Wind Energy

In recent years the need for alternative and clean (or possibly zero emission)
forms of energy has been a strong concern in the developed world.
Recent high fossil fuel prices and the problem of pollution have accelerated the research
in the direction of alternative green energies: solar energy, wind energy, hydrogen,
geothermal and nuclear are among the ones most focused on to replace the traditional
carbon based sources. We shall discuss wind energy in detail.
Denmark, Spain, Portugal, Germany, Ireland, India, China and the United States
Major are a few users of wind power. In some of these countries it provides nearly 10%
of total electricity produced. In fact wind energy is one of the fastest growing energy
sources worldwide. In the US, the power capacity is growing at very high rates (around
40-50%) and is estimated to provide around 1% of total USA electricity with around
18.000 MW in 2008.
Energy from the wind
Wind is simple air in motion. This is caused by the uneven heating of the earths
surface by the sun. Since the earths surface is made of varying different types of land
and water, it absorbs the suns heat at different rates. During the day, the air above the
land heats up more quickly than the air over water. The warm air over the land expands
and rises, and the heavier, cooler air rushes in to take its place, creating winds. At night,
the winds are reversed because the air cools more rapidly over land than over water.
In the same way, the large atmospheric winds that circle the earth are created
because the land near the earth's equator is heated more by the sun than the land near the
North and South Poles. Today wind energy is mainly used to generate electricity. Wind is
called a renewable energy source because the wind will blow as long as the sun shines.

History of wind
Since ancient times, people have harnessed the winds energy. Over 5,000 years
ago, the ancient Egyptians used wind to sail ships on the Nile River. Later, people built
windmills to grind wheat and other grains. The earliest known windmills were in Persia
(Iran). These early windmills looked like large paddle wheels. Centuries later, the people
of Holland improved the basic design of the windmill. They gave it propeller-type blades,
still made with sails. Holland is famous for its windmills.
American colonists used windmills to grind wheat and corn, to pump water, and to cut
wood at sawmills. As late as the 1920s, Americans used small windmills to generate
electricity in rural areas without electric service. When power lines began to transport
electricity to rural areas in the 1930s, local windmills were used less and less, though
they can still be seen on some Western ranches.
The oil shortages of the 1970s changed the energy picture for the country and the
world. It created an interest in alternative energy sources, paving the way for the re-entry
of the windmill to generate electricity. In the early 1980s wind energy really took off in
California, partly because of state policies that encouraged renewable energy sources.
Support for wind development has since spread to other states, but California still
produces two times more wind energy as any other state.
How do we turn wind into energy?
Blowing wind spins the blades on a wind turbine, just like a large toy pinwheel.
This device is called a wind turbine and not a windmill. A windmill grinds or mills grain,
or is used to pump water. The blades of the turbine are attached to a hub that is mounted
on a turning shaft. The shaft goes through a gear transmission box where the turning
speed is increased. The transmission is attached to a high speed shaft which turns a
generator that makes electricity.

If the wind gets too high, the turbine has a brake that will keep the blades from
turning too fast and being damaged. There is still the problem of what to do when the
wind isnt blowing. At those times, other types of power plants must be used to make
electricity. In order for a wind turbine to work efficiently, wind speeds usually must be
above 12 to 14 miles per hour. Wind has to be this speed to turn the turbines fast enough
to generate electricity. The turbines usually produce about 50 to 300 kilowatts of
electricity each. You can light ten 100 watt light bulbs with 1,000 watts. So, a 300
kilowatt (300,000 watts) wind turbine could light up 3,000 light bulbs that use 100 watts!
Capacity factor
Since wind speed is not constant, a wind farm's annual energy production is never as
much as the sum of the generator nameplate ratings multiplied by the total hours in a
year. The ratio of actual productivity in a year to this theoretical maximum is called the
capacity factor. Typical capacity factors are 20-40%, with values at the upper end of the
range in particularly favourable sites.[19] For example, a 1 megawatt turbine with a
capacity factor of 35% will not produce 8,760 megawatt-hours in a year (1x24x365), but
only 1x0.35x24x365 = 3,066 MWh, averaging to 0.35 MW. Online data is available for
some locations and the capacity factor can be calculated from the yearly output.[20][21]
Unlike fueled generating plants, the capacity factor is limited by the inherent properties
of wind. Capacity factors of other types of power plant are based mostly on fuel cost,
with a small amount of downtime for maintenance. Nuclear plants have low incremental
fuel cost, and so are run at full output and achieve a 90% capacity factor. Plants with
higher fuel cost are throttled back to follow load. Gas turbine plants using natural gas as
fuel may be very expensive to operate and may be run only to meet peak power demand.
A gas turbine plant may have an annual capacity factor of 5-25% due to relatively high
energy production cost.
According to a 2007 Stanford University study published in the Journal of Applied
Meteorology and Climatology, interconnecting ten or more wind farms can allow an
average of 33% of the total energy produced to be used as reliable, baseload electric
power, as long as minimum criteria are met for wind speed and turbine height.

