THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Figure 1 : Rotor and Nozzle arrangement of the impulse turbine

In figure 1 as shown above, it is an impulse turbine (FM30) . In this turbine, kinetic energy of a jet leaved
at high pressure staionary nozzle was converted on impact with turbibe blades to rotational mechanical
energy. As the water exit from the jet at atmospheric pressure, the force that exerted on the rotor is
due to changes in the direction of the flow of water. This turbine is therefore associated with
considerable changes of kinetic energy.

Figure 2 : Rotor and Nozzle arrangement of the reaction turbine

For figure 2 shown above, it is caed reaction turbine. It is called reaction turbine, for this turbine, the
water is subject to a pressure drop as it flows through the rotor. This turbine is therefore associated
with considerable changes in pressure energy and sometimes it is called pressure turbine. As water

enters the rotor via a face seal and is discharged tangentially through two nozzles at the periphery of the
rotor. The nozzles therefore move along with the motor.

Figure 3 : Rotor and Nozzle arrangement of the pelton turbine

In figure 3, this turbine is called pelton turbine. It functions a spear valve directs a jet of water at a
series of buckets which are mounted on the periphery of a rotor. And as water exiting the spear valve at
atmosphheric pressure, the force exerted on the rotor is due to changes in direction of the flow water.
This turbine is therefore associated with changes of kinectic energy but little in pressure energy. The
spear valve allow the jet diameter to be varied which allows the water flow rate to be varied with a
constant jet velocity. Large turbines include more than one spear valve around the periphery of rotor.
The operating characteristic of a turbine are conveniently shown by plotting torque T, brake power Pb
and turbine efficiency Et against turbine rotational speed and for a series of volume flow rates Qv. Note
that, as the efficiency reaches maximum and the falls, whilst the torque falls constantly and linearly.
Turbine is commonly used to drive a generator in generating electricity. The optimum conditons for
operation occur when the maximum turbine efficiency coincides with the rotational speed of the
generator. As the load on the generator increases then the flow of water to the turbine must increase to
maintain the required operating speed.

The power absorbed by the brake is determine using equation;

Where; T is the torque
The hydraulic powers available to the fluid also determine using equation;
The overall efficiency of the turbine determines using equation;
%

The basic terms used to define and therefore measure, turbine performance in relation to rotational
speed include:
i)
Volume flow rate
ii)
Head,
iii)
Torque, power output and efficiencies
Each of these is considered in turn.
Volume Flow Rate Qv
The volume flow rate of fluid through the turbine is the volume passing through the system per unit
time. In SI units, this is expressed in cubic metres per second(m3/s).
The Armfield FM3SU unit employs an orifice plate in the pump inlet pipeline to measure Qv, according to
the conventional relationship between the measured pressure drop dPo across the orifice and the flow
rate:-

Q v=

Where Cd is the orifice discharge coefficient.

(This applied when the orifice diameter d is no more than 50% of the pipe diameter.)
The appropriate constants needed to use this equation for deducing discharge Qv from dPo are given in
the nomenclature section.
Head H
The term head refers to the elevation of a free surface of water above or below a reference datum. In
the case of a turbine we are interested in the head of the water entering the rotor, which of course has
a direct effect on the characteristic of the unit.
Terms specifically applied to the analysis of turbines and generating systems are illustrated graphically in
Figure 5 and are briefly defined below

