L18

BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Review Session
06-01-2012 ETZC341 Instrumentation and control
Process Control
Introduction
Definitions
Process Control Principles
Human Aided Control
Automatic Control
Servomechanisms
Discrete State Control Systems
Process Control Block Diagram
BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus
Some definitions related to process

control
Controlled variable: The process variable regulates
by process control loop.
Controlling variable: The process variable changes
by the final control element under the command
of controller to effect regulation of controlled
variable.
Setpoint: The desired value of a controlled variable
in process control loop.
Instrumentation and control
Error: The algebraic difference between the

measured value of variable and setpoint.
Controller: The element in a process control loop
that evaluates error of the controlled variable
and initiates corrective action by a signal to
controlling variable.
Dynamic variable: The process variable that can
change from moment to moment because of
unknown sources.
Instrumentation and control
Block Diagram of process Control

Fig. 1.5 This block diagram of a control loop defines all
the basic elements and signals involved
c = controlled variable in the process

b = the measured representation of the
controlled variable
r = controlled variable setpoint
Copyright 2006 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458
All rights reserved.
Control System Objective

A practical statement of control system objective is best
represented by three requirements:
1. The system should be stable
2. The system should provide the best possible steady
state regulation.
3. The system should provide the best possible transient
regulation.
06-01-2012 ETZC341 Instrumentation and control
BITS Pilani
Pilani Campus
Analog and Digital processing
In electronic circuits , data is represented

by the magnitude of voltage or currents.
This is referred as Analog processing.
Most modern control systems now employ
digital computers to perform controller
operations.
In computers, data are represented as
binary numbers consisting of a specific
number of bits. This is referred as digital
processing.
Digital control
There are two approaches to using computers for
control:
1) Supervisory Control
Supervisory control emerged as an intermediate
step wherein the computer was used to monitor
the operation of analog control loops and to
determine appropriate setpoints
2) Direct Digital Control(DDC): This direct digital control
system lets the computer perform the error
detection and controller functions.
Smart sensor
Using modern integrated circuit technology, the
sensor, signal conditioning,ADC, and computer
controller are all contained within the sensor
housing.
Networked Control Systems: Each of the process
control computer operates one or more DDC loops.
Bus users can monitor the operations of any of the
plant process control loops, and those with
authorization can modify control characteristics such
as setpoints and gains
Need of standards: have universal

agreement among process equipment
manufacturers on how data are
represented on the bus line and how data
are transmitted and received.
PLCs
Types of discrete control functions were often
provided by a system of electrical relays wired
according to a complex diagram. This was
called a relay logic controller.
In recent years, computers have also taken
over the operation of such relay logic
controllers, known as programmable logic
controllers(PLCs).
International System of units

The SI system is progressively
being adopted by 'metric'
countries of long standing and
it is the required system for
almost all international
journals.
It has seven base units and
two supplementary units.
All other units which
comprise the SI system can be
derived.
Other Units
The centimeter-gram-second system(CGS)
English System
Process Control Drawings

Letters
Numbers
Essential elements
Instrument line symbols
Instrument symbols
Examples of the letter/number coding

a) P means pressure,R means a recording unit and C means a

controller, so this is a recording pressure controller located in
loop or plant location 103. The unit is accessible to an operator
and is probably in a panel of the control room
b) The interpretation is L for level, C for control, and symbol for
computer, located in the field of loop or plant location 330.
Examples of the letter/number

coding

c) Y for event controller

generally means a PLC, here
for Z meaning for position
control, not accessible to an
operator and in the loop or
plant location 200
d) As part of a T for
temperature- measurement
system, the Y means a
converter, converting 4 to 20
mA into 3 to 15 psi. The unit
is not accessible to an
operator and is part of loop
or plant location 203.
Sensor Time Response
First order response

Second order response
Real time effects
Significant figures
Significance in measurements
Significance in Calculations
Significance in design
Statistics
1) Arithmetic Mean
2) Standard Deviation: A measure of the dispersion of a
set of data from its mean. The more spread apart the
data, the higher the deviation. Standard deviation is
calculated as the square root of variance.
Analog Signal processing

