JournalofHumanKineticsvolume192008,109120

EditorialCommitteeofJournalofHumanKinetics

109

DeterminationandPredictionofOneRepetition
Maximum(1RM):SafetyConsiderations
by
WiktorNiewiadomski ,DorotaLaskowska1,2,
AnnaGsiorowska1,GerardCybulski1,AnnaStrasz1,
JzefLangfort3
1

Strength training is recommended for slowing age-dependent deterioration of muscular strength and for rehabilitating patients with muscle
weakening illnesses. Reliable assessment of muscle strength is important
for proper design of strength training regimes for prevention, rehabilitation, and sport. One repetition maximum (1RM) is an established measure
of muscular strength and is defined as the value of resistance against
which a given movement can be performed only once. Proper assessment
of 1RM is time consuming, and may lead to muscle soreness as well as
temporary deterioration of the function of the tested muscles. Attempts at
indirect 1RM determination based on the maximum number of repetitions
performed have predicted 1RM with a variable degree of accuracy. Cardiovascular safety has been neglected in 1RM determination, although
arterial blood pressure increases considerably when exercising against
maximal or near maximal resistance. From the perspective of cardiovascular safety, favorable 1RM measurement methods should avoid performance of repetitions until failure; movement against high resistance and
muscle fatigue both increase blood pressure. Although such techniques
are likely less accurate than the current methods, their prediction accuracy be sufficient for therapeutic strength training.
Key words: strength exercise, hemodynamic response, blood pressure

- Department of Applied Physiology, Medical Research Center, Polish Academy of Sciences,

Warsaw, Poland
2
- Department of Physical Education, Medical University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
3
- Department of Experimental Pharmacology, Medical Research Center, Polish Academy of
Sciences, Warsaw, Poland

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DeterminationandPredictionofOneRepetitionMaximum(1RM):

Strength training
Theaimofstrengthtrainingistoincreasemusclestrength.Tothisendmus
cleshavetomoveagainstanopposingforceinaprocesscalledresistance,hence
such training is also termed resistance training. The established measure of
resistance or load is one repetition maximum (1RM), defined as the load for
whichonlyonefullrepetition,i.e.,asequenceofmovementsendingbackinthe
startingposition,canbeperformed.Consequently1RMistheupperloadlimit;
if smaller fractions areused, more repetitions can be performed. For example,
an 80% 1RM load typically allows for a maximum of 8 repetitions. The maxi
mum number ofrepetitions performed witha given load canalso be usedfor
notation;thusifwith80%1RMamaximumof8repetitionscanbeperformed,
theloadcanbealsodenotedas8RM.Itshouldbenotedthat1RMreferstothe
current capabilities of a given person; thus the absolute load value of 1RM is
differentfordifferentpersons.
Repetitions performed continuously without stopping are termed a set.
Loads allowing 1 to 6 repetitions most effectively increase strength, whereas
loads allowing more than 25 repetitions are barely effective or not effective at
all (Atha 1981). Increasing muscle strength requires at least 50% 1RM load,
whereas 80% 1RM may be needed to increase bone mineral density (Vincent
andBraith2002).

Strength training as therapy

Strengthtrainingisanefficienttherapyagainstagedependentlossofmus
cle strength and muscle mass, termed sarcopenia, as well as against muscle
weaknessduetoillnessinducedinactivity.Themaximummusclestrengthde
clinesgraduallyat1.5%peryearinthesixthandseventhdecadesoflife.Subse
quently,thelossratedoublessuchthatveryoldpersonsretainhalforlessthan
half of their peak strength (Doherty 2003). Agedependent loss of maximal
strengthbringselderlypersonstowardstheirthresholdfordependence(Young
andSkelton1994,RantanenandAvela1997,Kozakaietal.2000),andincreases
theirriskoffalling(Morleyetal.2001).
Strengthtrainingreversessarcopeniatosomeextentatanyage.Thedegree
ofstrengthrecoveryafterstrengthtrainingrangedfromover130%inagroup
of very elderly subjects (8597 years, Harridge et al. 1999) to below 20% (Roe
lantsetal.2004,Reevesetal.2004).Suchdisparateresultsmaybeexplainedby
differencesinparticipantsage,pretrainingstatus,possibleincreasesinweight
liftingcapacityduetoneuraladaptationduringthefamiliarizationperiod,and
trainingprotocols(Reevesetal.2004).

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111

Strengthtrainingmayalsofavorablyaffectbonedensityandinthisrespect
may be superior to endurance training. However, strength training is likely
inferior in its ability to increase maximal oxygen consumption, lower resting
arterial pressure, improve lipid profile, and reduce hypertension and obesity
(PollockandEvans1999).

Performing 1RM determination

Determination of 1RM is the process of identifying a load that can moved
throughtheentirerangeofmovementonlyonce.Thistypeofexerciseisclassi
fiedasisotoniccontraction,astheexternalloadremainsconstantthusimplying
constant tension of muscles. Even if the design of the testing machine ensures
constanttorqueoverthewholerangeofmovement,thetestedpersonwillen
counteraweakpoint,thesocalledstickingpoint.Thisisbecausetheexternal
force developed by the limb depends on the biomechanics of the movement,
andadditionallythestrengthofmusclesatgivenlevelofstimulationdepends
ontheirlength.Itfollowsthatneuralstimulationofthemusclesduringmove
mentneedstobehighestatthestickingpoint,and1RMindirectlymeasuresthe
abilitytoovercomethispoint(DeVriesandHoush1994,Sale1991).
Measurementofthetruevalueof1RMisalsoimpededbythelackofavail
able information about rate of force development, contraction velocity, and
acceleration;thusknowledgeofthe1RMvaluemaybeinsufficientinthecon
textofanathletesspecificneeds(Abernethyetal.1995).
Determinationof1RMproceedsoversubsequenttrialsinwhichtheamount
of weight to be lifted is increased stepwise until the subject fails to produce a
fullrange movement. As the procedure requires multiple repetitions, the re
sultsmaybeconfoundedbyfatigue(Chandleretal.1997).
Several factors are important for optimizing 1RM performance, including
choiceofstartingweight,restintervalsbetweenattempts,incrementsinweight,
andcriteriaforacceptablelifting.BrownandWier(2001)proposedthefollow
ingstandardizedproceduresfor1RMdeterminationbasedonpreviousrecom
mendations (Stone and OBryant 1987, Kraemer and Fry 1991, Wagner et al.
1992,Weiretal.1994).
The subject should perform a 35 minute light general warmup involving
themusclestobetested.Thesubjectshouldthenperformstaticstretchingexer
cisesofthesemusclesfollowedbyaspecificwarmupconsistingof8repetitions
atapproximately50%andthen3repetitionsat70%of1RM,assumingthat1RM
canbeestimatedfromthenumberofrepetitionsperformedatthegivenweight.
Thesubjectwillthenperformsinglerepetitionswithincreasinglyheavierloads
untilfailure.Itisdesirablethatatleasttwoweightincrementsaretriedbefore

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DeterminationandPredictionofOneRepetitionMaximum(1RM):

thefailedliftwheretheoptimalnumberofsinglerepetitionsrangesfrom3to5.
Afterthefailedlift,onemoreattemptshouldbemadewithaloadcalculatedas
thesumoftheheaviestloadliftedplusthehalfofdifferencebetweenthatload
andtheloadwiththefailedlift.
Theoutlinedaboveprocessofdirect1RMdeterminationistimeconsuming,
and may lead to muscle soreness as well as temporary deterioration of the
function of the tested muscles. Chapman et al (1998) reported that 3 testers
neededover6hourstodeterminethebenchpress1RMin98footballplayers.
PloutzSnyder and Giamis (2001) found that the number of sessions necessary to
establishconsistent1RMvaluesforkneeextensionwithaveryhighaccuracy(1kg;
0.71.3%ofmeasurement)betweentestingsessions,was2to5and7to10sessions
inyoungandelderlywomen,respectively.
IthasbeenarguedbyBraithetal.(1993)that1RMevaluationshouldnotbe
performedbynovicelifters,becausemaximumliftingbyapersonwithoutany
previousexperienceinweightliftingmaycausemusclesorenessandevenmore
serious injury. This has been confirmed by Dohoney et al. (2002), who found
that in a group of 34 healthy men, six reported limited exercise ability and 22
noticeablemusclesorenessafterdirect1RMassessment.
The danger of injuries may be of particular concern in those who benefit
mostfromstrengthtraining,i.e.,theelderly.Injuriesinarangeof2.419%were
reported by Pollock et al. (1999) and Shaw et al. (1995); the latter group also
founda70%incidenceofmusclesoreness.However,Rydwiketal.reporteda
muchlowerrateofadverseeffectsof1RMassessmentinelderly(15%ofsore
nessandnoinjury)(2007).
Prediction of 1RM based on number of repetitions performed with sub
maximalloads
The value of 1RM may be predicted based on the number of repetitions a
subjectcanperformwithasubmaximalload.Typically,1RMpredictionbased
on the number of repetitions performed with submaximal loads has been ap
plied to the bench press. LeSuer et al. (1997) found that two prediction equa
tions of seven evaluated gave relatively low differences between 1RM pre
dictedanddetermineddirectly.Thesewere:1RM=massofsubmaximalload
(100/(52.2+41.9exp[0.055numberofrepetitions]));Mayhewetal.(1992),and
Wathen (1994): 1RM = mass of submaximal load (100/(48.8 + 53.8 exp [0.075
number of repetitions])). These equations were tested in 67 college students
(malesandfemales),andbothwereequallygoodinpredicting1RM:inaverage
they overestimated directly determined bench press 1RM only by 0.5 kg, pre
dictedanddirectlymeasured1RMwerehighlycorrelatedr2=0.98.Thesub
maximalloadsusedallowedformaximally10repetitions.Accuracyofpredic

