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|  

 

O  
  
  

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y=m.x+b


m = (yend y0) / (xend x0)

b = y0 m . x0


   





if |m|<1
xk+1 = xk + 1
yk+1 = yk + m
if |m|>1
yk+1 = yk + 1
xk+1 = xk + 1/m





   
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x 2 + y 2 = r2
(x-xc)2 + (y-yc)2 = r2

(xc-r) x (xc+r)
y = yc r2 - (x-xc)2

 
 

r  x
r  y

 
  
   

4 

4


x = xc + r . cos
y = yc + r . sin
change with step
size 1/r

 
  
   

4 

4


4 

4
4 

4 

4


x = xc + r . cos
y = yc + r . sin
change with step
size 1/r

use symmetry if >450

a      


f(x,y) = x2 + y2 - r2
<0 if (x,y) is inside circle
f(x,y) =0 if (x,y) is on the circle
<0 if (x,y) is outside circle








use symmetry if x>y

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s (s
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f (f  )
d (d  )



 i(GL_POINTS);
 
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i p1[ ]={, 1;


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x2iv(p1);
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x2iv(p1);
 
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x2iv(p3);
 
x2iv(p);
 
x2iv(p);
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p1

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i   i d
i
 
i m:
6



iz   d
v
ir is s 
s i si y


 is s 
i s i si y

m
 
a 

a 

  

   

 
6

 
 


 

m
ix is 
r  


y f m
s.

 m
ix i 
p
s d y  pp
rs i  irisd
 
.
T   m   2
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  s 
idxi  1,  
s  idxs 

ys f
m .

a    

Giv  m
irs d if   dd (  is
f
m  )  if is (!=), ms  (!=), O 
is,
 is  dfid.
T  ddi i  p
drs 
s ,  =  , i  m s:
  

           
           





a  a   

Giv  m
irs d if   m ip y y ( 
is f
m )  if is (!=), ms  (=!), i.., 
m
f r ms i ms    m
f
s
i . O 
is, is  dfid.
T  m ip ir i  p
drs 
s ,  = , i  m s:
=

 


(sir y  m ip y  fi
s
 f i  fi
s r m f
d p is i 
   m f  d s ).

a  a   

2! + 6!3+ 7!2=

      
   !    




      
  
   

   


 

|dfid!
2x2 x 3x2 2!=3

2x2 x 2x x x is  d. Rs is 2x m


ix

a !! * 

| ik sr 
m ip ir i , 
a
ix m ip ir i  dis
i s v
ddi i :
( +) = + 
Id i y m
ix f
m ip ir i  is dfid s p.
T 
sp s f  m
ix, , is i 
d d 
is
 id y sppi 
s d r ms f :
  

 

 
 

  
 




 

 

  

 


m
  









" 

Rr .. W r
s   p i s i  ( ) p   p si i s
y ddi
s  i  m  s  r
di s f  p i s.

r p i ( )  m vd y  i s p


   xis d y 
i s p
    xis,   p i (  ). T 
s  i  s
x  x d x
 f i f
m:
4 



4 

y  y d y
I m
ix f
m :

 x   x   d x 
 y   y d


 y
d x 
If  dfi 
s  i  m
ix T   ,   v    
d y

" 

P i s r  sr d (s
 r d) y    xis d y 
    xis i   p i s y  m ip ir i s:
W r sprify  mr i

sm 
y ms f  sr  fr

T d    siz f  r  s  sr  fr
f 2,  f  siz f
x  sx x
 r  s  sr  fr
f .


4 

 

4 


sx
If  dfi S  


y  s y y

 x   s x
 y   



,   v  
sy

 x 
s y  y

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P i s r 
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x  OP  r 

|   l r 

 l r  r  |  l 
 x r  |  y  |
y  OP  

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|   l 

 l r   | l 
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| 



| 

4 

 x  r  |
 y    |



  |   x 
r  |  y

r |
 

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T
s  :
Sr :
R  :

Sp  dd   

6
6

$
$

P = P+T
P = SP
P = RP

a ip yi v
ss ddi m
ix
Id y, 
sf
m i s   d   sm..

$ si
r d
6

S  i : H m  s i
di s

f  


 iv 2D r
di s ( ),  i
dr  i
d dimsi :
[  ]
I 
 ,  m  s r
di s f
 2D p i s  f
m:
[  ]
T m  s r
di s [  ] d [  ] 
 sid  f 
sm (
iv  ) if
= 
 = 
 = 

f
s m  

       
 
 k=2

T 
f
 y [  ] r  
m isd y dividi r  m y :
[, , 1]

f  

N ,
dfi 
s  i  y si m  s r
di s:
 x    d x   x 
d
 x   x   x 
 y    d  y
y 
 y   y d
 
y



    
P  T ! P

Simi 
y,  v: Sr i
 x  sx
 y   
 
  


sy


R  i 

  x 
  y
 

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 y    |
 
  

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r |


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  x 
  y
 


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2  2!


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s    p i   y 4  d   y
 
4 
P 
 T d x  d y   P  T  d x  d y  T  d x d y  P R
O  
d,  r dfi  4  4  fi
s , 
pp y   P  T P

T  T  d x  d y  T  d x d y 
 


  d x     d x 
   d y    d y
     

  d x d x  
   d y d y 

 


 m
 

(1,2)

(1,3)

(1,1)

(2,1)

       
T        
     
  
   
  

(2,2)

  m
 #

2. a ip ir ivi y f srrssiv sr is


P  S  s x  s y   S  s x s y  P R
  S  s x  s y   S  s x s y RP
 S  P

 

S   S  s x  s y   S  s x s y 

sx 
sy

 


 
 s x 
s x







  s x


 
 
 


s y


s y 
s y








  m
 #

3. ddi ivi y f srrssiv


 i s
P  R |   R|  P R
  R |   R | RP
 R P

 


R  R |   R | 
 r  |
  | 
r  | 

r | 


  | 
  |


 
 
 
r |  |   |  | 
r |  | 

 |  | 





  |
r  |







  m
 #

. Diff
 yps f  m 
y
sf
m i s disrssd  v
r  r r  d s  .
P  R | T d x d y  P R
  R | T d x d y RP
 aP

a  R| T d x d y 

 


i sid
 f i  s i s:
1)
s    i sm  , sy, y 1 i s i  di
r i 
d 2 i s i   di
r i .
(3,3)


(1,2)


2). R    i sm  , sy y | d


s r  
r rkis,
  


(3,3)
(1,2)

|


>"  $

T
s   Lis:


s    dp i s,   i m.

Sr 
R   Lis: a
 r mp x.
xmp , r sid

   
i

y i    p i ,

 s ps 
 dd:
1). T
s   sr   is  
ii;
2). R  ;
3). T
s   sr   p i  
ii

 
s .


(3,3)
(1,2)



(|)
(2,1)

(1,2)


|


(1,2)



#

T
s  

Sr 

T
s  

R  

>a%
 #           $       
              %#    
#    #        
&

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&
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"&
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!&
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)     !

a   R |  S  s x s y 

a   S  s x s y  R | 
  |

  r  |
sx



sy

   |
r |


 

 

 s x
 |

sx
r |

s y
r |
  s y
 |




  sx  s , M1 = M
2

  |
  s x
r  |


r |

 
   |


 
 


s
r  |  s
 |

y
  x
 s x
 |
s
y
r |







sy







!* #   


sf
m i  m
ix f  f
m
 r
r
 
 

r
r


tx 
t y


 
  pp
2!2 sm
ix is
  , p
s
vs  s d
 s. Sr
sf
ms 
 r d   *
sf
m i s,
rs   dy
r i
sf
md is  dis
d i y
y.  
i

y sr f
 i  d
s  i  m
irs
r
 s  m
ix f is f
m.
T  p
dr f  
i

y sr f
 i ,
s  i s, and
scale m
irs i rs   
sf
m i ,  ir v 
p
p
y f p
s
vi p
  ism f is,   f  s d
 s.

!* #   #

Riid  dy
T
sf
m i 

ffi
T
sf
m i 

!+,

|  

  x,   y


sf
m i  is  s ffi.

   x   


SH x  










SH y  


   y   









m
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6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

P i s
Lis
ii
r s
 ipss
O 
r
vs
i i 
s
Tx
P 
s
P ym
k
s

  
P y s 
 r sid
d!
1)
2)

SrLi i i (  ds)


I 
r iv i i (si  i 
i

s 
i p i )

!O    


  
P
 m: Giv  v
irs
ds f 
p y ,  ir 
  pix s 
ir dd i  
 fi i

!O    &


ai id:
6 r   i 
sr i s   
sr is d  ds f  p y 
6 s
 i 
sr i  p i s  r
sr i  ir
si xr
di s
6 
  f
mff
p si i s  
 r

 sr i   pi


is
i 
sr i  p i s

a  

!O    &


  i i 
sr i  p i s  

v
irs:
*  : r  m s if r v
x is
i  p i s (  r f    ii
ds i  v
x)
 : if   ds  ii i 
v
x 
  pp si  sids f  sr i,
 r   v
x  y r (
i
 s m
ddi i  p
rssi)

'

!O    &


Timr smi r   i 
sr i  p i s!
If  d is r
ssd y  sr i, m s
p
 y  s  x sr i i r
ss i
(  s f   )

