs in normal development
IV. Situational Loss occurs without expectations
V. Ultimate Loss (Death) results in a lost for a dying person
as well as for those left behind, can be viewed as a time of growth for all who
experienced it
B. Grieving Process (Theories of Grief, Dying and Mourning)
I.
3 Phases of Grief
a. Protest: lack of acceptance, concerning the loss, characterized by anger,
ambivalence and crying
b. Despair: denial and acceptance occurs simultaneously causing disorganized
behavior, characterized by crying and sadness
c. Detachment: loss is realized; characterized by hopelessness, accurately
defining the relationship with the lost individual and energy to move forward in
life.
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c.
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