Wind Energy (SWOT)

Wind Energy Strength

Wind energy is economically competitive. With todays rising coal and gas
prices, new wind plants compete favorably against any new electricity generation
source. In fact, when the Colorado Public Service Commission issued a ruling on
the 161-megawatt (MW) wind project in Lamar, Colorado, the commission
determined that wind energy provided the lowest cost of any generation resource
submitted by Xcel Energy. The commission also noted that unlike the other
generation resources considered, the Lamar project avoided a future risk of
increased fuel price.

Wind energy is a valuable crop for the future farmers. Wind farms located in
rural areas generate energy that can be transmitted to load centers in urban areas
via the regional utility grid. The rural areas retain the jobs, as well as land lease
revenue for farmers and ranchers (as much as $4000 per turbine per year). Wind
turbines are compatible with rural land. Crops can be grown and livestock can be
grazed up to the base of the turbine. Wind energy also provides an increased local
tax base for rural areas. Prowers County, home to the Lamar project, increased its
local tax base by $32 million.

Unlike most other electricity generation sources, wind turbines dont

consume water. Irrigation and thermal electric generation account for
approximately 77% of U.S. fresh water use. Conventional plants generating
power from fossil and nuclear fuels use large amounts of water for cooling; wind
turbines do not use water. That makes wind energy a great choice for droughtstricken communities in rural America.

Wind energy is an indigenous, homegrown energy source that contributes to

national security. The United States is the worlds largest importer of oil and

natural gas, which often originate in troubled areas of the world. The Great Plains
region, which has been dubbed the Saudi Arabia of wind because of its
tremendous untapped wind energy potential, offers homegrown energy, which
increases national security. Reliance on indigenous resources also reduces the
balance of payments that threatens our national economic security. Because of the
distributed aspect of wind energy, it is less vulnerable than large liquefied natural
gas (LNG) ports or large thermoelectric power plants.

Wind energy is inexhaustible and infinitely renewable. Unlike conventional

fossil fuels, wind energy is a renewable and abundant energy that will be available
for future generations.

Wind energy has many environmental benefits. Wind energy produces no

emissions, which means it doesnt contribute to acid rain and snow, global climate
change, smog, regional haze, mercury contamination, water withdrawal, and
particulate-related health effects.

Because wind energys fuel is free, it reduces the risk associated with
volatile fossil fuel prices. Wind displaces electricity that would otherwise be
produced by burning natural gas, thus helping to reduce gas demand and limit gas
price hikes. According to the American Wind Energy Association, the current
U.S. gas shortage amounts to approximately 3 to 4 billion cubic feet (Bcf) per
day. By the end of 2004, wind plants were generating about 17 billion kilowatthours (kWh) annually, or the equivalent of nearly 0.5 Bcf/day of natural gas. In
most areas of the country, every kilowatt-hour of electricity produced by wind
power helps reduce the demand for natural gas used to generate electricity. Lower
demand for natural gas helps mitigate rising costs of consumer heating and
electricity, industrial processes, and chemical and agricultural feedstock.

Wind energy can be used in a variety of applications. Small wind turbines,

alone or as part of a hybrid system, can power homes, businesses, and

farms/ranches. Wind energy is perfect for remote applications, such as water

pumping, ice making, powering telecommunications sites, and displacing diesel
fuel in villages. Community wind projects include projects for schools, tribes,
municipal utilities, and rural electric cooperatives. Also wind energy is free once
you install the equipment. Requires relatively low maintenance (usually needed
just twice a year for a total of 40 hrs/year). The growing wind energy sector is
creating new jobs in all different kinds of areas, such as in manufacturing,
construction and environmental management services.
Wind Energy Weaknesses

Visual Impact: Wind turbines do affect the visual and aesthetics of the
landscape, especially in pristine untouched environments. The level of a wind
turbine's visual impact depends upon the subjective perception of the individual
and local community in which it is located. How the visual impact of a wind
turbine is perceived depends on factors such as people's attitudes towards the
existing landscape and their attitude to wind turbines and renewable energy in
general. Thus, some people see wind turbines as a visual advantage rather than
disadvantage.

