TYPES OF RAINFORESTS

By Rhett Butler
Rainforests are found throughout the world, not only in tropical regions, but also in temperate
regions like Canada, the United States, and the former Soviet Union. These forests, like tropical
rainforests, receive abundant, year-round rainfall, and are characterized by an enclosed canopy and
high species diversity, but lack the year-round warmth and sunlight associated with tropical
rainforests. However this section focuses on tropical rainforests, and these are the only forest forms
discussed here.
Tropical rainforests merge into other types of forest depending on the altitude, latitude, and various
soil, flooding, and climate conditions. These forest types form a mosaic of vegetation types which
contribute to the overwhelming diversity of the tropics.
EQUATORIAL EVERGREEN RAINFOREST VS. MOIST FOREST
There are two major types of wet tropical forests: equatorial evergreen rainforests and moist forests,
which includes monsoon forests and montane/cloud forests. Equatorial rainforests, often considered
the "real rainforest," are characterized by more than 80 inches (2,000 mm) of rain annually spread
evenly throughout the year. These forests have the highest biological diversity and have a welldeveloped canopy "tier" form of vegetation. Roughly two-thirds of the world's tropical wet forests can
be considered the equatorial type. These forests are near the equator where there is very little
seasonal variation and the solar day is a constant length all year round. The greatest expanses of
equatorial rainforest are found in lowland Amazonia, the Congo Basin, the Southeast Asian islands
of Indonesia, and Papua New Guinea.
Tropical moist forests are found at a greater distance from the equator where rainfall and day length
vary seasonally. These forests get "only" 50 inches (1,270 mm) of rain annually and are markedly
distinguished from equatorial rainforests by a cooler dry season. During this dry season, many trees
shed some or even all their leaves, creating a seasonal reduction of canopy cover and allowing
more sunlight to reach the forest floor. The increased sunlight reaching the forest floor allows the
growth of vigorous understory vegetation not found in lowland equatorial forest. Such moist forest is
found in parts of South America, the Caribbean, West Africa, and Southeast Asia, especially
Thailand, Burma, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka.
PRIMARY VS. SECONDARY FOREST
Throughout this site, other books, and discussions about tropical rainforest, the term "primary forest"
is used. Primary forest refers to untouched, pristine forest that exists in its original condition. This
forest has been relatively unaffected by human activities. Primary rainforest is often characterized
by a full ceiling canopy and usually several layers of understory. The ground floor is generally clear
of heavy vegetation because the full canopy allows very little light, necessary for plant growth, to
penetrate. Occasionally, when a canopy tree falls, a temporary "light gap" is opened in the canopy,
allowing growth of floor and understory species. Primary forest is the most biologically diverse type
of forest.
Secondary forest is rainforest that has been disturbed in some way, naturally or unnaturally.

Secondary forest can be created in a number of ways, from degraded forest recovering from
selective logging, to areas cleared by slash-and-burn agriculture that have been reclaimed by forest.
Generally, secondary forest is characterized (depending on its level of degradation) by a less
developed canopy structure, smaller trees, and less diversity. Due to the lack of a full canopy, more
light will reach the floor, supporting vigorous ground vegetation. "Jungle" is the term often applied to
secondary forest with dense ground growth, but it is also applied to some tropical moist forests
where seasonal variations permit thick ground growth.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations estimates that primary forests now
account for 36 percent of total forest area, but are being lost or modified at a rate of 6 million
hectares a year through deforestation or selective logging. Selective logging, where only one or two
valuable tree species are harvested from an area, was recently found to be degrading forests in the
Amazon twice as fast as deforestation figures indicate.
Scientists do not know how long it takes for secondary forest to attain the structure and levels of
biodiversity of primary forest. A recent study by conducted as part of the Large-Scale BiosphereAtmosphere Experiment in Amazonia (LBA) determined that trees in the Central Amazon may, on
average, be several hundred years old, suggesting that primary forests take a long time to develop.
LOWLAND VS. MONTANE FOREST

Lowland tropical rainforest refers to the majority of tropical rainforest, that is, forest which grows on
flat lands at elevations generally less than 3,300 feet (1,000 m)although elevation may vary.
Lowland primary forest, often characterized by more than five forest tier levels, is usually taller and
more diverse than montane forest. It has a greater diversity of fruiting trees; hence more animals
specially adapted to feed on their fruits and more large mammals. Lowland rainforest is far more
threatened than montane forest because of its accessibility, more suitable soils for agriculture, and
more hardwoods valuable as timber. In many countries, virtually all lowland primary forest is gone,
while montane forest still remains.
Tropical montane rainforest is forest that grows on mountains and above an altitude of 3,300 feet.
High montane forest, above 6,600-10,000 feet (2,500-3,000 meters) in elevation, is often
manifested as "cloud forest," forest that receives the majority of its precipitation from mist or fog that
passes up from the moist, humid lowlands. The trees of cloud forests are typically shorter than
those of lowland forest resulting in a less-developed canopy. Nevertheless, cloud forest trees are
heavily burdened with epiphytes that thrive with the abundance of moisture from the passing fog.
Trees in places like the lower elevations of the Andes in Ecuador, Peru, Colombia, and Venezuela;
Central America (Monteverde in Costa Rica in particular); Borneo (Mount Kinabalu); and Africa
(Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, Zaire, Uganda), are frequently green with dense moss and beautiful,
often rare, orchids.

Patches of cloud forests tend to have many endemic

species, because they are often isolated from other
sections of cloud forest by valleys and ridges. These
species are prevented from migrating to other forest
areas by these obstacles to the sides, by the lowland
forest below, and by steep cliffs above. Cloud forests
are home to an abundance of hummingbirds, frogs,
and epiphytes like orchids, bromeliads, and mosses.
Many of these species are endemic to a single locality,
like theGolden toad of Monteverde, Costa Rica, a
species which is now believed to be extinct. Cloud
forests generally lack an abundance of large-bodied
mammals due to the small number of fruiting trees.
Tropical montane forests are especially in the South
American Andean region, where much of the forest has
been cleared for agriculture. Of the continent's
endangered species, a disproportionate number of
those are found in yungas, the regional name for
tropical montane forests in the Andes. These forests
have also been little studied.

Where the Amazon rainforest meets the

Andes. Photo by R. Butler

Above 10,000 feet (3,300 m), cloud forest may give way to sub-alpine and alpine forest. These
habitats have less rain, fewer trees, and reduced biodiversity compared with lower elevation
forests.
OTHER TYPES OF FOREST
SEASONAL OR MONSOON FOREST
Monsoon forests are tropical moist or seasonal rainforests found primarily in Asia (India/Sri Lanka to
China), West and East Africa, Northern Australia, and Eastern Brazil. In this type of forest there is a
distinct cooler dry season and a distinct wet season. These forests tend to be less diverse and more
dwarfed in terms of tree size in comparison to typical equatorial rainforests.
Monsoon forests are highly threatened worldwide by clearing for cultivation, especially in West
Africa, where over 90 percent of the coastal rainforests and the monsoon forests have been
cleared.
IGAP FOREST
Igap forest is rainforest that is regularly
inundated for extended periods during
the flood season (sometimes considered
permanently flooded rainforest). The
best known of such forests are found in
the Amazon Basin where they make up
about 2 percent of the total rainforest.
Igap forest trees are shorter than those
of non-flooded forest because of the
instability caused by the wet, poorly
drained soils (hence it is sometimes
known as "swamp forest") and

Flooded forest in Brazil. Photo by R. Butler

characterized by certain tree species like Cecropia, Ceiba, and Mauritia palms (also known as the
aguaje palm). Many igap tree species have stilt roots and flying buttresses to lend structural
support. Igap forest is flooded (4-10 months of the year) and flooding is usually predictable. Fish
play an important role in seed dispersal in this forest system.
VRZEA FOREST
Vrzea forests are floodplain forests which flood seasonally. Unlike swamp forests, varze forests
have relatively rich soils from the annual replenishment of nutrients from whitewater rivers. Because
these forests are more suitable for agriculture than typical rainforest, they are some of the most
threatened. Even in the Amazon where vast majority of such forests are found, vrzea are
disappearing rapidly for development.
Floodplain forests, especially those located on river banks and islands, are often short-lived due to
the meandering nature of tropical lowland rivers which eat away at the forests' base. According
to Amazon Headwaters, a book by Michael Goulding and his colleagues, research in Peru suggests
that most floodplain forests are rarely older than 200 years and may have turnover rates exceeding
1.6 percent, implying an average tree life of 63 years. For this reason, floodplain forests are nearly
always in some stage of succession with pioneer species like Cecropia being replaced with Kapok
(Ceiba) and fig trees further away from the river.
HEATH FOREST
Heath forests are found on well-drained, sandy soils that are extremely nutrient-poor. These forests
are characterized by certain tree species tolerant of the poor, acidic soil conditions and are
considerably "stunted" in comparison with typical rainforests. More light reaches the forest floor
making for dense tree growth. Heath forests, also known as blackwater or caatinga forests, are
drained by blackwater rivers and are found primarily in the Amazon Basin (the Rio Negro drainage),
but also in parts of Asia.
PEAT FOREST [news and information on peatlands]
Peat forest is found in small parts of Africa, northeastern South America, and large areas in
southeast Asia (especially Borneo and Sumatra). These swamp forests appear in places where
dead vegetation becomes waterlogged and accumulates as peat. The peat acts as a sort of sponge
withholding moisture at times of little rainfall and absorbing monsoon rains. When peat swamp
forests are drained for agricultural projects, they become highly susceptible to combustion. Under
the dry el Nio conditions of 1997-98, thousands of fires raged in the peat swamps of Indonesia.
Fires in peat swamps are extraordinarily difficult to extinguish because the conflagration continues
in the deeper layers of peat.
TERRA FIRME FOREST
Terra Firme literally means "firm earth" and refers to rainforest that is not inundated by flooded
rivers. This forest is noticeably taller and more diverse (>400 species/hectare in some areas) than
igap or flooded forest. It is found only on dry, well-drained soils and is characterized by such
species as Brazil nut trees, Rubber trees, and many tropical hardwood trees.
MANGROVE FOREST [news and information on mangroves]
Mangrove forest is found in silt-rich, saline (brackish water) habitats worldwide, generally along
large river deltas, estuaries, and coastal areas. It is characterized by low tree diversity, almost
exclusively mangroves, with a low broken canopy. Mangroves are evergreen trees and shrubs that
are well adapted to their salty and swampy habitat by having breathing roots (pneumatophores) that
emerge from the oxygen-deficient mud to absorb oxygen.

Mangrove swamps are home to numerous bizarre amphibious fish species like themudskippers of
eastern Africa to Australia andAnableps, the so-called four-eyed fish of the New World. Mudskippers
are renowned for their preference for terrestrial haunts over aquatic realms. These fish spend more
time on floating debris, tree toots, and plants than they do in the water where they only go to escape
predators. Watching a group of Mudskippers reminds the observer of what our ancestors must have
looked like when they first left the ocean for life on land. Mudskippers are highly intelligent fish that
feed primarily on insects and crustacean.
A second amphibious species found in mangrove forests is the Anableps. a species widespread in
the New World from Central America to northern South America. Most notable about its physical
features is its double-lobed eyes which allow it to see both above and below the water line as it
swims along the water surface. The Anableps, too, regularly leaves the water to perch on tree roots
and rocks.
Mangrove forests are some
of the most threatened
ecosystems on the planet
because of their proximity
to the ocean (prime
resort/development
property) and the tendency
for local people and
Mangroves in Honduras. Photo by R. Butler. More mangrove photos
governments to undervalue
the services they provide. A
recent study by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations found that 20 percent
of the world's mangrove forests have disappeared since 1980, mostly due to farming, harvesting for
timber and charcoal, freshwater diversion, real estate development, and conversion for tourism.
According to the Environmental Justice Foundation, about 38 percent of global mangrove
deforestation is linked to shrimp farm development. Mangrove clearing for commercial shrimp and
prawn hatcheries is particularly prevalent in Southeast Asia. Ironically this form of aquaculture has
come at the expense of the natural fish and shrimp hatchery.
The destruction of mangrove forest has dire implications for the fisheries industry, since these
forests provide an important spawning ground and serve as a nursery for many commercially
important species. In addition, mangrove forest protects coastal regions against storm damage and
erosion. Research conducted following the 2004 tsunami in Asia found that areas forested with
mangroves suffered less damage than areas without tree vegetation.
Mangrove forests are slow to recover from clearing and degradation. For example, seismic lines
only a few meters wide in the mangrove forest of Nigeria were still visible by air a decade after they
were cut.