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Science

Introduction to Biology
Chapter 1

Prepared by: Mr. Edmerson B. Geronimo

Science

A. The Nature of Science

Systematic &
Comprehensive
Investigation &
Exploration of
Natures
Causes and
Effects

a. Science is guided by natural law (physical and chemical laws that govern
the state of existence)
b. Science has to be explanatory by reference to natural law.
c. Science is testable against the observable world.
d. Science conclusions are tentative; they are rarely the final word.
e. Science is falsifiable.

5. Science is neutral regarding religion and does not favor one religious
position over another.

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BIOLOGY

BIOLOGY
BOTANY

From the Greek words, bios: life and logos: to

study
the science of life
the study of living things
It deals with the investigation of the origin,
history, structure, function, identification,
classification,
distribution,
development,
inheritance, and significance of living things as
well as their relationships and interaction with
the environment.
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1. Science is a way of asking about the natural world to obtain precise

answers.
2. Asking questions about nature is ancient; modern science is about
2000 years old.
3. Science is separate from activities such as art and religion.
4. The Overton trial over creation science provided a definition of
science.

From the word scientia L. which means to

know

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MICROBIOLOGY

ZOOLOGY
Structural Zoology

Pure Botany
Developmental Zoology
Applied Botany
Functional Zoology

Pomology
Systematic Zoology
Floriculture
Distribution Zoology
Historical Zoology
Economic Zoology
Medical Zoology

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BOTANY
Pure Botany
Ecology
Morphology

Applied Botany

Pomology

ZOOLOGY
1. Structural Zoology

Olericulture

Morphology

Agriculture
Agronomy

Anatomy

Pathology
Gross Morphology

Anatomy

Genetics

Embryology
Systematic Botany
Taxonomy
Paleobotany

Phytogeography
Physiology

Protozoology
Entomology

Histology
Conchology

Forestry

Cytology

Histology

Cytology

3. Systematic Zoology

Horticulture

5. Historical Zoology

Parasitology
Pathology
8. Economic
Zoology

Phylogeny
Icthyology

Evolution

Embryology

Landscape Architecture

Herpetology

6. Distribution Zoology

Ornithology

Zoogeography

Mammalogy

Ecology

Ontogeny

Phycology

Genetics

Mycology
Bacteriology
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History of Biology
Primitive Period
- characterized by uncritical accumulation of
information mainly derived from the practical
necessities of obtaining food, materials for
clothing and shelter, substances to cure ailments
and necessary information about the human
body.
- accumulation of knowledge was not
recorded
- information was verbally passed on to the
next generation
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Greek Scientists
a.) Anaximander, a Greek philosopher who
lived from 611 to 546 BC, is credited with the
first written work on natural science, a
classical poem entitled On Nature. In this
poem, he presented what may be the first
written theory of evolution.
b.) Hippocrates (400 to 300 BC) Father of
Medicine; stated that diseases have natural
causes and that the body has the power to
repair itself
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Animal Behavior

7. Medical Zoology

Paleontology

2. Developmental Zoology

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Animal Physiology

Malacology

Pharmacognosy

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4. Functional Zoology

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Classical Period
a.) Egyptians and Babylonians had already
wrote down basic knowledge to be passed on
to those who followed after.
b.) Evidences on animal raising and agriculture
(as early as 8500 B.C.) were found in
Mesopotamia
c.) Greeks had great curiosity about the
natural phenomena and an ability to organize
knowledge and record it.
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c.) Aristotle (343 to 322 BC) considered as

the Father of Biology; proposed the first
classification scheme, the Scala naturae (L.
scale of nature); coined the words pangenes,
particles representative of the various organs,
and homunculus, a preformed, tiny human
that just grew in the mother
d.) Theophrastus pupil of Aristotle, who
carried on pioneer studies on nature of plants

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e.) Galen (131 to 210 AD) - Greek physician,

who began to study human anatomy and
carried out the 1st physiological experiment in
animals; he is considered Last Great Biologist
of Antiquity

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Dark Ages (12th 14th Centuries)

- a biological darkness enveloped all Europe;
downward trend in scientific inquiry and no
biologist made critical observations.
Reasons:
1. most common people were illiterate
2. books were expensive
3. People were busy fighting a series of wars from
the Crusades to Mongol invasions.
4. recurrent epidemics of Black Death (Bubonic
Plague) swept over Europe which killed about a
third of the population
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RENAISSANCE
a.) Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642), an Italian astronomer and
physicist, who demonstrated the truth of the Copernican
theory with the telescope.
b.) Sir Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727), an English
mathematician and philosopher; he formulated laws of
gravity governing the motion of the planets
c.) Leonardo Da Vinci and Michaelangelo ( Italian artists)
made accurate studies in plants, animals and human
anatomy.
d.) Andreas Vesalius published his book The Structure of
the Human Body
e.) William Harvey described the blood circulation in man
which contributed to physiology

