OECD Work On Climate Change 2014

OECD WORK ON
CLIMATE CHANGE
OECD WORK ON
CLIMATE CHANGE
our leaders are facing a
fundamental dilemma: to get to
grips with the risks of climate
change or see their ability to limit
this threat slip from their hands.
Angel Gurra
OECD Secretary-General
London, 9 October 2013
November 2014
Contents
INTRODUCTION
6
1. Economic and policy analysis
6
12
15
20
Climate change mitigation

Adaptation to climate change
Climate finance and investment
The multilateral climate change framework
26
2. Sector-specific analysis
26
28
36
38
39
Agriculture and fisheries

Energy
Transport
Tourism
Water
40
3. Cross-cutting issues
Development co-operation
Clean innovation
Taxation and other market-based instruments
Cities and multilevel governance
Trade and the environment
Empowering consumers and greening household behaviour
Employment and local development
SMEs and entrepreneurship
4. Fora for climate change discussion
Climate Change Expert Group on the UNFCCC
DAC Network on Environment and Development Co-operation
Round Table on Sustainable Development
Round Table of Mayors and Ministers
International Futures Programme
5. Recent and forthcoming publications on climate change
www.oecd.org/environment/cc
40
43
48
52
54
56
58
59
60
60
60
61
62
63
64
OECD work on
climate change
Global climate change threatens to disrupt the well-being
of society, undermine economic development and alter the
natural environment, making it an urgent policy priority
for the 21st century. Governments around the world have
agreed on the need to achieve large cuts in greenhouse gas
(GHG) emissions over the coming decades, to adapt to the
impacts of climate change, and to ensure the necessary
financial and technical support for developing countries
to take action. They are working towards an international
agreement to achieve these goals under the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC).
The OECD has been working on climate-change economics
and policy since the late 1980s. The OECD works closely
with governments to assist them in identifying and
implementing least-cost policies to reduce GHG emissions
in order to limit climate change, as well as to integrate
4 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE
adaptation to climate change into all relevant sectors

and policy areas. Working with key partners in global
development co-operation, the OECD plays a critical role
in facilitating low-carbon, climate-resilient development
pathways in developing countries. Efforts in this area
include examining how public finance can be scaled-up
and best targeted to help leverage private financial flows,
as well as enhancing the transparency of such flows.
Given the global nature of the climate change challenge,
THE ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC

CO-OPERATION AND DEVELOPMENT
and its widespread economic, social and environmental
impacts, the OECD is in a unique position to assist
countries put climate policy on a solid economic footing.
The Organisation for Economic

Cooperation and Development (OECD)
is a multidisciplinary inter-governmental
organisation, tracing its roots back to the
Work on climate change is underway across the OECD,

engaging government representatives from a range of
ministries. This brochure provides an overview of the
recent OECD work on climate change.
postWorld War II Marshall Plan. Today, it

comprises 34 member countries that are
committed to democratic government and
the market economy and the European
Commission, with the major emerging
economies increasingly engaged directly
in the work. The OECD provides a unique
forum and the analytical capacity to assist
governments to compare and exchange
policy experiences, and to identify and
promote good practices through policy
decisions and recommendations.
OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 5
Economic and policy analysis
1.1. Climate change mitigation

Quantitative analysis of economy-environment
policies
Economic models and quantitative assessments of climate
change mitigation scenarios and their impacts on the
economy play a key role in informing policy makers of the
costs, benefits and potential trade-offs.
Business-as-usual economic development coupled, with a
growing global population, will place increasing pressures
on the environment. Based on economy-environment
modelling, the OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050 (OECD,
2012) projects what the environment might look like in
2050 without new policies. It focuses on climate change,
along with biodiversity, water, and the consequences
for human health of environmental degradation. OECD
modelling work uses the ENV-Linkages model to assess
both the socio-economic baseline as well as how policies
can be applied to cost-effectively reduce GHG emissions in
a post-2012 framework.
The Climate change chapter of the Environmental Outlook

to 2050 first looks at GHG emissions (including from landuse) and their concentrations, as well as temperature and
precipitation changes under the Environmental Outlook
baseline scenario of business-as-usual (i.e. no new action)
to 2050. Most countries use a mix of policy instruments
that include carbon pricing (carbon taxes, cap-and-trade
emissions trading, fossil fuel subsidy reform), other energy
efficiency policies, information-based approaches and
innovation policy to foster clean technology. The chapter
also looks at what further action is needed by comparing
different mitigation scenarios (variants of 450 ppm and
550 ppm scenarios with differences in: technology options,
e.g. carbon capture and storage (CCS), nuclear phase-out,
biofuels; linking of carbon markets; permit allocation rules)
against the baseline to understand how the situation could
be improved.
Did you know...? that removing fossil fuel

energy subsidies could reduce world GHG
emissions by more than 6% in 2050 compared
with business-as-usual, and contribute to
improved economic efficiency in the countries
undertaking the reforms?
Global economic costs of mitigation action

(GHG stabilisation policy at 450 ppm)
Index 2010=100
450
Baseline scenario
400
450 ppm core scenario
Key publication
GDP -5.5%
350
OECD (2012),
Environmental
Outlook to
2050, The
Consequences of
Inaction, OECD
Publishing, Paris,
DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/
9789264122246en.
300
250
200
150
GHG emissions -69.5%
100
50
0
2010
2015
2020
2025
2030
2035
2040
2045
2050
Source: OECD (2012), Environmental Outlook to 2050, ENV-Linkages model.
The OECD has been also working closely with the G20. For
instance, the 2013 OECD reports, Institutional Investors and
Green Investment: Selected Case Studies (Kaminker et al., 2013)
and Policy Guidance for Investment in Clean Energy Infrastructure
(OECD, 2013) were transmitted to the G20 Finance Ministers
and Central Governors meeting and annexed to the
Communiqu of their meeting in October 2013.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/env/cc/economicsofclimatechangemitigation.htm
www.oecd.org/env/indicators-modelling-outlooks/
oecdenvironmentaloutlookto2050theconsequencesofinaction.htm
www.oecd.org/g20/fossilfuelsubsidies
www.oecd.org/iea-oecd-ffss
Cost of policy inaction and benefits of action
Competitiveness and carbon leakage

Concerns about the potential competitiveness impacts of
climate policies are perhaps the most significant barrier to
implementing ambitious policies in OECD countries. The
report Addressing Competitiveness and Carbon Leakage Impacts
Arising from Multiple Carbon Markets: A modelling Assessment
(OECD, 2013) analyses possible policy approaches to address
carbon leakage and competitiveness issues by comparing
border carbon adjustments with linking instruments and
presenting a detailed analysis of carbon leakage.
In recent years, work by the International Energy Agency (IEA)
on climate policy has also addressed issues related to the
competitiveness implications of unilateral emission caps and
the interaction between electricity markets and CO2 markets.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/env/cc/econ
www.iea.org
The Environmental Outlook to 2050 in 2012 highlights

that business-as-usual baseline projections are not
environmentally or economically sustainable and that inaction
is not a viable option. For each of the four environmental
themes covered (Climate change, Biodiversity, Freshwater and
Health & Environment), the Outlook quantifies projections of
the environmental and economic impacts should no further
action be taken. It emphasises that urgent policy action to
protect the environment is economically rational.
The project on Costs of Inaction and Resource Scarcity:
Consequences for Long-term Economic Growth (CIRCLE) aims
to identify how feedback from poor environmental quality,
climatic change and natural resource scarcity affect economic
growth. The CIRCLE project also aims to quantify the benefits
of policy action. CIRCLE will generate reference projections for
economic growth to reflect the costs of policy inaction and the
benefits of policy action. This would allow for better-informed
evaluations of policies, and a comparison of the costs and
benefits involved.
A coherent approach to carbon pricing
CIRCLE
Costs of Inaction and Resource scarcity:

Consequences for Long-term Economic growth
The environmental challenges investigated largely coincide

with those addressed by the Environmental Outlook to 2050.
The modelling work in CIRCLE will initially focus on climate
change, local air pollution and the land-water-energy nexus.
First results for the assessment of the economic feedback of
climate change damages have been published as Economics
Department Working Paper No. 1135: Consequences of climate
change damages for economic growth: a dynamic quantitative
assessment (OECD, 2014), and are included in the OECD
horizontal report on OECD@100.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/environment/outlookto2050
www.oecd.org/environment/circle.htm
The OECD report Climate and carbon: Aligning prices and policies
(OECD, 2013) brings together lessons learned from different
strands of OECD analysis on carbon pricing and climate policies.
To achieve the global commitment of limiting the average global
temperature increase to no more than 2C above pre-industrial
level, countries worldwide must take on the responsibility to
gradually phase out their emissions of CO2 in the second half of
this century.
A key component in achieving this objective is putting an
explicit price on every tonne of CO2 emitted. However, explicit
pricing instruments may not cover all sources of emissions and
will need to be complemented by other policies that effectively
put an implicit price on emissions. To inspire confidence to
invest in technologies and infrastructure that shift production
and consumption decisions towards low-carbon choices,
carbon pricing mechanisms must be mutually supportive,
cost-effective, and sustainable. Further, tax exemptions and
fossil-fuel subsidies that undermine the transition towards
zero carbon solutions must be reformed. Finally, any regressive
impacts of carbon pricing measures must be alleviated through
complementary measures and a clear communication strategy
must developed to explain them.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/environment/climate-carbon.htm
Aligning policies twoards a low-carbon economy

At their Ministerial Council Meeting (MCM), OECD countries
noted: While policies adopted by different countries will need to
reflect their individual circumstances, we recognise the importance
of aligning policies across all relevant areas. These areas include
economic, fiscal, financial, competition, employment, social,
environmental, energy, investment, trade, development co-operation,
innovation, agriculture and sustainable food production, regional as
well as urban and transport policies. They invited the: OECD, in
co-operation with the International Energy Agency, the Nuclear Energy
Agency and the International Transport Forum [] to examine how
to better align policies across different areas for a successful economic
transition of all countries to sustainable low-carbon and climateresilient economies and report to the 2015 OECD [MCM].
The four organisations are currently working to identify which

policy instruments have unintended consequences on efforts
to move OECD economies on a path to low-carbon, with a view
to indicate potentials options to lower the cost of the transition.
Policy guidance will be provided back to the MCM in June 2015.
Combining policies least-cost climate mitigation

A broad-based carbon price signal can go a long way towards
delivering cost-effective emissions reductions, but even in the
presence of a carbon price there are sound reasons for also
introducing supplementary policies. In 2013, the IEA produced
Managing Interactions between Carbon Pricing and Existing
Energy Policies (IEA, 2013), to provide specific policy guidance
to countries introducing a carbon price. This paper identifies
key questions that policymakers should consider to align the
carbon price with existing energy policies, and to keep policies
well aligned over time. It built on the earlier paper Summing
up the parts: Combining policy instruments for least-cost climate
mitigation strategies (Hood C., 2011) which focused in particular
on when policies to supplement a carbon price are justified,
interactions between carbon pricing and supplementary
policies, and how to manage these interactions to enable a
least-cost policy response.
The OECD and IEA have jointly produced a green growth study
to look at the implications for the energy sector in moving
towards a greener model of growth. The study Green Growth
Strategy for Energy: A Preliminary Report (OECD, 2012) examines
how to improve the environmental performance of energy
generation and systems as a cornerstone for economic growth.
Policies for green growth in the energy sector will differ across
countries, according to local environmental and economic
conditions, institutional settings and stages of development, yet
a number of common policy recommendations can be found.
Many energy systems are locked-in to high carbon production
and consumption patterns that can be difficult to break
for reasons that go beyond simple economics. This report
recommends a set of measures to tackle market failures and
barriers that will otherwise lead to underinvestment in the
energy sector and environmental degradation. It also examines
political economy challenges, including distribution effects and
stranded capital, that will arise in any transition process.
Key publication
OECD/IEA (2012),
Green Growth
Studies: Energy,
OECD Publishing,
Paris, DOI: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1787/
9789264115101-en.
Key links:
www.iea.org
www.oecd.org/greengrowth/
1.2. Adaptation to climate change

Efforts to reduce GHG emissions need to move hand-in-hand
with policies and incentives to adapt to the effects of climate
change. The OECD is working to support governments in
planning and implementing effective, efficient and equitable
adaptation policies. This work covers three themes:
(i) integrating adaptation in development co-operation;
(ii) adaptation in OECD countries; and (iii) economic aspects of
adaptation.
Previous work on Harmonising Climate Risk Management:

Adaptation Screening and Assessment Tools for Development Cooperation (OECD, 2011) has considered how well current tools
for screening climate risks and integrating adaptation into
development planning meet users needs.
The OECD recently surveyed approaches used to monitor and
evaluate adaptation in development co-operation and identified
examples of emerging good practice in this area (Lamhauge
et al., 2011 and Lamhauge, 2014 forthcoming). Given the longterm perspective of most adaptation initiatives, it is important
to clearly include the effects of future climate change when
selecting indicators and generating baselines.
Integrating adaptation in development co-operation

There is a two-way relationship between adaptation and
development. Adaptation can support the achievement of
development outcomes, while development can help to build
climate resilience. Climate Resilience in Development Planning:
Experiences in Colombia and Ethiopia (OECD, 2014) discusses the
current state of knowledge on how to build climate resilience
in developing countries, and builds on a growing volume of
country experience on building climate resilience into national
development planning.
Key publication
OECD (2014),
Climate Resilience
in Development
Planning:
Experiences in
Colombia and
Ethiopia, OECD
Publishing, Paris,
DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/
9789264209503-en.
Robust monitoring and evaluation is essential for effective

adaptation interventions. A 2011 report Monitoring and
Evaluation for Adaptation: Lessons from Development Co-operation
Agencies (OECD, 2011), examines the particular characteristics
of monitoring and evaluation of adaptation and identifies
lessons learned from development co-operation agencies on the
choice and use of indicators, baseline and targets. The report
on Monitoring and Evaluation of Climate Change Adaptation:
Methodological Approaches (OECD, 2014 forthcoming) suggests
how some of the methodological challenges for monitoring
and evaluation can be overcome. National Monitoring and
Evaluation of Climate Change Adaptation: Lessons from Developed
and Developing Countries (2014) identifies four key tools that can
be used to enhance learning and assess countries progress in
adapting to climate change.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/dac/stats/climate-change
www.oecd.org/env/cc/adaptation.htm
Adaptation in OECD countries