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113

tionusingWathensequationwasconfirmedbyKnutzenetal.(1999)inelderly
subjects. There was no gender dependent difference in prediction accuracy of
predictionequations(Mayhewetal.(1992).
Using1RMpredictioninsteadofdirectdeterminationsignificantlyshortens
the measurement process: Chapman et al (1998) found that instead of the 18
manhours needed for direct 1RM determination in 98 persons, the same task
could be accomplished in 2.5 manhours when 1RM was predicted using the
numberofsubmaximalloadlifts.Predictionof1RMmayalsobebeneficialfor
exercising the muscles. Dohoney et al. (2002) found no exercise limitation or
musclesorenessafter46RMand710RMstrengthassessmentincontrasttothe
detrimentaleffectsofdirect1RMdetermination.
Cardiovascularsafetyduring1RMdetermination
Avoidanceofmusclesorenessandlimitationofexercisearetypicallyusedto
justify the use of prediction techniques. However, avoidance of the more seri
ousdangerofcardiovasculareventshasremainedrelativelyunnoticed.
Increasedbloodpressureremainsmajorconcernforstrengthtraining,espe
cially in light of the rare but present risk of cerebral aneurysm rupture or su
barachnoidhemorrhage(Haykowskietal.2001,2003).Therapeuticallyefficient
strength training must be performed 23 times per week for about 20 min per
session, thus the exposure to increased cardiovascular load is relatively short.
Highpressureduringexerciseremainsthemainconcernforpotentialadverse
effects.
During strength exercises, dramatic increases in blood pressure and heart
ratehavebeenobserved(,MacDougalletal.1985,FleckandDean1987,Stone
etal.1991,Saleetal.1993,Saleetal.1994,Scharfetal.1994).Thoughdetailed
picture of hemodynamic response to strength exercises remains uncertain, as
well as the underlying mechanisms, some basic features were consistently re
portedbyseveralauthors(Niewiadomskietal.2007).Bothsystolicanddiastolic
arterial pressures changerhythmicallyfromalmostnormal to high levelsdur
ing the phases of exercise; during the doubleleg press, the peak sys
tolic/diastolicpressurehasbeenfoundtoreach320/250mmHginbodybuilders
(MacDougalletal.1985).Thepeakpressuregrowswithsubsequentrepetitions,
andafterthelastrepetitionbloodpressuredeclinesrapidlyevenbelowthepre
exerciselevel.
MacDougall et al. (1992) argued that the magnitude of blood pressure re
sponsedependsmainlyontherelativeintensityoftheeffort;weightliftingper
formedbydifferentpersonsatthesamerelativeintensityproducessimilarin
creasesinbloodpressuredespiteindividualdifferencesinmusclesizeandab
solutestrength.

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DeterminationandPredictionofOneRepetitionMaximum(1RM):