Impact on Birds: Like most tall non-natural structures, wind turbines have a
negative impact on birds, which can be killed or injured through collision with the
rotating blades. Turbines are also a disadvantage for migrating, breeding and
nesting birds because they reduce the available bird habitat and have a disturbing
noise. However the overall negative effect of wind turbines is small compared to
the negative impacts on birds from domestic cats, their loss of habitat through
property development, and the effect climate change have. In Australia on
average 2 birds per wind turbine dies per year. It is possible to reduce the negative
impacts on birds by undertaking a proper evaluation of the site. Wind turbines
should be avoided in bird migration corridors and within specific bird habitats and
electrical lines should be put underground.

Impact on Mammals: Wind turbines cause loss of habitat to wildlife due to the
disturbance from its noise, movement of blades, subtle food chain changes and

electromagnetic fields that in some animal species affects their sonar systems. To
what extent wind turbines causes disadvantages on mammals varies from each
and every location.

Noise Impact: Wind turbines create noise from the turning of the blades. To what
extent this is perceived as an 'unwanted' and disturbing sound is subjective. Some
people do find it very annoying and stressful while others do not mind. The noise
is more likely to be a problem in otherwise quiet rural areas, and not so much of a
problem in urban areas where most the noise of the wind turbine will be masked
by other sources of noise within the city.

Impact on Land Use: Wind turbines do have an impact on the land use,
especially since it is necessary to set up several turbines together in order to
achieve the same amount of electricity as a traditional fossil fuel power plant
would. However, only about 2% of the total area is occupied by the turbine (the
foundation of the turbine is mostly underground) so most of the land will still be
available for other uses.

Television interference: Wind turbines cause interference to nearby televisions

(TV's within a couple of kilometers of the wind turbine). This can be frustrating
for people whom have problem getting a clear image on the TV.

Wind Energy Opportunities

The island of Puerto Rico offers a rare opportunity of establishing areas for the
production of wind energy due to geographic peculiarities. This would benefit Puerto
Rico by reducing pollutants being released into the atmosphere. Recently the petroleum
market has become increasing unstable leading to a raise in prices to a level never before
seen. The government was unable to control the situation because the price of crude oil is
regulated by a foreign market. It is for that reason that we must search for alternative
sources of energy and that these contribute to the protection of the environment and the
use of renewable resources.
Puerto Rico there is space and wind for aero generators, also known as windmills,
to generate electricity with a cost by kilowatt per hour iqual to or less than the price of
generated electricity by fossil fuels. The Monte Grande farm in the Thermoelectrial

Power station of Exchange is where plans are in motion to establish the second Aeolian
park of Puerto Rico. This is expected to supply electricity to 60 thousand people. The
project, which will include 20 windmills, will be up in running by the year 2012
according to an agreement signed by the Autoridad de Energa Elctrica (AEE) and the
company of winds of Puerto Rico. They will invest 165 million dollars to buy wind
energy at 9.12 cents per kilowatt per hour, 18.58 cents less than the current price.

Wind Energy Threats

In Puerto Rico the most dangerous use of windmills would be their impact on
birds and bats. The birds can run into the windmills. The bats die respiratory failure due
to flying through a zone of low pressure that forms by windmills. Basically the main
objection is the location of windmills where there are migratory paths of protected birds
or birds in danger of extinction. It is recommended that we abstain from known bird
routes but bats migration paths are unknown.
How this topic will affect the island of Puerto Rico?
According to the thesis of Ramos Robles, for a private investor in Puerto Rico, the
sale of wind energy could be $0.0837 or $0.0792 with incentives. The AEE could sell it
for $0.0673 or $0.0648 with incentives. If bonuses are given this could drop to $0.0554
or even a minimum of $0.0549 with incentives. The problem remains, location, due to
competition of terrain for residential, commercial and industrial projects close to the sea.
The electricity produced this way can be sold at eight cents and a half per kilowatt if
incorporated compared to the current 17 to 18 cents paid currently in Puerto Rico.
According to map estimates from the Natural Renewable Energy Laboratory ideal places
for these plants would be at the north and east of the island and specifically Vieques and
Culebra. IN conclusion wind energy could be a very real alternative if agreements are
reached to solve terrain and technological conflicts for the good of Puerto Rico.