More than three-quarters of OECD member countries have
either published, or are developing, national adaptation
strategies. National Adaptation Planning: Lessons from OECD
countries (OECD, 2013) identifies some of the emerging
challenges and lessons learnt from the use of a mainstreaming
approach. Key remaining challenges are: securing adequate
financing, overcoming capacity constraints and measuring the
success of interventions.
Key publication
OECD (2013),
National Adaptation
Planning: Lessons
from OECD countries,
OECD Working
Paper, No. 54, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/
10.1787/5k483jp
fpsq1-en.
Key link:
Economic aspects of adaptation
The OECD is also working on the economics of adaptation

which will provide guidance on implementing a risk-based
approach to adaptation.
The actions of the private sector will also have a decisive

influence on countries success at adapting to climate change.
The OECD report Private Sector Engagement in Adaptation to
Climate Change (OECD, 2011) found that while awareness of
climate risks is high, only a small proportion of businesses
reported taking action to manage them. It identifies potential
priorities for action by the public sector to support private
sector adaptation.
Many of the benefits of adaptation are local and private, which

can provide a powerful incentive for private investments to
manage those risks. However, recent OECD work has shown
that private action on adaptation whether at the household
or firm level is lagging behind awareness (Kato et al., 2014,
Mullan et al., 2013, Agrawala et al., 2011).
Adaptation can ameliorate, but will not necessarily prevent, the
negative effects of climate change. The appropriate risk-sharing
and risk-transfer mechanisms, such as insurance, will also need
to be in place to manage increasing risks, while encouraging
risk-reduction activities (OECD, 2015 forthcoming; OECD, 2014c;
OECD, 2009).
Further OECD work on adaptation, development planning,
policy and co-operation is exploring: (a) risk management,
reduction, transfer and sharing instruments; (b) opportunities
to support climate change adaptation and resilience at the subnational level, with a focus on cities; and (c) further work on
monitoring and evaluation adaptation interventions.
Key link:
1.3. Climate finance and investment

Limiting climate change to 2C requires a major shift in
investment patterns towards low-carbon, climate-resilient
options. Policy-makers have a key role to play to help mobilise
private sector finance towards green investment. Private
investment is particularly critical in infrastructure sectors to
help meet the global climate change challenge. A key priority
is to establish clear and predictable policy frameworks for
investment in green infrastructure, including in renewable
energy, energy efficiency and sustainable transport.
To help governments address those challenges, the OECD
has undertaken work streams to: 1) develop domestic policy
frameworks for green investment, in developed and developing
countries; 2) engage institutional investors; and 3) track climate
finance.
Policy framework for mobilising private investment

The OECD has developed elements of a green investment
policy framework to help governments create and improve
domestic enabling conditions to shift and scale up private
sector investments in green infrastructure. The five elements of
the framework are: (1) goal setting and aligning policies across
and within levels of government; (2) reforming policies to enable

investment and strengthen market incentives; (3) establishing
specific financial policies, regulations, tools and instruments
that provide transitional support for new green technologies; (4)
harnessing resources and building capacity; and (5) promoting
green business and consumer behaviour.
Key Elements of a Green Investment Policy Framework
1. Strategic goal setting

and policy alignment
5. Promote green
business and
consumer
behaviour
2. Enabling policies
and incentives for
LCR investment
3. Financial policies and
instruments
4. Harness
resources and
build capacity
for an LCR
economy
Source: Corfee-Morlot, et al. (2012), Towards a Green Investment Policy Framework.
In a series of case studies, the elements of the policy framework

have been applied in different sectors and country contexts. For
example, the OECD report on Mobilising Private Investment in
Sustainable Transport: The Case of Land-based Passenger Transport
Infrastructure (OECD, 2013) provides a comprehensive toolkit
of investment and climate policies, regulations and innovative
financial tools to scale up private investment and shift toward
sustainable transport modes. In a report forthcoming in
2015, Green Investment Policy Framework in practice: Assessing
experience with Green Infrastructure Investment, the OECD will
identify lessons learned from case studies and develop tailored
guidance to scale-up private sector investments in specific
infrastructure sectors and country contexts. The report will also
draw lessons from a forthcoming case study jointly undertaken
by the OECD and CDC Climate Research (Cochran I, et al., 2014
forthcoming), which analyses the role of five Public Financial
Institutions (PFIs) in fostering the low-carbon energy transition
through domestic climate finance activities.
Policy guidance for investment in

clean energy infrastructure
The OECD Policy Guidance for Investment in Clean Energy
Infrastructure (OECD, 2014 forthcoming is a non-prescriptive
tool which raises key issues for policy, including in the areas
of: investment policy, investment promotion and facilitation,
energy market design/competition policy, financial market
policy, governance of energy market institutions, and other

policies and cross-cutting issues. The Policy Guidance was
transmitted to the G20 Finance Ministers and Central
Governors meeting and annexed to the Communiqu of their
meeting in October 2013. The OECD will now apply the Policy
Guidance to specific country contexts by undertaking Clean
Energy Investment Policy Reviews to help countries make the
most of their clean energy investment potential.
Key publication
Ang, G. and V. Marchal
(2013), Mobilising Private
Investment in Sustainable
Transport: The Case of
Land-Based Passenger
Transport Infrastructure,
OECD Environment
Working Papers, No. 56,
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/
10.1787/5k46hjm8j
pmv-en.
Achieving a level playing field for international

investment in green energy
The OECD project Achieving a level playing field for
international field for international investment in green energy
takes stock of policy measures that may distort international
competition and hamper international investments in solar PV
and wind energy. This project also assesses the possible impacts
of these policy measures across the solar PV and wind energy
value chains, with a focus on local content requirements (LCRs).
The forthcoming report provides evidence to inform policy
makers decisions in designing green energy support policies.
The OECD is developing policy guidance on long-term

investment focusing on the role of institutional investors. As
a part of this effort, the report Mapping Channels to Mobilise
Institutional Investment in Sustainable Energy, (Kaminker, C
et al. 2014) provides a framework for policy makers to better
understand the processes and channels through which
institutional investors make sustainable energy investments
(in projects or companies) and the methods available for
facilitating these types of investment.
Engaging institutional investors

In the wake of the economic and financial crisis, some of
the traditional sources of green infrastructure finance and
investment governments, commercial banks, and utilities
face significant constraints. Alternative sources will be
needed to not only compensate for these constraints, but to
ramp up green infrastructure investments. One potential
source is institutional investors. These include insurance
companies, investment funds, pension funds, public pension
reserve funds, foundations, endowments, and other forms of
institutional savings.
Tracking climate finance

Tracking climate finance, to and in, developing countries is
key to building trust between countries that climate finance is
flowing, and is key to monitoring progress in the international
effort to address climate change. Understanding these flows
helps to support transparency, accountability and the design of
better policies and interventions to mobilise climate finance.
Yet, there are significant data, methodological and knowledge
gaps on climate finance flows. To help address these gaps, the
OECD is working on a number of key issues related to tracking
both public and private climate finance flows.
Key publication
Clapp, C., et al. (2012),
Tracking Climate
Finance: What and How?,
OECD/IEA Climate
Change Expert Group
Papers, No. 2012/01,
OECD Publishing, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/
10.1787/5k44xwtk9tvk-en.
The OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) has a

robust system for measuring and monitoring climate changerelated aid: the Rio markers on Climate Change Mitigation and
Adaptation. The DAC joint WP-STST Task Team is currently
working to improve the quality, coverage, communication
and use of the Rio marker data. This includes advancing
collaboration between the OECD DAC, Multilateral Development
Banks (MDBs) and other international financial institutions to
reconcile methodological approaches and identify multilateral
climate finance flows within the DAC statistical framework.
Total bilateral climate change-related aid provided by members
of the OECDs DAC increased at a steady pace over the past
decade. Estimates suggest that the upper bound for climaterelated aid reached USD 21.5 billion1 on average per year
in 2010-12, representing 16% of total official development
assistance.
The Rio markers are descriptive rather than quantitative and
allow for an approximate quantification of financial flows
targeting the objectives of the Rio conventions. Not all climaterelated aid is reported by parties as climate finance to the
UNFCCC, but many OECD DAC members draw on this data
as a starting point and apply adjustments to report only a
share of this as climate finance (Gaveau and Ockenden, 2014
forthcoming).
1. For technical reasons, statistics on climate-related aid for the United States
are currently unavailable and excluded from these figures. The United States
is working to review its data collection methodology and will supply data for
2011 and 2012.
Measuring private climate finance, to and in, developing

countries and estimating its mobilisation by public finance
interventions (finance and policies) is crucial. To facilitate
further research in this area, the OECD is hosting and
co-ordinating a Research Collaborative on Tracking Private
Climate Finance with the aim of identifying and analysing
relevant data sources, developing estimation methodologies,
and conducting pilot measurements of mobilisation.
Completed OECD analysis to date illustrates: (i) The potential

and limitations of a number of commercial and public
databases towards a better coverage of private climate finance
beyond renewable energy (Caruso and Jachnik, 2014); (ii) A
range of existing methods in use to measure climate finance
mobilised by public finance (Caruso and Ellis, 2013); (iii) Methods
for measuring the mobilisation effect of public guarantees
within official development finance statistics (Mirabile, Benn
and Sangar, 2013); and (iv) The use of econometric techniques
to more broadly explore linkages between public interventions
(including targeted policies) and private climate finance
mobilisation in the renewable energy sector (Hascic et al., 2014
forthcoming).
Climate-related Aid (bilateral commitments)

Annual average over 3 years
25
18%
Climate-related aid: "Significant" objective

Climate-related aid: "Principal" objective
16%
Climate-related share of Total ODA

14%
Key links:
12%
15
10%
8%
10
6%
Share of Total ODA (%)
USD, Billion (2012 Prices)
20
www.oecd.org/env/cc/financing.htm
www.oecd.org/finance/lti
www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investment-policy/clean-energy-infrastructure.htm
www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm
4%
2004-6
2007-9
www.oecd.org/dac/stats/mobilisationeffectofpublicdevelopmentfinance.htm
0%
www.oecd.org/dac/stats/rioconventions.htm
2010-12
Notes: 1) This Figure presents a trend based on averages over three years, so as to smooth fluctuations from large multiyear projects committed in a given year. 2) Reporting against the mitigation marker became mandatory from 2006 flows
onwards. 3) The adaptation marker was introduced in 2010. Data on total climate-related aid for earlier years mainly
relates to mitigation and may underestimate bilateral aid flows to climate change.
Source: OECD DAC Statistics, May 2014.
www.oecd.org/env/researchcollaborative
2%
www.oecd.org/daf/investment/green
www.oecd.org/daf/inv/investment-policy/oecdinvestmentpolicytools.htm
1.4. The multilateral climate change

framework
Much of the OECD work on assessing options for the future
international climate change framework is undertaken via the
Climate Change Expert Group (CCXG), run jointly by the OECD
and the IEA (see Section 4.2). Recent work has focussed on
elements of a 2015 climate change agreement, climate finance
(including the role of the 2015 agreement in mobilising climate
finance, as well as climate finance tracking and effectiveness),
mitigation accounting (including land sector accounting),
market mechanisms, national emissions baselines, and
measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) of mitigation
actions and support.
Past analytical work from this group has played an important
role in building understanding and support for the use
of market instruments (e.g. emissions trading and Clean
Development Mechanism (CDM) in the Kyoto Protocol) and for
harmonised monitoring, reporting and compliance assessment
in international climate policy responses.
Key links:
Key publication
Briner, G., Kato, T., &
Hattori, T. (2014), Built to
Last: Designing a Flexible
and Durable 2015 Climate
Change Agreement, IEA
Climate Change Expert
Group Papers, No.
2014/3, http://www.oecd.
org/env/cc/Built%20to%20
Last_CCXGsentout_
May2014_REV.pdf.
Elements of a 2015 agreement

A new international climate change agreement that will
have legal force, and be applicable to all countries, is being
negotiated under the auspices of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The agreement is to
be adopted by 2015 and come into effect from 2020. An effective
agreement would include quantitative mitigation commitments
from all major emitters and result in concrete actions to

reduce greenhouse gas emissions while catalysing long-term
transformations to low-carbon and climate-resilient economies.
Economies are rapidly evolving, national capabilities are
changing and unexpected shocks of various kinds (e.g.
economic, political, technological) can occur. A 2015 climate
change agreement is therefore needed that can evolve in
response to external shocks and remain effective over time. A
recent CCXG paper entitled Built to Last: Designing a Flexible and
Durable 2015 Climate Change Agreement (OECD, 2014) explores
what a flexible and durable climate change agreement could
look like and proposes pragmatic options for the design of
such an agreement. The paper outlines possible processes for
consultations and updating of mitigation contributions. It also
discusses the possible structure of the 2015 agreement and the
implications of different mitigation contribution types for the
flexibility and durability of the agreement.
Climate finance
There is widespread recognition that climate finance needs
to be scaled up from its current levels. However, there is no
clear view on how developed countries can efficiently and
effectively mobilise further climate finance to meet the needs
of developing countries. Developed countries have committed
to mobilise USD 100 billion per year of climate finance for
developing countries by 2020 from a variety of sources. These

include both public and private finance, thus the private sector
is likely to play a significant role in the mobilisation of climate
finance to meet this commitment.
A recent CCXG paper entitled The Role of the 2015 Agreement in
Mobilising Climate Finance (OECD, 2014) explores how the new
agreement could contribute to mobilising climate finance by
examining the current state of play on the existing financing
environments and mechanisms which are designed to mobilise
climate finance. These include: (i) the existing international
institutional arrangements; (ii) in-country enabling
environments; (iii) financial instruments and tools; and (iv)
methodologies for transparency.
While the quantity of climate finance is important, quantity
alone is not sufficient to achieve the climate objectives of the
Convention. Ensuring the underlying quality, or effectiveness,
of climate finance will also be crucial. A CCXG paper entitled
Scaling up and replicating effective climate finance interventions
(OECD, 2014) explores lessons learned from existing climate
finance interventions in developing countries at project-,
programmes-, and fund-levels, which have already been, or are
being, scaled up or replicated. In particular, the paper looks into
how further private climate finance can be mobilised through
scale-up and replication of climate finance interventions,
while recognising that actors in the private sector are not a
homogeneous entity with a common interest.
Emissions accounting
Many UNFCCC Parties have put forward emissions reductions
targets and actions for the year 2020. These pledges, covering
both developed and developing countries, have been expressed
in a variety of ways and are not necessarily comparable.
Many include the assumption that emissions units from
market mechanisms will be transferred between countries.
Understanding how these movements will impact progress
towards pledges can be difficult if the pledges themselves are
not well understood. Pledges also use different approaches to
measure emissions and removals in the land-use sector. A GHG
emissions accounting framework is therefore needed to provide
full visibility and understanding about Parties individual and

joint efforts to reduce global emissions in line with the agreed
goal of limiting warming to below 2C.
The CCXG has undertaken a series of papers on emissions
accounting. The report Keeping Track: Options to Develop
International Greenhouse Gas Accounting After 2012 (OECD, 2011)
outlined possible scenarios for unit accounting post-2012 and
identified a middle ground emissions accounting scenario.
Tracking and Trading: Expanding on Options for International
Greenhouse Gas Unit Accounting After 2012 (OECD, 2011) looked
in more detail at the middle ground scenario and put forward
specific options for elements of unit accounting after 2012.
Made to Measure: Options for Emissions Accounting under the
UNFCCC (OECD, 2013) identified what is needed, in addition to
existing UNFCCC structures, to create an emissions accounting
framework that could be applicable to all Parties. GHG or not
GHG: Accounting for Diverse Mitigation Contributions in the Post2020 Climate Framework (OECD, 2014) explored the implications
of different types of mitigation contributions for the post-2020
accounting framework. Planting the Foundations of a Post-2020
Land Sector Reporting and Accounting Framework (OECD, 2014)
looks in more detail at possible ways forward for post-2020
accounting for the land sector.
Market mechanisms
Carbon market mechanisms such as emissions trading systems
and crediting mechanisms can have multiple objectives. A key
goal is to lower the cost of achieving GHG emissions reductions.
Market mechanisms can also catalyse investment in low
carbon technologies and practices, provide environmental
and health co-benefits, contribute to fostering innovation,
provide a source of government revenue and facilitate more
ambitious mitigation action in future. They can therefore play
an important role in the diverse policy toolkit needed to address
the global issue of climate change.
A CCXG paper entitled Making Markets: Unpacking Design and

Governance of Carbon Market Mechanisms (OECD, 2012) identifies
the key design elements of market mechanisms and examines
the governance structures and decision-making processes used
to create tradable GHG units in existing systems both inside
and outside of the UNFCCC. The report Crossing the Threshold:
Ambitious Baselines for the UNFCCC New Market-based Mechanism
(OECD, 2012) explores how setting baselines for broad segments
of the economy could form the basis of the new market
mechanism under the UNFCCC.
National emissions baselines

Greenhouse gas emissions baselines are reference emissions
levels. They can have different uses at the national level,
including to inform domestic climate change policy and
strategic planning, as well as to provide emissions information
internationally. As some developing countries have now defined
national mitigation goals relative to a future projected businessas-usual (BAU) level of emissions, the underlying assumptions
and methodologies used in setting these emissions baselines
have direct relevance for assessing both the country's and
the aggregate global emissions mitigation effort. A better
understanding of these baselines is therefore now of increased
importance to the international community.
The report National Greenhouse Gas Emissions Baseline

Scenarios: Learning from Experiences in Developing Countries
(2013), in partnership with the Danish Energy Agency, reviews
national approaches to preparing baseline scenarios of GHG
emissions. The aim is to improve overall understanding of
baseline scenarios and facilitate their use for policy-making in
developing countries more broadly by describing and comparing
in non-technical language existing practices and choices made
by ten developing countries.
Measurement, reporting and verification (MRV)

The Bali Action Plan (BAP) introduces the phrase measurable,
reportable and verifiable in the context of countries GHG
mitigation actions and commitments, and support. Subsequent
texts have indicated the need for more frequent and
comprehensive climate reports, as this would help not only to
increase the information available to national and international
policy-makers, but also to increase trust and confidence of
the international community in the actions that individual
countries are taking. However, there remain many open
questions, including what M, R and V are, what they should
apply to, who should undertake them, and how.
A number of CCXG papers examine possible ways of
implementing MRV provisions for both developed and
developing countries. These include papers with suggestions for
the structure and content of biennial reports, see e.g. Frequent
and Flexible: Options for Reporting Guidelines for Biennial Update
Reports (OECD, 2011) and subsequent review processes, see e.g.
Design Options for International Assessment and Review (IAR) and
International Consultations and Analysis (ICA) (OECD, 2011).
Sector-specific analysis
2.1. Agriculture and fisheries

The report entitled Policy Instruments to Support Green Growth
in Agriculture (OECD, 2013) syntheses the experience of
OECD countries in developing and implementing policies,
programmes and initiatives related to green growth in the
agricultural sector in OECD countries. The report notes that,
in most countries, the initiatives undertaken to support green
growth in agriculture focused on improving energy efficiency
and achieving low carbon emissions in the agricultural sector.
The recently published report Green Growth Indicators for
Agriculture - A preliminary assessment (OECD, 2014) presents
the work undertaken to identify the relevant and measurable
indicators for the agricultural sector. These indicators have been
calculated and applied to a selected number of OECD countries
in three specific policy areas: the transition to a low-carbon,
resource-efficient agricultural sector; the maintenance of a
natural asset base; and the implementation of policies aimed
at realising the economic opportunities associated with green
growth in the agricultural sector.
The report Climate Change, Water and Agriculture (OECD, 2014)

reviews the main linkages between climate change, water and
agriculture as a means to identifying and discussing adaptation
strategies for better use and conservation of water resources.
It aims to provide guidance to decision makers on choosing an
appropriate mix of policies and market approaches to address
the interaction between agriculture and water systems under
climate change. A quantification of some of the adaptation
strategies are discussed in a report on Modelling Adaptation
to Climate Change in Agriculture (OECD, 2014 forthcoming).
This report investigates long-term scenarios for agricultural
production and how the agricultural sector can be affected by
climate change. It projects yields, food availability and prices,
and changes in land use under certain climate conditions.
These long-term projections are then used to assess the
effectiveness and costs of the selected adaptation strategies.
The publication The Economics of Adapting Fisheries to Climate
Change (OECD, 2011) brings together the conclusions of a
workshop organised in 2010, on the invitation of the Korean
Government. The Workshop notably aimed to identify when
policy makers need to contemplate to address climate
change in fisheries and aquaculture, and the governance and
management models that are suited to do so. An important
message to policy makers is to downscale current knowledge
and data to local situations while applying an eco-system
approach to fisheries management. The report also outlines
actions that fisheries policy makers must undertake in the
face of climate change. These include: strengthening the global

governance system; a broader use of rights-based management
systems; ecosystem protection; industry transformation
through the ending of environmental harmful subsidies and
a focus on demand for sustainably caught seafood; and, in
particular, using aquaculture as a key part of the response to
climate change.
The publication Green Growth in Fisheries and Aquaculture
(OECD, 2014 forthcoming) addresses mitigation of climate
change by identifying how fisheries and aquaculture can
contribute to economic growth and food security while
minimising their impact on the environment, notably in terms
of emissions. The report addresses both precise issues such as
fuel tax concessions, fuel consumption or waste, and by-catch
reduction strategies as well as more general concerns (such
as: how fishing efficiency can be improved through good stock
management; and allowing fishers the flexibility to operate
in the most efficient manner). The report also recommends
effective monitoring and evaluation frameworks; sharing
information to define best practices; and promoting innovation
in markets and processes.
Key publications
OECD (2011), The
Economics of Adapting
Fisheries to Climate Change,
OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/
10.1787/9789264090415-en.
OECD (2013), Policy
Instruments to Support
Green Growth in Agriculture,
OECD Green Growth
Studies, OECD Publishing,
Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/97892642
03525-en.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/agriculture
www.oecd.org/tad/fisheries
2.2. Energy
World Energy Outlook
The IEA has been providing analytical work on the energy

dimension of climate change since the early 1990s, originally
with a focus on the implications of the UNFCCC and its Kyoto
Protocol for the energy sector. The IEA also studies options
for the future evolution of the international climate change
mitigation regime, including for the OECD and IEA Climate
Change Expert Group (CCXG) on the UNFCCC (see Section
4.2). The current IEA work covers areas such as policies and
measures for the energy sector, as well as the role of energy
efficiency, renewables and CCS in reducing greenhouse gas
emissions.
The 2013 edition of the World Energy Outlook (IEA, 2013) provides
updated energy trends and their impact on GHG emissions
to 2035, as well as detailing a pathway for the energy sector
to achieve a transition to a low-carbon world and avoid the
worst impacts of climate change. Climate change policy is
an integral part of the analysis outlined in this edition of the
Outlook, which presents three energy- and climate-policy
based scenarios: 1) the New Policies Scenario assumes weak
implementation of current climate pledges and limited
additional climate policy after 2020; 2) the Current Policies
Scenario is based on no change to current policies; and 3) the
450 ppm Scenario. The main focus of the climate analysis
assumes the implementation of an ambitious interpretation
of existing pledges and strong action after 2020 to limit
temperature increase to 2C. The report, released in November
2013, contains valuable climate change data and analysis.
Questions about the reliability, affordability and sustainability
of our energy future often boil down to questions about
investment. But are investors ready to commit capital in a
fast-changing energy world? The complementary special
report in the World Energy Outlook series the World Energy
Investment Outlook (IEA, 2014) takes up this question in a full
and comprehensive update of the energy investment picture to
2035.
The report provides insights into: the structure of ownership

and models for financing investment in different parts of the
energy sector; the continued importance of oil investment in
the Middle East to meet demand; the dynamics and costs of
liquefied natural gas (LNG) investment and how this can shape
the future of global gas supply; where investment in the power
sector might fall short of what is required, with important
findings on the reliability of electricity supply in Europe and in
India; the outlook for investment in low-carbon technologies,
and the barriers to their realisation; and how global investment
and financing requirements
change if governments take
stronger action to address
climate change.
Key publication
IEA (2013), World Energy
Outlook 2013, IEA,
DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/weo-2013-en.
Key link:
www.worldenergyoutlook.org
Energy efficiency
The IEA undertakes extensive work on energy efficiency, a
major contributor to a range of objectives, from GHG mitigation
and improved energy security to enhanced economic
development and productivity.
The Energy Efficiency Market Report (IEA, 2014) provides a
practical basis for understanding energy efficiency market
activities, and a statistical analysis of energy efficiency and its
impact on energy demand. This report includes an in-depth
look at the energy efficiency transport market and at finance
for energy efficiency. Capturing the Multiple Benefits of Energy
Efficiency (IEA, 2014) explores the non-energy benefits of energy
efficiency. The aim of this publication is two-fold: to build
knowledge of the multiple benefits of energy efficiency; and to
demonstrate how policy makers and other stakeholders can use
existing tools to measure and maximise the benefits they seek.
The IEA joined with partners and experts from ten economies
in the Arab and Southern and Eastern Mediterranean region to
develop a set of energy efficiency policy recommendations that
reflects regional priorities and barriers. These recommendations
are detailed in the publication, Regional Energy Efficiency Policy
Recommendations: Arab-Southern and Eastern Mediterranean
(SEMED) Region, published in English, Arabic and French.
Key link:
www.iea.org/topics/energyefficiency/
Energy technology perspectives

Energy Technology Perspectives (ETP) (IEA, 2014) offers a
comprehensive, long-term analysis of trends in the energy
sector and of the technologies that are essential to achieving
an affordable, secure and low-carbon system. The report takes
a deep dive into actions needed to support deployment of
sustainable options for generation, distribution and end-use
consumption.
Tracking Clean Energy Progress (IEA, 2014) examines progress
in the development and deployment of key clean energy
technologies. This publication tracks each technology and sector
against interim 2025 targets in the IEA ETP 2014 2C scenario
(2DS) and provides specific recommendations to governments
on how to scale up deployment of these key technologies
toward a secure, clean and competitive energy future.
More Data, Less Energy (IEA, 2014) looks at the rapidly increasing
connectivity in a broad range of products, exploring how
"everything is becoming smart" and "network-enabled".
While consumers are devouring this new convenience and
the extra functionality provided by network-enabled devices,
the energy waste implications are big and getting bigger. The
book provides an overview of technology and policy options to
improve the energy efficiency of network-enabled devices.
Energy Technology Roadmaps are free publications that identify

priority actions for governments, industry, financial partners
and civil society that could advance technology developments
described in the ETP 2DS. The following roadmaps were
published by the IEA in 2014 covering a wide range of energy
demand and supply technologies: Solar Photovoltaic Energy; Solar
Thermal Electricity; Energy Efficient Building Envelopes; Energy
Storage; and A Guide to Development and Implementation.
Energy Efficiency Indicators: Fundamentals on Statistics (IEA, 2014)

identifies the main sectorial indicators and the data needed to
develop these indicators; and to make surveying, metering and
modeling practices existing around the world available to all.
Energy Efficiency Indicators: Essentials for Policy Making (IEA,
2014) is aimed at providing policy makers and energy analysts
the tools needed to determine the priority areas for the
development of energy efficiency indicators and how to select
and develop the data and indicators that will best support
energy efficiency policy making. In addition, the indicators
provide a basis for international comparisons that can
help identify best practices for effective policy design and
implementation in countries.
Renewables
Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report (IEA, 2014)
highlights that power generation from renewable sources such
as wind, solar and hydro grew strongly in 2013, reaching almost
22% of global generation, and was on par with electricity from
gas. Global renewable generation is estimated to rise by 45%
and making up nearly 26% of global electricity generation by
2020. Yet annual growth in new renewable power is slowing
and, putting renewables at risk of falling short of the absolute
generation levels needed to meet global climate change
objectives.
Emissions Reduction through Upgrade of Coal-Fired Power Plants

(IEA, 2014) examines the potential to improve the performance
of existing coal-fired plants. Two power units in China were
selected to showcase measures that would improve their net
efficiency. The results built on the efficiency gains made under
Chinas national energy efficiency improvement programme
and demonstrated the enormous potential to improve
performance, with each percentage point increase capable
of reducing CO2 emissions by many millions of tonnes over
a units operational lifetime. Experiences learned in China
can be applied to improving coal-fired power plant efficiency
worldwide.
Key link:
www.iea.org/etp/
The Power of Transformation Wind, Sun and the Economcis of

Flexible Power Systems (IEA, 2014) explains that wind power
and solar photovoltaics are expected to make a substantial
contribution to a more secure and sustainable energy system.
However, electricity generation from both technologies is
constrained by the intermittency of wind and sunshine. This
can make it challenging to maintain the necessary balance of
electricity supply and consumption at all times. Consequently,
the cost-effective integration of variable renewable energy (VRE)
has become a pressing challenge for the energy sector. This
publication finds that large shares of VRE (up to 45% in annual
generation) can be integrated without significantly increasing
power system costs in the long run. However, cost-effective
integration calls for a system-wide transformation: optimising
system operation, investing in a mix of flexibility resources
(grid infrastructure, flexible generation, storage and demand
side integration) and deploying system friendly wind and solar
power plants.
In addition, the IEA has published recent roadmaps on: Solar
Thermal Electricity (2014); Solar Photovoltaic Energy (2014); Wind
Energy (2013); and a paper entitled Heating Without Global
Warming (2014).
Key links:
www.iea.org/topics/renewables/
www.iea.org/policiesandmeasures/renewableenergy/
Key publication
IEA (2014), MediumTerm Renewable Energy
Market Report 2014,
OECD Publishing, Paris,
DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/renewmar2014-en.
Carbon capture and storage
Carbon capture and storage (CCS) could reduce global annual

CO2 emissions by around 17% by 2050. Moreover, CCS is
currently the only large-scale mitigation option available to
make deep reductions in the emissions from industrial sectors
such as cement, iron and steel, chemicals and refining.
Establishing a supportive policy framework is critical for the

success of CCS. The IEA and the Global CCS Institute delivered
five key messages to the 5th Clean Energy Ministerial meeting
held in Seoul, Korea in May 2014.
The IEA tracks the progress and current state of play in
establishing legal frameworks for safe CO2 storage. Such
frameworks are critical for reassuring society that CCS
can be undertaken in a safe manner. To follow up on key
recommendations of its 2013 CCS Roadmap, the IEA published
analysis on critical aspects of CCS, with particular emphasis on
CO2 storage. The time required to develop a suitable geological
site for permanent storage is often underestimated. In addition,
national storage capacity estimates are not easily comparable.
A new publication CCS 2014: What lies in store for CCS? (2014)
discussed these important topics.
Key link:
www.iea.org/topics/ccs/
Did you know...? that CCS is not only about

electricity production? IEA analysis suggests
that nonpower uses, such as in production and
manufacturing plants, will account for nearly
half of captured CO2 by 2050.
Energy, Climate Change and Environment:

