Proceedings ofthe 2009 IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics.

Malaga, Spain, April 2009.

A Mechatronic Analysis and Synthesis of Human

Walking Gait
Luis I. Lugo-Villeda *, Antonio Frisoli,
Oscar O. Sandoval Gonzalez,
and Massimo Bergamasco
Perceptual Robotics - PERCRO
Scuola Superiore Sant' Anna
Pisa, Italy, Via Martiri della Liberta 33,56127,
Email: {l.lugovilleda.a.frisoli.o.sandovalgonzalez}@sssup.it

Abstract-Human walking gait (HWG) involves concurrently

complex aspects of control, signal conditioning and processing,
motion capture and biomechanical analysis as well as bioelectronic instrumentation and robot control. To merge some of these
concepts into a unique framework, in this paper, a computational
mechatronics scheme is proposed for the analysis and synthesis of
HWG based on a seven-link sagittal rigid dynamical biped robot
in closed-loop with an advanced force/position/velocity modelfree position-force controller. Desired trajectories come from
real human motion data: Lower-limbs walking gaits kinematic
patterns are captured with a human motion Vicon tracker
system, including landing point, and impact (ground reaction)
forces are obtained from femur/tibial muscles via EMG. A
criteria is established to map such signals into a 7 DoF workspace
of the dynamical biped robot. Fast dynamical tracking is achieved
under real HWG patters, which provides greater insight into the
design and control process of humanoid robotic biped locomotion.
1. INTRODUCTION

Biped locomotion constitutes a complex interdisciplinary

problem, which has attracted lot of attention over the last two
decades in several research areas, such as robotics, mechatronics, biomechanics, neurosciences, bioelectronics, applied
nonlinear control and virtual reality, who have contributed with
basic understanding on this subject. There is a vast literature
on those research areas, which covers several fundamental
aspects, unfortunately disconnected from one to the another.
The intrinsic nature of biped locomotion tightly couples human
walking gait patters to biped robots, however few studies
offer dynamical closed-loop analysis of real HWG patters
into robotic biped locomotion. Since biped robotic locomotion basically aims to mimic biped humanoid walking, it is
desirable to further understand the closed-loop behavior of
dynamical biped robots while tracking real HWG patters,
including ground reaction forces (GRF). In this paper, it is
argued that a mechatronic scheme provides further insight
and tools to merge several concepts and ideas in a synergetic
scheme so as to yield some ideas previously proposed for one
area but not well understood for another area. In particular, in
This work is partially supported by Skills-IP project and Scuola Superiore
Sanl' Anna. *Main author acknowledges support from CONACyT Mexico the
research grant No. 165889.

978-1-4244-4195-2/09/$25.00 (c) 2009 IEEE

Vicente Parra-Vega
Robotics and Advanced Manufacturing Division,
Research Center for Advanced Studies Saltillo Campus
CINVESTAV Carretera Saltillo-Monterrey Km 1.5 - CP 25000
- Ramos Arizpe, Coahuila, Mexico
Email: vparra@cinvestav.mx

this paper it is argued that a mechatronics approach allows to

introduce human natural locomotion analysis into a dynamic
setting to produce an advanced human-like walking gait for
biped robots, useful for better understanding and design of
biped robots. To this end, a 7 DoF constrained dynamical
sagittal robot is considered to track real HWG trajectories.
Vicon@ kinematic signals are mapped properly from 3D
space into the 2D sagittal plane to produce admissible desired
position and velocities trajectories, while EMG magnitude and
its time activation analysis provides desired GRF for each
limb. HWG and EMG input data fit into sagittal seven-link
biped dynamical robot model as desired position and force
trajectories to render accurately a realistic AWG 1 in a highly
nonlinear constrained dynamics of seven-link sagittal biped
robot. To successfully track these signals, a very fast tracking
position/force controller is proposed, which provides very
good transient response. Furthermore, to guarantee tracking
in the time axis too, not only in the spatial coordinates, a
time-base generator is introduced to guarantee exact tracking
in time and space domains. This controller accounts explicitly
for all dynamic internal and external forces, as well as mechanical impedance of the swing leg when touching the ground,
those reproducing dynamically the desired trajectories to make
walking realistically the biped robot model.
A. Organization
The general concept of applied computational mechatronics
to the sagittal biped robot is given in Section II. Section III
shows the nonlinear dynamical equations of the sagittal biped
robot which is used as test bed. EMG analysis and procedure
for getting amplitude of exerted force and time activation
are given in Section IV. The synchronized VICON@ data
and the EMG-based measurements are presented in Section
V. Fast and robust force/position controller with time finite
convergence is given in Section VI, including simulations in
Section VII. Finally conclusions are presented into last Section
VIII.
1Artificial

Walking Gait.

II.

COMPUTATIONAL MECHATRONICS-BASED SCHEME

A. Background
Dynamic and passive biped walking concepts are well understood nowadays to reproduce biped locomotion on simple
robots in the sagittal plane, subject to rather to stringent
assumptions, there exists some fundamental papers on analysis
and modeling of biped locomotion in 2D and 3D spaces see
for instance [16], [6], among others. However, Despite new
technology on sensors, motors and processing units, and a
better understanding on analysis, synthesis and design of biped
robots, human-based walking locomotion or humanoid biped
systems remains elusive 2 . Because, basically, the robot control
research community focus mainly on modeling and control
issues of biped trajectories, not necessarily modeled after
HWG trajectories, while human walking locomotion patterns
are studied more by the computers science, bioengineering and
neuroscience research communities, mainly in virtual reality
or open loop applications, [17], [11].
In some cases, the biped robot is modeled after Ordinary
Differential Equations, it means that the applied classic formulation of Euler-Lagrange can be viewed as a nonlinear
energy balance equations, which contains high nonlinear couplings and inertial/gyroscopic interactions among joints and
links, even environmental normal and tangent forces has been
modeled via ODE formulation, [20]. For ODE models, even
linear conventional controllers or nonlinear controllers can be
implemented to guarantee stable walking, as well as control of
impact dynamics at leg interchange times [7], [15]. However,
when there exists unilateral constraints, in this case foot on
the floor, Differential Algebraic Equations are more suitable
to model the energy balance, according to the variational
principle of Euler Lagrange constrained dynamics. In this
paper, we focus on DAE model and control of humanoid biped
locomotion using real human biped locomotion trajectories,
which are extracted using HWG, for position/velocities, and
EMG, for contact force. It is modeled the human lower-part,
which includes reaction external forces, coriolis effects, inertia
parameters, discontinuous phases switching, on the assumption
of frictionless contact (there is not slipping).

'--Dis-p'a-yed-Va-n-'ab-'es--"

Constraints
System's
Behavior

Controlled
Variables

Fig. I.

2Notice that humanoid biped robot can track HWG patters, while biped
robots do not necessarily.

Computational Mechatronics Scheme

phases and the EMG amplitude as well as activation time, it is

required a fast and robust controller to guarantee simultaneous
tracking on force as well as position, with negligible transient.
The stability of AWG and its behavior of all involved elements
depend on each factor of the proposed scheme of figure 1.
In order to analyze and fit the HWG and EMG-based force
measurements onto computational seven-link sagittal biped
robot, applied computational mechatronics scheme is shown
in figure 2.

