pop growth = (B+I) - (D+E)

stable population - death rate = birth rate - no change in pop size

decreasing population - birth rates < death rates
increasing population - birth rates > death rates

populations - definitions
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Populations - definitions
Ecosystems - a species occupies a niche, goverened by adaptations to abiotic and biotic factors
Community - all the species of a habitat
Population - all the organisms of one species in a habitat
birth rate = (no births per year/pop in same year) x 1000
death rate = (no deaths per year/pop in same year) x 1000
% pop growth rate = (pop change / pop at start) x 100
immigration - individuals joining a pop
emmigration - individuals leaving a pop
life expectancy - the average life expectancy is that age at which 50% of the individuals in a
particular pop are still alive

estimated pop size = (total in 1st sample x total in 2nd sample)/no marked in 2nd
no immigration/emmigration
few births/deaths
mark not rubbed off

mark-release-recapture
percentage cover - estimate the area within a quadrat that a species covers
frequency - the likelihood of a species occuring in a quadrat
abundance
quadrats - consider size of quadrat, number of sample needed & position of each quadrat
transects - abundance & distribution of a species
quantative data
random sampling

investigating ecosystems
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variation in pop size

predation
one organism consumed by another
predator-prey relationships: predator eats prey & decreases no of prey. more competiton
for fewer prey. predator pop decreases. fewer predators = fewer prey eaten. prey pop
increases. predator pop increases.
interspecific competition - individuals of DIFFERENT species
intraspecific competition - individuals of SAME species
abiotic factors

temperature - enzymes & optimum

light - energy source for ecosystems
pH - affects enzyme activiy
water & humidity - affects transpiration in plants

 two alleles are dominant

both expressed in phenotype
codominance
only 2 can be present in an individual
more than 2 alleles for a gene
Multiple alleles
controlled by recessive alleles
on X or Y chromosome
sex linkage

inheritance & selection

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inheritance & selection

inheritance

genotype: genetic constitution of an organism

phenotype: observable characteristics
gene: a section of DNA that determines a single characteristic. exists in 2 or more forms
allele: one of the different forms of a gene. only one can occur

speciation
the evolution of a new species from an existing species
geographical isolation: physical barrier prevents 2 pops breeding with each other,
conditions in 1 area change, mutations arise & are passed down generations. LONG period
of time new species evolves, & is unable to produce fertile offspring with original species

 if environmental conditions change phenotypes needed to survive will change

phenotypes at extremes are favoured
directional
environmental conditions remain same
phenotype closest to mean favoured
eliminates extremes
stabilising

selection
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hardy-weinberg
p+q=1
p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
used to predict the frequencies of the alleles of a particular gene in a population
predicts that the proportion of dominant & recessive alleles remain the same for each
generation
can only be used if:

population is large
no mutations
population is isolated
no selection
mating is random

 numbers - no account of size, may not be pyramid shape/ may be inverted, maybe
impossible to represent on same scale
biomass - gm-2, only organisms at a particular time are shown, total mass of the plants/
animals at a particular place
energy - most accurate, energy stored in organisms, difficult & complex
Pyramids
photosynthesis: main route that energy enters the ecosystem
energy transferred through trophic levels
energy transfer = (energy available after / energy available before) x 100
energy transfer

energy & ecosystems

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energy & ecosystems - food production

Pest control

pest = organism that competes with humans for food - may be a danger to health
effective pesticide should: be specific, biodegrade, be cost effective, not accumulate
biological control: pests don't develop resistance, control organism may become a pest,
doesn't work quickly (time lag), controls the pest - doesn't eradicate it, reproduces itself,
specific
chemical pesticides: pests develop genetic resistance - new pesticides need to be
developed, must be reapplied at intervals - expensive, always has some effect on nontarget species
integrated pest-control systems: removal of pests mechanically-time, using biological
control, pesticides as last resort.
pests & productivity - monoculture crop allows rapid spread, pests create a limiting factor,
photosynthesis reduces. # productivity decreases.

non-living environment becomes less hostile

a greater number and variety of habitats
increased biodiversity
more complex food webs
increased biomass

secondary(faster): land altered due to fire/disease/grazing/agriculture to climax community

re-colonisation

community less hostile, more stable & higher biodiversity

hostile, instable
barren land->primary colonisers->secondary->tertiary--shrub land->climax
primary

pioneer species

succession
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energy & ecosystems - food production

intensive rearing
reduce energy losses: feeding controlled, predators excluded, selective breeding,
hormones used to increase growth, animals confined, movement reduced - less energy
lost in muscle contraction, temperature controlled - reduced heat losses
agricultural ecosystems
energy input: food for workers, fossil fuels for machinery
natural ecosystem only input is sun & productivity is low
agricultural: productivity increased - reducing effect of limiting factors - reducing
competition
net productivity = gross productivity - respiratory losses
net productivity: kJm-2year-1, area of ground covered by leaves of crop, efficiency of
photosynthesis

 management of Earths natural resources

managing succession & preventing next stage
why? - ethical(some species here before humans) -economic -cultural & aesthetic(habitats
& organisms enrich our lives

conservation of habitats
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fertilisers
natural/organic
dead & decaying remains
animal waste
artificial/inorganic
mined from rocks & deposits
converted into different forms
blended together to form appropriate balance for particular crop
leaching
nutrients removed from soil
rain water dissolves nitrates & carries them beyond reach of roots
find way to watercourse

extinction of organisms
rise in sea level
higher temp & less rainfall = failure of crops
greater rainfall & intense storms = life cycles & pop of insects alters
methane produced by decomposers

consequences

global warming
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eutrophication
little nitrate in lakes & rivers = limiting factor
nitrate conc increases, not limiting factor, plant & algae grow on surface & absorb light
no light to lower depth
light limiting factor for deeper plants, plants die
lack of dead plants not limiting factor so saprobiotic microorganisms grow
increased demand for oxygen - conc decreases - limiting factor - aerobic organisms die
less competition for anaerobic organisms - populations increase
anaerobic organisms decomposed - more nitrates released