Solar Energy
The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at
the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is
absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's
surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in
the near-ultraviolet.
Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their
temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing
atmospheric circulation or convection. When the air reaches a high altitude, where the
temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's
surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies
convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones.
Sunlight absorbed by the oceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average
temperature of 14 C. By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical
energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived.
The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is
approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one
hour than the world used in one year. Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ

per year in biomass. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so
vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the
Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined.
From the table of resources it would appear that solar, wind or biomass would be
sufficient to supply all of our energy needs, however, the increased use of biomass has
had a negative effect on global warming and dramatically increased food prices by
diverting forests and crops into biofuel production. As intermittent resources, solar and
wind raise other issues.

Applications of solar technology

Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world
primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year.
Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m or 3.5 to 7.0 kWh/m/day.
Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. All other
renewable energies other than geothermal and tidal derive their energy from the sun.
Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the
way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use
photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar
techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing
spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun.
Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side
technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and
are generally considered demand side technologies.

Experimental solar power

A solar pond is a pool of salt water (usually 12 m deep) that collects and stores solar
energy. Solar ponds were first proposed by Dr. Rudolph Bloch in 1948 after he came
across reports of a lake in Hungary in which the temperature increased with depth. This
effect was due to salts in the lake's water, which created a "density gradient" that
prevented convection currents. A prototype was constructed in 1958 on the shores of the
Dead Sea near Jerusalem. The pond consisted of layers of water that successively
increased from a weak salt solution at the top to a high salt solution at the bottom. This
solar pond was capable of producing temperatures of 90 C in its bottom layer and had an
estimated solar-to-electric efficiency of two percent.
Thermoelectric, or "thermovoltaic" devices convert a temperature difference between
dissimilar materials into an electric current. First proposed as a method to store solar
energy by solar pioneer Mouchout in the 1800s, thermoelectrics reemerged in the Soviet
Union during the 1930s. Under the direction of Soviet scientist Abram Ioffe a
concentrating system was used to thermoelectrically generate power for a 1 hp engine.
Thermogenerators were later used in the US space program as an energy conversion
technology for powering deep space missions such as Cassini, Galileo and Viking.
Research in this area is focused on raising the efficiency of these devices from 78% to
1520%.

Solar Energy SWOT

Solar Energy Strengths

Solar panels give off no pollution, the only pollution produced as a result of solar
panels is the manufacturing of these devices in factories, transportation of the
goods, and installation.

The production of energy from the use of fossil and some renewable fuels (e.g.
wind turbines) can be noisy, yet solar energy produces electricity very quietly.

The ability to harness electricity in remote locations that are not linked to a
national grid. A prime example of this is in space, where satellites are powered by
high efficiency solar cells.

The installation of solar panels in remote locations is usually much more cost
effective than laying the required high voltage wires.

Solar energy can be very efficient in a large area of the globe, and new
technologies allow for a more efficient energy production on overcast/dull days.

Solar panels can be installed on top of many rooftops, which eliminates the
problem of finding the required space for solar panel placement.

Another great pro of solar energy is the cost. Although the initial investment of
solar cells may be high, once installed, they provide a free source of electricity,
which will pay off over the coming years.

The use of solar energy to produce electricity allows the user to become less
dependent on the worlds fossil fuel supplies.

Solar Energy Weakness

The major con of solar energy is the initial cost of solar cells. Currently, prices of
highly efficient solar cells can be above $1000, and some households may need
more than one. This makes the initial installation of solar panels very costly.

Solar energy is only able to generate electricity during daylight hours. This means
for around half of each day, solar panels are not producing energy for your home.

The weather can affect the efficiency of solar cells.

Pollution can be a con of solar energy, as pollution levels can affect a solar cells
efficiency, this would be a major con for businesses or industry wishing to install
solar panels in heavily polluted areas, such as cities.

Solar Energy Opportunities

Naturally this growth has been accompanied by the creation of new jobs

Training and Education

Sell electricity back to the Grid: if your system is producing more electricity than
you need, or when you can't use it, someone else can use it - and you could make
a bit of money.

Solar Energy Threats

Solar panel production creates many of the same toxic byproducts as those found
in semiconductor production, including silicon tetrachloride, dusts, and
greenhouse gases like sulfur hexafluoride. Which cause dangers to health.

How this topic will affect the island of Puerto Rico?

Solar Power in Puerto Rico is a great way to reduce the cost of electricity in
residential homes due to the high cost of combustible. With this system people can
control the use of electricity even free themselves of the government electrical service.
You can also sell electricity back to the Grid if your system is producing more electricity
than you need, or when you can't use it, someone else can use it - and you could make a
bit of money.