Positions

and

velocities of

HWG

Weighted
EMGForcc

q"X,

and lIs tnmng

Control ~ignab
to actuators

Positions,
velocities and exerted

[oreeof
biped robot

I,
T

B. Computational Mechatronics Scheme

Since human locomotion is a quite complex process in 3D,

we surmise that accurate data for the 2D sagittal model is
by applying the synergetic integration of several disciplines,
within the mechatronics paradigm, rather than working on it
using isolated knowledge from one research area. The main
problem concerned with it, is to decompose the problem
properly to apply a computational-based mechatronics scheme,
as shown by Figure 1. To this end, the analysis for human
walking locomotion is worked out as a complex constrained
DAE model (Differential-Algebraic-Equation), [14], of sevenlink biped robot in either non-free or free motion depending
on walking-phase gait. Afterwards, due the commuting of gait

Sa'.'p.::::oin,,-,~-=--=--=-~r:D---iscr-.-~o"-::~~~~tinuos

q,

q,

I,

q;' ",.I,
Fig. 2.

General mechatronics scheme including the human-data as input

As we can see, the input of the DAE equation through

the nonlinear controller are the tri-dimensional HWG data
qd E ffi.7 recorded by the Vicon system. The EMG raw
signals come from the electrodes located at triceps surae and
hamstring in order to measure the EMG activity, thereafter
those signals are processed to determine the exerted force and
its time activation. Information processing blocks compute the
continuous tracking desired force Ad E ffi., with Ad E reI, and
the numerical derivative of articular coordinates rid E ffi. 7, to
produce the desired velocity profile. The DAE system must

reI, and qd

track precisely qd E JR7, Ad E JR, with Ad E

to reproduce HWG.

E JR7

III. DYNAMIC MODEL OF PLANAR BIPED ROBOT

Consider a planar fully actuated seven rigid link biped robot
walking, interconnected by massless revolute joints, in the 2dimensional vertical space, as shown in Fig. (3)3.
Similar to [3], single-support-phase (SSP) is assumed to
yield three main elements: stance leg, swing leg and rigid
pelvis, interconnected at pelvis coordinates Xh E JR 2. Both
legs are composed by three rigid links, that is foot, tibia and
femur, whose physical parameters are mass, center of gravity
and length. According to Lagrange modeling formalism for

q,

Stance Leg

ip(x,y,z) - ip(q)
where ip( q) E JR, and ip( q) E
the following,

= 0

(2)

re 2 Differentiating (2), we obtain

JI"(q)q = 0 f-+ JI"(q)ij + jl"(q)q = 0

(3)

Notice that the dot product of vectors J I" (q) and q is zero,
so they belong to orthogonal complements each other. Further
physical interpretation of (3) suggests that the velocity vector
arises onto the tangent space at the contact point to the surface
ip(q) = Ax + Bx + Cz - D - 0, and therefore JI"(q) maps
onto the normal subspace at the contact point. This fact is
very useful to design energetically stable force controllers for
robot manipulators, and it is known as the Orthogonalization
Principle [1]. In our case, we will propose a force controller to
achieve tracking of GRF. On the another hand, the stance leg
heel Xf E JR moves on x-axes, from the heel, passing to zero
moment point (ZMP) [9], [18], [8], arriving to foot rotation
indicator (FRI) [5]. In this way, there arise a kinematically
stable walking, see Figure 4.

q,

q;

point where the swing leg lands, however this contact point is
not fixed, because as HWG evolves, the feet contact point of
the stance leg displaces along the floor. Notice that there arise
a contact line while the GRF point is translating from the heel
to its toe. In this case, we can assume that the contact line,
which occurs in the frontal view, in turns is a contact point in
the sagittal view. Thus, the general equation of the constraint
describes the following holonomic constraint,

I,

,I, ~(x,y,zJ=O

f:'

Fig, 3, Seven Link Biped Robot: a) 3-dimensional view b) SSP for modeling
closed kinematic chains [4], [1], the Constrained Lagrangian
yields the following DAE system,

H(q)ij + {C(q, q)

+ BoH + g(q)
ip(x,y,z)

Initialrontactpomt

JT

A7

+ IIJJ~I"II A + 7f

4,

Contact point moving along of surface 'P(x, y, z)

(1)

where (q, q) E JR 2n, for n = 7, are the dynamic states, position

and velocity, respectively; H(q) E JR7X7, stands as inertia
mass matrix, C(q, q) E JR7X7 stands as the coriolis matrix,
the linear joint coefficient positive definite friction matrix is
given by Bo E JR 7X7 , g(q) E JR7 stands as the gravitational
torque vector, and 7 E JR7 is the control input functions. The
input matrix A E JR7X 7 maps the control 7 to each active joint;
7f = J(q)T F with (q)JR 7X2 stands as the static constraint
while F = (Ft, FN )T has two components, the tangential
force Ft = /LdFN, with /Ld > 0, and the normal force FN,
where Ft , FN E JR, see Figure 3.

A. Holonomic Constraints of Biped Robot Dynamics

During single-support phase, strictly speaking, we have a
moving holonomic constraint system because of the nature of
the forces involved on HWG. That is, there arise a contact
3This assumption is without loss of generality,

Fig,

IV. LOWER-LIMBS EMG-BASED COMPUTED FORCE

Bio-signals provide information about the behavior of the
human body when is performing a certain action. Unquestionably, the muscles give the most valuable data regarding to
human walking motion analysis. Therefore, the acquisition of
different parameters like force level, fatigue, time activation
and position of the muscles represent a useful tool to carry
out different analysis. The EMG acquisition hardware used
to find out the effort and forces consists of electrodes, preamplifiers, filters, amplifiers with bias adjustment and 16 bits
AID converter at 4Khz. Normally, when a muscle is contracted
during HWG, the electrode picks up EMG signal, afterwards,
the preamplifier amplifies at TTL voltage levels and filters
the signals in order to prevent electrical interference and
sensitivity to noise. Finally, the AID converter converts signals
into digital form. The bipolar surface electrodes Ag/AgCl
(models DS02, DS03, DS04, DS26 and GS27), from Biomedical@ company has been used.

A. Muscle Activity Detection and Noise Reduction by Using

Wavelets
The estimation of on-off timing of human skeletal muscles
has an important role in the walking analysis, which is typically carried out with EMG, however EMG signals are subject
to noise, then it is essential to apply special methodologies for
the correct extraction of the muscle activity detection information. There are different techniques referred to as "singlethreshold methods", [19], which are based on the comparison
of the rectified raw signals and an amplitude threshold whose
value depends on the mean power of the background noise.
Another method is known as "double threshold method", [2],
based on noise level and time of activation.
In [10], it is performed a three level of decomposition using
a db3 wavelet decomposition, at level 3, that is for level 1 to
3 it is selected a threshold and applied a soft thresholding to
the detailed coefficients. In our case, it is performed a wavelet
reconstruction using the original approximation coefficients of
level 3 and the modified detailed coefficients of levels from 1
to 3. The de-noised signal is rectified in order to envelope it

: 200

(:::01'i

.
o

200

!'~.lj,

40~

600

800

100d 1200

1400 1600 1800: 2000

,I :"-T! , :,

40~

600

1600 1800: 2000

1000 '---+-rr~~~~~+---'------+~~--'+~

"0

Mihseconds

Fig.

7.

Experimental EMG analysis of real human walking

experienced by the swing leg when it is landing represents the

desired force to be tracked by a fast and robust position/force
controller of the biped robot.

Fig.

5.

Application of Wavelets dc-noised methodology

using a fourth-order Butterworth lowpass filter, with a cut off

frequency of 10Hz and phase compensation, see figure 6. The

~1J2\C-'"~
o

Fig.

6.