Analog signal conditioning provides the operations
necessary to transform a sensor output into a form
necessary to interface with other elements of the
process control loop.
Signal Level and Bias Changes
Linearity
Conversions
Digital interface
Filtering and Impedance Matching
Impedance matching is an important element of signal
conditioning when transducer internal impedance or line
impedance can cause errors in measurement of a
dynamic variable.
Passive circuits
Bridge and divider circuits
Wheatstone Bridge
DC bridge and AC bridge
Bridge Applications
Low pass filters
High pass filters
Active Circuits
Op-amp
Wheatstone Bridge
Fig. 2.5 The basic dc
Wheatstone bridge

For initial analysis, assume the detector

impedance is infinite.
The potential difference , V=Va-Vb where Va=
potential of point a with respect to c and Vb=
potential of point b with respect to c.
Va=VR3/(R1+R3) and Vb=VR2/(R2+R4)
V= V(R3R2-R1R4)/(R1+R3)(R2+R4)
A particular combination of resistors can be
found that will result in zero difference and
zero voltage across the detector, i.e. , a null.
R3R2=R1R4
The application of Wheatstone bridges to
process-control applications using high-input
impedance detectors.
22
BITS Pilani, Deemed to be University under Section 3 of UGC Act, 1956
Low pass RC filter

Figure : Circuit for the low-pass
RC filter
The critical frequency is that

frequency for which the ratio
of o/p to i/p voltage is
approx. 0.707.
In terms of the resistor and
capacitor, the critical
frequency is given by
fc = (1/ 2RC)
The output to input voltage
ratio for any signal
frequency an be determined
graphically or can be
computed by
Vout/Vin = 1/[1+(f/fc)]
23
High-Pass RC Filter
Figure : Circuit for the high- It is similar to low pass filter,
the rejection is not sharp in
pass RC filter
frequency but distributed over
a range around a critical
frequency.
The magnitude of Vout/Vin=
0.707 when the frequency is
equal to the critical frequency.
An equation for the ratio of
output to input voltage as a
function of the frequency for
the high filter is found to be
Vout/Vin=(f/fc)/[1+(f/fc)]
24
Op-amp
Operational amplifiers (op amp) are a special signalconditioning building block around which many special
function circuits can be developed. The device was
demonstrated in applications involving amplifiers,
converters, linearization circuits, integrators, and several
other functions.
Voltage follower
Inverting and Non inverting amplifiers
V to I converter and other applications
Summing Amplifier, Differential Instrumentation Amplifier
Integrator, Differentiator
circuit design guidelines
Ideal Inverting Amplifier

I1+I2 = 0 Where I1 = current through R1;I2 = current
through R2
Vin Vout
0
R1
R2
Vout
R2
Vin
R1
Figure The opamp inverting amplifier.

26
BITS Pilani, Pilani campus
Voltage Follower
Figure : The Op amp voltage follower. This circuit
has unity gain but very high input impedance

Figure shows an opamp

circuit with unity gain and
very high input impedance.
The input impedance is
essentially the input
impedance of the op amp
itself, which can be greater
than 100M . The voltage
output tracks the input over
a range defined by the plus
and minus saturation
voltage outputs.
27
Inverting Amplifier
Vo u t
R2

Vin
R1

Figure: The Op Amp summing Amplifier
Vout
R2
R2

V1
V2
R3
R1
29

Figure A noninverting amplifier
I1 + I 2 = 0
Where
I1 = Current through R1
I2 = Current through R2
R2
Vout 1 Vin
R1
30
Op Amp
The common-mode input voltage is the
average applied to the two input terminals,
Vcm
Va Vb
The common mode rejection (CMR) is the

CMRR expressed in dB.
A
CMRR
Acm
CMR 20 log10 (CMRR )
32

Figure : An instrumentation amplifier includes voltage

followers for input isolation.
33

Figure: This instrumentation amplifier allows the

gain to be changed using a single resistor
34

Figure : A voltage-to-current using an op amp

35
Current-to-Voltage Converter

Figure : A current-to-voltage converter using an op amp. Care must

be taken that the current output capability of the op amp is not
exceeded.
36
Integrator
Figure An integrator circuit using an
op amp.
Vin
dVout
C
0
R
dt
Vout
V
dt
in
RC

37
Differentiator
dVin Vout
C
0
dt
R
Vout
dVin
RC
dt
Figure : This circuit takes the time derivative of the

input voltage

38
Digital signal conditioning

Introduction
Digital information
PLCs: These devices are particularly suited to the
solution control problems associated with Boolean
equations and binary logic problems in general.
Computer interfacing
Computer Interface
Generic model of a
computer bus system.