Nuclear Energy
As of 2005, nuclear power provided 2.1% of the world's energy and 15% of the
world's electricity, with the U.S., France, and Japan together accounting for 56.5% of
nuclear generated electricity. As of 2007, the IAEA reported there are 439 nuclear power
reactors in operation in the world, operating in 31 countries. In 2007, nuclear powers
share of global electricity generation dropped to 14%. According to the International
Atomic Energy Agency, the main reason for this was an earthquake in western Japan on
16 July 2007, which shut down all seven reactors at the Kashiwazaki-Kariwa Nuclear
Power Plant. There were also several other reductions and "unusual outages" experienced
in Korea and Germany. Also, increases in the load factor for the current fleet of reactors
appear to have plateaued.
The United States produces the most nuclear energy, with nuclear power providing 19%
of the electricity it consumes, while France produces the highest percentage of its

electrical energy from nuclear reactors78% as of 2006. In the European Union as a

whole, nuclear energy provides 30% of the electricity. Nuclear energy policy differs
between European Union countries, and some, such as Austria, Estonia, and Ireland, have
no active nuclear power stations. In comparison, France has a large number of these
plants, with 16 multi-unit stations in current use.
In the US, while the Coal and Gas Electricity industry is projected to be worth $85 billion
by 2013, Nuclear Power generators are forecast to be worth $18 billion.
Many military and some civilian (such as some icebreaker) ships use nuclear marine
propulsion, a form of nuclear propulsion. A few space vehicles have been launched using
full-fledged nuclear reactors: the Soviet RORSAT series and the American SNAP-10A.
International research is continuing into safety improvements such as passively safe
plants, the use of nuclear fusion, and additional uses of process heat such as hydrogen
production (in support of a hydrogen economy), for desalinating sea water, and for use in
district heating systems.

Life cycle of Nuclear Fuel

The Nuclear Fuel Cycle begins when uranium is mined, enriched, and
manufactured into nuclear fuel, (1) which is delivered to a nuclear power plant.
After usage in the power plant, the spent fuel is delivered to a reprocessing plant (2) or to
a final repository (3) for geological disposition.
In reprocessing 95% of spent fuel can be recycled to be returned to usage in a power
plant (4).
A nuclear reactor is only part of the life-cycle for nuclear power. The process starts with
mining. Uranium mines are underground, open-pit, or in-situ leach mines. In any case,
the uranium ore is extracted, usually converted into a stable and compact form such as
yellowcake, and then transported to a processing facility. Here, the yellowcake is
converted to uranium hexafluoride, which is then enriched using various techniques. At
this point, the enriched uranium, containing more than the natural 0.7% U-235, is used to

make rods of the proper composition and geometry for the particular reactor that the fuel
is destined for. The fuel rods will spend about 3 operational cycles (typically 6 years total
now) inside the reactor, generally until about 3% of their uranium has been fissioned,
then they will be moved to a spent fuel pool where the short lived isotopes generated by
fission can decay away. After about 5 years in a cooling pond, the spent fuel is
radioactively and thermally cool enough to handle, and it can be moved to dry storage
casks or reprocessed.

Boiling Nuclear Superheater

The decommissioned Boiling Nuclear Superheater (BONUS) reactor was developed as a
prototype nuclear power plant to investigate the technical and economic feasibility of the
integral boiling-superheating concept. This small-scale nuclear reactor produced
saturated steam in the central portion of the reactor core, superheated it in four
surrounding superheater sections of the same core, and then used the superheated steam
in a direct loop to drive a turbine generator. It was one of only two boiling-water
superheater reactors ever developed in the United States. The reactor was designed to be
large enough to evaluate the major features of the integral boiling-superheating concept
realistically without the high construction and operating costs associated with a large
plant. Construction of the began in 1960 through a combined effort of the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission and Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority. The reactor first
achieved a controlled nuclear chain reaction on April 13, 1964. It underwent a series of
criticality tests and then was operated experimentally at various power levels, first as a
boiler and later as an integral boiler-superheater. Operation at full power (50 megawatts
of thermal energy) and full temperature (900 F [482 C] steam) was achieved in
September 1965, and tests demonstrated satisfactory operation at 10 percent over power
in November 1965. Operation of the BONUS reactor was terminated in June 1968
because of technical difficulties and the ensuing need for high-cost modifications. The
Puerto Rico Water Resources Authority decommissioned the reactor between 1969 and
1970.
Nuclear Energy SWOT

Nuclear Energy Strength:

The Earth has limited supplies of coal and oil. Nuclear power plants could still
produce electricity after coal and oil become scarce.