200

400

000

BOO

1000120014001600

1800

2000

Enveloped Signal (Blue), Activation (Red)

time activation detection process is carried out with a sliding

window of performed 125msec through the whole signal in
order to detect events of signals smaller than 30msec which
are considered to be part of individual MUAP contraction or
a noise introduced in the signal.
V. DATA ACQUISITION FROM VICON@ SYSTEM AND

EMG-BASED FORCE ANALYSIS

An experiment interfacing the Vicon@ System and the
EMG signals is performed for the walking analysis. The aim
was to obtain the response and activation of 4 muscles of the
legs in the precise time and position along the movement. The
electrodes are located in the Hamstring, Quadriceps, Triceps
Surae and Tibialis. To obtain correlated results, position in
the space of the legs (acquired by the Vicon@ System) and
the EMG signals are synchronized, see figure 7. Figure 8
shows the response of the four muscles during a walking
cycle, wherein Wavelets de-noising methodologies are applied
to reduce noise level of the signals. It is assumed that the force

Fig. 8. Weighted EMG and time activation force

VI. DYNAMIC PD SLIDING FORCE/POSITION FOR STABLE
WALKING
Now, for carrying out the tracking of the HWG-EMG data,
we consider the sliding PD controller [13], it is given in
original coordinates as,

-Kd S

IIJ~~'PII { - Ad + 'T/6.. F +

+r1"/2 1~ Sgn(SqF)(()d(}

"/2 tanh (SqF)

(4)

position and velocity errors are given by D.q = q - qd

and D.q = ri - rid, respectively, with D.F = Itt (A - Ad)(~)d~
as the force tracking error. Positive feedback g~ins are defined
as 7], "(1, "(2/3 E JR;qd E ([2 and Ad(t) E ([1 are the desired references for position and force respectively, sgn() represents
the signum function of the its vector argument. The orthogonal
manifold sliding surface of position/force S is defined as,

wher~

JJ

S _ Q( )

q Svp - /3IIJJ J'I'II SvF

(5)

where each attractive stable manifold of the extended orthogonal position and force Svp and SvF are written as follows

Sqp

+ it sgn(Sqp)(~)d~

(6)

+ it sgn(SqF )(~)d~

(7)

to

SqF

to

where

Sp - Sdp, Sp = b.. q + a(t)D.q

Sp(to)e-po(t-to)
SF - SdF, SF = D.F
SF (t o)e-1)(t-t o)

(8)
(9)

on the desired trajectory, thus to enhance its performance,

finite time convergence (FTC) is desirable, it means that in
the phase-portrait, feedback gain a(t) is time-dependent to
reach finite time convergence independently of the sliding
condition4 .

A. Time Base Generator ~(t) to Control Exactly the Landing

and Departure Time of Swing and Stance Leg
The previous result, although it enforces exponential convergence (a much better and faster convergence regime than
asymptotic one), cannot guarantee the desired landing nor
departure time of swing and stance leg, compromising the full
scheme, because the biped robot will walk as long as it follows
precisely in time and space the HWG patterns. To achieve this,
consider a time base. generator (TBG) given in [12]. Let a(t)
be such that Sp = D.q + a(t)D.q = 0, Sp -+ as t -+ 0, it
is possible if we solve the following first order homogenous
time equation,

+ a(t)z =

=}

i = -a(t)z,

(12)

where

(10)
(11)

with Po, 7] as positive constant values.

Proof.- It is based on Lyapunov stability analysis to prove
that all closed-loop signals are bounded, then Variable Structure Control arguments are used to prove the existence of
sliding modes for position/velocity and force tracking errors
simultaneously, thus exponential tracking is achieved, with
robust performance, because second order sliding modes are
verified. The proof depends strongly on the properties of analysis of (1) , such as IIH(q)11 :::;. AMin(H(q)) > 0, IIH(q)11 'S

AMax(H(q)) < oo,llC(q,ri)11 'S /321Irill,IIG(q)11 'S /33 <

oo,IIBoll :::;. /34 > O,IIAII = In,IIDII 'S /35 < 00 where
AMax(E) 'S /30 < 00, AMin(E) :::;. /31 > are the maximum
a minimum eigenvalues of E E JRnxn.