Modern Era
17TH Century
- observations were being made with the first,
primitive microscopes. These often had highlypolished grains of sand as lenses.
a.) Robert Hooke In 1665, he established
the concept of Modern Cell Theory (all living
things are made up of cells; cell = room,
cubicle)

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c.) Matthias Schleiden botanist; plants are

made up of cells
d.) Theodore Schwann zoologist; animals
are composed of cells
e.) Francesco Redi (1668) and Lazarro
Spallanzani (1765 - 1767) experimentally
disproved the spontaneous origin of life from
nonliving matter

b.) Anton van Leeuwenhoek

the first person to observe sperm cells
and with his very primitive microscope
Preformationist

Miniature adult
in the sperm

Miniature adult
in the egg

(Leeuwenhoek)

(de Graaf)

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18th Century
a.) Karl von Linn or Carolus Linnaeus L. (1707 1778) known as the Father of Taxonomy ;
established the system of binomial nomenclature in
which all living things are arranged by genera and
species; In 1753, Linnaeus wrote Species Plantarum,
and in 1758, Systema Naturae
Kingdom
Phylum (pl. phyla)
Class
Order
Family
Genus (pl. genera)
Species
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Genus + species
Handwritten: Genus species
Computerized: Genus species
Example:

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evolution or change within a species is driven by

an innate, inner striving toward greater
perfection,
use or disuse of various organs made them larger
or smaller, accordingly, and
these acquired traits could be inherited or passed
on to offspring (inheritance of acquired traits).
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d.) Louis Pasteur known as the Father of

Modern Microbiology; in 1864, he was able
to disprove spontaneous generation or the
abiogenesis theory

e.) Gregor Mendel - an Austrian monk who is

known as the Father of Modern Genetics
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Periplaneta americana
Gallus gallus
Allium cepa

19th Century
a.) Jean Baptiste Lamarck in 1802 or 1809,
he proposed the Theory of Evolution; His main
points were:

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Scientific Names

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b.) Charles Darwin in 1859, he published The Origin of

Species by Means of Natural Selection or the Preservation of
Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life, more commonly
known as The Origin of Species. In this landmark book, he
made four main points:
individuals, even siblings, in a population vary (there is
variation),
these variations can be passed to offspring (are inherited)
(from Malthus) more offspring are produced than the
environment can support, so there is competition for
resources,
those individuals whose characteristics make them best suited
to the environment live and reproduce and have more
offspring (survival of the fittest).

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20th Century
a.) Ernst Haeckel stated that an organism
was the product of the interaction of its
environment with hereditary factors
b.) H.E. Cowla, F.E. Clemens, and V.E. Shelford
put ecology on a modern basis; generalized
that all organisms living in a given area are
closely interdependent with each other and
with the environment.
c.) Thomas Hunt Morgan developed Gene
Theory by studying fruit flies to show physical
basis of heredity
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d.) Sir Alexander Fleming developed

penicillin
e.) James Watson (American), Francis Crick
(Englishman) and Maurice Wilkins in 1953,
they proposed the hypothetical structure of
the DNA (one of the most important biological
discoveries)

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The scientific method illustrates the way in

which science is done.

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Scientific Method

Scientific Method

First is the observation phase, where new

observations are made.

Observations

This simplified
flow diagram of
the scientific
method shows
the important
components
involved in a
scientific study.

Scientific Method

This is also the time where previous data are

examined.

Hypothesis

Next, a hypothesis is formulated to attempt to

explain the available data and observations.
Conclusion

Experiment/
Observations

A hypothesis must be testable!!!

Scientific
Theory

Scientific Method
The hypothesis is then tested through a series
of experiments and/or observations.
These experiments and observations must be
repeatable!
The factual information resulting from these
experiments and observations are called data.
An important part of an experiment is the
control, which is a replicate set up exactly like the
experiment, except it does not have the factor
being tested.

Scientific Method
Scientists can then draw a conclusion based
on the data.
The conclusion may involve accepting or rejecting
the initial hypothesis.
Further experiments may require an adjustment
to the conclusions.
Hypotheses are said to be supported, but not proven.

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Scientific Method

Scientific Method
The previous model
is very simplified and
the result is too
linear.
The activity model
for the process of
scientific inquiry
shows the more
complex interactions
that are really
involved.

New hypotheses are generated from the

conclusions, and the process starts again.
A theory results when a group of related
hypotheses are supported by many
experiments and observations.
Theories are the ideas that scientists are MOST
SURE OF!
Theory of relativity
Theory of evolution

Harwood, W. S. 2004. A new Model for Inquiry: is the Scientific Method Dead?
Journal of College Science Teaching. 33(7): 29-33.