!O    &


r d is  dsr
id y  *
:
6 ymx
6 x (ii i y  x
  d ymi)
6 4x/4y (iv
s f  s p)
6 (p ssi y  s 4x d 4y)
4x/4y is sd f
ir
m  r r  i s
f  i 
sr i  p i s

 

!O    &


T  i 
sr i  p i (x,y)    d
d sr i y f s f
m  i  i 
f  d:
y = 4y/4x . x +  (rp. y = m.x + )
T  i 
sr i     sm d d 
x sr i y+1 is  iv f
m 
f i:
y+1 = 4y/4x . x+1 + 
d  s
y+1 = y + 1 = 4y/4x . x +  +1

!O    &


T is ivs s:
x+1 = x + 4x/4y ,  = , 1, 2, ..
i..   v  f x   x sr
i is iv y ddi  iv
s f 
s p  r

 v  f x

!O    &


 r iv is f d
r
ds i 
sr i
i  r

 sr i is s
d 
ir
si xr
di s
T  p y  pix s  
 
i  i 
f
m ff

 s  ir 

r r  d    r

 sr i
  pi
is xr
di s
rr
di  r iv is

!O    &


W  r i f
m  sr i  x ,
 r iv d is is pd d:
6 
r
d i ymx <   x sr i is

m vd
6 i 
mii
r
ds, x is ir
m d d

dd  
s i 

6  d i ymi =   x sr i is


ir dd i  is

!O    

m    
Giv   d
is f  r sd s
fr.
y r si  
i

y i 
i
p i ,
 r mp   i 
i
f  s
fr i
 fi d i  r
f  s
s
r ir.

    &
$   :  

  d
y is sid  !*
 if f
m  
i

y p i  

pix s i i  

   d
y r

r d y  y m vi i
iz  

v
ir s ps.


m
, if i is  s  d k
di  s ps,  s
fr
  d
y is
sid  -*.

!

    &

r
siv p
rd
 f
fi i  
r r d (r r d) s
fr r
si y  dfid.
ssm   s
fr s  v 
sm r
s   d
y (r si y
 m difid!).
T  fi
s i 
i
p si i  (pix ) is r s
y  s
.

    &  


v id fi (i x, i y, i fi i
) {
i i 
i
i
;
i 
i
i
=  Pix (x,y);
if (i 
i
i
!= fi i
) {
s Pix (x, y, fi i
);
fi (x + 1, y, fi i
);
fi (x, y + 1, fi i
);
fi (x  1, y, fi i
);
fi (x, y  1, fi i
);  

 !> 


W  is  p i  i 
i
p i 
* 
D
 r rp  y  i f
m  sprifid p i
 dis  p i  sid  r
di  spr;
r   m
f p y  ds  

r
ssd
if dd => i 
i

if v => x 
i

N ! T  v
irs!


Rp
s  i :
* i mppd (
s 
)
+ fs
 m
 s

 ss  d f

s y s/sizs
*  id ( is d

r
vs)
+ ss s

+  d f
s y s/sizs
 s 

>   
* p 
 ( fi  
)

m y,   x m
r  

r
pix 

y i  sprifid

f
r p i
* p ym
k
(m
k
sym )
 r 
r 

p
s i  p i
* (p y i)
 r r d sr f i sm s

 '
If r  y  p
imi iv is disp yd
T mi ys f i
dri 
i s:
1) ddd p
imi ivs p
m 
is
.. s Pix (x, y, r
)
2)

 is f r

 
i s ( 
pd d   r d)
. s i
(r
); s Pix (x, y);

 ' 


Lis (d r
vs) 
 
m y ifii  y i
6 yp

$
$

6
6

ds d, d d, s id, d ds d, 


pix msk, .. 1111111

id

p
 m i   is; i rps 
 sd ds
s p

p/
s s p
r
(i si y)

O   


6

Li rps

J is

 ' 
6

fi s y 

$
6
6

, s id, p 
,  r fi , 

p 


$ i i

  
Ti i = fi i s
frs (p y s) i 

r  
p 


 '   


6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

s y 
f  ( ypfr)
r

siz (id / i )



i  i 
p
spri
 im

 '

 '&

 '&

 '&

 '
r r
s  m
ir v ,
i si y,
sd  s m r
m d .
r
m d ypir y r sis s f
 p
im
y
r
s, i  rs f disp ys Rd, G
 d
  (RG)

r p
im
y r
 i si y r  iv,
i 
2 (i 
)
1 (f  ) yi di 
fi r

26 diff
 v s f r p
im
y r
ms
3x=2 i s f if
m i  s


 
T diff
 ys f s
i  r
v :
1)  di
r r
v  s
/pix
2) idi
r y vi  r
kp  
idx/pix ( ypir y 26
12
diff
 r
s i   )

O(!'

   
isi  fr  xr p i s 

pp
xim d y fixd pix p si i s
    =  r i 
r mps s f
is (m
  
i si y v /pix is
i
d)

    &
p y  i  s did (s  xmp ).
    (p
fi 
i):  pix  is  y
p
y ir dd i  xr p y , i 
iv  i si y  is p
p
i  
x  f  pix 
  is r v
d y 

 p y 

 
P = p y  i si y
 = rk
d i si y
f =  x  f  pix

 r v
d y 

p y 
 pix i si y =
P*f + *(1  f)
. Tim r smi
r r   f

 
6
6

i ippi
i S 
d Li i ippi 
i m

  
6

W y r ippi

$ N v
y

i dfid i  
d
r
di s is isid  
d id 

W 
 d s r ippi k p r
a 

 

 

   

OpGL d s i f
y 

$ |T, s  iS m
, y  s
is d .

 d k   i

O   
6

i r ipSm (p1, p2, id )


$ Ip p
m 
s: p1, p2, id 
p1, p2: 2D dp i s  dfi  i
id :  id
r  
$ R 
d v :
1, if p
f  i is isid  id 
, 
is
$ O p p
m 
s: p1, p2
p1 d/
p2s v  mi  r d s
  p1 d p2 
 isid  id 

O   
6

xmp 

$ Li

i
iD
D


R  O p

















!O    
  
6

T
ivi rrp d
ivi
r

$ If 
$ If 

dp i s i i id  
ivi rrp
dp i s  sid f sm  d
y f
id  
ivi
r

O 
is

$ i ip is r

d i 

T
 y r ippd ff p
f i r im

H  r  d i ffiri y (  y)

!O    
  
6

xmp s:

$
ivi rrp 
$
ivi
r 

O O


!O    
  
6

|s
i   r d

!O    
  
6

 r d[1] ` ( < 2!# ")


 r d[2] ` ( > 2!#!)
 r d[3] ` ( > 2!#2$)
 r d[] ` ( < 2!#!!=)

!O    
  
6

  r ds 


$ T
ivi rrp
6

L ir ND f   r ds

$ T
ivi
r
6

L ir ND f   r ds =

$ i 
$ i ip is r

d i 

T
 y r ippd ff p
f i r im

!O    
  
6

xmp s:

$  r ds
$
ivi rrp 
$
ivi
r 

O O


!O    
  
i r ipSm (P i 2& p1, P i 2& p2, R Rr W)
d
if(22 

)
 
 1;
 s if(22  
)
 
 ;
 s
if( 2 22) sp(, )
if( 2 ! $ ")
$! 2 $ "
 s if( 2 ! $ 2$)
$! 2 $ 2$
 s if( 2  !#)
$! 2 $ !!=
 s if( 2 !)
$! 2 $ !
 i (1);

!O    
  
6

sm 
i
s  r ips

!O    
  
6

H  d  r p is r  d


y
Giv P1 (  sid) d P2, (.x,.y)=

!O    
  
6

L dx = p1.x  p2.x dy = p1.y  p2.y


.x = .

d = p1.y  .y
 = p1.x  .

d/dy = /dx

 p1.y  .y = (dy/dx)(p1.x  .
)
 .y = p1.y  (dy/dx)(p1.x  .
)
= p1.y + (dy/dx)(.
 p1.x)
s is   P1

 p1.y += (dy/dx)(.
 p1.x)
p1.x = .

 

 


 

| !

  
  
  

63D

IWING


   !

$ ii pip i


$ ii r
di s
$ P
r i s
$ i v ms d 
 p
r i 

sf
m i s
$ r ippi


  
6
6

6
6

! 
!!2 =( 
 
r s 
 m d d d dfid)
2#2
!!2 =(vii r s
i
spr  
s
dfid r
di 
sys m)


!!2 =( vii
r
di  sys m r s    r

f  sr)
 

!!2 =( r
di 
sys m sprifir  r .)


  
6

Simp  rm
  y is d p d


   !  


  
6

Dfii  vii r
di  sys m d
sprifyi  vi p 


  
s ps s  is  2#2
!!2 =
vi
f
r
r
di  sys m d  2# 

i
s pirk p  
d r
di  p si i 
r d  vi
f
r p i . T is is 
ii
f  i sys m
Pirk p  +v di
r i  f
 Zv xis
d 
i  i  f  vi p  y
sprifyi  vi p  
m vr
N.
i s  
d r
di  p si i  d
is p i s  is s  di
r i  f
N
  iv
i 
 
d
i
ii. T  vi p 

m vr
is  di
r d i sm .


  
6

s ps s  is  2#2
!!2 =
vi
f
r r
di 
sys m d  2# 

S m prks   s r s  k 
p i
  iv  vi
f
r p i .
O
s p  Lf dd vii sys m d
k  N d  +v Zv xis f
m  vii

ii  k  p i .


  
6

s ps s  is  2#2
!!2 =
vi
f
r
r
di  sys m d  2# 

W   r s  vi p vr
. I r
 sprifid s  is     Zv xis.
|si N, | r  sprifid.
G
 y 
p irs prks   s
s
r s  p si i  f  vi p     Zv xis
y sprifyi  vi p  dis r f
m 
vii
ii.
p .

T  vi p  is  ys p


   XvYv


  

T  i  s
is f vis f  sr 
r kp  vi
f
r p i fixd d r 
 di
r i  f N
 r fix N di
r i  d m v
 vi
f
r p i 
d  sr.

T
sf
m i  f
m 
d vii r
di  sys m

  
yO

yO
x

y
x

xO
O

ar,vr=RzRyRx.T

y


4 






xO

4
  








yO

yO

y

y

x
y

yO

x

xO

xO

x


4
 


 

  


   !

4
 



  

4
 


 


  !

xO

 ") *


O
3D srs 
  sprifid i 3D 
d r
di s
T disp y s  d 
   2D im  ! 
 r s
  2
 

Pir 
 P 

Or s i
W
d Spr

   !


m!

P
r i  is s  p
f  p
rss f r v
i f
m 3D

d r
di s  2D im

3D 
d
r
di 
 p
p
imi ivs

i ip is
vi v m

P
r 
p
r i 
p 

T
sf
m
2D dvir
r
di s

2D dvir
r
di s

>") 
6

T 
 
  
d r sss f
p
r i :
P
  : Typir y sd f

r i r 
 d i
i
d
is
P
spr iv: R is ir ki d sd i r mp 

p irs

P
  P
r i 

P
spr iv P
r i 

>") 

>") 
6

T 
 
  
d r sss f p
r i :
$ P
  :

p
s
vs
  iv p
p
i s f r s
rr
  vis f v
i s sids f  r r   id
d s  iv
 is ir
p
s  i s f  pp
r f 
3D r iv.
P
spr iv:
p
dr
 is ir vis  d s  p
s
v
  iv
p
p
i s
p
r i s f dis  r s 
 sm 
  p
r i s
f r s f  sm siz  
 r s
 p
r i 
p .

"") 
6

S m xmp s f p
  p
r i s
O

p ir

O

p ir P
r i (x  m
ir)

 i

"") 
6

S m xmp s f p
  p
r i s

T  p
r i 
p  is  id s  i
i 
sr s r r
di 
xs i  ir  r is
dfid (p
irip xs) 
 sm dis r f
m 

ii.
 p
irip
xs 
 f
s
d
 y.

Is m
ir p
r i  f
 r

"") 
T
sf
m i   i s f


p ir p
  p
r i s is simp 
y p i (x,y,z) i vii r
di s is
sf
md p
r i 
r
di s s
Xp=X

Yp=Y

"") 

O i p
r i s

T
sf
m i   i s f
 i p
r i s is s  .

 x p  
y 
 p  
 p 


O

 p 




L r  l
L  l







  x 
 y


 

 

"") 

O i p
r i s

T
sf
m i   i s f
 i p
r i s is s  .

 x p  
y 
 p  
 p 
 
 O p 

 L r  l
 L  l






  x 
  y
 

 



p ir p
r i  is
 id   L1=.
I fr  ffr f  p
r i 
m
ix is s 
p s f
r s  Z d p
r m 
 vi p .

$T r mm   i p
  p
r i s:
 2 d 2

"") 
$2 r mm   i p
  p
r i s:
iv i
p
r i 
  
 

is p
pdir 
 p
r i 
p  
 p
r d i  r  i
 .

O i p
r i s

ii p
r i 
  
  

T y 
 m

 is ir  rv i

Lis p
pdir 
 vii
s
fr 
 p
r d    f i

 .

" ") 


vis ffr is simi 
m vis sys m...
s 'p
spr iv f
s
i
siz f r v
is iv
s y i dis r f
m  r 
f p
r i .
 s  y
mi i r f
frs p
  p
r i  p .

" ") 

W 
  v
is f
m 1

" ") 

" ") 


If  PRP is s r d 
 vii r
idi 

ii  Zp
p=
T  p
r i  r
di s
r m
Xp=X(Zvp/Z)
If  vi p  is  | p  i s f  Zvp=.
T  p
r i  r
di s r m
Xp=X(Zp
p/(Zp
pZ))=X(1/(1Z/Zp
p))
Yp=Y(Zp
p/(Zp
pZ))=Y(1/(1Z/Zp
p))

Yp=Y(Zvp/Z)

" ") 


6
6

T 
 
  m
f diff
 kids f p
spr iv vis
T  m s r mm  
 p i d  p i p
spr ivs

i
di  dsr
ip i 
Op i p
spr iv
p
r i 

T p i p
spr iv
p
r i 

" ") 


P
  is  
 p
   vi p  

p
r d s p
  is. T  p i   ir  s f p
r d
p
  is pp
r v
 is r d  vis i p i .
If  s f is 
 p
   f 
 p
irip 
xs,  vis i p i is r d  2
2 2$2 !2.
T 
 
  m s 3 sr p i s, r

sp di  m


f
xs r y  p
r i  p .

  

  

P
spr iv p
r i 

P
  p
r i 
T  siz f  vi v m dpds   siz f  id   
s p dpds   yp f p
r i   sd.
 
d f
p s ms    sm sid f 
f
r
p i .

  

Of   vi p  is p si i d   vi


f
r p i
 
f
 r ippi p   i  
 i p
  p
r i .
P
spr iv ffr s dpd   p si i i f  p
r i 

f
r p i
  iv  vi p 

  ! "f


 

"
##

 

PN

 $
"
##

 

RP

%


# 


 $
"
##

 



 


"
##

 

%


# 


RP



 


"
##

 

PN

RP

PN

 $
"
##

 

  
I  im i  sr,  r
p r  p
r i 
f
r p i  
vii r
di 
ii d p  vi
p  i f
 f  sr.
W s  fi d f vi y
ds i  siz f  id 
  iv
 dis r f  vi p  f
m 
PRP.
W m v
  sr y
m vi  vii
f
r f
m d
 PRP i m v i  vi
f
r
p i .

) 
 
6 P
 

 
' 
 



!

%


&

N



4 


 
 



 
' 
 



!
N

4
 


%


&




) 
 
6 P
 
L p=(,,r)   p
r i 
vr
i vii r
di s.
T  s 

sf
m i  r
 xp
ssd s
p=ap
  . p
W 
 ap
  is



p ir p
 
p
r i  ap
  r ms 
id i y m
ix sir 1=1=

 

  r 







  r 

     
    

   r r
 
    

 r        
r

 r       
r
 

G
 p
spr iv p
r i 

sf
m i 
  +  
 
  

P
spr iv




!



!

' 

' 
N







"
&


4 


 
 


"
&


 


4
 ! 


 ) 


6 P
spr iv
 
S ps
1. S 
 vi v m s  
r 
i f  f
s m is
p
pdir 
 vi p 
2. Sr   vi v m i 
sr i fr
 dpds  1/z.
s 
p
 i  is  i  

p
spr iv vi v m i 
p
r i  id .
T 
sf
m i  iv vs 
r mi i  f zxis s 
d 

s  i .

ap
spr iv=asr .as



   
i v m r ippi  d
is 
 p s  s

i  i s dpd   yp f p
r i ,  p
r i 
id  d  p si i  f  p
r i 
f
r p i
T  p
rss f fidi  i 
sr i  f  i i 
f  vi v m  d
is is simp ifid if  r v
 vi
v m f
 r ippi 
r  
p
  pipd.
i.  fi
s p
f
m  p
r i 
sf
m i   ir
r v
s r
di  v s i  vi v m

p ir
p
  r
di s.
O i p
r i  vi v ms 
 r v
d 

r  
p
  pipd y  s 
i p
 i  d
p
spr iv vi v ms 
 r v
d i  r mi i  f
s 
d sr 
sf
m i s.

   ! +  

T  
m izd vi v m is 
i  dfid y  p s
X=, x=1, y=, y=1, z=, z=1

   ! +  

T 
 
 sv
 dv s r ippi is 
i r
1. T  
m izd vi v m p
vids  s d
d
s p f

p
s i y sizd vi v m.
2. i ippi p
rd
s 
 simp ifid d s d
dizd
i i r ippi p s
 vip
p s.
3. Dp ri d visi s
fr d 
mi i  

simp ifid, sir Zxis  ys p i s 
ds 
vi
.

appi p si i s i i 
r  

vi v m 
dimsi 

r  
vip
is rr mp is d
i  r mi i  f sr i d

s  i .

|i r

3D vip

   ! +  

appi p si i s i i 

r  
vi v m 

dimsi 
r  

vip
is rr mp is d i 
r mi i  f sr i d

s  i .
Dx

x

Dy

y

Dz

z

W 


Dx=(xvmxxvmi)/(xmxxmi) d x= xvmi xmi Dx


Dy= (yvmxyvmi)/(ymxymi) d y= yvmi  ymi Dy
Dz= (zvmxzvmi)/(zmxzmi) d z= zvmi zmi Dz

|i r

3D vip

   

 i dp i  p si i 
(x,y,z)  ssi  i p si i s
i 
i  r d f
m
i f
s
i 1 = 1 if x< xvmi ( f )
i 1 = 1 if x< xvmx (
i )
i 1 = 1 if y< yvmi ( )
i 1 = 1 if y< yvmx ( v)
i 1 = 1 if z< zvmi (f
 )
i 1 = 1 if z< zvmx (rk)

   

 i sm i dp i s
P1(x1,y1,z1) d P2(x2,y2,z2) 
p
m
ir  i s r 
X=x1+(x2x1)
Y=y1+(y2y1)
Z=z1+(z2z1)

f   


 ! 
# 


WORLDiOORDINT
Or dsr
ip i s

"
##
 # 


"
%
"
 


 

2D r
di s

3D r
di s


2$$
!!2 =:


 #
1.

T
s  i  i 3D is  simp  x si  f
m  i 2D:


T d x d y d   




2.

  dx 
  d y
  d

  

Sr i is simi 


y x dd:
sx

S sx s y s   





sy







s







 #
3.

T  2D
 i  i
drd p
vi s y is s  3D
 i   
 % xis.

r  |
  |
R |   
 

 
simi 
y  v:


 r  |
Rx |   
  |




  |
r |



'

 
 
 

 

&
(


  |
r |






 r |
 
Ry |   
  |

 

  |


 r |







  
 
I 3D
sf
m i s, 
d
f  sr f
 i s m 
s!
r 
 
R  Ry    
 

 
 r 
 
Ry  R    
 

 

 

   r 
   
   

   

r 


 


 r 


  r 
  
  

  

 


 r 

 
r 



 r  r 
   r 

   


 

 

r  

r 

 

   r  r 
   

    r 


  

Ry   R   R   Ry  

r 

  r 



r 

 

r 










a 
W v s  
     f  p
irip  xs, i.. 
xs r s i  i  r
di  sys m. T 
 
 m
  r d ,
f
xmp , p
f
m 
 i     
i

y xis:

W 
   r   

'

xis i spr pssi


 (, , %)

2(x2, y2 , z2&

d (, , %).


(

1(x1, y1 , z1&

&

   '  '   


'

'
2

1
1
&

&

1). T
s    r y (, 

2). R    xis   s

, %): (, , %)

 i is   % p : ( )
'

'

1
(

3). R    xis    s
 i is  %:  ( )

&

&

). R   r   % y |: %(|)

   '  '   #


f 
  ff
s, d  f
 d 
 i s d 
s  i !
T 
f
,  mixd m
ix  i p
f
m 
i
d sk f
 i 
r    
i

y xis is iv y:
a = (,,%) ( )( ) %(|) ( ) ( )(,,%)

idi is
ivi ,      

'

T       % xis d 


2

p
r i  f    % p  is .
1
(

&

 

 

 
 
T
y
sf
m  i sm s  d  f
m i
s 
p si i  i ()
i
di p si i  i ().


()

()

T  fi
s s  i  is r mp s  p
imi iv
sf
m i s ,   d %.
T is pp
r is si
i s
  d d s ff
 p  i di 
d
s di. T  2d, m
 s
r pp
r is s  p
p
is f
spri
  m
irs.

  
 

ki  diffir p
 m i simp 
sp
 ms:
1.T
s    
ii.
2. R       xis sr   is i  ( %) p .
3. R      xis sr   is   % xis.
. R      % xis sr   is i  ( %) p .


"

2
%

2
%

  
 
T   x  y   

1.








2.







 x 
 y
 

P  T  x  y     P     RT
y  y

RT

P  T  x  y     P   x  x

y  y

RT

R y    |  

  |
 

r  |

 

R
R1

R2


P  T  x  y     P   x  x





 r |

 |





  
 
Rx l 

RR2








RR1


l


r l
 l



  l
r l






%


.

R  
RRR

i y,  v  r mp si  m
ix:

RRR1
%

RRR2

R    Rx l   R y |    T  x  y     R  T

 



otate the vector


|

 


T  i vr
   xis is [1, ]. f 

 i   
ii y
|, 
s i vr
is

r  |

  |

  |   r  | 


r  |    |

 #


 



otate the vector

Simi 
y,  i vr
    xis is [, 1]. f 

 i   

ii y |, 
s i vr
is

r  |

  |

  |     | 




r  |   r  |

T   v
s s s  s  if 
y
   vr
,
ii y p i i 
di
r i  f  (
) xis, 
d   di
r i   (
), 
 i  m
ix,
, r  d  simp y 
i  s [ ) ] i   d f y xp iri k  d
f |,  r 
 i   .

 #
T 
v
sd p
 i  f   v
 i  is
   vr
 is 

ii y p i i  (
) di
r i  i  di
r i  f  p si iv

xis. T 
 i  m
ix i is rs is (| ), xp
ssd y (| )





otate the vector


|

r |    |   r  |

R |   


  |
  |  r | 
 
  d s 
sp s.

 |   T 
T
| 


R
 T

r |



  is 
 i  m
ix if   s  vr
 i  f fi
 

 d  di
r i  f .

   



 
    
T

(2, 3)



R     














If,   
d,   s  vr
 
 d  di
r i  f
 p si iv xis, 
 i  m
ix s  d 

T
  
R T












 a 


R  i  m
ix is orthonormal
$ r
 is  i vr

r  |
R
  |

  | 
r |

r   |    |    
r   |   |  

r
 is p
pdir 
 
, i.. i
d p
dr is z
.
r  | !  | r  | !    |   

r vr
i 
 d y (|) i   p si iv d  xs,

spr iv y. T   r m vr


s 
 s i  ir vr
s
   p si iv d  xs 

 d.




m m
irs,  v
R  |   RT | 

"
$

T  cross product
vector product f  vr
s,  d , is
 
vr
:

 y   y  
 !     x   x  
 x y  x y
$
$

T  r
ss p
dr f  vr
s is
  
Ri  d
  dir  s di
r i  f r
ss p
dr .
! 




 

T   v xmp s r  x dd 3D rss.

I 2D,  d k  ,  ir i 

 d  di
r i  f  p si iv xis.
I 3D, v
,  d k  m
 

 vr
. S i  f fi
, f
xmp ,
 vr
s,  d  
 iv. If f 





!

 i ,  is  id  p si iv % xis, is

i  y iv s  i
d r m i 
 i 
m
ix. W     
 r ms


 
I my rss i 3D,  y  vr
i   id  f 
r
di  xs, d  
s 
 f   xp iri y iv. L s s 
xmp :

N , i is xmp , vr
 i 

 d  p si iv % di
r i . Hr 

fis r m vr


i 
 i  m
ix is 
2


m isd .       

 r ms f 
 ,  is  p
pdi

r 
. W ,  r fid i y ki

 r
ss p
dr f  d . Sir
 !  is p
pdir 
 

1
%

d , i i   id i  di


r i 
f  p si iv xis.


 #


d  i
d di
r i  is drid y  r
ss


p
dr f  
 di
r i s,  ir is

 !( ! ).




#

1
%

T 
f
, 
 i  m
ix s  d 



P P ! P P


P P ! P P


 P P ! P P ! P P 
R
P P !  P P ! P P 


P P


P
P




5 &" &
Imi
 is
i
  i
p  d i 
sr i 

i  s   i
p s r
 f 
vi y.
R :
 i  
d 
f
  rk xis.

R :
 i  
d 
sid sid xis.

R :
 i  
d 
v
ir xis.

 
i sid
 f i xmp .  i
p  is
i d sr  i s  s is
p i i i  p si iv % di
r i , i s
i i is p i i i  p si iv
di
r i , i s r rkpi is p i i i  p si iv  di
r i . W 

sf
m  i
p  s  i ds i  di
r i  iv y  vr

* (di
r i  f f i ), is r
   d is  kd.

  


i
s  

   p si iv % di
r i  i  di
r i  f *,
 ir ivs s  i
d r m f 
 i  m
ix: *  )*). T 
xis ms 
sf
md i 
iz   vr
p
pdir 
*
 is i  di
r i  f !*. T   di
r i  is  iv y ! % =
* !( ! *).

 y ! O
R
 y ! O

O !  y ! O 
O !  y ! O 

O 

O

 m
 
 
1. T
s  i :

T   d x d y d   T   d x  d y  d 

  

sx s y s

2. Sr i:

S   s x s y s   S 

3. R  i :

R  |   R |   R T | 

. S 
:

SH   shx shy   SH  shx  shy 

| !

 
  

a

&
Diff
 mis f r
:
6 pi i
6 v  f visi  i
6 m y p
rp i 

"   


isi  i is p
f   r
m ir
di i  (3
7 m)
1 m ( m 
) = 11 m (=17 rm)
1 (s
m) = 1 m
Rdi i  r  xp
ssd i v  ()

f
ry (f), r=f,  
 r=3.11 rm/sr

"   


W i  i r sis s f
 spr
m f 
visi  r
s

"   


kids f i r 
dsr
id y 

y f r
v 
T  dis
i i 
s i 
  i 
  
y d
v  (

f
ry) is r d
 
=

"   

T is dis
i i  my idir :
1)  d mi v  (
f
ry)
 ir is  r
f  i ($), rp.
D
2) 
i ss ( mir), i si y f 
i ( ), rp.  

3) p
i y (2!), rp. D  W

"   



y spr
m f
 i s 
r i 
d mi f
ry 

d r

a  
T  r
f  r dpds   s
r d 

 f

sp
ry
d
f r i  f  m 
i
T  spr
 r
vs dsr
i  i f
diff
 v  s 

f
r d d

f r d (rp.  m 
i r ffiri s
i
drd i  i mi i  m d s)

"  
Irid  i  i p   r is f

s m v  s s


d, f

s

f r d
.. if  i is s
d =>  rk
If  v  s   
 s
d =>
  r
is s
vd s  r
f
 r y 
f r i 

   
!= =
! !   r
s
r mi p
dr  i  i
2=
! !  ( 
)
 r
s sd
f
dsr
ii 
r
s
T mi p
irip s f
mixi r
s:
6 22 =22
6 
2 =22

    
6

6
6

p
 r
s 
 p r s r 
=>  mix  

 i f  m y (rp. RG)


v
ppi ivs y , ry, m  d  i 
 ypir r i  r
disp ys

'   
6

r
pim s 
 mixd di
r y i s m
iid, .. ik
r r
i  mix 
 s
s i s sprifir
p
f  irid i
 r
f  mix 
 is d 
mid y
s
r i  f r
d i , .. y  s
s
  =>  y
d d 
, i.. y , i

r  y (y  rs f ddi i )

'    &


6

6
6

p
im
y r
s: ry, m  d
y , i.. iaY
 ypir r i i p
i 
s/p 
s
r r i    ddi iv d
s
r iv p
im
y r
s (rp.  r

m d s RG d iaY)

   '   

f 
T 
 i f  m y r sis s f
!
(7a), pp
, d ! (112a), s v
,
 ir 
 r r d i 
v fi
s 

i

f  &
T 
y:  r s r sis f v
i s i
s
i m 
i
T  i ssi ivi y f  r s d
ds v
is
i  v  , d   p
s s
T  sm f
6  
y spr
m f  i
6 
f r i  spr
m f  r
6 
sp s spr
m f  y
drids  r
p
rp i  f
 p
s 

>   
T  m y r p
riv   32(!)
diff
 r
s
Nrss
y i s m kid f r ssifir i  sys
m;  si
 r
di s s  sis:
1)
iI s d
d
2)
RG r
m d
3)
iaY r
m d ( s , iaY)
)
HS r
m d
)
HLS r
m d


i mmissi 
I 
 i   d
Lr i
 (1931)
6   r mp 

m d
6 r r
= 
i d sm f

 imi
y
p
im
y r
s

*
6

 r
s 


 d f
m 

 p
im
is
v
i s r
s 

 id y
r i  m 
f r p
im
y
ddi iv mixi
(
,,), 
,,1

*&
6
6

 +

1 i /p
im
y => r
s, i s/p
im
y => 16a r
s

a5
6

6
6

ry, m  d


y  
 r mp 
m 
y r
s f

d,
 d  ,

spr iv y
s
r iv mixi
 ypir p
i 

r i

a5&
6

 m s  sm
r s i RG;
 y  rk<>  i 
 v
i s r
s

  id y

dri i , .. if

d is s
d =>

 d   

ddd, i. ry

* a5
If  i si is 

p
s d s 
,,1
d r,m,y1 ( s r
di s 2 r 
sd),  
  i    RG d
iaY r  dsr
id s:

 r   1 

 m   1   
     
y  1 

a5 

p
i i d 
p irs 
ids
y, iaY
is    ;  f 
p
im
y,   ir
s ds f
 rk, is ddd.
i v
si s   RG d iaY 

p ssi ,   y
i
 s m
x
 p
rssi.

f
6
6

HS s ds f
HS 
 i   
dsr
id y  xr  d
ivd f
m  RG
r

f&
6

H (36);  
r
, rp. 
d mi v
 (12)
S 
 i  (1);  
m  f  i 
(13)
  (1);  
m  f  rk (23)

f&
T  m
s iv f 
r p
im
y 

s im s f  my v s  m i
is rp  dis iis  ,  ir (i

y) ivs   m
f r

rs:
12*13*23 = 3272
I i mp 
G
p irs, s y   i :
12**1 = 163

fO
 
m d simi 

HS
L s ds f
O2$


S m m
 fr s   r
s:
T  dis r    r
s i 
r
r is   ms
 f  f

p
 r
s 
 p
rp i  y!
Hms 
 m
 ssi iv s if s i
  (d 
) , f
is r, i
y 

6 iOaP|TR

NIaTIONS

   


6

6
6
6
6
6

y im sr f vis r s i  sr.


Siz, r
,
sp
ry, s p, s
fr x 
,
 i ,

s  i , sr i, i i ffr s, m
p i, r i rm

p
m 
s(p si i ,
i  i , d f r  ), p
ir  im i .
Dsi f im i  srs:
S
y 
d y 
Or dfii i s
yf
m sprifir i s

 i  f i  f
ms

   


6
6
6
6

6
6
6
6

m y f
m im i 
r f
m is sp
  y 
 d.
Or dfi i 
Or s 
 dfid i 
ms f sir s ps, sr s
p y s
sp is. I ddi i   ss ri d m vm s f

r r 
 sprifid   i  s p.
S
y 
d
I is   i f  r i 
yf
m
D i d d
i f  sr   p
ir 
is r

   


6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

I s
I 
mdi  f
ms (3  i s f
r  ky
f
ms)
a i s r  
 d si 2D
3D
sf
m i 
Or p
m 
s 
 s
d i d s
Rd
i  
i ms 
 sd fi y
Rs 
im i s:
|ss
s 
p
 i s.
x:  r im  r s   2D m i  p s si
 r
 
sf
m i s. H
  p
dfi  r 
srrssiv p si i s    m i  p , d s 
srrssiv  rks f pix v s r
  
is

   


6
6

i mp 
im i  s:
ypir sk i im i  sprifir i  is
Sr dsr
ip i  ir ds p si i  f r s d i
s 
rs, dfii  p m
ir p
m 
s d s i 
rm
 p
m 
s.
r i  sprifir i  is iv vs y  f m i  p s f

r s d rm
. W d vii d p
spr iv

sf
m i s,  m
ir
sf
m i s, visi  s
fr
d r i , s
fr
d
i, kim irs  r.,
yf
m sys ms dsid simp y 
   i
 s f
m  s
sprifid ky f
ms.

   


6
6

6
6
6
6
6
6

i mp 
im i  s:
ypir sk i im i  sprifir i  is
P
m 
izd sys ms   r m i  r 
r 
is irs 
sprifid s p
f  r dfii i s. T  ds  
p
m 
s r 
sr r r 
 
is irs s d
s f
f
d m, m i  imi  i s d    s p r s.
Sr
ip i sys ms
  r sprifir i s d
im i  srs 
dfid i  s
ip sr
ip .

m  sr
ip  i

y f v
i s
r s d m i s r  r s
r d.

   


I 
p  i  r is

Li

   


I 
p  i  r is

N  i

   


6
6

6
6
6
6

y f
m sys ms
a
p i T
sf
m i  f r s ps f
m  f
m  
is
r d m
p i.
Giv  kyf
ms f
 r
sf
m i ,  fi
s ds 
r sprifir i  i  f  f
ms s  m
f p y  ds

v
irs is  sm f
  f
ms.
1  diff
 f
ms
L Lk,Lk+1 d   m
1 f i sm s i
,+1
3
L s dfi
Lmx=mx(Lk,Lk+1)
2
2
Lmi=mi(Lk,Lk+1)
y f
m 
y f
m +1
N = Lmx m d Lmi
Ns = i (Lmx / Lmi)

   


6
6
6

S ps
1. Dividi N ds f kyf
mmi i Ns+1 sr i s
2. Dividi 
mii is f kyf
mmi i Nssr i s

y f
m 

2
y f
m +1

   


6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

y f
m sys ms
a
p i T
sf
m i  f r s ps f
m  f
m  
is
r d m
p i.
If   iz  v
x r  ,   simi 
 ysis f s
L k, k+1 d   m
f v
irs i  diff
 f
ms ,+1
L s dfi
mx=mx(Lk,Lk+1)
mi=mi(Lk,Lk+1)
N s = ( mx 1)m d ( mi 1)
Np = i (( mx 1) / ( mi 1)
S ps
1. ddi Np p i s N s i sr i s f kyf
mmi sr i s
2. ddi Np1 p i s 
mii ds f kyf
mmi

   


6
6
6

6
6
6

Sim  i rr 


 i s
i
v fi i r is 
 f  sd sprify  im i  p s
  kyf
ms.
T sim   rr 
 i s  r ds  im spri f
 i
 s.
r s  spd  s  i 
v im spri f

i s.
spp s    i s f
kyf
ms  ims 1 d 2.
T  im i 
v s   ky f
ms is  dividd i +1 s
f
i 
v s, yi di  i  spri f
f = 2 1/(+1)
W r r r    im f
i s s
= 1+ f f
=1,2,.,

   


6
6
6
6
6
6
6

Sim  i rr 


 i s
T m d ir
s
dr
s i spds  s
i m
ir fr i s.
T m d ir
si spd,    im spri   f
ms
ir
s s  
 
r s i p si i  rr
s  r m vs fs 
.
W r  i ir
s i i 
v siz i  fr i 
1r s|, < |</2

i s  im f
  i    d   r r  d s
= 1+f (1r s /2(+1))

=1,2,.,

6
6


=1

1= 1+f (1r s /2(+1))


6

6
6


=1

2= 1+f (1r s 2/2(+1))


 
 f is  im diff
r
  y  ky f
ms.