Remark 6.1: The controller given in (4) is very fast and

robust against perturbations and slow sample rate, it is capable
to track the desired trajectory and conserves the same properties and response onto the two invariant manifolds of force
and position previously defined. Whatever arbitrary desired
trajectories or real ones, this controller exhibits robustness
and fast response without relying on a given Euler Lagrange
model, which is particularly important for biped robots, because usually the resulting final walking robots are so complex
that the exact dynamical model is not available, for this reason
it is important to use model-free passivity-based controllers.
Remark 6.2: Is necessary to choose adequate feedback
gains to achieve fast convergence of each sliding surface,
7]"(1, "(2, /3, ao E JR, while satisfying the geometrical constraint
rp(q) = 0. It is important then that desired trajectories be
smooth, which needs to be verified for real data at each
walking cycle.
Finally, walking gait requires a fast controller with high
bandwidth, normally the dynamic response of (1) depends

with

ao = 1 + E,

<

(13)
E

1 and 0

< 5 < 1. The TBG

~(t) E C 2 goes smoothly from initial point ~(to) = 0 to

~(tb) = 1 with tb as time base and tb > O. Thus, ~(to)

under this conditions the solution of (12) is,

z(t)

z(to)[(l -~)

+ W+

= ~(tb),

(14)

Finally, notice that tb is independent of any initial condition

and hence

~(tb) = 1

--->

Z(tb) = z(tO)5 HE >

(15)

With the feedback gain a(t) it is possible to enforce fast

convergence of each sliding surface at any desired time base
tb, where this time means the cycle of each gait, the time
when a swing leg becomes the stance leg and viceversa. In this
way, we can handle properly the commuting of dynamics and
controllers, avoiding the numerical and dynamical problems
introduced because of commuting.
VII. NUMERICAL SIMULATIONS
We take into account a seven-link biped robot whose
physical parameters are approximately computed by using anthropometric data of a real human, such that these parameters
are going to be implemented on the DAE system. Applying
the sliding PD controller previously defined with a period gait
cycle of 8 sec we use the VICON-EMG data as desired
position/force profiles. Considering the total mass of a 80 Kg,
next figures 9-10 show the actual AWG as well as the GFR
in one leg at the commuting process: swing leg and stance
leg. Notice that when the swing leg lands to the holonomic
constraint and passes from initial contact point to FRI, the
4If we are using human walking patterns, it is possible to know precisely
the time base of the FTC algorithm.

mechatronics philosophy, which handle even transitions based

on a complete procedure for stabilizing constrained systems.
\

REFERENCES
[I]

LeftarIQularkn""pOSlllon

[2]
[3]

"o:---;-----O-c--,;----;-----;;-c----;
time

[4]

[se~l

[5]
Fig. 9.

Tracking position convcrges at 2.5 sec during a HWG cyele

MAXIMUM FORCE

EXPERIENCED

AT THE FLOOR
113% TOTAL
WEIGHT

Y9076

,
SWING LE\GPHASE

ZMP

[6]

~
'"d(t)

[7]
[8]
FRI

[9]

, $(q)>01

~~

[10]

Fig. 10.
sec

Experienced force at one leg into a single gait cyele with TBG=2.5

[I I]
[12]

interacting force starts increasing up to 1l3% of the total

weight during the stance leg phase, the normal average landing
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VIII. CONCLUSIONS

The contribution of this paper is three fold: First, based

on a constrained full nonlinear biped DAE seven-link biped
robot model, a model-free decentralized controller is proposed,
which guarantees robustness and finite time convergence in
position as well as in velocity, with exponential tracking
of force trajectories. This controller ensures fast and robust
tracking of desired stable walking gait patters, coming from
reconditioned real data of human walking gait. A time-based
generator is introduced to enforce precise, in time and space,
tracking of position and force trajectories. Secondly, a computational mechatronic platform merges seemingly signals usually analyzed in different and independent domains. Thirdly,
EMG and VICON signals are synthesized to produce 2D
human walking gait (HWG) patters, which can be used as
desired patterns for force/position control of biped robots. The
complete result is a realistic simulator thanks to introduced

[13]

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