Interestingly, the smallest increase was observed at 1RM, whereas the re

sponses to 90, 80, 70 and 50 % of 1RM were all greater and similar in magni
tude. The number of repetitions performed to fatigue was not revealed, how
ever it was likely smallest at 90% and greatest at 50% of 1RM. Given that the
cessation of exercise repetitions resulted from voluntary fatigue, the similar
responsetodifferentrelativeloadsmayhaveresultedfromthesamedegreeof
musclestimulationatthepointoffatigue.
Relativeeffortmaynotbetheonlydeterminantofcardiovascularresponse
during strength exercises. Fleck and Dean (1987) compared hemodynamic re
sponses to strength exercises repeated to failure by body builders, novice
weighttrained individuals, and sedentary controls at 90, 80, 70, and 50% of
1RMandat1RM.Significantlyweakerhemodynamicresponseasmeasuredby
peakbloodpressureandpeakheartratewasobservedinbodybuildersatthe
samerelativeloadandmuchgreaterabsoluteload(almostdoublethatinsed
entarysubjects).
TheValsalvamaneuveroftenaccompaniesstrengthexercises;MacDougallet
al. (1992)found that when force output was below80% of maximal voluntary
contraction(MVC),theValsalvamaneuveronlyoccurredoccasionally,whereas
withheavierloadsitbecamealmostinevitable.Significantly,itwasfoundthat
even when the Valsalva maneuver was absent at the beginning of repetitions
withlighterloads,itappearedclosertotheseriesendifthetraineecontinuedto
failure.OncetheValsalvamaneuverappeared,thepeakintrathoracicpressure
progressivelyroseinconcertwiththesystolicanddiastolicpressures.
The hemodynamic response to strength exercises prompts consideration of
the cardiovascular safety of both direct and indirect 1RM determination. Both
directandindirect1RMdeterminationrequiressubjectstoperformrepetitions
untilfailure.Thismeansthatthemaximalarterialpressureattainedduringthe
few last repetitions will be similar irrespective of the relative load usedin the
indirectmethod.Somewhatunexpectedlyfromtheperspectiveofcardiovascu
larsafety,direct1RMdeterminationappearstobelesschallenging,assmaller
peak arterial pressure is expected. On the other hand, the direct method may
require several isolated attempts, exposing the subject to several almost maxi
malloadlifts.Onedrawbackofdirect1RMdeterminationisthehighprobabil
ityofperformingtheValsalvamaneuverwhenliftingorattemptingtoliftvery
heavy loads. However, Valsalva maneuvers are also likely to be performed
when subjects approach their few last lifts even if the load is submaximal. Fi
nally, persons who are novices in strength exercises may be exposed to a
greater danger of cardiovascular events than those with experience because
theirhemodynamicresponsetothe1RMprocedurewilllikelybegreater.

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115

Towards safer 1RM determination

Fromthecardiovascularperspective,bothdirectandindirect1RMdetermi
nationtechniquesrepresentchallengesthatmayleadtodangerousoutcomes.In
order to determine the safer method, careful evaluation of hemodynamic re
sponses accompanying 1RM determination should be performed. Safe 1RM
determination should not require performance of repetitions until failure, as
this appears to be the main source of the fully developed hemodynamic re
sponse. Rather, methods based on maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) de
termination should be attempted. MVC methods may potentially be much
safer;ifthesubjectcanavoidperformingtheValsalvamaneuver,thecardiovas
cularresponseshouldonlybecontrolledbycentralinhibitionoftheparasym
pathetic nervous system and consist of a moderate HR increase (about 100
beats/min)andsubsequentriseinbloodpressure(SealsandVictor1991).How
ever, MVC determination presents some disadvantages when compared to
1RM. The MVC value depends on the choice of point in the range of motion,
andMVCatdifferentpointsmaybepoorlycorrelated(Zehetal.1986,Murphy
et al. 1995,).Furthermore, there are doubts whether the measurement of static
strengthrelevanttodynamicperformance(WilsonandMurphy1988).Amore
complexapproachcouldbeappliedthatwouldcombinemoreinformationsuch
aschangesintherateofforcedevelopmentorevensurfaceEMGassessmentof
increasedmotoneuronrecruitmentofmotoneurons(Gandevia2001).
Weproposethathemodynamicresponsedatashouldbeincludedwhenper
forminganykindofmaximalstrengthevaluation,butespeciallywhenstrength
trainingwillbeappliedasatherapy.Inthiscontext,theaspectofrequiredac
curacy is worth mentioning; althoughin sports, highlyaccurateassessment of
1RM is indispensable for monitoring the efficacy of training, less accurate de
termination may suffice in therapy because the goal is only to determine an
effectiveloadforbuildingmuscularstrength.Regardless,accurate1RMmeas
urementisalsodesirableinthetherapeuticarena,astheultimategoalistoin
creasemuscularstrength.

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Corresponding author:
DrWiktorNiewiadomski
DepartmentofAppliedPhysiology,MedicalResearchCenter,
PolishAcademyofSciences,Warsaw,Poland
02106Warszawa,ul.Pawiskiego5
Email:wiktor@cmdik.pan.pl
Phone:+48226086501
Fax:+48226086476

Authorssubmitedtheircontributionofthearticletotheeditorialboard.

AcceptedforpintinginJournalofHumanKineticsvol.19/2008onMarch2008.

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DeterminationandPredictionofOneRepetitionMaximum(1RM):