The processor is connected to

external equipment via three
parallel sets of digital lines.
The data lines carry data to and
from the processor.
The address lines allow the
computer to select external
locations for input and output.
The control lines carry
information to and from the
computer related to operations,
such as reading, writing,
interrupts, and so on.
This collection of lines is called
the bus of the computer.

o
o
o
o
Comparators:
Open Collector Comparator
Hysteresis Comparator
Digital to analog converters
Bipolar DAC
DAC structure
Comparator
A basic comparator compares
voltages and produces a digital
output.
The most elementary form of

communication between the
analog and digital is a device
(usually an IC) called a
comparator.
This device simply compares two
analog voltages on its input
terminals.
Depending on which voltage is
larger, the output will be a 1
(high) or a 0(low) digital signal.
The comparator is extensively
used for alarm signals to
computers or digital processing
systems.

Open Collector comparators

Fig.(a) shows that the output terminal
of the comparator is connected
internally to the collector of a
transistor in the comparator. This is
called an open-collector output.
Even if there is base-emitter current
in the transistor, no voltage will show
up on the collector until it is
connected to a supply through some
collector resistor.
Fig (b) shows that an external resistor
is connected from the output to an
appropriate power supply. This is
called a collector pull-up resistor.
Now the output terminal will show
either a 0(0V) if the internal transistor
is ON or 1 (Vs) if the internal transistor
is OFF.
Many comparators use an opencollector output.

Hysteresis Comparator
The condition for which the output will go high (V) is defined by the
condition Vin>=Vref
Once having been driven high, the condition for the output to drop back to
the low (0 V)
state is given by the relation Vin=<Vref-(R/Rf)V0
The deadband or hysteresis is given by (R/Rf)V, and is thus selectable by
choice
of the resistors, as long as this relation is satisfied.
DAC Characteristics
For modern applications, most DACs are IC
assemblies , viewed as a black box having certain
input and output characteristics.
A generic DAC diagram,

showing typical input and
output signals.
Data acquisition systems: Special PCBs called data

acquisition systems (DACs) have been developed for the
purpose of providing for input and output of analog data.
The data acquisition system(DAS) is a modular device
that interfaces many analog signals to computer. Signal
address decoding, multiplexing, and ADC operations are
included in the device.
DAS hardware
Typical layout of a data-acquisition board for use in a personal computer
expansion slot.

Thermal Sensor
Thermal Energy
RTD: A resistance-temperature detector (RTD) is a
temperature sensor that is based on the principles
discussed in the preceding section; that is metal
resistance increasing with temperature
Thermistors: The thermistor represents another class of
temperature sensor that measures temperature through
changes of material resistance
Thermocouple: A thermocouple is a junction of dissimilar
metal wires, usually joined to a third metal wire through
two reference junctions.
Seebeck effect and peltier effects
Temperature Sensor
Attributes
Criteria
Thermocouple
RTD
Thermistor
Temperature Range
Very wide
-450F +4200F
Wide
-400F +1200F
Narrow
-100F +500F
Interchangeability
Good
Excellent
Poor to fair
Poor to fair
Good
Poor
Medium
High
Medium
Repeatability
Fair
Excellent
Fair to good
Sensitivity (output)
Low
Medium
Very high
Response
Medium to fast
Medium
Medium to fast
Linearity
Fair
Good
Poor
Self Heating
No
Very low to low
High
Excellent
Fair
Good
High
Medium
Low
Small to large
Medium to small
Small to medium
Long-term Stability
Accuracy
Point (end) Sensitive