Coal and oil burning plants pollute the air. Well-operated nuclear power plants do
not release contaminants into the environment.

Nuclear power plants need less fuel than ones which burn fossil fuels. One ton of
uranium produces more energy than is produced by several million tons of coal or
several million barrels of oil.

Nuclear Energy Weakness:

Nuclear power already delivers less energy globally than renewable energy, and
the share will continue to decrease in the coming years.

Resources are large but depletable

Use increasingly scarce of water

Need liability insurance exemption

Nuclear Energy Opportunities:

New approaches and opportunities with labor

Different business models can and have been chosen by investors; in all cases
financing can be ensured without state subsidies.

Social benefits of nuclear power include direct employment and positive impacts

of stable and predictable cost of electricity on the economy.

Nuclear energy also supports technological and scientific development.

Nuclear Energy Threaths:

Safety: No reactor in the world is inherently safe. All operational reactors have inherent
safety flaws, which cannot be eliminated by safety upgrading. Highly radioactive spent
fuel requires constant cooling. If this fails, it could lead to a catastrophic release of
radioactivity. They are also highly vulnerable to deliberate acts of sabotage, including

terrorist attack.
Waste: From the moment uranium is mined nuclear waste on a massive scale is produced.
There is no secure, risk free way to store nuclear waste. No country in the world has a
solution for high-level waste that stays radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years.
The least damaging option at this current time is for waste to be stored above ground, in
dry storage at the site of origin, but this option also presents major challenges and the
threats.
Weapons proliferation: The possession of nuclear weapons by the US, Russia, France,
the UK and China has encouraged the further proliferation of nuclear technology and
materials. Every state that has a nuclear power capability, has the means to obtain nuclear
material usable in a nuclear weapon. Basically this means that the 44 nuclear power states
could become 44 nuclear weapons states. Many nations that have active commercial
nuclear power programs, began their research with two objectives - electricity generation
and the option to develop nuclear weapons. Also nuclear programs based on reprocessing
plutonium from spent fuel have dramatically increased the risk of proliferation as the
creation of more plutonium, means more nuclear waste which in turn means more
materials available for the creation of dirty bombs.

Radiation: Radiation doses of about 200 rems cause radiation sickness, but only if
this large amount of radiation is received all at once. The average person receives
about 200 millirems a year from everyday objects and outer space.

How this topic will affect the island of Puerto Rico?

Nuclear Power in Puerto Rico would help a lot because of all of the removable
resources is the one to gain more power. One nuclear plant would be enough to give
power to a few houses. The only problem is that if the nuclear plant has a trouble it could
be very dangerous to nearby places and it could actually pollute the land it was placed on.

Geothermal Energy
Geothermal energy originates from the original formation of the planet, from
radioactive decay of minerals, and from solar energy absorbed at the surface. It has been
used for space heating and bathing since ancient roman times, but is now better known
for generating electricity. Geothermal heat originates from Earth's fiery consolidation of
dust and gas over 4 billion years ago. At earth's core - 4,000 miles deep - temperatures
may reach over 9,000 degrees F. About 10 GW of geothermal electric capacity is
installed around the world as of 2007, generating 0.3% of global electricity demand. An
additional 28 GW of direct geothermal heating capacity is installed for district heating,
space heating, spas, industrial processes, desalination and agricultural applications.
Geothermal power is cost effective, reliable, and environmentally friendly, but has
previously been geographically limited to areas near tectonic plate boundaries. Recent
technological advances have dramatically expanded the range and size of viable

resources, especially for direct applications such as home heating. Geothermal wells tend
to release greenhouse gases trapped deep within the earth, but these emissions are much
lower than those of conventional fossil fuels. As a result, this technology has the potential
to help mitigate global warming if widely deployed.
Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal generator on 4 July 1904, at the
Larderello dry steam field in Italy. The largest group of geothermal power plants in the
world is located at The Geysers, a geothermal field in California, United States. As of
2004, five countries El Salvador, Kenya, the Philippines, Iceland, and Costa Rica
generate more than 15% of their electricity from geothermal sources.

How is electricity generated using geothermal energy?