1) Manometric suction head Hm1 is the gauge reading (metres) measured at the inlet nozzle of the
turbine, referenced to the rotor centerline datum.
2) Manometric discharge head Hm2 is the gauge reading (metres) measured at the discharge
nozzle of the turbine, referenced to the rotor centerline.
3) Input head to the turbine (Hi) is the head used by the turbine in performing work. For the
turbine shown in Figure 3, Hi is given by:
Hi = [Hm1 Hm2] (5)
Equation (3) relates precisely to Equation (5) for a control volume enclosing the turbine outlet
and inlet, as Hm1 and Hm2 are the measured pressures equal to
z1 + (p1/ Rho.g ) and z2 + (p2/Rho.g) respectively.
The Armfield instrumentation is such that the inlet pressure is measured in relation to
atmospheric pressure (P1). As the outlet of the turbine is at atmospheric pressure, it can be
assumed that the reading given by P1 is the pressure difference across the turbine.
Therefore, (Hm1 Hm2) is actually measured as a differential pressure P1 (Pascals), but
converted in subsequent calculations to p1/Rho.g metres
Power Output and Efficiencies
The brake power Pb produced by the turbine in creating a torque T on the brake at rotor speed
n is given by Equation (6):
Pb = 2. Pi. n . T
[Nm/s = Watts] (6)
The torque itself is given by the equation:
T = Fb . r [Nm]
Where Fb is the brake force reading on the Capture sensor and r is the pulley radius.
However, the fluid friction losses in the turbine itself, represented as F in Equation (1), require
a hydraulic efficiency Eh to be defined as:-

* 100%

Further, the mechanical losses in the bearings etc require a mechanical efficiency Em to be
defined as:-

* 100%

The Armfield turbine units do not include the direct measurement of mechanical power Pm, but
instead measures brake force applied to the rotor via pulleys. A further efficiency is therefore
required, expressing the friction losses in the pulley assembly Eb:-

* 100%

The overall turbine efficiency Et is thus :-

=
=

* 100%
* 100

(Rho.g.H.Q being the standard calculation for fluid power). It will be seen that

Et = Eh.Em.Eb

(8)

MOHAMAD FARUQI BIN MOHAMED

2010845252
DISCUSSION
In this experiment we were investigating and studying about the turbine. In general, turbine is a
rotary mechanical device that extracts energy from a fluid flow and converts it into useful work.
In turbine there is some part called the runner which act as the rotating part. In this experiment
we deal with the fluid, so we called it hydraulic turbines. After collecting some data, we found
out that if we increase the brake force it also will increase the pressure of the turbine inlet. At
the same time, at some extent the brake force will eventually will cause the turbine speed to
zero. In other words, the increasing of brake power will cause the power output of the turbine
to decrease. The decreasing of the output of the turbine will also affect the efficiency where the
efficiency will drop since the efficiency is the ratio of the power output and power input.
The concept of this experiment is to develop turbines torque by reaction turbines in order to
react to the fluids pressure or mass. The pressure of the fluid changes as it passes through the
turbine rotor blades. For compressible working fluid, multiple turbine stages are usually used to
harness the expanding gas efficiently. There are two types of turbines, reaction and the impulse,
the difference being the manner of head conversion. In the reaction turbine, the fluid fills the
blade passages, and the head change or pressure drop occurs within the runner. An impulse
turbine first converts the water head through a nozzle into a high-velocity jet, which then strikes
the buckets at one position as they pass by. The runner passages are not fully filled, and the jet
flow past the buckets is essentially at constant pressure. Impulse turbines are ideally suited for
high head and relatively low power.
If we look at the data we noticed that at overall efficiency where at some point it tends reach
maximum point and then it decrease back until it reach zero point. The same thing happens to
the brake power where it also will decrease until it reaches to zero. But difference happens to
torque where it will increase until it stop when brake power reach to zero. Throughout this
experiment, we experiences difficulty to finish this experiment. Most of the problem came from
when we want to set the value of the brake power. If we do not take the appropriate data we
have to start it again from the beginning. So it is important for us to running this experiment
with patient and careful.

CONCLUSION
As a conclusion, we knew that if we increase the brake horsepower it will also increase the
pressure of the turbine inlet and together with the torque. If we look at the volume flow rate it
will decrease as the brake horsepower increase. Based on the result and our observation this
experiment is a success since we managed to achieved our objective. Other than that we have
to avoid at all cost the entire mistake in order to avoid errors in our experiment. If there is
mistake in one of the variables, it will affect the other variable and this experiment will have to
start over again and again.