2014 Insights
Policies that respond to climate change and other
environmental issues will increasingly impact the development
of the global energy sector. The transition to low-carbon
economies will need to be carefully managed, as the provision
of secure, affordable energy is critical for economic growth
and social development. More than ever, there is a need for a
fuller understanding of the opportunities to promote synergies
between energy, environmental and climate policies. Energy,
Climate Change, and Environment: 2014 Insights (IEA, 2014) helps
address this need.
Key publication
IEA (2014), Energy,
Climate Change
and Environment
2014 Insights, OECD
Publishing, Paris,
http://www.oecd.org/
bookshop?
9789264220737.
Key link:
www.iea.org/topics/climatechange/
Nuclear energy
Globally, the planning for, and construction of, new nuclear
power plants continues at a significant pace. There are currently
72 reactors under construction, the highest number for over 25
years. In the aftermath of the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear power
plant accident in March 2011, a few countries (e.g., Germany and
Belgium) have established nuclear power phase-out policies,
while most countries that use nuclear power have confirmed
their intention to continue their reliance on this form of energy
production. Reasons for maintaining and expanding the use of
nuclear power vary from country to country, but generally they
focus on the ability of nuclear plants to provide highly reliable,
affordable electricity with stable, long-term production costs;
very low life-cycle carbon emissions; and enhanced security
of energy supply. The Nuclear Energy Agency (NEA) provides
factual studies to assist countries in these energy policy
decisions.
The Nuclear Technology Roadmap, (IEA/NEA, forthcoming 2015),
assesses the challenges facing the nuclear sector to meet the
projected capacity growth for nuclear power of the two-degree
scenario (2DS) of Energy Technology Perspectives 2014, which
sees nuclear capacity rise from 390 GW today to over 900 GW,
and the share of electricity generation rise from 12% today
to 17% by 2050. The roadmap, which recognises the potential
contributions of nuclear energy to the decarbonisation of the
Did you know...? that nuclear energy saves

up to 2.6 billion tonnes of CO2 emissions every
year, compared with generating the same
amount of energy using coal-fired power
plants?
worlds energy system, proposes key actions for the next ten
years that could help accelerate the deployment of nuclear
power to meet the 2DS targets.
In 2013, the NEA together with the Vienna-based International
Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) organised an expert workshop
on the technical and economic assessment of non-electric
applications of nuclear energy. These include applications
such as district heating, water desalination and production of
hydrogen. Some of these applications are industrially proven,
though not widespread. The NEA will carry out a more detailed
study on this topic during 2015-2016.
The joint NEA/IAEA publication Uranium 2014: Resources,
Production and Demand (2014), offers an up-to-date evaluation
of available uranium resources as well as low and high demand
projections. Current resource assessments indicate that the
global supply of uranium will be sufficient even for high demand
scenarios. At the 2012 level of uranium requirements, identified
resources are sufficient for over 120 years of supply for the global
nuclear power fleet. The publication Managing Environmental and
Health Impacts of Uranium Mining (OECD, 2014) highlights some
of the leading safety practices of the industry, in particular with

respect to environmental monitoring prior to, during and after
the recovery of uranium from a mine.
The NEA is also currently carrying out a study (forthcoming
2015) on nuclear power and adaptation to climate change in
order to assess the possible impacts of extreme weather events
on the operation of nuclear power plants (NPPs), and the cost of
developing solutions to increase their resilience to such events.
This NEA study examines the implications of extreme weather

events in terms of loss of efficiency, partial or full outages, as
well as the adaptation measures that have already been and are
being taken, or considered, to improve the resilience of NPPs.
Additional reports by the NEA of interest include Nuclear Energy
and Renewables: System Effects in Low-carbon Electricity Systems
and The Role of Nuclear Energy in a Low-carbon Energy Future
(OECD/NEA, 2012).
Key links:
www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/workshops/nucogen/
www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/workshops/techroadmap/
www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/groups/nuca.html
www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2014/7209-uranium-2014.pdf
www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2014/7210-uranium-2014-es.pdf
www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2014/7062-mehium.pdf
www.oecd-nea.org/ndd/pubs/2014/7063-mehium-es.pdf
2.3. Transport
Key publication
CO2 emissions from transport represent 23% of global energyrelated CO2 emissions and 30% of OECD energy-related
emissions. In OECD countries, transport accounts for 64% of
oil consumption, and transport is dependent on oil products
for 94% of its fuel. Substitution with other energy carriers has
begun, with over 90 000 pure electric vehicles sold in 2013
worldwide. If climate change targets are to be met, the transport
sector will have to decarbonise radically, but emission rates
have been slow to drop and in view of increases in demand
for mobility emissions are expected to continue to rise unless
drastic policy actions are taken.
The ITF Transport Outlook

The annual ITF Transport Outlook examines scenarios for
the development of long-term global passenger and freight
transport volumes. It provides a near term outlook for the
economy, trade and transport as well as projections for longterm demand for surface transport to 2050. Specifically, the
Transport Outlook looks at CO2 emissions from international
freight transport for the next 35 years and examines different
urban transport policy scenarios. Particular focus is placed on
ITF (2013), ITF Transport

Outlook 2013, OECD
Publishing, Paris, http://
www.oecd.org/bookshop?
9789282103920.
Latin America, China and India, where urban the population

will grow rapidly in the coming decades and where policy
action or inaction will have the most impact. On the basis of
a model developed by ITF, the impact in terms of CO2 emissions,
air pollution and public health, are analysed and compared for
of different urban transport policy scenarios.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/env/greening-transport
www.internationaltransportforum.org
Emissions from transport
Key links:
www.iea.org/topics/transport/
Meeting emissions reduction targets will require a broad

set of policies under an Avoid, Shift and Improve approach
that address transport activity and model choice along
with continued rapid improvement in the fuel economy of
conventional vehicles and the development of large markets
for alternative vehicles. This also comprises a parallel shift
to carbon-free production of electricity, hydrogen and other
alternative energy carriers.
In addition to the annual Energy Technology Perspectives
publication, several other IEA documents examine the
potential of these Avoid, Shift and Improve options in more
detail, including: Technology Roadmap: Fuel Economy of Road
Vehicles (2012); Policy Pathways: Improving the Fuel Economy
of Road Vehicles (2012); Global EV Outlook: Understanding the
Electric Vehicle Landscape to 2020 (2013); A Tale of Renewed
Cities: a policy guide on how to transform cities by improving
energy efficiency in urban transport systems (2013); Nordic Energy
Technology Perspectives: Pathways to a Carbon Neutral Energy
Future (2013); GFEI: International comparison of light-duty vehicle
fuel economy: An update using 2010 and 2011 new registration
data (2013); Technology Roadmap: Biofuels for Transport (2011),
and Global Land Transport Infrastructure Requirements to 2050
(2013). The IEA and International Railways Federation also
produced a joint Railway Handbook on Energy Consumption and
CO2 emissions (2012, 2013, 2014).
www.iea.org/etp
Biofuels
The current global biofuel production is 115 billion litres and
corresponds to 3.5% of world road transport fuel consumption.
According to projections in the 2014 IEA Medium-Term Renewable
Energy Market Report, total production will reach 140 billion
litres in 2020, roughly 4% of road transport fuel demand at that
time. While conventional biofuels account for almost all of this
volume, advanced biofuels such as cellulosic-ethanol, are slowly
entering the market and their production capacity could double
from 2 billion litres in 2013 to 4 billion litres in 2020. In the
long-term, these fuels will be crucial in providing sustainable,
low-carbon fuel alternatives in all transport modes, including
shipping and aviation.
Key links:
www.iea.org/roadmaps
www.iea.org/topics/renewables/renewablesiea/medium-termmarketreportmtrmr/
2.4. Tourism
Tourism is one of the most promising drivers of growth for
the world economy and key to driving the defining trends of
the transition to a green economy. Due to tourisms crosscutting nature and close connections to numerous sectors at
destination and international levels, even small improvements
toward greater sustainability will have important impacts in
the shift towards more sustainable, cleaner and low-carbon
economic growth.
Following on from the OECD/UNEP report on Climate Change
and Tourism Policy in OECD Countries (2011), and the OECD report
on Green Innovation in Tourism Services (2013), the recentlypublished OECD Tourism Trends and Policy Priorities 2014
highlights that sustainability and climate change remain high
on the tourism policy agenda for many countries. Given the
heavy reliance of tourism on air travel in particular, and the
potential impacts associated with climate change, the report
highlights the need for closer alignment between transport,
tourism, and sustainable energy policies at national and
international level.
The OECD also plays an active role as a member of the
Multi-Stakeholder Advisory Committee (MAC) for the 10YFP
Sustainable Tourism Programme.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/cfe/tourism
Key publication
OECD (2014), Tourism
trends and policy priorities,
in OECD, OECD Tourism
Trends and Policies 2014,
DOI: http://dx.doi.10.1787/
tour-2014-4-en.
2.5. Water
Climate change is affecting all aspects of the water cycle. Water
is one of the main ways through which the impacts of climate
change will be felt. The OECD is working on policies that
facilitate adaptation of water management to climate change.
The OECD report Water and Climate Change Adaptation: Policies
to Navigate Uncharted Waters (2013) provides guidance to policy
makers on how they can prioritise actions and improve the
efficiency, timeliness and equity of adaptation decisions. It
sets out a risk-based approach to improve water security in a
changing climate. It also documents key trends and highlights
best practices from the OECD Survey of Policies on Water and
Climate Change Adaptation (2013), which covers all 34 OECD
countries and the European Commission. Finally, the report
examines options to improve the flexibility of water governance,
policy and financing approaches.
In addition, the OECD, in co-operation with the United Nations

Economic Council for Europe (UNECE), is working with
governments in Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia,
to help them factor climate change and the need for adaptation
in their water policies. The OECDs contribution focuses on
the use of economic and financial instruments to adapt water
allocation and investment in water-related infrastructures. This
work is undertaken under the framework of the European Water
Initiative.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/water
www.oecd.org/env/resources/waterandclimatechange.htm
www.oecd.org/env/outreach/partnershipeuwater-initiative-euwi.htm
Key publication
OECD (2013), Water and
Climate Change Adaptation:
Policies to Navigate
Uncharted Waters, OECD
Studies on Water, Paris
DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/97892642
00449-en.
Cross-cutting issues
3.1. Development co-operation
RIOMARKERS
The OECD DAC and its members are
actively committed to improving the quality,
coverage, communication and use of the
Rio markers, environment and development
Supporting the measurement, reporting and
finance statistics. An ambitious programme
verification of climate finance
Joint ENVIRONET-WP-STAT Task Team. This
of work is underway through the OECD DAC

includes advancing collaboration between
the OECD DAC, Multilateral Development
The OECDs Development Assistance Committee (DAC)

measures and monitors external development finance targeting
environmental objectives, notably official development
assistance (ODA) and other non-export credit Other Official
Flows (OOF) (i.e. non-concessional loans). Through the use of
the Rio markers and the Creditor Reporting System (CRS),
every development finance activity is screened and identified as
either targeting climate change mitigation and/or adaptation as
a principal or significant objective. Data on mitigation-related
ODA has been collected since 1998, on adaptation-related ODA
since 2010 and partial reporting on OOF since 2012.
Banks and other international financial

institutions to reconcile methodological
approaches and identify multilateral climate
finance flows within the DAC statistical
framework. A key objective is to provide full
coverage and reconciliation of bilateral and
multilateral flows, while ensuring there is no
double-counting.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/dac/stats/rioconventions.htm
The effectiveness of climate finance: Partnership for

Climate Finance and Development
There is increasing interest from the

international climate community on the
effectiveness of climate finance, which
reflects a long-standing interest from the
development co-operation community.
During the 4th High Level Forum on Aid
Effectiveness (2011) climate finance
Under this voluntary Partnership the OECD, UNDP and 28 other

institutions and countries are working together. Recently UNDP,
Korea, CSO Partnership for Development Effectiveness and
OECD co-facilitated a Global Forum in Korea, on Using Country
Systems to Manage Climate Change Finance (December 2013).
The Forum underscored the value of international and regional
co-operation to share experiences on improving policies and
national systems to better access, manage and use climate
finance to boost effectiveness. The Partnership held a focus
session at the High-Level Meeting of the Global Partnership
for Effective Development Co-operation (April 2014, Mexico
City) and is providing support to regional dialogues on climate
finance in Africa (August 2014), Asia-Pacific and Latin America
and the Caribbean (November 2014).
Key link:
www.oecd.org/development/environment-development/climate-partnership.htm
was outlined as a priority for effective

international development. The Partnership
for Climate Finance and Development was
created to apply lessons from development
co-operation to the management of climate
finance, focusing on the development of
national capacities and country systems in
order to effectively access, manage and use
domestic and international climate finance in
partner countries.
Green growth at the heart of development

The OECD publication Putting Green Growth at the Heart of
Development (2013), outlines a twin-track agenda for national
and international action to help achieve green growth in
developing countries and integrate climate and green growth
considerations into development planning and policies.
Drawing on extensive consultations with developing countries
and international stakeholders, it aims to assist governments
interested in pursuing green growth in their countries, or
supporting it in others, by highlighting the benefits of green
growth for developing countries and providers of development
assistance; advancing a practical agenda for action to guide
developing country policy makers to explore and pursue climate
and green growth policies; emphasising the need to gear
international co-operation efforts towards managing short-term
trade-offs of going green and ensuring access to climate and
green financing; and improving progress measurement towards
green growth with more robust statistics.
Key messages and ideas emerging from this report were
explored in depth in: Making Growth Green and Inclusive: The
Case of Cambodia (2013); Making Growth Green and Inclusive: The
Case of Ethiopia (2013) and Towards Green Growth in Southeast
Asia (2014).
Key publication
OECD (2013), Putting
Green Growth at the Heart
of Development, OECD
Publishing, Paris,
10.1787/9789264181144-en.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/dac/environment-development/
www.oecd.org/dac/environment-development/green-growth-development.htm
Innovation in energy technology and adaptation

The OECD Innovation Strategy presented to Ministers in May
2010 focused on innovation for global challenges, including
climate change, as part of its whole-of-government approach
to innovation. This work is summarised in the synthesis report
Towards Green Growth (OECD, 2011), a toolkit (Tools for delivering
on green growth), and a report on indicators (Towards Green
Growth: Measuring Progress OECD Indicators, 2011).
An on-going work programme undertaken in collaboration
with the European Patent Office has involved the development
of indicators of innovation with respect to climate change
mitigation (e.g. renewable energy, transportation and buildings
energy efficiency, and clean coal). This data is now publicly
available on the OECD.Stat database. In particular, the data has
been used to assess the effect of different policy measures on
innovation in renewable energy and efficiency in electricity
generation, energy storage and grid management, as well as
the factors which drive international research collaboration in
climate mitigation technologies (OECD Energy and Climate Policy
and Innovation). Previous work such as Invention and Transfer of
Environmental Technologies (OECD, 2011) focused on innovation
in alternative-fuel vehicles.
Recently, new work has started on developing indicators

of innovation with respect to climate change adaptation.
An analysis of water-related adaptation technologies (e.g.
desalination, water collection, residential and agricultural
water efficiency technologies) shows that development of such
innovations is highly concentrated amongst a few countries
(e.g. USA, Germany, Japan, Australia, UK). Importantly, waterrelated innovation only occurs to a limited extent in countries
with severe water stress. Indeed, about 70-80% of innovation
worldwide happens in countries with low or moderate
vulnerability to water scarcity (see the Figure below).
Invention of water-related adaptation technologies and existing

water vulnerability (2000-10)
4
RTA
3.2. Clean innovation
LOW
MODERATE
HIGH
SEVERE
ACUTE
Water vulnerability
High-value inventions
All (water-related) inventions
Source: OECD (2014), Invention and International Diffusion of Water Conservation and

Availability Technologies.
This suggests that developing local capabilities and encouraging

technology transfer to water-stressed countries will be a major
challenge.
What have we learned from attempts to introduce
Another working paper examined innovation specifically

in Africa and found that, despite the generally low
volume of technology development activity in Africa, it is
disproportionately directed toward climate mitigation (e.g.
biofuels) and adaptation technologies (e.g. desalination, off-grid
water supply, and remote energy service technologies).
On-going work is seeking to provide guidance to policymakers
on the timely identification of climate change mitigation
technologies which could prove to have far-reaching
environmental and economic implications.
Climate change policies constitute an important part of

green growth policies. But the latter are broader in scope
and also encompass other policies that favour transition to
a resource-efficient economy; improve the management of
the natural asset base; raise the environmental quality of life;
and create economic opportunities associated with changes
in consumption and production. The synthesis paper entitled
What have we learned from attempts to introduce green-growth
policies? (2013) analyses green-growth instruments, policy
frameworks and indicators.
green-growth policies?
Key publication
Key links:
www.oecd.org/environment/innovation.htm
www.oecd.org/sti/ipr-statistics
OECD (2013), What

Have We Learned from
Attempts to Introduce
Green-Growth Policies?,
OECD Green Growth
DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k48
6rchlnxx-en.
Towards green growth? Tracking progress
Four years after the launch of its 2011 Green Growth Strategy, the
OECD is taking stock of progress in green growth to help drive
global implementation and streamline mainstreaming.
Green Growth and Sustainable Development Forum
The Towards Green Growth? Tracking Progress (forthcoming,

2015) report will draw together lessons from OECD analysis and
country experience, to provide targeted policy advice on how
to strengthen the implementation of green growth. It builds
further momentum in relevant OECD Committees, and to
highlight priority areas for future work.
The third Green Growth and Sustainable Development Forum

(November 2014) focused on addressing the social challenges
of green growth by examining the distributional consequences
of implementing green growth strategies and their impact on
employment, skills and income. Green growths combination
of strong economies and a clean environment could increase
the well-being of all citizens if the right policy mix is applied.
The Forum discussed both the technical and political economy
aspects of the issues to propose workable solutions that can
be implemented across different levels of government. It
also identified areas that need further research, analysis and
collaboration to close knowledge gaps.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/greengrowth/ggsd-forum.htm
www.oecd.org/greengrowth/ggsd-2014.htm
Biotechnology
Current OECD projects focus on: the use of industrial and
environmental biotechnology, and its effects on climate
change; innovation; assessing socio-economic impacts; and
availability of human resources for the globalising bioeconomy.
As national bioeconomy strategies have burgeoned, industrial
biotechnology, synthetic and biorefining are clearly being cast
in a role in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions reduction and
climate change mitigation. Future scenarios from Integrated
Assessment and energy modelling studies have shown that
meeting ambitious mitigation targets with respect to global
GHG emissions requires substantial amounts of bioenergy as
part of the future energy mix. Policies focused on bioenergy are
currently creating a competition for biomass that bio-based
materials production (chemicals, plastics, textiles) cannot
win, even though studies show that the materials have higher
value added, greater job creation opportunities, and many
opportunities for countries to use bio-based production to meet
their climate change targets.
Key links:
Industrial Biotechnology and Climate Change
Space technologies
A 2009 OECD Space Forum report entitled Space Technologies

and Climate Change: Implications for Water Management, Marine
Resources and Maritime Transport provides lessons learned on
scientific, technical and economic outputs derived from using
space applications in monitoring and managing climate change.
Examples focus on water management, marine resources
and maritime transport. The report also provides a review
of methodologies when considering investments in Earth
observation. Further work is underway concerning the role of
space applications in the management of global food supplies
(e.g. crop monitoring from space).
www.oecd.org/sti/biotech/
Key link:
http://oe.cd/spaceforum
Information and communication technologies

OECD governments recognise that smart information
and communication technologies (ICTs) applications are
a cornerstone of green growth agendas for electricity
management, transport and the buildings sector. Further
environmental benefits of ICT applications are evident in water
management, biodiversity protection and pollution reduction.
At the same time, direct and systemic impacts related to the
production, use and end-of-life of ICTs require comprehensive
action.
The OECD Committee for Information, Computer and

Communications Policy (ICCP) explores the role of ICTs and
the Internet in addressing environmental challenges. It has
published various reports on Green ICT government policies
and business initiatives, on statistics and data availability, and
about the use of ICTs in specific application areas, e.g. smart
electricity grids.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/sti/ict/green-ict
www.oecd.org/ict/TechnologyForesightForum
Electricity lost during transmission and distribution

Share of gross domestic electricity production, OECD and selected non-members, 2008
25%
20%
15%
10%
Non-OECD
OECD (34 members)
World
Mexico
Turkey
Estonia
Hungary
Portugal
Chile
Poland
Greece
Canada
New Zealand
Ireland
Sweden
United Kingdom
Norway
Denmark
Australia
Italy
Switzerland
France
United States
Czech Republic
Austria
Belgium
Slovenia
Spain
Japan
Germany
Netherlands
Finland
Iceland
Korea
Slovak Republic
Luxembourg
Israel
India
Brazil
Egypt
Russian Federation
Indonesia
South Africa
China
5%
Source: OECD (2011), Fostering Innovation for Green Growth.

0%
3.3. Taxation and other market-based

instruments
Effective carbon prices
Comparisons of effective carbon prices that different economic

sectors face within and across countries are of great economic
and political interest. Effective carbon prices arise either
explicitly via carbon taxes or emission trading systems, or
implicitly, via the abatement incentives embedded in other
policies that influence greenhouse gas emissions. Effective
Carbon Prices (2013) synthesises a number of case studies in
selected countries and sectors and finds clear differences
in effective carbon prices: within a given sector, across the
countries covered; across the different sectors; within each
country; and across the different instrument types, across all
the countries covered.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/env/tools-evaluation/carbon-prices.htm
Key publication
OECD (2013), Effective
Carbon Prices, OECD
Publishing, Paris,
10.1787/97892641
96964-en.
Taxing Energy Use
Taxing Energy Use: A Graphical Analysis (2013) provides the

first systematic comparative analysis of the structure and
level of energy taxes across the full spectrum of energy use
in OECD countries. It is a data-rich tool that contributes to a
better understanding of the price signals conveyed by current
tax systems to consumers of energy. This analysis highlights
substantial and sometimes difficult to rationalise differences,
both across and within countries, in the tax treatment of
different forms, uses and users of energy.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/tax/tax-policy/taxingenergyuse.htm
Effective tax rates on all CO2 emissions from energy use in OECD countries
Effective tax rates on energy use in different sectors (OECD simple average)
Transport
Heating & Process
Electricity
All fuels
Energy (EUR/GJ)
11.5
0.9
0.9
3.3
Carbon
161
12
13
52
emissions
(EUR/tonne CO2
Source: OECD (2013), Taxing Energy Use: A Graphical Analysis.
Support for fossil fuels

The OECD has compiled an inventory of over 500 measures that
support fossil-fuel production or use in all 34 OECD countries.
Those measures had an overall value of about USD 45-75 billion
a year between 2005 and 2011.
A significant portion of the support provided in OECD countries
is through tax expenditures such as tax credits, exemptions
or reduced tax rates. These provisions provide a preference
for fossil fuels compared with the normal tax rules in the
particular country. However, since reference tax systems, rules
and rates vary so much among countries, this type of support is
not readily comparable internationally.
The OECD Inventory marks a significant step towards greater
transparency and accountability with respect to the policies
that relate to the production or use of fossil fuels. While it does
not evaluate the merits of individual policies, it is expected
that the inventory will facilitate analysis and understanding of
which of these mechanisms may be inefficient or wasteful, and
for identifying options for reform. An update of the Inventory,
covering Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, the Russian Federation,
and South Africa as well, is expected to be published in the first
half of 2015.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/iea-oecd-ffss
Database on environmental policy instruments

The OECD database on environmental policy instruments
includes a wide range of information about taxes and other
policies used in OECD and partner countries to address
challenges including climate change. The database contains upto-date information about revenues, tax rates, tax-bases
and exemptions.
The findings indicate that the case for increasing diesel taxes
relative to those of gasoline is very strong, and that company
car use is largely subsidised; in some cases driving is actually
free at the margin. The environmental and mobility costs of
these subsidies outstrip the tax costs.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/tax/tax-policy-working-papers.htm
Key link:
www.oecd.org/env/policies/database
Taxation of company cars and the diesel differential

Two recent working papers by the same author (Harding
2014) investigate the differences between taxes on gasoline
and diesel for road transport, and consider the income tax
treatment of the benefits that users derive from company cars.
3.4. Cities and multilevel governance
In 2014, the OECD produced a Policy Perspectives piece, Cities

and climate change: National government enabling local action. It
explores how enabling policy frameworks at the national level
can support critical urban action to combat climate change.
The OECD is actively working with governments to highlight
the role of cities in delivering cost-effective policy responses
to climate change. Cities are central to the climate policy
challenge, as their economies account for the majority of
Key publication
OECD (2013),Green
Growth in Cities, OECD
Green Growth Studies,
OECD Publishing.
DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789
264195325-en.
global GHG emissions and are also highly vulnerable to climate

change and other environmental threats. Urban policies
can help respond to climate change, with the potential to
stimulate innovation, and advance clean energy systems,
sustainable transportation, spatial development and waste
management strategies to reduce greenhouse gases. With
access to up-to-date climate science, as well as impact and
vulnerability assessment, local authorities can also work with
local stakeholders to design and implement effective local
adaptation strategies. Climate-conscious urban planning
and management can help achieve national climate goals and
minimise trade-offs between environmental and economic
priorities at local level.
As part of the work on costs of policy inaction, a series of
working papers assesses the economic impacts of, and
vulnerability to, climate change at a local scale. For example,
past papers have developed in-depth case studies on port cities,
e.g. Mumbai (2010), estimating the economic benefits of both
global mitigation and adaptation at local scales.
In 2012-13, the OECD produced case studies of green growth
policies in Stockholm, Chicago, Paris and Kitakyushu, as well
as a national-level case study of China. The resulting synthesis
report, Green Growth in Cities (2013), considers the impact of
green growth initiatives on environmental targets and urban
economics. The OECD is currently producing further case
studies, leading to a second synthesis report, on urban green
growth in Asia. This will extend the analysis to a group of fastgrowing cities characterised by a number of specific challenges,
including: greater vulnerability to climate change, faster
urbanisation and motorisation, economies with a greater role
for manufacturing than is typical of most OECD cities; lower
levels of socioeconomic development; and greater capacity
challenges at local level. The report will explore, inter alia, the
ways in which and the extent to which these challenges can
also represent opportunities for green growth policies.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/governance/regional-policy/urbandevelopment.htm
www.oecd.org/regional/greening-cities-regions/
Did you know...? that the urban form matters?

The lower the urban density, the more energy
is consumed for electricity and transportation.
CO2 emissions per capita drop significantly as
urban areas become more densely populated.
3.5. Trade and the environment

The OECD has published several recent studies relevant
to climate change. A key area of work relates to trade in
environmental goods and services, including a series of papers
on possible trade implications of domestic incentive measures
for environmental goods, themselves important for climatechange mitigation. One study (Bahar et al. 2013) examined
policies relating to renewable energy, focussing on government
support in general and local-content requirements (LCRs) in
particular. It argues that protection of domestic manufacturers
of renewable-energy technologies and biofuels, and domestic
preferences such as those encapsulated in LCRs, work against
the common interests of accelerating the deployment of
renewable energy.
Another recent study (Sauvage, 2014) examined the correlation
between the relative stringency of countries environmental
policy and the revealed comparative advantage of
environmental goods in those countries. The analysis suggests
that stringent environmental regulation can lead to increased
exports of environmental goods, in addition to larger domestic
markets for those goods.
An additional study (Burniaux et al., 2011) analysed the trade

effects of reforming fossil-fuel consumption subsidies. The
analysis shows that a co-ordinated multilateral removal of
fossil-fuel consumption subsidies over the 2013-20 period would
increase global trade volumes by a very small amount (0.1%) by
2020, while leading to GHG emissions reductions (as highlighted
in previous OECD work). Trade in natural gas would be most
affected, with a 6% decrease by 2020. A reduction in the volume
of both imports and exports from oil-exporting countries would
be partly compensated by an expansion of trade flows (both
imports and exports) involving OECD countries.
Other relevant work (Mois and Steenblik 2011) has looked

at measures relating to non-product-related processes and
production methods adopted in the context of climatechange-mitigation policies. Examples include policy measures
linked to the life-cycle GHG emissions of products, such as
product carbon-footprint labelling and sustainability standards
for biofuels. Whilst the key purpose of these measures is to
promote better environmental outcomes, concerns have been
raised that they may act as impediments to international trade.
Despite their similar objectives, the measures reviewed differ
considerably in their approaches, choices of instrument and
scope. However, because these measures are fairly new, any
potential trade impacts are at the moment hard to discern.
New work on trade and climate change will examine areas

such as the potential implications for trade due to the physical
impacts of climate change, and where potential synergies lie
between trade policy, including regional trade agreements, and
international climate-change policy.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/trade/oecdtradeandenvironmentworkingpapers.htm
Turning to the generation of electricity from renewable sources,

a recent paper (Bahar and Sauvage 2013) looked at crossborder trade in electricity. This study focused on the European
electricity market to examine how cross-border electricity
trading can facilitate increased penetration of intermittent
renewable energy sources by giving access to a more
diversified portfolio of plants over a wider geographic area.
The paper also noted that: some of the incentives provided to
renewable-energy generators are discouraging them from fully
participating in electricity market operations; and the policies
in some cases are exerting downward pressure on wholesale
electricity prices, which discourages investment in nonintermittent generation. Reform of these measures could help
increase the potential for trade in electricity to facilitate growth
in renewable energy.
3.6. Empowering consumers and

greening household behaviour
Well-informed, empowered consumers can be a powerful ally
in addressing climate change issues. They can contribute to
reducing carbon emissions through more efficient energy use,
a shift to technologies that are environmentally friendly and
make greener consumption choices.
The project on Environmental Policy and Individual Choice
(EPIC) looks at the demand side of environmental policy. This
report offers insights into what policy measures really work,
looking at what factors affect peoples behaviour towards the
environment in five areas including energy use and personal
transport choice.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/env/consumption-innovation/households.htm
www.oecd.org/sti/consumer-policy
An overview from the second survey data is presented in the

publication Greening Household Behaviour: Overview from the
2011 Survey (2014). It is based on the analysis of responses
from over 11 000 households in eleven countries. The results of
follow-up econometric analysis and main policy implications
will be available by the end of 2014. Each round of the survey
allows for the analysis of trends and emerging issues, as well as
for the refinement of policy lessons. Respondents were asked
about the seriousness of specific environmental issues facing
the world. Climate change emerged as one of the top three
environmental concerns in most surveyed countries.
Key publication
OECD (2014),Greening
Household Behaviour:
Overview from the 2011
Survey - Revised edition,
OECD Studies on
Environmental Policy and
Household Behaviour,
OECD Publishing.
DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/
9789264214651-en.
Top three environmental concerns of responding households
Note: Respondents were asked to rate the importance of six different global environmental issues, each on a 10 -point scale: waste generation, biodiversity loss, air pollution,
climate change, water pollution, natural resource depletion, and endangered species. This figure shows the top three issues that were most frequently rated the highest out
of the six considered.
Source: OECD (2013), Greening Household Behaviour: Overview from the 2011 Survey, Revised Edition.
3.7. Employment and local development
The project on Measuring the Potential of Green Growth:

towards a local transition to a low-carbon economy proposes
a framework of local indicators of green growth to assist local
authorities to prioritise actions for their transition to a lowcarbon economy. A report including the key findings of reviews
in Denmark, Germany, Chile, Belgium, the Netherlands and
Luxembourg, and policy recommendations on how to measure
the transition to a greener economy was published in 2013. It
builds on previous work related to Improving the Effectiveness
of Green Local Development with case studies from Australia,
Brazil, China, Mongolia, Spain and the United Kingdom.
The ongoing Local Economic and Employment Development
(LEED) project on Skills for greener jobs in a local labour market
context further analyses the impact of the transition to a green
economy on local labour markets (change of job profiles, skills
needs and gaps). It also explores the role of education, research
Did you know...? that in Denmark green

turnover and green technology exports largely
outperform other economic sectors such as
manufacturing and high-growth sectors such
as welfare technology?
and labour institutions, as well as the private sector, in fostering

knowledge and sharing activities to accelerate the transition.
Case studies from Belgium and Poland are under preparation
building on previous studies in Denmark, Germany, Belgium, the
Netherlands and Luxembourg. The report on Greener Skills and
Jobs (2014) discusses the need to integrate green skill strategies in
order to succeed in the transition to a low-carbon economy.
Key publication
Martinez-Fernandez, C.,
et al. (2013), Improving
the Effectiveness
of Green Local
Development: The Role
and Impact of Public
Sector-Led Initiatives
in Renewable Energy,
OECD Green Growth
OECD Publishing, Paris.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/greeningjobsandskills.htm
www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/lowcarbon.htm
www.oecd.org/cfe/leed/greendevelopment.htm
3.8. SMEs and entrepreneurship

The OECD contributes to the implementation and assessment
of green growth policies by investigating the implications and
opportunities from the low-carbon transition for small and
medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) and entrepreneurs. At the
OECD Bologna+10 High-level Meeting on Lessons from the
Global Crisis and the way forward to job creation and Growth
(2010), policy makers and stakeholders voiced the need for
a better understanding in this area. In response, the OECD
undertook a study to: identify the main obstacles SMEs face
in adapting to the requirements of a greener economy and
in seizing the opportunities the low-carbon transition offer;
explore the new entrepreneurial areas opened up by green
investment and eco-innovation; and the challenges for the
development of green entrepreneurship; investigate the policies
that are being developed, at national and local level, to support
SME transition to sustainable practices, in both manufacturing
and services, and to foster SME eco-innovation; and analyse
indicators of green growth for SMEs that allow for measuring
the transition and are useful to policy making. An OECD
publication on SMEs, eco-innovation and green entrepreneurship
will be released in 2015.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/cfe/sme
Fora for climate change

discussion
4.1. Climate Change Expert Group on

the UNFCCC
The OECD and the IEA jointly provide the secretariat for the
Climate Change Expert Group (CCXG). Established in 1993, the
CCXG meets twice a year to discuss analytical reports on topical
issues in the climate change negotiations and provides a forum
for its members (OECD and/or Annex I countries) as well as
experts from a wide range of countries, organisations, business,
and industry to share experiences with climate change policies
and exchange views on how to address the climate change
challenge. Recent analytical work is highlighted in Section 1.
Key link:
4.2. DAC Network on Environment and

Development Co-operation
The Network on Environment and Development Co-operation
(ENVIRONET) of the OECD Development Assistance Committee
(DAC) promotes and facilitates the integration of environment
and climate change into all aspects of development cooperation. ENVIRONET is a network of development cooperation practitioners committed to working together to
promote good practice in the fields of environment and
development. The Network brings together representatives
of development co-operation agencies from DAC member
countries and from multilateral agencies including the World
Bank and the United Nations Development Programme.
Representatives from civil society and developing countries
also participate as observers and help to support the Networks
objectives. ENVIRONET meets once or twice a year. Drawing
on the knowledge, experience and practice of its members
and participants, the Network supports developing countries
policies and efforts to promote environmentally-sustainable,
resource-efficient livelihoods, and economies that are resilient
to climate change.
The Network has recently addressed issues such as green
growth, biodiversity and climate change, including discussing
issues related to the tracking of climate change finance.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/environment/environment-development/
4.3. Round Table on Sustainable

Development
The OECD regularly hosts a Round Table on Sustainable
Development that brings together Ministers and other highlevel stakeholders from OECD and non-OECD countries for
informal discussion on various topics related to sustainable
development and climate policy. Meeting topics have included:
mobilising investments in low-emission technologies; the role
of public finance in climate change mitigation; competitiveness,
leakage, and border tax adjustment; livestock and climate
policy; emissions in aviation; barriers to renewables being
deployed towards the decarbonisation of the electricity sector
(see Renewables); and the evolution of corporate reporting for
integrated performance.
negotiating process. It draws on the full policy capability of the

OECD and the IEA, and provides an invaluable opportunity for
back channel dialogue. In 2014-2015, the Round Table works in
partnership with the World Business Council on Sustainable
Development and the European Climate Foundation.
Key link:
www.oecd.org/sd-roundtable
In 2015, the Round Table envisions to work on primarily

on issues related to climate policy; e.g. climate policy,
competitiveness and new approaches to international
co-ordination. Other possible topics include a forum for
parliamentarians on the practical experience of carbon pricing
and the role of demand-side in energy and climate policy.
The Round Table is a unique forum that enables Ministers,
senior private sector executives and experts from the intergovernmental and NGO communities to conduct a detailed
examination of complex issues to one side of the crowded
4.4. Round Table of Mayors and

Ministers
The OECD Roundtable of Mayors and Ministers is a unique
forum for dialogue among national representatives and leaders
of major cities. The city of Marseille hosted the fifth Roundtable
in December 2013. It focused on mechanisms for achieving
greater policy coherence across national-level policies and
between national governments and cities in a number of key
sectors. The fifth Round Table brought together 18 mayors
and 17 ministers, as well as representatives of a number of
international organisations, who endorsed a statement on
urban policy that was presented to a ministerial-level meeting
of the OECDs Territorial Development Policy Committee the
following day. The next Roundtable is planned for 15-16 October
2015 in Mexico City, with a focus on policies for urban resilience.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/governance/regional-policy/urbandevelopment.htm
www.oecd.org/regional/greening-cities-regions/
www.oecd.org/urban/roundtable/
4.5. International Futures Programme

In the OECD Directorate for Science, Technology and innovation,
the International Futures Programme (IFP) works in two specific
sectoral areas with climate change dimensions the space
sector; and the future of the oceans.
First, in collaboration with ten space agencies in OECD member
economies within the OECD Space Forum, work is underway
on the use of space-based tools (e.g. earth observation and
navigation) in monitoring and managing climate change and
its long-term impacts. This involves also the new role of space
applications for food security especially as extreme weather
impacts many regions of the world (e.g. crop monitoring using
satellite technologies, such as GPS and imagery). A forthcoming
publication The Space Economy at a Glance features a selection of
case studies (2014).
Second, a two year prospective project was launched to take
stock of the longer-term opportunities and challenges facing
the oceans. The work on The Future of the Ocean Economy,
planned to run up to early 2016, is designed to gain a better
understanding of the future development of ocean-based
industries in terms of their potential to generate growth,

employment and innovation, as well as their potential
contribution to addressing some of the grand challenges the
planet faces in the years ahead, particularly climate change.
Key links:
www.oecd.org/sti/futures/
http://oe.cd/spaceforum
Key publication
OECD (2014), The
Space Economy at a
Glance 2014, OECD
Publishing, Paris,
DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/
9789264217294-en.
Recent and forthcoming publications on climate change

Note: select publications listed by year. For a full list of publications, please visit:
www.oecd.org/env/cc
Briner, G., T. Kato, S. Konrad and C. Hood (2014), Taking Stock of the
UNFCCC Process and its Inter-linkages, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert
Group paper, www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm.
2016
OECD (2016, forthcoming), The Future of the Ocean Economy, OECD
Publishing, Paris.
Briner (OECD), Kato (OECD) and Hattori (IEA) (2014) Built to Last: Designing
a Flexible and Durable 2015 Climate Change Agreement, Climate Change
Expert Group Paper, No. 2014(3), OECD Publishing, http://www.oecd.org/
env/cc/Built%20to%20Last_CCXGsentout_May2014_REV.pdf.
2015
IEA/NEA (forthcoming 2015), Nuclear Technology Roadmap, OECD
Publishing, Paris.
Crdenas Rodrguez, M., et al. (2014), Inducing Private Finance

for Renewable Energy Projects: Evidence from Micro-Data, OECD
Environment Working Papers, No. 67, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5jxvg0k6thr1-en.
OECD (2015, forthcoming), Green Investment Policy Framework in practice:

Assessing experience with Green Infrastructure Investment, OECD Publishing,
Paris.
Caruso, R. and R. Jachnik (2014), Exploring potential data sources for

estimating private finance, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 69, OECD
Publishing, Paris, http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jz15qwz4hs1-en.
OECD (2015, forthcoming), Economics of Adaptation, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Cochran, I. et al. (2014), Public Financial Institutions and the Low-Carbon

Transition: Five Case Studies on Low-Carbon Infrastructure and Project
Investment, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 72, OECD Publishing,
Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jxt3rhpgn9t-en.
OECD (2015, forthcoming), SMEs, eco-innovation and green entrepreneurship,

OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2015, forthcoming), Towards Green Growth? Tracking Progress, OECD
Publishing, Paris.
Dellink, R., et al. (2014), Consequences of Climate Change Damages for

Economic Growth: A Dynamic Quantitative Assessment, OECD Economics
Department Working Papers, No. 1135, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5jz2bxb8kmf3-en.
2014
Briner, G. and S. Konrad (2014), Planting the Foundations of a Post-2020
Land Sector Reporting and Accounting Framework, OECD/IEA Climate
Change Expert Group paper, www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm.
Dinshaw, A. et al. (2014, forthcoming), Monitoring and Evaluation

of Climate Change Adaptation: Methodological Approaches, OECD
Environment Working Paper, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Gaveau, V. and S. Ockenden. (2014, forthcoming), A Stock-take of OECD

DAC Members Reporting Practices on Environment-Related Official
Development Finance and Reporting to the Rio Conventions, OECD
Development Co-operation Technical Paper, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Harding, M. (2014), The Diesel Differential: Differences in the Tax Treatment
of Gasoline and Diesel for Road Use, OECD Taxation Working Papers, No. 21,
OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jz14cd7hk6b-en.
Harding, M. (2014), The Diesel Differential: Differences in the Tax Treatment
of Gasoline and Diesel for Road Use, OECD Taxation Working Papers, No. 21,
OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jz14cd7hk6b-en.
Hai I., M. Crdenas Rodrguez, R. Jachnik, J. Silva and N. Johnstone (2014,
forthcoming), Public interventions and private finance flows: empirical
evidence from renewable energy financing, OECD Environment Working
Papers, No. 74, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Hood, C. and G. Briner (2014), Energy Sector Transformation: Issues and
Options for the UNFCCC Negotiations, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert
Group paper, OECD Publishing, Paris, www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm.
Christina Hood (IEA), Gregory Briner (OECD) and Marcelo Rocha (Fbrica
thica Brasil) (2014), GHG or not GHG: Accounting for Diverse Mitigation
Contributions in the Post-2020 Climate Framework, OECD Climate Change
Expert Group paper, No. 2014(2), OECD Publishing, Paris, www.oecd.org/env/
cc/ccxg.htm.
IEA (2014), CCS 2014: What lies in store for CCS?, OECD, Paris, http://www.iea.
org/publications/insights/insightpublications/ccs-2014---what-lies-in-storefor-ccs.html.
IEA (2014), Emissions Reduction through Upgrade of Coal-Fired Power Plants,
OECD Publishing, Paris; http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/
publication/partner-country-series---emissions-reduction-throughupgrade-of-coal-fired-power-plants.html.
IEA (2014), Regional Energy Efficiency Policy Recommendations:
Arab-Southern and Eastern Mediterranean (SEMED) Region, OECD,
Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
RegionalEnergyEfficiencyPolicyRecommendations.pdf.
IEA (2014), Tracking Clean Energy Progress, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://
www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Tracking_clean_
energy_progress_2014.pdf.
IEA (2014), World Energy Investment Outlook, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://
www.worldenergyoutlook.org/investment/.
IEA (2014), Energy Technology Perspectives 2014, IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/energy_tech-2014-en.
IEA (2014), More Data, Less Energy, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/etp/
publications/moredatalessenergy/.
IEA (2014), Solar Photovoltaic Energy, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/
publications/freepublications/publication/technology-roadmap-solarphotovoltaic-energy---2014-edition.html.
IEA (2014), Solar Thermal Electricity, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/
publications/freepublications/publication/technology-roadmap-solarthermal-electricity---2014-edition.html.
IEA (2014), The Power of Transformation Wind, Sun and the Economcis of
Flexible Power Systems, IEA, Paris.
IEA (2014), Energy Efficient Building Envelopes, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/
publications/freepublications/publication/technology-roadmap-energyefficient-building-envelopes.html.
IEA (2014), Energy Storage, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/
freepublications/publication/technology-roadmap-energy-storage-.html.
IEA (2014), Heating Without Global Warming, IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.
org/publications/freepublications/publication/heating-without-globalwarming.html.
IEA (2014), A Guide to Development and Implementation, IEA, Paris, http://
www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/technologyroadmap--a-guide-to-development-and-implementation-.html.
OECD (2014), Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2014, OECD
Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/renewmar-2014-en.
Kaminker, C et al. (2014, forthcoming), Mapping Channels to Mobilise