   


6
6
6

6
6
6
6
6
6

Sim  i drr 


 i s
T m d ir
s
dr
s i spds  s
i m
ir fr i s.
T m d dr
si spd,    im spri  
f
ms dr
s. W r  i ir
s i i 
v siz i 
fr i 
si|, < |</2

i s 
im f
  i    d
  r r  d s
= 1+f .si /2(+1))
=1,2,.,

   


6
6
6
6
6
6
6
6

Sim  i  rr 


 i s d drr 
 i s
T m d ir
s
dr
s i spds  s
i m
ir fr i s.
r mi i  f ir
si d dr
si
spds r  m d d si
(1r s|)
< |</2
T  im f
  i  is r r  d s
= 1+f 1r s [(+1)/2)
=1,2,.,

   


6
6
6

6
6
6
6
6
6

a i  sprifir i s
Di
r m i  sprifir i s
H
  xp iri y iv 
 i   s d
s  i  vr
s.
T    m
ir
sf
m i  m
irs 
 pp id
sf
m
r
di  p si i s.
 ri  r  pp
xim d y  si r
v
y(x)=I(si(;x+|)Ikx
is  ii i mp i d
; is   
f
ry
| is  p s  
 is  dmpi r s 

   


6
6
6

a i  sprifir i s
G  di
r d sys ms
W r sprify  m i s  
 k p r i 
 
ms
 s
r y dsr
i  r i s, rs y d 
mi sprifir
m i  p
m 
s iv    s f  im i .

   


6
6
6

a i  sprifir i s
im irs
im ir sprifir i 
f f  m i  r  s 
iv y simp y dsr
ii
 m i  p  ir is
f  d  si sp is.
I iv
s kim irs
 sprify  i i  d
fi p si i s f r s 
sprifid ims d 
m i  p
m 
s 

r mp d y  sys m.

   


6
6
6

6
6

a i  sprifir i s
dymirs
sprifir i  f  f
rs  p
dr  v ri is d
rr 
 i s. Dsr
ip i s f r  vi
d
 if r f
f
rs 
 
 y
f

d s  P ysir y sd m d i (.


iid
 dy sys ms d  
iid sys ms sr s r
p s ir)
x: m ir, 
vi  i  , f
ir i   r
W r  s s iv
s dymirs  i  f
rs, iv  ii i
d fi p si i  f r s d  yp f m i .

   


P ysirs sd im i s

$Id y si d f
:
$L
 v ms f r s id ffr s, iids,
$i im i /d
pi
$|d
yi mr isms 
 s y:
$P
ir  sys ms
$asssp
i sys ms

   


P ysirs sd im i s

   


P ysirs sd im i s

   


S m m
 im i 
r is.

 irip i  d S i

   


S m m
 im i 
r is.

Sr d
y a i 

   


S m m
 im i 
r is.

a i  ip 


 
  >O
Ii i S ps i D
i i
s

|  >!O
6

i s: . , . i, .d

$T
$
$

  i
 f d
 is p rd i  Ir d
di
r
y f is i++
T  idivid i fi s 
 p rd i  i
di
r
y f is i++
T  idivid d fi s 
 p rd i
i:\Wid s\Sys m32

|  >!Om
6

Ir ds:

$ <id s. >


$ < / . >
$ < / . >
$ < /  . >
$ < / i. > (if sd)
Ir d i
d
iv. If y  s rpi 
 
s f
y fi 
di
r
y, s m
i y 
ir d s  m  s .

|  >!O
6

i i p
r s is: is i++
6.

$ P
r m, S is 
y
$ I Or / i

y m d s m v
$
$

 d f
 i d dd  i32. i   32. i  32. i
p 32. i (sp
 d y sprs f
m s

y d r 
)
I P
r Op i s, sr
d  d f  x
d dd sm s f . i fi s
i s P
r m d sv 
kspr

|  >!O
6

i i P
r S is: is i++
.NT 23

$ P
r , P
p
is, Lik
, i mmd Li
$ I   i  spr    m, dd
$

 i32. i   32. i  32. i p 32. i


i s P
r m d sv y 
s  i 

  a(  " 


6

G
p irs disp y:  i
 sr
 ();
id s sys m (); [ v s
sr
 r
di s, i yxis d ];
id s sys m [iv
d r
di s]
(r)

* 
  
6

s Pix (x, y, r
)

$ Pix  r i  (, )  s r
sprifid y
$
6

O 
ms: p Pix (), S Pix (),

d
P i ()

i(x1, y1, x2, y2)

$ D
s  i   (x1, y1) d (x2, y2)
$ O 
ms: d
Li()
Li().

 * 
 
6

    (
&, sprifis  

 sys m is d
i  .
m vT (x,y) m vs  p ivisi y
 r i  (x, y) d  pd s 
r

 p si i  is p si i .
iT (x,y) d
s  s
i i f
m 
r

 p si i  (x, y) d 
pd s 
(x, y).

, 
6

6
6
6
6

m vT (, );


//m v s 
i
r


iT (2, );


iT (2, 2);
iT (, 2);
iT (, );
//r s 
s



  
>O
6

s sm 
p irs p

m 

 my diff
 mr i yps i

y id ir  p .

$ .d fi s ms  i
6

p

m

OpGL is  PI: i r 
s   v


d
 y  
 si, d y  s i s
fr i s is d f r 
i 

d
 di
r y.
OpGL is p s 
r (f
).

 ! " 


6

6
6

Rsp d v s, sr s m s r irk



m v, ky p
ss,
id 
s p


siz. Sys m ms v .
P

mm
p
vids r rk
fr i s d  r v .
i rk fr i s ms 
is 
d
i OpGL  i k   ir
fr i  d s  ir v .
Ris 
i fr i  d s * * r i !

( ! " 


 2
 +O 22
v id mi()
{
  Disp yr(myDisp y); //
is 

d
 fr i 
  Rs pr(myRs p); //
is 

s p
fr i 
  a sr(mya s); //
is 
 m s r i 
fr i 
  a i r(mya i r); //
is 
 m s m i 
fr i 
  y 
dr(myy 
d); //
is 
 ky 
d
r i  fr i 
$ 222 2% !$ $2
  aiL p();
//  
 di mi p

 !" $
 
 "
2!  "2 $

'( 
6

  Disp yr(myDisp y);

$
6

  Rs pr(myRs p);

$
6

(R)d
s sr
   id  pd
 

id  m vd ff i .
Rp
s  id  id d i f

s pd
id . (a vi  id  d s  p
dr 

s p v .)

  Id r(myId );

   i  s is  i , simp y


d
s disp y
si v id myId () {  P s Rdisp y();

'( m
6

  a sr(mya s);

$ Hd s m s   p
sss.  s
m s r i  d  
 f   (p

d  d  ir  ).
6

  a i r(mya i r);

$ Hd s rs 

  m s is m vd i

m
 m s  s p
ssd.

'( 
6

  Pssiva i r(myPssiva i r


)

$ Hd s rs 


 m s  
s  id  i
!  s p
ssd.

  y 
dr(myy 
dr);

$ Hd s ky p
sss d
 ss.  s 

ir

ky s p
ssd d m s r i .
6

  aiL p()

Rs f
v
i i f
 v . W   rr
s,
i is d d y  pp
p
i  r rk fr i .

O ' 
6
6
6

O, f
 ir  r mmds i i GL;
O|
,  GL | i i y T ki , ps id s,
dv ps ms, d ms v s.
O|,  GL | i i y Li

y,  ir p
vids
i v
 is d  r mp x
m m ir d d
i p
 i s.
O|,  |s
I 
fr Li

y,  ir is
r mp   y i 
 d i  GL|T i

y.

$
$

T  GL|T fr i s ms  vi   f


GL|I
p
  p
p
y.
GL|I p
vids s p is ir d r 
s d ms
OpGL pp ir i s.

O" >  


// pp
p
i  #ir ds  
 s ppdix 1
v id mi(i 
r, r 
** 
v)
{
  Ii (&
r, 
v); // ii i iz  ki
  Ii Disp ya d(GL|T_SINGL |
GL|T_RG);
// s  disp y m d
  Ii Wid Siz(6,); // s id  siz
  Ii Wid P si i (1, 1);
// s id  pp
f r

p si i   sr

  i
 Wid ("my fi
s  mp ");
// p  sr
 id  (Ti : my fi
s  mp )
// r  id x s id

"m  " 


//
is 
 r rk fr i s
  Disp yr(myDisp y);
  Rs pr(myRs p);
  a sr(mya s);
  y 
dr(myy 
d);
myIi (); // ddi i  ii i iz i s s
rss
y
  aiL p();
//  i  p
p 
p

6

      # #(&    



6

  Ii (&
r, 
v) ii i izs OpGL
T ki
  Ii Disp ya d (GL|T_SINGL |
GL|T_RG)  r s  si  disp y
ff
d ss r
s d

  Ii Wid Siz (6, ) mks 
id  6 pix s id y  pix s
i


m
6

  Ii Wid P si i  (1, 1) p s


pp
f id  r

 p si i  1
pix s f
m f d d 1 pix s
d  f
m p d
  i
 Wid  (my fi
s  mp )
ps d disp ys  id  i 
i  my fi
s  mp 
Rmii fr i s
is 
r rks



6

T  r rk fr i s y  
i  


is 
d, d   p

m  
s
 d ss p, i i f
v s
rr
.
W   v rr
s, GL r s 

 v d 
fr i .

" 


  
 >O
6

W s 
i  r
di  sys m sd
  id  s r
 d:  679 i x
d  79 i y.
OpGL d
i is sd  v
irs
(r

s). T d
  r i OpGL,
y  pss i  is f v
irs.

$ T  is s 
s i  i(
); d ds i
 d();
$
 d 
mis   is d
.
$  d() sds d
i d  d  
O   .


6

6
6
6

 i (GL_POINTS);

$  
x2i (1, );
$  
x2i (1, 13);
$  
x2i (1, 13);
 d();
GL_POINTS is r s  i i Op
GL ( s GL_LINS, GL_POLYGON, )
i mp   r d d
  3 d s is i
i. 2.11.






,O 
 

 
6
6

 
x2i () ks i 
v s
 
x2d () ks f  i p i
v s
OpGL s i s  d  yps mk

p irs dviridpd

$ |s

s yps is d f s d


d s

>!O

sffix d  yp

i/i++ yp

OpGL yp m

-*  

  

O 

/*  



O

"*  

  

O  O 0

"*  



O O 

/!*  

$

O O 



-*   


 

  

O  O

/*      


 

"*        O   O  


 
  

O

  
   O
6  i
3f(
d,


,  );
// s d
i r

$  i
3f(1., ., .);
$  i
3f(., 1., .);
$  i
3f(., ., 1.);
$  i
3f(., ., .);
$  i
3f(1., 1., 1.);
$  i
3f(1., 1., .);
$  i
3f(1., ., 1.);

//
d
// 

//  
//  rk
// 
i  i 
// 
i y 
// m 

  *(  O


6

 i 
i
(
d, 
,  ,  p );

$ S s rk
d r
.
$ p  is d
 f
sp
ry; s . f

 .
6

 i 
(GL_iOLOR_|R_IT);

$ r 
s id  rk
d r

  | 


v id myIi (v id)
{
 a
ixa d(GL_PROJiTION);
 L dId i y();
 O
2D(, 6., , .);

// s s p r
di  sys m f
id 
f
m (,) (679, 79)


  O 
6

6
6
6

 i (GL_LINS); //d


s  i

$  
x2i (, 1);
$  
x2i (22, 96);

//   2 v
irs

 d ();
 s ();
If m
   v
irs 
 sprifid
   i(GL_LINS) d
 d() y 
 k i pi
s, d 
sp
  i is d
   r
pi
.

O   '


6
6
6

i
, irkss, s ipp i.
 i
3f() s s r
.
 LiWid (.) s s irkss. T  df
irkss is 1..
). i is
is

). irk is

r). s ipp d

  O "
6
6

P y is d P y s: is s f v


irs.
P y s 
 r sd (
i ); p y is
d   r sd ( f ).

"  " 


 
6
6

 i (GL_LIN_STRIP);
// GL_LIN_LOOP r s p y i
(mk i  p y )

$ //  
x2i () r s 
6
6
6




 d ();
 s ();
GL_LIN_LOOP r  fi d i
r


6

D
i i 
p s: r r r pi

f (x, f(x)) v s


as sr  d s if

m
6

D
i p y i f
m v
irs i  fi 

$ # p y is
$ # v
irs i fi
s p y i
$ i
di s f v
irs, x y,  pi
p
i
$ Rp s 2 is s rss
y
6
6

i  f
di s
vi   f
m W si 
i d d
 p y is/p y s i i.
2.2.




6

P
m 
izi D
is:  s mki
m diff
 sizs d spr
 i s
i d f
 p
m 
izd s is i
i. 2.27.

-

.
6
6

P y i D
i
i d s p  

y f v
irs is i
i. 2.29.
i d d
  p y i is i i. 2.3.

 O 


 
6

6
6

6
6

Ri
s kpi
rk f r

 p si i  
sr
 (iP).
m vT (x, y); s  (x, y)
iT (x, y);
d
  i f
m  (, ),
d  pd   (, ).
i d is i i. 2.31.
i i !  is    v
i , d 
f

v 
  mp
i f
m is
r i s 

p i s i y 
p

m.


     
6

 Rr i (GLi x1, GLi y1, GLi x2,


GLi y2); // pp si  r

s; fi d i
r

 r
;  

r  s 
 d

 p f p
vi s s

    


6

spr
 i = id / i

  "  


6

P y s ms  r vx: y i f


m
  d
y  
is isid 
p y ;  ,  y D, , 
 r vx

  "  m


6

 i (GL_POLYGON);

$ // 
x2f (); r s 
6
6




 d ();
P y  is fi d i  r

 d
i
r

> "   
6

GL_TRINGLS,
GL_TRINGL_STRIP,
GL_TRINGL_N
GL_Q|DS, GL_Q|D_STRIP

 |  a


 '
6

6
6

Ris 
fr i s:

$   a sr (mya s);


$   y 
dr (myy 
d);
W
i   fr i (s)
NOT  y d
i y  d  
y  s s fr i s ms  d  IN
 m s
ky 
d fr i  (
i 
fr i  r d f
m i i m s

ky 
d r rk fr i s).

a 
6

6
6

v id mya s(i  , i s  , i x,
i y);
  is  f GL|T_LT_|TTON,
GL|T_aIDDL_|TTON,

GL|T_RIGHT_|TTON.
S   is GL|T_|P
GL|T_DOWN.
X d y 
 m s p si i    im f
 v .

a m
6

T  x v  is  m
f pix s f
m 
f f  id .
T  y v  is  m
f pix s !# f
m
 p f  id .
I
d
s  ffr s f s m r ivi y f
 m s
ky 
d,  m s

ky 
d d 
= r i 
myDisp y()

  P s Rdisp y().
i d f
 xmp  mya s() is i i.
2..

"  a


6

xmp  s:

a!" 

|  aa  


6
6
6

  a i r(mya vda s); //


m vd i    d d 
  Pssiva i r(mya vda s
); // m vd i  s p
mya vda s(i x, i y); x d y 

 p si i  f  m s   
v rr

d.
i d f
d
i


r  s
si s fr i s is i i. 2.1.

 ' 
v id myy 
d(sid r 
y, i m sX, i m sY)
{
GLi x = m sX;
GLi y = sr
Hi  m sY; // f ip y v  si r ( y)
{rs p: d
D (x, y); 
k;
// d
 d  m s p si i 
rs : xi (1);
// 
mi   p

m
df : 
k;
// d  i



 ' m


6

P
m 
s  fr i  i  ys 
(sid r 
ky, i m sX, i
m sY).
T  y r
di  ds  f ippd y
s
r i i f
m sr
Hi .
 dy is  si r i rss d 
r iv kys (ky v  is SiII r d).
Rmm
d r rs i 

k!

|  a
6

 GL|T d GL|I mk ms


vi  .
GL|T ms 
 simp , d GL|I
ms 
 m
 p 
f .
W i i d  si  m  i
   s
r   r
f 

i ,  ir is d  i rk d
f
s  pp ir i  p
rds.

O|a'( 
6
6
6

I   i
 a(mya);
 
s m ID
v id mya(i m); // d s r ir m
v id   dda
y(r 
* m, i v );
// v  sd i mya si r d 
r ir
v id   r a(i  ); //  f
GL|T_RIGHT_|TTON,
GL|T_aIDDL_|TTON,

GL|T_LT_|TTON

|s y GL|T_RIGHT_|TTON

O|'a
6

i
   sa fi
s , si m
r mmds,  dd i mi m.

$
6

sm p ps p    mi m i m is


s r d.

  ddSa (r 
* m, i mID); //
mID is  v 
 
d y
  i
 a    sm s
r
 d
i mp   r d f
 GL|T a pp ir i  is
i i. 2.. (N sms 
 sd.)

O|a

O|
6

 xmp  p

m i s
 i 
s GL|I i 
fr p i s is vi  
  k  si .
a s f  
k s  d  f
y ;
y  my r d ps  f
m  xmp 
p

ms i  GL|I dis
i i .

| !