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General Properties of Living Systems

Chemical Uniqueness:
Living systems demonstrate a unique and
complex molecular organization

Properties of Life

Small molecules are assembled into

macromolecules:
1. Carbohydrates
2. Lipids
3. Proteins
4. Nucleic Acids
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Carbohydrates
Serve as an
immediate
source of energy
form
structural
component of
cell

Composed of
carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen in
1:2:1 ratio
simplest and most
abundant, being the
primary products of
photosynthesis.

Lipids
Source of
stored form
of energy

Component of
the cell
membrane

Serve as raw
materials for
hormone

Serve as
insulator

Composed of
C, H and O

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Proteins
Composed of
C, H, O, N, S

Nucleic Acids

Repair of
worn out cells

Act as
enzymes

Act as
hormone

Serve for
transport

Serve for
movement

Source of
energy

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DNA molecule

General Properties of Living Systems

Complexity and Hierarchical Organization:
Living systems demonstrate a unique and
complex hierarchical organization

In living systems there exists a hierarchy of

levels that includes:
Macromolecules
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ Systems
Organism
Population
Community
Ecosystem
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General Properties of Living Systems

Reproduction:
Living systems can
reproduce themselves

At each level of the

biological hierarchy living
forms reproduce to
generate others like
themselves:
Genes replicate to
produce new genes.
Cells divide producing
new cells.
Organisms reproduce,
sexually or asexually, to
produce new organisms

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Reproduction
Asexual
B_ _ _ _ _ _: outgrowth of
the parent separates to
form a new individual
B_ _ _ _ _ F _ _ _ _ _ _:
the parent cells splits two
form two identical daughter
cells

Sexual

Requires the union of

sperm and egg
Leads to the formation
of zygote which will
undergo
repetitive
division

General Properties of Living Systems

Possession of a Genetic Program:
A genetic program provides fidelity of
inheritance
DNA: Long, linear, chain of nucleotides containing
genetic information
Sequence of nucleotide bases in DNA determines
the order of amino acids in proteins
Genetic Code: correspondence between base
sequences in DNA and the sequence of amino
acids in a protein
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General Properties of Living Systems

Metabolism:
Living organisms maintain themselves by
acquiring nutrients from their environments
Metabolic processes include:
Digestion
Energy production (Respiration)
Synthesis of required molecules and structures
by organisms
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General Properties of Living Systems

Metabolism is often viewed as an interaction
of destructive (catabolic) and constructive
(anabolic) reactions
The most fundamental anabolic and catabolic
chemical processes used by living systems
arose early in the evolutionary history of life

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General Properties of Living Systems

Development:
All organisms pass through a characteristic
life cycle
Development describes the characteristic changes
that an organism undergoes from its origin to its
final adult form

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General Properties of Living Systems

Growth
Accretion
Intussusception
PLANTS

ANIMALS

INDETERMINATE/
UNLIMITED

DETERMINATE/LIMITED

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General Properties of Living Systems

Environmental Interaction:
All animals interact with their environments
Ecology: The study of organismal interaction with
an environment
Irritability: All organisms respond to
environmental stimuli

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1-62

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General Properties of Living Systems

Movement:
Living systems and their parts show precise
and controlled movements arising from within
the system
Living systems extract energy from their
environments permitting the initiation of
controlled movements

General Properties of Living Systems

Movements at the cellular level are required
for:
Reproduction
Growth
Responses to stimuli
Development in multicellular organisms

On a larger scale:
Entire populations or species may disperse from
one geographic location to another over time

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Life Obeys Physical Laws

The complex molecular organization in living cells is
attained and maintained only as long as energy fuels the
organization
Survival, growth, and reproduction of animals require
energy that comes from breaking complex food
molecules into simple organic waste
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Theories on the Origin

of Life on Earth

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Theory of
Spontaneous
Generation or
Abiogenesis

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Spontaneous Generation
Early belief that some forms of life
could arise from non-living matter
A theory supported by Aristotle

People Who Disproved

the Theory

Francesco Redi

LOUIS JABLOT

He conducted an experiment in which he placed

meat in a jar and covered it with fine gauze.
Flies gathering at the top of the jar were
blocked from entering and thus laid their eggs
on the outside. Maggots developed without
access to the meat.

He conducted an experiment in which he

divided a hay infusion that had been boiled
into two containers: a heated container that
was closed to the air and a heated container
that was freely open to the air. Only the open
vessel developed microorganisms.

Theory of
Biogenesis

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Theory of Biogenesis
A theory proposed by

Virchow

Rudolf

Life came from

pre- existing life

Believed that

LOUIS PASTEUR
Disproved spontaneous
generation of microbes
by preventing dust
particles from
reaching the sterile
broth
Showed microbes
caused fermentation
and spoilage

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