Institutional Investment in Sustainable Energy, OECD Publishing, Paris.
Kato et al. (2014), Scaling up and Replicating Effective Climate Finance,
Climate Change Expert Group Paper, No. 2014(1), OECD Publishing, Paris,
http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/Scaling_up_CCXGsentout_May2014_REV.pdf.
Kato, T., J. Ellis and C. Clapp (2014), The Role of the 2015 Agreement in
Mobilising Climate Finance, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group paper,
www.oecd.org/env/cc/ccxg.htm.
Lamhauge, N. (2014, forthcoming), National Monitoring and Evaluation
of Climate Change Adaptation: Lessons from Developed and Developing
Countries, OECD Environment Working Paper, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2014, forthcoming), Policy Guidance for Investment in Clean Energy
Infrastructure, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2014), The Space Economy at a Glance 2014, OECD Publishing, Paris,
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264217294-en.
OECD (2014, forthcoming), Invention and International Diffusion of Water
Conservation and Availability Technologies, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2014, forthcoming), Greening Household Behaviour: Main Results from
the 2011 Survey and Policy Implications, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2014, forthcoming), Modelling Adaptation to Climate Change in
Agriculture, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2014, forthcoming), Green Growth in Fisheries and Aquaculture, OECD
Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2014), Climate Resilience in Development Planning: Experiences

in Colombia and Ethiopia, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264209503-en.
OECD (2014), Energy, Climate Change and Environment: 2014 Insights, OECD
Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264220744-en.
OECD (2014), Energy Efficiency Market Report 2014, OECD Publishing, Paris,
OECD (2014), Energy Efficiency Indicators: Fundamentals on Statistics, OECD
OECD (2014), Energy Efficiency Indicators: Essentials for Policy Making, OECD
OECD (2014), Green Growth Indicators for Agriculture: A Preliminary
Assessment, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264223202-en.
OCDE (2014), Greening Household Behaviour : Overview from the
2011 Survey - Revised edition, OECD Studies on Environmental Policy
and Household Behaviour, ditions OCDE, DOI : http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264214651-en.
OECD/IAEA (2014), Uranium 2014: Resources, Production and Demand, OECD
Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/uranium-2014-en.
OECD (2014), Managing Environmental and Health Impacts of Uranium
Mining, Nuclear Development, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264216044-en.
OECD/Cedefop (2014), Greener Skills and Jobs, OECD Green Growth Studies,
OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264208704-en.
OECD (2014), Climate Change, Water and Agriculture: Towards Resilient

Systems, OECD Studies on Water, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264209138-en.
OECD (2014), Capturing the Multiple Benefits of Energy Efficiency: A Guide

to Quantifying the Value Added, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264220720-en.
OECD (2014), Tourism trends and policy priorities, in OECD, OECD Tourism
Trends and Policies 2014, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/tour-2014-4-en.
OECD (2014), Towards Green Growth in Southeast Asia, OECD

Green Growth Studies, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264224100-en.
Bass, S., et al. (2013), Making Growth Green and Inclusive: The Case of
Ethiopia, OECD Green Growth Papers, No. 2013/07, OECD Publishing, Paris,
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k46dbzhrkhl-en.
OECD (2014), Cities and climate change: National government enabling local
action, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/env/cc/Cities-andclimate-change-2014-Policy-Perspectives-Final-web.pdf.
Benatia, D., N. Johnstone and I. Hai (2013), Effectiveness of Policies and

Strategies to Increase the Capacity Utilisation of Intermittent Renewable
Power Plants, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 57, OECD, Paris, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k46j0trlrnn-en.
Sauvage J. (2014), The Stringency of Environmental Regulations

and Trade in Environmental Goods, OECD Trade and Environment
Working Paper, OECD Publishing, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/trade/
oecdtradeandenvironmentworkingpapers.htm.
UIC/IEA (2014), Railway Handbook on Energy Consumption and CO2
emissions, http://www.uic.org/spip.php?article3193.
2013
Ang, G. and V. Marchal (2013), Mobilising Private Investment in Sustainable
Transport: The Case of Land-Based Passenger Transport Infrastructure, OECD
Environment Working Papers, No. 56, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k46hjm8jpmv-en.
Bahar, H. and J. Sauvage (2013), Cross-Border Trade in Electricity and
the Development of Renewables-Based Electric Power, OECD Trade and
Environment Working Papers, No. 2013/02, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k4869cdwnzr-en.
Bahar, H., J. Egeland and R. Steenblik (2013), Domestic Incentive Measures
for Renewable Energy With Possible Trade Implications, OECD Trade and
Environment Working Papers, No. 2013/01, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k44srlksr6f-en.
Bahar, H. and J. Sauvage (2013), Cross-Border Trade in Electricity and the
Development of Renewables-Based Electric Power: Lessons from Europe,
OECD Trade and Environment Working Papers, No. 2013/02, OECD Publishing,
Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k4869cdwnzr-en.
Briner, G. and A. Prag (2013), Establishing and Understanding Post2020 Climate Change Mitigation Commitments, OECD/IEA Climate
Change Expert Group Papers, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5jzb44qw9df7-en.
Caruso, R. and J. Ellis (2013), Comparing Definitions and Methods to
Estimate Mobilised Climate Finance, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert
Group Papers, No. 2013/02, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k44wj0s6fq2-en.
Convery, F. J., L. Dunne and D. Joyce (2013), Irelands Carbon Tax and the
Fiscal Crisis: Issues in Fiscal Adjustment, Environmental Effectiveness,
Competitiveness, Leakage and Equity Implications, OECD Environment
Working Papers, No. 59, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k3z11j3w0bw-en.
Ellis, J., R. Caruso and S. Ockenden (2013), Exploring Climate Finance
Effectiveness, OECD/IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, OECD
Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jzb44nmnbd2-en.
GGGI, OECD, UNEP, World Bank (2013), Moving towards a Common
Approach on Green Growth Indicators, Green Growth Knowledge Platform
Scoping Paper, GGKP, http://www.unep.org/greeneconomy/Portals/88/
documents/partnerships/GGKP%20Moving%20towards%20a%20
Common%20Approach%20on%20Green%20Growth%20Indicators.pdf.
Harrison, K. (2013), The Political Economy of British Columbias Carbon
Tax, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 63, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k3z04gkkhkg-en.
IEA (2013), Global EV Outlook: Understanding the Electric Vehicle Landscape to

2020, http://www.iea.org/publications/globalevoutlook_2013.pdf.
IEA (2013), Transition to Sustainable Buildings: Strategies and Opportunities to

2050, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264202955-en.
IEA (2013), A Tale of Renewed Cities: a policy guide on how to transform cities
by improving energy efficiency in urban transport systems, http://www.iea.org/
publications/freepublications/publication/renewed_cities_web.pdf.
IEA (2013), Managing Interactions Between Carbon Pricing and Existing

Energy Policies, OECD, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/insights/
insightpublications/managing-interactions-between-carbon-pricing-andexisting-energy-policies.html.
IEA (2013), Nordic Energy Technology Perspectives: Pathways to a Carbon

Neutral Energy Future, http://www.iea.org/etp/nordic/.
IEA (2013), GFEI: International comparison of light-duty vehicle fuel economy:
An update using 2010 and 2011 new registration data, http://www.iea.org/
media/files/globalfueleconomyinitiativeplanofaction20122015.pdf.
IEA (2013), Redrawing the Energy-Climate Map, World Energy Outlook
Special Report Series, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/weo2013-en.
IEA (2013), Electricity in a Climate-Constrained World Data and Analyses,
OECD and IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264175556-en.
IEA (2013), Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2013 - Market
trends and projections to 2018, OECD and IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264191198-en.
IEA (2013), Technology Roadmap: Wind Energy - 2013 edition, OECD and
IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
Wind_2013_Roadmap.pdf.
IEA and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) (2013),
Modernising Building Energy Codes, Policy Pathways, IEA and UNDP,
http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
PolicyPathwaysModernisingBuildingEnergyCodes.pdf.
IEA (2013), Low-Carbon Technology for the Indian Cement Industry, IEA
Technology Roadmaps, OECD, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/
freepublications/publication/2012_cement_in_india_roadmap.pdf.
IEA (2013), Energy Efficiency: Market Trends and Medium-Term Prospects,
OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264206052-en.
IEA (2013), World Energy Outlook 2013, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1787/weo-2013-en.
IEA, ICCA, and DECHEMA (2013), Technology Roadmap: Energy and GHG
Reductions in the Chemical Industry via Catalytic Processes, IEA, Paris, http://
www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Chemical_
Roadmap_2013_Final_WEB.pdf.
Kaminker, C. et al. (2013), Institutional Investors and Green Infrastructure
Investments: Selected Case Studies, OECD Working Papers on Finance,
Insurance and Private Pensions, No. 35, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k3xr8k6jb0n-en.
Lanzi, E., D. Mullaly, J. Chateau, and R. Delink (2013), Addressing
Competitiveness and Carbon Leakage Impacts Arising from Multiple Carbon
Markets: A Modelling Assessment, OECD Environment Working Papers, No.
58, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k40ggjj7z8v-en.
Martinez-Fernandez, C., et al. (2013), Improving the Effectiveness of Green
Local Development: The Role and Impact of Public Sector-Led Initiatives
in Renewable Energy, OECD Green Growth Papers, No. 2013/09, OECD
Publishing. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k3w6ljtrj0q-en.
Mirabile, M., J. Benn and C. Sangar (2013), Guarantees for Development,
OECD Development Co-operation Working Papers, No. 11, OECD Publishing,
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k407lx5b8f8-en.
Mohammed, E. Y., S. Wang and G. Kawaguchi (2013), Making Growth
Green and Inclusive: The Case of Cambodia, OECD Green Growth
Papers, No. 2013/08, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k420651szzr-en.
Mullan, M. et al., (2013), National Adaptation Planning: Lessons from OECD

Countries, OECD Environment Working Papers, No.18, OECD Publishing, Paris,
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg20mj6c2bw-en.
OECD (2013), What have we learned from attempts to introduce greengrowth policies?, OECD Green Growth Papers, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k486rchlnxx-en.
OECD (2013), OECD DAC Statistics on Climate-related Aid, OECD Publishing,

Paris.
OECD (2013), Water and Climate Change Adaptation: Policies to Navigate

Uncharted Waters, OECD Studies on Water, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264200449-en.
OECD (2013), OECD ENVIRONET and WP-STAT Workshop on Rio Markers,

Climate and Development Finance, OECD Publishing, Paris.
OECD (2013), Policy Guidance for Investment in Clean Energy Infrastructure,
OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264212664-en.
OECD (2013), Effective Carbon Prices, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264196964-en.
OECD (2013), Green Growth in Cities, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD, Paris,
OECD (2013), Costa Ricas policy framework for investment, OECD

Investment Policy Reviews: Costa Rica 2013, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264203952-en.
OECD (2013), OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Jordan 2013, OECD, Paris, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264202276-en.
OECD (2013), OECD Investment Policy Reviews: Malaysia 2013, OECD, Paris,
OECD (2013), Greener Skills and Jobs for a Low-Carbon Future, OECD Green
Growth Papers, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k3v1dtzlxzq-en.
OECD (2013), Climate and Carbon: Aligning Prices and Policies, OECD
Environment Policy Papers, No. 1, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k3z11hjg6r7-en.
OECD (2013), Inventory of Estimated Budgetary Support and

Tax Expenditures for Fossil Fuels, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264187610-en.
OECD (2013), Green Innovation in Tourism Services, OECD

Tourism Papers, No. 2013/01, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k4bxkt1cjd2-en.
OECD (2013), OECD Compendium of Agri-environmental Indicators, OECD,

Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264186217-en.
OECD (2013), Water and Climate Change Adaptation: Policies to Navigate

Uncharted Waters, OECD Studies on Water, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264200449-en.
OECD (2013), Policy Instruments to Support Green Growth in Agriculture,

OECD (2013), Putting Green Growth at the Heart of Development,
OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264181144-en.
OECD (2013), Taxing Energy Use: A Graphical Analysis, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264183933-en.
The Danish Energy Agency (DEA), OECD and the UNEP Riso Centre (URC)
(2013), National Greenhouse Gas Emissions Baseline Scenarios: Learning from
Experiences in Developing Countries, ISBN (online version), www978-87-7844987-0.
Prag, A., C. Hood, and P. Barata (2013), Made to Measure: Options
for Emissions Accounting under the UNFCCC, OECD/IEA Climate
Change Expert Group Papers, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5jzbb2tp8ptg-en.
2012
Bureau, D. (2012), The Political Economy of the French Carbon Tax Project,
OECD, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/env/tools-evaluation/The%20
Political%20Economy%20of%20the%202009%20French%20Carbon%20
Tax%20project.pdf.
Clapp, C. and A. Prag (2012), Projecting Emissions Baselines for National
Climate Policy: Options for Guidance to Improve Transparency, OECD/IEA
Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2012/04, OECD Publishing, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k3tpsz58wvc-en.
IEA (2012), Technology Roadmap: Bioenergy for Heat and Power, OECD and
bioenergy.pdf.
IEA (2012), Technology Roadmap: Hydropower, OECD and IEA, Paris,
http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/
technologyroadmaphydropower.pdf.
IEA (2012), Technology Roadmap: Solar Heating and Cooling, OECD and IEA,
Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Solar_
Heating_Cooling_Roadmap_2012_WEB.pdf.
Clapp, C., et al. (2012), Tracking Climate Finance: What and How?, OECD/
IEA Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2012/01, OECD Publishing, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k44xwtk9tvk-en.
IEA/OECD (2012), Green Growth Strategy for Energy: A Preliminary Report,

OECD and IEA, Paris, http://www.oecd.org/greengrowth/greeningenergy/49157149.pdf.
Corfee-Morlot, J., et al. (2012), Towards a Green Investment Policy

Framework: The Case of Low-Carbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure, OECD
Environment Working Papers, No. 48, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k8zth7s6s6d-en.
IEA (2012), Technology Roadmap: Fuel Economy of Road Vehicles, http://www.

iea.org/roadmaps/.
G20/OECD (2012), G20/OECD Policy Note on Pension Fund Financing

for Green Infrastructure and Initiatives, developed by the OECD at the
initiative of the G20 Mexican Presidency, http://www.oecd.org/g20/topics/
energy-environment-green-growth/S3%20G20%20OECD%20Pension%20
funds%20for%20green%20infrastructure%20-%20June%202012.pdf.
IEA (2012), Technology Roadmap: Improving the Fuel Economy of Road

Vehicles, http://www.iea.org/roadmaps/.
Inderst, G., C. Kaminker and F. Stewart (2012), Defining and Measuring
Green Investments: Implications for Institutional Investors Asset Allocations,
OECD Working Papers on Finance, Insurance and Private Pensions, No. 24,
OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k9312twnn44-en.
Hai, I., J. Silva and N. Johnstone (2012), Climate Mitigation and

Adaptation in Africa: Evidence from Patent Data, OECD Environment
Working Papers, No. 50, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k8zng5smxjg-en.
Kaminker, C. and F. Stewart (2012), The Role of Institutional Investors

in Financing Clean Energy, OECD Working Papers on Finance, Insurance
and Private Pensions, No. 23, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k9312v21l6f-en.
Hascic, I., et al. (2012), Recent trends in innovation in climate change

mitigation technologies, in OECD, Energy and Climate Policy: Bending
the Technological Trajectory, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.
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Kennedy, C. and J. Corfee-Morlot (2012), Mobilising Investment in LowCarbon, Climate-Resilient Infrastructure, OECD Environment Working Papers,
No. 46, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k8zm3gxxmnq-en.
IEA (2012), Medium-Term Renewable Energy Market Report 2012 - Market

Trends and Projections to 2017, OECD and IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/
publications/freepublications/publication/MTrenew2012_web.pdf.
Lamhauge, N., E. Lanzi and S. Agrawala (2012), Monitoring and Evaluation

for Adaptation Lessons from Development Co-operation Agencies,
OECD Environment Working Papers, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5kg20mj6c2bw-en.
Marchal, V., C. Kauffmann, J. Corfee-Morlot, and C. Tebar-Less (2012),

Policy framework for low-carbon, climate-resilient Investment: The
case of infrastructure development, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k8zth7s6s6d-en.
OECD (2012), Green Growth and the Future of Aviation Paper prepared
for the 27th Round Table on Sustainable Development, OECD, Paris, http://
www.oecd.org/sd-roundtable/papersandpublications/49482790.pdf.
OECD (2012), Enabling Local Green Growth: Addressing Climate Change effects
on Employment and Local Development, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k9h2q92t2r7-en.
OECD (2012), Farmer Behaviour, Agricultural Management and Climate
Change, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264167650-en.
OECD (2012), Greenhouse Gas Emissions and the Potential for Mitigation from
Materials Management within the OECD Area, OECD, Paris, http://www.oecd.
org/env/waste/50034735.pdf.
OECD (2012), Greening Development: Enhancing Capacity for Environmental
Management and Governance, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264167896-en.
OECD (2012), OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050 : The Consequences of
Inaction, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264122246-en.
OECD (2012), Energy, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264115118-en.
OECD (2012), Colombias Policy Framework for Investment, OECD
Investment Policy Reviews: Colombia 2012, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264167742-6-en.
OECD (2012), Tunisias policy framework for investment, OECD
Investment Policy Reviews: Tunisia 2012, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264179172-7-en.
OECD (2012), Strategic Transport Infrastructure Needs to 2030, OECD, Paris,

OECD/NEA (2012), Nuclear Energy and Renewables: System Effects in
Low-carbon Electricity Systems, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264188617-en.
Prag, A., G. Briner and C. Hood (2012), Making Markets: Unpacking Design
and Governance of Carbon Market Mechanisms, OECD/IEA Climate
Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2012/03, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k43nhks65xs-en.
Prag, A. and G. Briner (2012), Crossing the Threshold: Ambitious Baselines
for the UNFCCC New Market-Based Mechanism, OECD/IEA Climate Change
Expert Group Papers, No. 2012/02, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k44xg398s8v-en.
2011
Agrawala, S., M. Carraro, N. Kingsmill, E. Lanzi, M. Mullan and G. PrudentRichard (2011), Private Sector Engagement in Adaptation to Climate
Change: Approaches to Managing Climate Risks, OECD Enrionment Working
Papers, No. 39, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg221jkf1g7-en.
Buchner, B., J. Brown and J. Corfee-Morlot (2011), Monitoring and Tracking
Long-Term Finance to Support Climate Action, OECD and IEA, Paris, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k44zcqbbj42-en.
Burniaux, J., J. Chateau and J. Sauvage (2011), The Trade Effects of Phasing
Out Fossil-Fuel Consumption Subsidies, OECD Trade and Environment
Working Papers, No. 2011/05, OECD Publishing Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5kg6lql8wk7b-en.
Burniaux, J. and J. Chateau (2011), Mitigation Potential of Removing
Fossil Fuel Subsidies: A General Equilibrium Assessment, OECD Economics
Department Working Papers, No. 853, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5kgdx1jr2plp-en.
Chateau, J., A. Saint-Martin and T. Manfredi (2011), Employment Impacts

of Climate Change Mitigation Policies in OECD: A General-Equilibrium
Perspective, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 32, OECD Publishing,
Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg0ps847h8q-en.
Della Croce, R., C. Kaminker and F. Stewart (2011), The Role of Pension
Funds in Financing Green Growth Initiatives, OECD Working Papers on
Finance, Insurance and Private Pensions, No. 10, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg58j1lwdjd-en.
Della Croce, R., Schieb, P., and B. Stevens (2011a), Pension Funds Investment
in Infrastructure: A Survey, OECD International Futures Programme,
OECD Project on Infrastructure to 2030, http://www.oecd.org/futures/
infrastructureto2030/48634596.pdf.
Ellis, J., et al. (2011), Design Options for International Assessment and
Review (IAR) and International Consultations and Analysis (ICA), OECD/IEA
Climate Change Expert Group Papers, No. 2011/04, OECD Publishing, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k44zc5rx644-en.
Ellis, J., et al. (2011), Frequent and Flexible: Options for Reporting
Guidelines for Biennial Update Reports, OECD/IEA Climate Change
Expert Group Papers, No. 2011/02, OECD Publishing, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k45165j1kmq-en.
Golub, S. S., C. Kauffmann and P. Yeres (2011), Defining and Measuring
Green FDI: An Exploratory Review of Existing Work and Evidence, OECD
Working Papers on International Investment, No. 2011/02, OECD Publishing,
Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg58j1cvcvk-en.
Hammill, A. and T. Tanner (2011), Harmonising Climate Risk Management:
Adaptation Screening and Assessment Tools for Development
Co-operation, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 36, OECD Publishing,
Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg706918zvl-en.
Hood, C. (2011), Summing up the parts: Combining policies for least-cost
climate mitigation strategies, IEA Information Paper, IEA and OECD, Paris,
http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Summing_
Up.pdf.
IEA (2011), Technology Roadmap - Energy Efficient Buildings: Heating and

Cooling Equipment, OECD and IEA, Paris, http://www.iea.org/publications/
freepublications/publication/buildings_roadmap.pdf.
IEA (2011),Technology Roadmap: Biofuels for Transport, and Global Land
Transport Infrastructure Requirements to 2050, OECD and IEA, Paris, http://
www.iea.org/roadmaps/.
IEA (2011), Technology Roadmap: Geothermal Heat and Power, OECD and IEA,
Paris, www.iea.org/roadmaps/.
IEA (2011), Carbon Capture and Storage: Legal and Regulatory Review,
Ed. 2, OECD and IEA, Paris, www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/
publication/carbon-capture-and-storage-legal-and-regulatory-review--edition-2.html.
IEA (2011), Deploying Renewables 2011 - Best and Future Policy Practice, OECD
and IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264124912-en.
IEA (2011), Public-Private Approaches to Finance Energy Efficiency, OECD and
finance-1.pdf.
IEA (2011), Solar Energy Perspectives, OECD and IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264124585-en.
IEA and UNIDO (United Nations Industrial Development Organization)
(2011), The Technology Roadmap: Carbon Capture and Storage in Industrial
Applications, IEA Technology Roadmaps, IEA, NEA and OECD, Paris, http://
www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/technologyroadmap-carbon-capture-and-storage-in-industrial-applications.html.
IEA, OPEC, OECD and World Bank (2011), Fossil-fuel and other energy
subsidies: An update of the G-20 Pittsburgh and Toronto Commitments,
Joint report prepared for submission to the G-20 Summit Meeting, Cannes
(France), 3-4 November 2011 , a joint IEA, OPEC, OECD, World Bank report
to be released in November 2011, IEA, OPEC, OECD and World Bank, http://
www.oecd.org/site/tadffss/49006998.pdf.
Lamhauge, N., E. Lanzi and S. Agrawala (2011), Monitoring And Evaluation

For Adaptation: Lessons From Development Co Operation Agencies, OECD
Environment Working Papers, No. 38, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://
dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg20mj6c2bw-en.
Mos, E. and R. Steenblik (2011), Trade-Related Measures Based on
Processes and Production Methods in the Context of Climate-Change
Mitigation, OECD Trade and Environment Working Papers, No. 2011/04,
OECD, Paris, DOI : http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg6xssz26jg-en.
NEA (2011), Carbon Pricing, Power Markets and the Competitiveness of Nuclear
Power, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264118881-en.
OECD (2011), Handbook on the OECD-DAC Climate Markers, OECD, Paris,
http://www.oecd.org/dac/stats/48785310.pdf.
OECD (2011), ICT applications for the smart grid. Opportunities and policy
implications, OECD, Paris, DOI : http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5k9h2q8v9bln-en.
OECD (2011), Fostering Innovation for Green Growth, OECD Green Growth
Studies, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264119925-en.
OECD (2011), OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, OECD, Paris, DOI:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264115415-en.
OECD (2011), The Economics of Adapting Fisheries to Climate Change, OECD
Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264090415-en.
OECD and UNECA (United Nations Economic Commission for Africa)
(2011), The Mutual Review of Development Effectiveness in Africa:
Promise and Performance, OECD and UNECA, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264095960-en.
OECD and UNEP (United Nations Environment Programme) (2011), Climate
Change and Tourism Policy in OECD Countries, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264119598-en.
OECD (2011), Invention and Transfer of Environmental Technologies, OECD
Studies on Environmental Innovation, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264115620-en.
OECD (2011), OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises, 2011 Edition,

OECD (2011), Towards Green Growth, OECD Green Growth Studies, OECD,
Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264111318-en.
OECD (2011), Measuring progress towards green growth, in OECD
Towards Green Growth, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/9789264111318-6-en.
Philibert, C. (2011), Interactions of Policies for Renewable Energy and
Climate, IEA Working Paper, OECD and IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5kggc12rmkzq-en.
Prag, A., A. Aasrud and C. Hood (2011), Keeping Track: Options to Develop
International Greenhouse Gas Unit Accounting after 2012, OECD/IEA
Climate Change Expert Group Papers, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k450qb83vq8-en.
Prag, A., C. Hood, A. Aasrud and G. Briner (2011), Tracking and
Trading: Expanding on Options for International Greenhouse Gas
Unit Accounting After 2012, OECD and IEA, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5k44xwtzm1zw-en.
Ryan, L., S. Moarif, E. Levina and R. Baron (2011), Energy Efficiency Policy
and Carbon Pricing, IEA Information Paper, IEA and OECD, Paris, http://www.
iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/energy-efficiency-policyand-carbon-pricing.html.
Steenblik, R. and M. Geloso Grosso (2011), Trade in Services Related
to Climate Change: An Exploratory Analysis, OECD Trade and
Environment Working Papers, No. 2011/03, OECD, Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.
org/10.1787/5kgc5wtd9rzw-en.
World Bank, in close partnership with IMF, OECD and the Regional
Development Banks (2011), Mobilizing Climate Finance, Paper prepared
at the request of G-20 Finance Ministers, World Bank, IMF, OECD and the
Regional Development Banks, http://www.imf.org/external/np/g20/
pdf/110411c.pdf.
Hammill, A. and T. Tanner (2011), Harmonising Climate Risk Management:

Adaptation Screening and Assessment Tools for Development
Co-operation, OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 36, OECD Publishing,
Paris, DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5kg706918zvl-en.
2010
Agrawala, S., et al. (2010), Plan or React? Analysis of Adaptation Costs
and Benefits Using Integrated Assessment Models, OECD Environment
org/10.1787/5km975m3d5hb-en.
Agrawala, S. and M. Carraro (2010), Assessing the Role of Microfinance
in Fostering Adaptation to Climate Change, OECD Environment
org/10.1787/5kmlcz34fg9v-en.
2009
OECD (2009), Integrating Climate Change Adaptation into Development
Co-operation: Policy Guidance, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://www.
dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264054950-en.
OECD (2009), Integrating Climate Change Adaptation into Development
Co-operation: Policy Guidance, OECD Publishing, Paris, DOI: http://www.
dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264054950-en.
Acronyms
BAP

Bali Action Plan
CCS

Carbon Capture and Storage
CCXG
Climate Change Expert Group
CDM

Clean Development Mechanism
CIRCLE
Costs of Inaction and Resource

Scarcity: Consequences for Long-term
Economic Growth
COP
Conference of the Parties (to the UNFCCC)
DAC

Development Assistance Committee
ENVIRONET
Network on Environment and Development
Co-operation
EPIC
Environmental Policy and Individual Choice
ETP
Energy Technology Perspectives
FDI
Foreign Direct Investment
GGKP
Green Growth Knowledge Platform
GHG
Greenhouse Gas
ICT
Information and Communication Technology
IEA
International Energy Agency
IFP
International Futures Programme
ITF
International Transport Forum
JWPTE
Joint Working Party on Trade and the
Environment
LCRs
Local Content Requirements
LEED
Local Economic and Employment
Development
LNG
Liquefied Natural Gas
MCM
OECD Ministerial Council Meeting
MDBs
Multilateral Development Banks
MRV
Measurement, Reporting, and Verification
NEA
Nuclear Energy Agency
NGO
Non-Governmental Organisation
NPPs
Nuclear power plants
ODA
Official Development Assistance
OECD
Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development
OOF
Other Official Flows
R&D
Research and Development
SMEs
Small and medium-sized enterprises
UNDP
United Nations Development Programme
UNECA
United Nations Economic Commission for
Africa
UNECE
United Nations Economic Council for
Europe
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNFCCC
United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change
WPSMEE
Working Party on SMEs and
Entrepreneurship
WP-STAT
Working Party on Development Finance
Statistics
VRE
Variable Renewable Energy
2DS
2C scenario
November
2014
OECD November 2014

OECD freely authorises the use of this
material for non-commercial purposes.
All requests for commercial uses of this
material or for translation rights should
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OECD Work On Climate Change 2014

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OECD WORK ON

1. Economic and policy analysis

Climate change mitigation

Agriculture and fisheries

4 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE

adaptation to climate change into all relevant sectors

THE ORGANISATION FOR ECONOMIC

The Organisation for Economic

Work on climate change is underway across the OECD,

postWorld War II Marshall Plan. Today, it

OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 5

Economic and policy analysis

1.1. Climate change mitigation

6 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE

The Climate change chapter of the Environmental Outlook

Did you know...? that removing fossil fuel

Global economic costs of mitigation action

Source: OECD (2012), Environmental Outlook to 2050, ENV-Linkages model.

Cost of policy inaction and benefits of action

Competitiveness and carbon leakage

The Environmental Outlook to 2050 in 2012 highlights

A coherent approach to carbon pricing

Costs of Inaction and Resource scarcity:

The environmental challenges investigated largely coincide

Aligning policies twoards a low-carbon economy

10 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE

The four organisations are currently working to identify which

Combining policies least-cost climate mitigation

OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 11

1.2. Adaptation to climate change

Previous work on Harmonising Climate Risk Management:

Integrating adaptation in development co-operation

12 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE

Robust monitoring and evaluation is essential for effective

Adaptation in OECD countries

Economic aspects of adaptation

The OECD is also working on the economics of adaptation

The actions of the private sector will also have a decisive

Many of the benefits of adaptation are local and private, which

1.3. Climate finance and investment

Policy framework for mobilising private investment

and within levels of government; (2) reforming policies to enable

Key Elements of a Green Investment Policy Framework

1. Strategic goal setting

Source: Corfee-Morlot, et al. (2012), Towards a Green Investment Policy Framework.

OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 15

In a series of case studies, the elements of the policy framework

Policy guidance for investment in

16 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE

policy, governance of energy market institutions, and other

Achieving a level playing field for international

The OECD is developing policy guidance on long-term

Engaging institutional investors

OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE . 17

Tracking climate finance

The OECD Development Assistance Committee (DAC) has a

18 . OECD WORK ON CLIMATE CHANGE

Measuring private climate finance, to and in, developing

Completed OECD analysis to date illustrates: (i) The potential

Climate-related Aid (bilateral commitments)

Climate-related aid: "Significant" objective

Climate-related share of Total ODA

Share of Total ODA (%)