Lead Effect
Size/Packaging
Temperature Sensor Advantages and

Disadvantages
Sensor
Thermocouple
RTD
Thermistor
Advantages
No resistance lead wire problems
Non-linear
Disadvantages
Fastest response
Low voltage
Simple, rugged
Least stable, repeatable
Inexpensive
Least sensitive
High temperature operation
Point temperature sensing
Most stable, accurate
Current source required
Contamination resistant
Self-heating
More linear than thermocouple
Slow response time
Area temperature sensing
Low sensitivity to small temperature

changes
Most repeatable temperature measurement
High output, fast
Non-linear
Two-wire ohms measurement
Limited range
Economical
Fragile
Point temperature sensing
Current source required
Self heating
Other Thermal Sensors

Bimetal strips: This type of temperature
sensor has the characteristics of being
relatively inaccurate, having hysteresis, having
relatively slow time response, and being low
in cost.
Gas Thermometers: It converts temperature
information directly into pressure signal , it is
particularly useful in pneumatic systems.
Other Thermal Sensors

Vapor-Pressure Thermometers:A vapour
pressure thermometer converts temperature
information into pressure, as does the gas
thermometer, but it operates by a different
process.
Liquid Expansion Thermometers: Just as a
solid experiences an expansion in dimension
with temperature, a liquid also shows an
expansion in volume with temperature.
Solid-state Temperature Sensors.
Design Considerations
1. Identify the nature of measurement
2. Identify the required output signal
3. Select an appropriate sensor
4. Design the required signal conditioning
All the best

Mechanical Sensors
three types of sensors for the measurement of
displacement , location, or position.
Displacement:
Potentiometric Sensors
Capacitive and Inductive Sensors
Variable reluctance Sensors
LVDT: The LVDT is an important and common
sensor for displacement measurement in the
industrial environment.
Level Sensors
The measurement of solid or liquid level calls
for a special class of displacement sensors.
Mechanical: One of the most common
techniques for level measurement,
particularly for liquids, is a float that is
allowed to ride up and down with level
changes.
FIGURE 5.10
There are many level-measurement techniques.
Curtis Johnson
Process Control Instrumentation Technology, 8e]

Ultrasonic
The use of ultrasonic reflection to measure level is
favored because it is a noninvasive technique; that is, it
does not involve placing anything in the material. Next
figure shows the external and internal techniques
FIGURE 5.11 Ultrasonic level measurement needs no

physical contact with the material, just a transmitter, T, and
receiver, R.
Curtis Johnson

Strain Sensors
Strain is the result of the application of forces to solid
objects.
The forces are defined in a special way described by the
general term stress.
Tensile stress-strain
Compressional Stress-strain
Shear stress-strain
In tensile and compressional stress, the modulus of
elasticity, or Youngs modulus,E, as given by
stress F / A
E
strain l / l
The shear modulus is defined for shear stress-strain as
stress F / A
M
strain x / l
The resistance of a metal sample is given by
R=l/A
where
R= sample resistance
= sample resistivity .M
l= length in m
A= cross-sectional area in m2
Semiconductor Strain Gauges

The use of semiconductor material, notably silicon, for SG
application has increased over the past few years. There
are presently several disadvantages to these devices
compared to the metal variety, but numerous advantages
for their use.
The semiconductor device gauge factor (GF) is still given
by
GF=(R/R)/Strain
Load Cells: One important direct application of SGs is for
the measurement of force or weight. These transducer
devices, called load cells measure deformations
produced by the force or weight.
Motion Sensors
Motion sensors are designed to measure the rate of
change of position, location, or displacement of an object
that is occurring.
Rectilinear: This type of motion is characterized by
velocity and acceleration which is composed of straightline segments
Angular: Some sensors are designed to measure only
rotations about some axis such as the angular motion of
the shaft of a motor.
Shock
Types of Accelerometer
Potentiometric: : Simplest accelerometer type measures
mass motion by attaching the spring mass to wiper arm
of a potentiometer.
LVDT: Natural linear displacement measurements of the
LVDT to measure mass displacement. LVDT core is
seismic mass
Variable Reluctance: Test mass is usually a permanent
magnet. The measurement is made from the voltage
induced in a surrounding coil as the magnetic mass
moves under the influence of an acceleration.
Piezoelectric: Piezoelectric crystal is spring loaded with a
test mass in contact with the crystal.
Pressure Sensor
Force per unit area
Two types: static and dynamic
Dynamic: If a fluid is in motion, the pressure that it exerts
on its surroundings depends on the motion.
Gauge Pressure: In many cases, the absolute pressure
is not the quantity of major interest in describing the
pressure.
g=abs-at
Head Pressure: It is often used to describe the pressure
of the liquid in a tank or pipe.
Pressure Sensors(p>1
atmosphere)
Diaphragm: One common element used to convert
pressure information into a physical displacement is the
diaphragm (thin , flexible piece of metal)
Bellows: converts a pressure differential into a physical
displacement, except that here the displacement is much
more a straight-line expansion.
Pressure sensors(p<1
atmosphere)
Pirani Gauge: This gauge determines the filament
temperature through a measure of filament resistance
Thermocouple: A second pressure transducer or gauge
measures filament temperature using a thermocouple
directly attached to the heated filament.
Ionization gauge: This device is useful for the
measurement of very low pressures from about 10-3 atm
to 10-13 atm.
Flow Sensors
Solid Flow Measurements: occurs when material in the
form of small particles, such as crushed material or
powder, is carried by a conveyor belt system or by some
other host material.
Liquid Flow: The conditions under which the flow occurs
and the vastly different types of material that flow result
in a great many types of flow measurement methods.
Restriction Flow Sensors: flow of liquids in pipes is
measured by introducing a restriction in the pipe and
measuring the pressure drop that results across the
restriction. When such a restriction is placed in the pipe,
the velocity of the fluid through the restriction increases,
and the pressure in the restriction decreases.
Flow Sensors
Pitot tube: The pitot tube is a common way to measure flow
rate at a particular point in a flowing fluid(liquid or gas).
Obstruction Flow Sensor: operates by the effect of flow on
an obstruction placed in the flow stream.
Ex. Rotameter: the obstruction is a float that rises in a
vertical tapered column
Moving vane: A moving vane flow meter has a vane target
immersed in the flow region, which is rotated out of the
flow as the flow velocity increases.
Turbine: A turbine type of flow meter is composed of a
freely spinning turbine blade assembly in the flow path.
The rate of rotation of the turbine is proportional to the
flow rate
FIGURE 5.41
Three different types of obstruction flow meters.
Curtis Johnson

Flow Sensor
Magnetic Flow meter: if charged particles move across a
magnetic field, a potential is established across the flow,
perpendicular to the magnetic field.
Optical Sensor
Optical sensors are those sensors that detect
electromagnetic radiation in the broad optical range
from far infrared to ultraviolet
Approximate range of wavelengths from 1mm (3x1011
Hz or far infrared) to 1 nm (3x1017 Hz or upper range of
the ultraviolet range).
Direct methods of transduction from light to electrical
quantities (photovoltaic or photoconducting sensors)
Indirect methods such as conversion first into
temperature variation and then into electrical quantities
(PIR sensors).
EM radiation
EM radiation: visible light, radio or TV signals and
ultraviolet or infrared light.
The frequency represents the oscillation per second as
the radiation passes some fixed point in space.
The wavelength is the spatial distance between two
successive maxima or minima of the wave in the
direction of propagation.
EM radiation is a type of energy that propagates through
space at a constant speed or velocity if direction is
specified.
The oscillating nature of this radiation gives rise to a
different interpretation of this radiation in relation to
environment
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
EM radiation band
Characteristics
Photons
Energy
Power
Intensity
Divergence
Spectrum
Coherency
Photodetectors:The measurement sensors generally

used are called photodetectors to distinguish them from
other spectral ranges of radiation, such as RF detectors
in radio frequency(RF) applications.
Photoconductive detectors: It is based on the change in
conductivity of a semiconductor material with radiation
intensity.
The change in conductivity appears as a change in
resistance, so that these devices are also called
photoresistive cells.
Photoconductive cell: (like thermistor) exhibits a

resistance that decreases nonlinearly with dynamic
variable, radiation intensity.
Photovoltaic Detectors: Another important class of
photodetectors generates a voltage that is proportional
to incident EM radiation intensity. These devices are
called photovoltaic cells because of their voltage
generating characteristics.
Photodiode effect :refers to the fact that photons
effecting on the pn junction also alter the reverse
current-versus-voltage characteristic of the diode.
Phototransitor: In this sensor, the intensity of EM