In geothermal power plants steam, heat or hot water from geothermal reservoirs provides
the force that spins the turbine generators and produces electricity. The used geothermal
water is then returned down an injection well into the reservoir to be reheated, to maintain
pressure, and to sustain the reservoir.
There are three kinds of geothermal power plants. The kind we build depends on the
temperatures and pressures of a reservoir.
1. A "dry'" steam reservoir produces steam but very little water. The steam is piped
directly into a "dry" steam power plant to provide the force to spin the turbine
generator. The largest dry steam field in the world is The Geysers, about 90 miles

north of San Francisco. Production of electricity started at The Geysers in 1960, at

what has become the most successful alternative energy project in history.
2. A geothermal reservoir that produces mostly hot water is called a "hot water
reservoir" and is used in a "flash" power plant. Water ranging in temperature from
300 - 700 degrees F is brought up to the surface through the production well where,
upon being released from the pressure of the deep reservoir, some of the water flashes
into steam in a 'separator.' The steam then powers the turbines.
3. A reservoir with temperatures between 250 - 360 degrees F is not hot enough to flash
enough steam but can still be used to produce electricity in a "binary" power plant. In
a binary system the geothermal water is passed through a heat exchanger, where its
heat is transferred into a second (binary) liquid, such as isopentane, that boils at a
lower temperature than water. When heated, the binary liquid flashes to vapor, which,
like steam, expands across and spins the turbine blades. The vapor is then
recondensed to a liquid and is reused repeatedly. In this closed loop cycle, there are
no emissions to the air.

Direct Application
Approximately seventy countries made direct use of a total of 270 PJ of
geothermal heating in 2004. More than half of this energy was used for space heating,
and a third was used for heated pools. The remainder was used for industrial and
agricultural applications. The global installed capacity was 28 GW, but capacity factors
tend to be low around 20% since the heat is mostly needed in the winter. The above
figures include 88 PJ of space heating extracted by an estimated million geothermal heat
pumps with a total capacity of 15 GW. Global geothermal heat pump capacity is growing
by 10% annually.

Direct application of geothermal heat for space heating is far more efficient than
electricity generation and has less demanding temperature requirements. It may come
from waste heat supplied by co-generation from a geothermal electrical plant or from
smaller wells or heat exchangers buried in the shallow ground. As a result it is viable
over a much greater geographical range than electricity generation. Where natural hot
springs are available, the water may be piped directly into radiators. If the shallow ground
is hot but dry, earth tubes or down hole heat exchangers may be used without a heat
pump. But even in areas where the shallow ground is too cold to provide comfort
directly, it is still warmer than the winter air. Seasonal variations in ground temperature
diminish and disappear completely below 10m of depth. That heat can be extracted with a
geothermal heat pump more efficiently than it can be generated by conventional furnaces.
Geothermal heat pumps can be used essentially anywhere. There are a wide variety of
applications for cheap geothermal heat. The cities of Reykjavk and Akureyri pipe hot
water from geothermal plants under roads and pavements to melt snow. District heating
applications use networks of piped hot water to heat buildings in whole communities.
Geothermal desalination has been demonstrated.

Environmental Impact
Geothermal fluids drawn from the deep earth may carry a mixture of gases with them,
notably carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide. When released to the environment, these
pollutants contribute to global warming, acid rain, and noxious smells in the vicinity of
the plant. Existing geothermal electric plants emit an average of 90-120 kg of CO2 per
MWh of electricity, a small fraction of the emission intensity of conventional fossil fuel
plants. Some are equipped with emissions-controlling systems that reduces the exhaust of
acids and volatiles.

In addition to dissolved gases, hot water from geothermal sources may contain trace
amounts of dangerous elements such as mercury, arsenic, and antimony which, if
disposed of into rivers, can render their water unsafe to drink. Geothermal plants can
theoretically inject these substances, along with the gases, back into the earth, in a form
of carbon sequestration. Construction of the power plants can adversely affect land
stability in the surrounding region. This is mainly a concern with Enhanced Geothermal
Systems, where water is injected into hot dry rock where no water was before.
Geothermal has minimal land use requirements; existing geothermal plants use 1-8 acres
per megawatt MW versus 5-10 acres per MW for nuclear operations and 19 acres per
MW for coal power plants..

Geothermal Energy SWOT

Strength of Geothermal Energy:

Clean. Geothermal power plants, like wind and solar power plants, do not have to
burn fuels to manufacture steam to turn the turbines. Generating electricity with
geothermal energy helps to conserve nonrenewable fossil fuels, and by decreasing the
use of these fuels, we reduce emissions that harm our atmosphere. There is no smoky
air around geothermal power plants -- in fact some are built in the middle of farm
crops and forests, and share land with cattle and local wildlife.
For ten years, Lake County California, home to five geothermal electric power plants,

has been the first and only county to meet the most stringent governmental air quality
standards in the U.S.