   

"   


6

 s di  r mp  i i r d


ssi  r
   (ms )
p y 

  
6

6
6

O y s  v
x 
m d m 
i
p
p
y r mp   r
f

p y 
fi : fs r mp 
|sd  :

$ P y  is sm  
$ Li s 
r is f
y ( y)
$ y is v
y f
y ( y)

a*
6
6

 s di sff
s f
m mr d ffr 
ar d ffr m ys rr   
disr  ii y    d
y

perceived intensity

Side view of a polygonal surface

 
6

ix  mr d ffr


m v d disr  ii y

i mp  i i f
m
 p i s  r fr





  
6

T p p 
m ds:

$ G 
d s di (sd y OpGL)
$ P  s di ( 
spr 
i i
i OpGL)

, 

  
6

6
6

T  sm s di  
i m sd i OpGL
1(O 1
%&
Li i is r r  d f
r f  p y  v
irs
i
s 
 i 
p  d f
i 
i
pix s

 
6
6
6

P
v
x i i r r  i 
N
m is dd f
r v
x
P
v
x 
m r  r mp d y
v
i  ds fr 
m s
n

n1
n3

n2
n4

n = (n1 + n2 + n3 + n4) / 4.0

 
6

i mp  v
x i mi i  (r
)
f
  p
r i 
sf
m i 
S d i 
i
pix s: r
i 
p  i 
(
m s



dd)
i1
for all scanlines

ia = lerp(i1, i2)

i2

i = lerp(i1, i3)

i3
Lerp(ia, i )

* lerp: linear interpolation

 
6

Li
i 
p  i 
x=

a / (a+ ) * v1 + /(a+ ) * v2

a
6

x
v1
v2
          # 
              
  

  "'
6

Li i i  p y  i 
i
r 
irr
 

"  
6

6
6

Is d f i 
p  i ,  r r   i i f
r
pix isid  p y  (p
pix i i)
Nd 
m s f
  pix s  p
vidd y s

P  s di  
i m i 
p  s  
m s
d r mp  i i d
i
s 
iz i  (d
mp  
m rk 
d
y spr  )

"  
6

N
m i 
p  i 


n = lerp(n1, n3)

na = lerp(n1, n2)
lerp(na, n )




S   spp
d y OpGL d
m s 
p irs 
d


| !
i
O


6
6

6
6
6

r  s 
  m
ir r s.
ay
 
d r s ik f
s 

s pd ik f
r  s.

r  s 
 f
md y i 
 i s.

r  s 
 s fsimi 
.
I r mp 

p irs,  s f
r 
fr i s r
  r mp x r s.

 (
1/3

1/3

1/3

1/3

G


I 
 i  

I 
 i  1

I 
 i  2

I 
 i  3



G


I 
 i  1

I 
 i  2

I 
 i  3

I 
 i  

I 
 i  



G


I 
 i  

I 
 i  1

I 
 i  2

I 
 i  3


6

T  f
r  s v p
drd s f
sm 
v
y
 
d 
ifiri .
T r
  s m
 ism d v
ii i y, simp y
r    s s i y s m ims sd
 
d m m


.

xmp , y  r r
v s m f  f
s
 sid.

xmp , y  r  s v
y   s f
 
r s d  
r i fr
.

 a ! 


6
6

Giv  i s f  dp i s, 


 
 i   midp i .
Spp s    dp i s 
  d .
Spp s  i is i  y di
r i , sr
  i   is y(), d  i  
is y().
T ,  i   midp i i :
ymid = (y()+y())/2 +
,  


is 
d m ffs

T is is  
  
d m ffs
:

= s
||,  


$
$

s is  s
s r d
 ss fr
, d

 is  Gssi
d m v
i  i m  d
v
ir 1

f  '  


 ''    ' 
// iv
d m m
s x1 d x2 i  dis
i i  f
m 1 1
// 
  m
s y1 d y2 i 
m dis
i i  r 
d  .
// d i s d
d dvi i  1..
v id Gssi(f  &y1, f  &y2) {
f  x1, x2, ;
d {
x1 = 2. * .1*(f  )(
d()1)  1.;
x2 = 2. * .1*(f  )(
d()1)  1.;
 = x1 * x1 + x2 * x2;
  i  (  >= 1. );
 = s
( (2. * (  ) ) /  );
y1 = x1 * ;
y2 = x2 * ;


" 

*      
6
6

6
6

N ir  i 
 
d, v ys d
m  is v diff
 s ps.
If  v  sm 

i
 i 
 
i m f
 m  is d v ys, i i

s i 
 is ir,  i ki dsrps.
T 
f
, s diff
 p
m 
s f
v ys
d m  is.
s , r m y r
 
ids, r iffs, d

 
p ir f 
s, d  s
f
r  s r
  d i
 ss.


6
6
6

Ifii  d i  v
y p i
S f simi 
i y   p
s d v
 f 
s f  r
Z m i r idi s p
$ Z md s p s m
 d i
$ v  y sm s
Z m i  f
r 
$ S m
 d i
$ D s  sm
a d
$ T

i, r ds  
,
s, p  s, f 
s, f
, p 
s
G
  i  P1=(P), P2 = (P1), P3=(P2)
$ P3=(((P)))

  

P
s 
 sr d d  v
si s f   i

r

$ s sm sr i  sp


s
$ s diff
 sr i fr
s f
sp
s
6

S  is ir y s fsimi 

$ pp y
d m v
i i  sp
s
$ T
s, s

s, 
v  i 


6

   * 

d m v
i i s

$ Sx<>Sy<>Sz
6

$ 

i,  
, r ds
   

N  i

sf
m i s

$ S f s
i f
r  s
$
$

J i  s
$ S
i fr i  i r mp x spr
ad 
s
$ S
i fr i  i r mp x spr

$ S fiv
s f
r  s
$

Iv
si  p
rd
s

 'c
$ '
$ i   
1
$ 2('&
$   3 
$ 2  4  
# 5
$   
$ 2   #
  
 
$     0
$       
$     
$ * #
  #   
0   # 
    
$ 6 * 

l !
a'

  


     rr
 
 r r     


     rr
 
 r r     

l 
a'
6
6

   6 *    c

  1  7   *    


$ i 
$ i   6       c
$ i    4 #      #  #  
 
$   
$    c  #      55'5
$    'c
$           ( 555&
$            4     55
     c #  #    4

     
!  
6

Ii i

$ Giv  m
ir s
6

G


$ P 
 
6

p

ir
p rs sp
s f ii i

 r i
v

p  

   

    

  
6

D=f
r  dimsi 
$ m  f v
i i  i  s
r 

$ as
 f
 ss
f
m  i  f  r
$ Sm d ss d
$ L
 dm
 d
S f simi 
r s
$ sd=1 (S m  ks 
i  is s sd=1)
$ s=sr i fr

$  m
f sp
s i sdivisi 
$ d= ()/ (1/s)
$ [d= ()/ (s) v
s is  m
f sm s v
ss  mr
 mi sm s
drd
$ I.. i dividd i 3 sm s. Is d f syi  i is 1/3,
sy is d 
 
 3 sm s. N ir  1/(1/3) = 3]
$ If 
 
 diff
 sr i fr
s

$
$


L 

Skd=1

    
,!/,/ 
6

Dimsi  is 
 i f
 ( siz)/( d siz)

=s2 sm s


s

Divid r

G =s3 sm rs

f 
divisi  v  sm s

$ = ( sm s)


$ s=3 ( d sm s)
$
r  Dimsi 

=s

Divid is  s



i sm s
s y
dividi r i i 
id ir sm s

 r s s f k

Divid i i  id ir


sm s

D= / 3 = 1.262


y 

f
r:  k m d

$ =
$

Nm
f  sm s

$ s=1/3
$

sm s
drd y 1/3

$ d= / (1/(1/3))

  (  (

 
6

Divid r sid y 2

$
$
$

aks 
i s
W kp 3
T 
f
 =3

$ G 3 
i s f
m 1 d

i 

$
6

s=2 (2  sm s f


m 
d sm )

r  dimsi 

D= (3)/ (2) = 1.

'
 
6

pp y f
r   
i m

$
$
$

Divid r sid y 3


p   
N  ps   midd  fr f r r 
 
N  ps   r 
f  r

W  is  f
r  dimsi 

W  v 2 rs,  
  sd v 1

$ =2

W v dividd r sid y 3

$ s=3

r  dimsi  (2)/ (3) = 2.727

O  *a
    
6
6

6
6

Typir p  {,,[,] 6 


R s
6 [][]

$
$

=>
=> [][]

[[][]][[][]]

$
$
$

Rp
s s sr f
sm s i 
p
s
r 


r i 
rk s
I 
s i,  I  





S 
i sis=
G
  
ds




















O  *a
    
6
6

a dify p 
{,,[,],(,)
R s

$
$
$

6
6
6


[]()
[[]()]([]())

=>
=> []()
[] = f 
r () =
i

r S 
i sis=



G
  
ds

$
$

Rp
s s sr f
sm s i 
p
s
r 


r i 
rk s
























O  * 


 

    2 


$  
$     
   )   #
   
$  
$ *    #
 # 
$ i  #  
    
  
$
   
    
 
$ $# #   
  


 















6

i  
r siz rr
di dp f

p


     rr
 
 r r     

" 
6

                


$     * 4  
$ #   #         
$ *       
$      
$         
$  #  
$ i      
$ 8     # 9
$ 8     # 9
$
   9
$     (     &
$ 1 
$ $       #   
$ :   
$     

"  
6

1
$     4  #4   # #  

$ 1       )    
8
$        
$ $      
$     4     
$ $       4 

" ' 

6
6

*   )
$      )
$           
$    ) #  #4    
     
$     #     4
$ %  )
$  4; 2
%4; O#
$ *4 
$          
i   #   (;   4&
i  #     
$ 1  0   







8 0

6
6

T
 r

$
$
$

=a v f

d  i
L=T
 f
R=T

i

S ip   
 di
r i s, d
  f 
s
i  

i 

$
$

.   =12


RRR

W  if r    6
d
s

$
$

=> LRRL
sis

 r i
v (s f k)

xmp  k f
m 
 k

|  
 
6

6
6
6

|s ps d p p f


sid

r s []
=> [R][L]
  =27
N  sprs ONLY f

di i y
[R][L] [R[R][L]]
[R][L] [L[R][L]]
[R][L]

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