radiation effecting on the collector-base junction of the
transistor acts much like a base current in producing an
amplified collector-emitter current.
This device can be used much like a transistor, except
that no base current is required.
Phototransistor has a built-in lens, to concentrate
radiation on the transistor junction
Photoemissive Detectors:
Pyrometry: has been extended to include any of several
methods of temperature measurement that rely on EM
radiation.
Broadband Pyrometer: One type of temp. measurement

system based on emitted EM radiation uses the radiation
between total emitted radiation energy and given temp.
Total radiation Pyrometer: One type of broadband
pyrometer is designed to collect radiation extending from
the visible through the infrared wavelengths, and is
referred as Total Radiation Pyrometer.
IR pyrometer: This device often uses a lens formed from
silicon or germanium to focus the IR radiation on a
suitable detector.
Optical Sources
Conventional Light Source: They are both divergent,
incoherent and often not particularly monochromatic.
Incandesce source: A common light source is based on
the principle of thermal radiation.
An incandescent source is polychromatic, divergent,
incoherent and inefficient for visible-light production
Atomic Sources: it depends on rearrangements of
electrons within atoms of the material from which the
light originates.
Fluorescence source: The material is excited by
exposure to the light source and fills electrons into some
long-lived excited states.
Final Element
Analog Electrical Signals

Relays: A common conversion is to use the controller
signal to activate a relay when a simple ON/OFF or twoposition control is sufficient.
Amplifier: : High Power ac or dc amplifiers often can
provide the necessary conversion of the low-energy
control signal to a high-energy form.
Digital Electrical signals

On/Off Control
DAC
Direct Action
Pneumatic Signals:
Nozzle-Flapper system
Current to Pressure converter
Power electronics:
This kind of signal conversion is carried out using high
power electronics devices.
Generally power electronics refers to an assortment of
very special semiconductor devices that have been
designed and developed to allow control of hundreds to
thousands of amperes at hundreds to thousands of volts
These devices fall within two categories: Switching
devices and control devices.
Switching means devices that have only two output
states, on and off.
Control devices, by contrast, can have an output that
varies continuously over some range.
Switching Devices
Silicon-Controller Rectifier(SCR): also called thyristor.
The SCR has become an important part of high power
electrical signal conditioning and control
TRIAC: . The TRIAC can be thought of as two SCRs
connected in parallel and reversed, but with the gates
connected.
DIAC: A DIAC is a special kind of two-terminal
semiconductor switch that is often used in conjunction
with TRIACs for triggering.
Controlling Devices
These class of power electronics devices is based upon
semiconductors for which a high current or voltage is
controlled by a small current or voltage.
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Power MOSFET
IGBT
Actuators
Electrical Actuators:
Solenoid
Electrical Motors
DC motors
AC Motor
Pneumatic Actuators
Hydraulic Actuators
Control Elements
Mechanical
Solid-Material Hopper Valves
Electrical
Motor Speed Control
Temperature Control
Fluid Valves
Types: Quick Opening, Linear and Equal Percentage
FIGURE 7.47 Three types of control valves open differently

as a function of valve stem position.
Curtis Johnson

1. Quick Opening
This type of valve is used predominantly for
full On /full OFF control applications. The
valve characteristic of fig. 7.47 shows that a
relatively small motion of the valve stem
results in maximum possible flow rate through
the valve. Such a valve, for example, may
allow 90% of maximum flow rate with only a
30% travel of the stem.
2.Linear
This type of valve, as shown in fig. 7.47, has a
flow rate that varies linearly with the stem
position. It represents the ideal situation where
the valve alone determines the pressure drop.
The relationship is expressed as
Q
S
Qmax
S max
3
rate(m /s); S=Stem
where Q=flow
position(m)
Qmax=maximum flow rate(m3/s)
Smax=maximum stem position(m)
3. Equal Percentage
A very important type of valve employed in flow control
has a characteristic such that a given percentage change
in stem position produces an equivalent change in flowthat is, an equal percentage.
Generally, this type of valve does not shut off the flow
completely in its limit of stem travel.
Thus, Qmin represents the minimum flow when the stem
is at one limit of its travel. At the other extreme, the
valve allows a flow Qmax as its maximum, open-valve flow
rate. For this type, we define rangeability,R, as the ratio
R=Qmax/Qmin
The curve in fig. 7.47 shows a typical equal

percentage curve that depends on the
rangeability for its exact form. The curve shows
that increase in flow rate for a given change in
valve opening depends on the extent to which
the valve is already open. This curve is typically
exponential in form and is represented by
Q=QminRS/ Smax
Where all terms have been defined previously.
Discrete state process control

Introduction to Discrete-state process control systems,
definition
characteristic of the system: The discrete state processcontrol system is the master control system for the entire
plant operation
Types: Continuous, Discrete and Composite control
system
discrete state variables
process specifications and event sequence description
Relay controller
Ladder diagrams: A special schematic representation of
the hardware and its connection has been developed
that makes combination of the hardware and event
sequence description clear. This schematic is called a
ladder diagram.
Programmable Logic Controllers: The modern solution
for the problem of how to provide discrete-state control is
to use a computer-based device called a programmable
controller (PC) or programmable logic controller(PLC).
Background, ladder diagram elements and ladder
diagram examples, Relay sequencers, PLC design,
operation and software functions
A discrete-state process is one for which the process

variables can take on only two states.
A discrete-state process-control system is one that
causes the process to pass through a sequence of
events. Each event is described by a unique
specification of the process variables.
The hardware of the process must be carefully defined
in terms of the nature of its two states and its relation to
the process.
The sequence of events can be described in narrative
fashion, as a flowchart, or in terms of Boolean
equations.
A ladder diagram is a schematic way of describing the

sequence of events of a discrete state control system.
A programmable controller is a computer-based device
that implements the required sequence of events of a
discrete state process.
Controller Mode
Controller modes refer to the methods to generate different
types of control signals to final
control element to control the process variable.
Classification of Controller modes
(1) Discontinuous Controller Modes
Two-position (ON/OFF) Mode
Multiposition Mode
Floating Control Mode Single Multiple Speed
Controller Modes
(2) Continuous Controller Modes
Proportional Control Mode
Integral Control Mode
Derivative Control Mode
(3) Composite Controller Modes
Proportional-Integral Control (PI Mode)
Proportional-Derivative Control (PD Mode)
Proportional-Integral-Derivative Control (PID or
Three Mode Control)
Based on the controller action on the control

element there are two modes
1) Direct Action: If the controller output increases with
increase in controlled variable then it is called direct
action.
Ex.: A level control system that outputs a signal to an
output valve. If the level rises, the valve should be
opened(i.e. its drive signal should be increased)
2) Reverse Action: If the controller output
decreases with increase in controlled variable then it is
called reverse action
Ex.: A simple temp. control from a heater. If the temp.
increases, the drive to the heater should be decreased.
In controller operating modes, it is important to know the

process load, which is nominal value of all process
parameters, and the process lag, which represents a
delay in reaction of the controller variable to a change of
load variable.
Analog Controller
Pneumatic Controller
Digital electronics methods
Alarming systems, two position control systems,
multivariable alarm systems.
Use of computers in process control systems
Data logging systems, computer based control systems

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BITS Pilani

Some definitions related to process

Instrumentation and control

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Error: The algebraic difference between the

Instrumentation and control

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Block Diagram of process Control

c = controlled variable in the process

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Control System Objective

06-01-2012 ETZC341 Instrumentation and control

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Analog and Digital processing

In electronic circuits , data is represented

Need of standards: have universal

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BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

International System of units

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BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Process Control Drawings

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Examples of the letter/number coding

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a) P means pressure,R means a recording unit and C means a

Examples of the letter/number

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c) Y for event controller

Sensor Time Response

First order response

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BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

Analog Signal processing

BITS Pilani, Pilani Campus

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For initial analysis, assume the detector

Low pass RC filter

The critical frequency is that

Ideal Inverting Amplifier

Figure The opamp inverting amplifier.

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Figure shows an opamp

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Figure: The Op Amp summing Amplifier

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Figure A noninverting amplifier

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The common mode rejection (CMR) is the

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Figure : An instrumentation amplifier includes voltage

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Figure: This instrumentation amplifier allows the

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Figure : A voltage-to-current using an op amp

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Figure : A current-to-voltage converter using an op amp. Care must

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Figure : This circuit takes the time derivative of the

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Digital signal conditioning