Easy on the land. The land area required for geothermal power plants is smaller per
megawatt than for almost every other type of power plant. Geothermal installations
don't require damming of rivers or harvesting of forests -- and there are no mine
shafts, tunnels, open pits, waste heaps or oil spills.

Reliable. Geothermal power plants are designed to run 24 hours a day, all year. A
geothermal power plant sits right on top of its fuel source. It is resistant to
interruptions of power generation due to weather, natural disasters or political rifts
that can interrupt transportation of fuels.

Flexible. Geothermal power plants can have modular designs, with additional units
installed in increments when needed to fit growing demand for electricity.

Weakness of Geothermal Energy:

Lack of resource information
Relatively long lead time from concept to production
Perceived high cost
Small base of experienced professionals and equipment
High upfront costs
Geographic distance from population centers and transmission infrastructure
Opportunities of Geothermal Energy

Helps Developing Countries Grow. Geothermal projects can offer all of the above
benefits to help developing countries grow without pollution. And installations in
remote locations can raise the standard of living and quality of life by bringing
electricity to people far from "electrified" population centers.

Keeps Dollars at Home. Money does not have to be exported to import fuel for
geothermal power plants. Geothermal "fuel'" - like the sun and the wind - is always
where the power plant is; economic benefits remain in the region and there are no fuel
price shocks.

Threats of Geothermal Energy:

Possible environmental dangers posed by geothermal energy are:

Land subsidence;

Production of waste water with high mineral content;

Disposal of hot water produced in the power conversion process;

Release of noxious gases, such as hydrogen sulfide, ammonia and boron into the
atmosphere, and large amounts of water vapor;

The amount of land taken up and noise produced are substantial.

How will this topic affect the island of Puerto Rico?

Geothermal Power in Puerto Rico wouldnt have a lot of progress because
the process to obtain its a very expensive one. Also its very hard to process it
and to get the energy to spread across the island. Since by every place we have the
ground to have this kind of energy we would have to have a plant each to spread
the energy.

What kind of effect green energy will have on you as a future electrical engineer?
As a computer or electrical engineer this opens employment opportunities for
systems to monitor and maintain the plants. Also we must consider options and ideas to
improve and assistant this alternative. An example would be finding the most efficient
way to harness this energy in times of extremely high winds and low breezes. And to
insure materials that would be efficient and resistant to the energy produced.

Conclusion:
In comparing the various forms of energysolar, wind, geothermal and nuclear
there are pros and cons to each in such a unique way that no overall quantitative
assessment can be made. What is most pertinent for the sake of the environmentand for
species health. Using renewable energy would eliminate this problem entirely. However,
the needs of peopleespecially those in developing countriesmust be mixed into the
equation for a realistic result to be obtained. When political decisions are made, they are
typically made to satisfy none other than those implementing themthe people. So,
whether this is just or not, energy solutions will tend to cater to the needs of the country

in question. If the source seems that it will be unreliable, and that it may not be able to
give enough power to an entire population, then the country will opt against such energy
usage.

However, renewable energy does offer a great alternative to us. It is the answer

for energy crisis. It is the answer to global warming. It is the answer to a more
comfortable

life.

All

but

not

least,

renewable energy

is

our

future.

Introduction
Green energy is the term used to describe sources of energy that are considered to be
environmentally friendly and non-polluting, such as geothermal, wind, solar, and hydro.
Sometimes nuclear power is also considered a green energy source. Green energy sources
are often considered "green" because they are perceived to lower carbon emissions and
create less pollution.
Green energy is commonly thought of in the context of electricity, mechanical power,
heating and cogeneration. Consumers, businesses, and organizations may purchase green

energy in order to support further development, help reduce the environmental impacts of
conventional electricity generation, and increase their nations energy independence.
Renewable energy certificates (Green certificates or green tags) have been one way for
consumers and businesses to support green energy.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank God first of all for giving me strength to do my part of the job for
this project, I would like to also thank my friends for helping me and giving me support.

Jeniffer L. Rivera Ayuso

Y00-05-4425
Recommendations:
My recommendation is that we should give extra points to the person that is going to
present the project.

Jeniffer L Rivera Ayuso

Y00-05-4425