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Flow of water through soils is called seepage.

TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW OF
WATER THROUGH SOILS

Whenever there is seepage, it is often

necessary to estimate the quantity of the
seepage, and permeability becomes the main
parameter here.
Problems on the calculation of flow of water
through soil can be solved:
a. Analytical Method use of Laplace
Equation of Continuity
b. Graphical Method - use of flownets (a
trial-and-error method)

Flow nets are constructed for the calculation

of groundwater flow and the evaluation of
heads in the media.
To complete the graphic construction of a flow
net, one must draw the flow lines and
equipotential lines in such a way that
1. The equipotential lines intersect the flow
lines at right angles.
2. The flow elements formed are approximate
squares (curvilinear squares).

Seepage takes place when there is difference

in water levels on the two sides of the
structure such as a dam or a sheet pile as
shown in Fig.

FLOWNETS

A set of flow lines and equipotential lines is called

flow net
A flow line is an imaginary line that traces the path
that a particle of ground water would follow as it
flows through an aquifer.
Equipotential lines are lines of constant total head

FLOWNETS

A set of flow lines and equipotential lines is

called flow net.

Flow line

Equipotential line

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in Isotropic Soil
Nf =
(Impermeable layer)

Nd =

(permeable layer)

Qi = kH/Nd

(Approximate square)

Qt = NfQi

Qt = kH(Nf/Nd)

in Isotropic Soil

in Isotropic Soil

Nf =
Nd =
Qt = kH(Nf/Nd)

SUMMARY:
FLOWNETS IN ISOTROPIC SOILS

The rate of seepage through each flow

channel: Q k H
i

If flow elements in the flow nets were constructed

as rectangles, the width-to-length ratio of the flow
nets must be constant, that is: b1 b2 b3
l1
Rate of seepage per unit length,

l2

Qt kH

l3

Nf
Nd

... n

Nd

Where: H = head difference between the

upstream and downstream sides
Nd = number of potential drops

H
Nd

h = head loss between each

potential drop

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FLOWNETS IN ISOTROPIC SOILS

Heads and Hydraulic Gradient

The total rate of flow through all channels:

HN f
N f number of flow channel
Qt k
Nd
Total flow rate through all flow channels with
rectangular flow nets:

Qt kH

Nf
n
Nd

b1 b2 b3
... n
l1 l2 l3

The height of water in the standpipe is the pressure

head, hp
The elevation head, hz of a point is the height above
the datum line to the base of the standpipe.
The height above the datum of the water level in the
standpipe is the total head, h.
If the point considered is above
the datum: hp = h hz
hp

If the point considered is below

the datum:

hp = h + hz

EXAMPLE NO. 1

A flow net for flow around a single row of sheet piles

in a permeable soil layer is shown in Figure.

If there is seepage:
Pressure head, hp = h head loss + hz
Hydraulic gradient,

h
L

h = head loss
L = flow length which can be measured
directly from flow net

Given that kx = kz = k = 5 x10-3 cm/sec, determine:

a.) How high above the ground surface the water will
rise if piezometers are placed at a and b.

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b.) The total rate of seepage through the permeable

layer per unit length.
c.) The approximate average hydraulic gradient at c.

FLOW NETS IN ANISOTROPIC MATERIAL

For soils that show anisotropy with
respect to permeability, khorizontal is not
equal to kvertical
Steps for construction of flow net:
1. Transform the cross section by
multiplying all vertical dimensions by k x
kz

2. Draw the flow net for the transformed

section.

FLOW NETS IN ANISOTROPIC MATERIAL

3. Calculate the rate of seepage as

q kxkz H

Nf

Example #2. A dam section is shown in Figure.

The coefficients of permeability of the permeable
layer in the vertical and horizontal directions are
210-2mm/s and 410-2mm/s, respectively. Draw
a flow net and calculate the seepage loss of the
dam in m3/day m.

Nd

Where : kx = coefficient of permeability in the horizontal direction

kz = coefficient of permeability in the vertical direction

Use the transformed section: multiply

the vertical dimensions by :

kx
4

2
kz
2

q kxkz h

Nf
Nd

Nf = 2.5
Nd = 8

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UPLIFT FORCE UNDER A HYDRAULIC

STRUCTURES
Flow nets can be used to determine the uplift
pressure at the base of a hydraulic structure.
The uplift pressure at any point j is calculated as
follows:
1. Select a convenient datum (ex. downstream
water level).
2. Determine the total head at j: H j H N d j h
Where: H = head at the upstream level
h = head loss between each potential drop
(Nd)j = number of potential drops at point j

3. Subtract the elevation head (hz) at point j from

the total head (Hj) to get the pressure head (hp)j

p j

H N d j h hz

If elevation head is below the datum, hz is negative

If elevation head is above the datum, hz is positive
If there is no seepage, the pressure head is the height
to the free-water table.

4. The pore water pressure is: u j h p j w

5. The uplift force per unit length due to
groundwater flow:
n

Pw u j x j

Where: uj = average porewater

pressure over an interval xj

j 1

HYDRAULIC UPLIFT FORCE UNDER A STRUCTURE

Example #3
Find the hydraulic uplifting force under a dam in Figure
shown. The cross section is shown below: