Test Rig Security & Monitoring System

TEST RIG SECURITY & MONITORING SYSTEM
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
PC BASED SAFETY AND SECURITY MONITORING ANALYSIS AND

WARNING SYSTEM FOR FIGHTER AIRCRAFT SIMULATION TEST RIG is detection and
warning of human influence in the test rig equipment it also gives detection and warning of the
pressure and temperature of the pumps. The project gives the platform for analyzing of the
parameters like pressure and temperature in the pumps of hydraulic section.
The test rig area is separated by three sections viz, test rig equipment, hydraulic section and
control room. Test rig equipment has the architecture similar to the aircraft where each and every
individual part is tested. A hydraulic section performs the work of sending temperature and pressure
to the aircrafts for those which are being tested according to the aircraft design it behaves like the
heart of the system. Hydraulic section comprises of two main pumps and two sub pumps with each
pair set for temperature and pressure separately. Finally control room is the place where all the
simulation process is done.
So if there is a human intervention in the rig area, indication is given to the control room
through pc display and the alert to human as well as in control room using buzzer.
The rig area consists of 4 pumps, 2 main pumps and 2 sub pumps which are located in the
hydraulic section. These pumps provide constant pressure and temperature to the test rig area for
testing aircrafts.
If the pressure and the temperature value crosses the critical values it will damage the test
rig equipment and as well as aircraft also. We can also update the pressure and the temperature
values when required.
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So in case of any variations in the temperature and the pressure indication is given by pc
display and alert is given by buzzer in the control room.
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CHAPTER 3
BLOCK DIAGRAM
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RF
RECIEVER
MICROCONTROLLER
AT89C51
LCD
DISPLAY
BLOCK DIAGRAM EXPLANATION

IR TRANSMITTER AND RECEIVER MODULE:IR Transmitter and receiver module is a major part of this system. It plays a very important
role in detection of the human interference in the rig area. The IR transmitter will be continuously
transmitting the high signal and the receiver will be receiving the signals. When a person enters in
between this area the receiver will not receive any signal and a low signal is sent to the next stage
which is a buffer stage.
BUFFER DRIVER:The buffer is used to match the impedance and the driver consists of the amplifier stage
with the Darlington pair configuration.
RELAY:The relay we use here is the electromechanical relay which is used to connect to the
parallel port. The relay drives the parallel port.
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TEMPERATURE SENSOR:The temperature sensor we use here is DR-25. This sensor acts as a negative temperature coefficient, as the temperature increases the resistance decreases. The output of this sensor is fed to the
comparator stage.
COMPARATOR:This stage is used for comparison purpose. In this stage we set one reference value and then
compare other to inputs with this value. Then the output of the comparator is given to the
optocoupler stage. When there is a variation in the temp/illumination in the thermistor, it measures
impedance of the sensor smartly and decides which gate to open. The circuit diagram shows that
three operational amplifiers compare the drop across the test leads to a fixed voltage and indicate
which of the two is highest by switching their output to the positive supply level or ground.
OPTO-COUPLER:The Opto-coupler IC has a photo diode which illuminates whenever input signal
appears. Then it couples the signal to the driver stage. Then in the driver stage the impedance is
matched and sent to the relay and further to the computer for displaying purpose.
POTENTIOMETER:The potentiometer is the physical device where we have a provision to vary the
resistance. First we set one threshold value for this upon varying the potentiometer below and above
the threshold value the pressure can be detected. Then the varying signal is given to the comparator
section to compare and then it is given to the opto-coupler stage and then to relay and finally to
driver and relay.
PARALLEL PORT AND MONITOR:The low signals from the relay are given to the parallel port. The parallel port is used to
connect between our hardware circuit and the computer. In monitor using any of the software we
display the temperature values, pressure values and can view the persons entering in the zone. The
monitor is kept in the control room for the display purpose.
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CHAPTER 3
HARDWARE DESCRIPTION
3.1 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

IC1
7812
IC1
780
5
D
1
1
230A
C
+12V
9
V
C
1
C
2
C
3
+5V
C
4
D
2
1
X DIAGRAM OF +5V & +12V FULL WAVE REGULATED POWER

CIRCUIT
1
The circuit needs two different voltages, +5V & +12V, to work. These dual voltages are
supplied by this specially designed power supply. The power supply, unsung hero of every electronic
circuit, plays very important role in smooth running of the connected circuit. The main object of this
power supply is, as the name itself implies, to deliver the required amount of stabilized and pure
power to the circuit. Every typical power supply contains the following sections:
1.Step-down Transformer: The conventional supply, which is generally available to the user, is 230V
AC. It is necessary to step down the mains supply to the desired level. This is achieved by using
suitably rated step-down transformer. While designing the power supply, it is necessary to go for
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little higher rating transformer than the required one. The reason for this is, for proper working of the
regulator IC (say KIA 7805) it needs at least 2.5V more than the expected output voltage
2. Rectifier stage: Then the step-downed Alternating Current is converted into Direct Current. This
rectification is achieved by using passive components such as diodes. If the power supply is
designed for low voltage/current drawing loads/circuits (say +5V), it is sufficient to employ fullwave rectifier with centre-tap transformer as a power source. While choosing the diodes the PIV
rating is taken into consideration.
3. Filter stage: But this rectified output contains some percentage of superimposed a.c. ripples. So
to filter these a.c. components filter stage is built around the rectifier stage. The cheap, reliable,
simple and effective filtering for low current drawing loads (say upto 50 mA) is done by using shunt
capacitors. This electrolytic capacitor has polarities, take care while connecting the circuit.
4. Voltage Regulation: The filtered d.c. output is not stable. It varies in accordance with the
fluctuations in mains supply or varying load current. This variation of load current is observed due to
voltage drop in transformer windings, rectifier and filter circuit. These variations in d.c. output
voltage may cause inaccurate or erratic operation or even malfunctioning of many electronic circuits.
For example, the circuit boards which are implanted by CMOS or TTL ICs.
KIA
78xx
Series
1 2
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The stabilization of d.c. output is achieved by using the three terminal voltage regulator IC.
This regulator IC comes in two flavors: 78xx for positive voltage output and 79xx for negative
voltage output. For example 7805 gives +5V output and 7905 gives -5V stabilized output. These
regulator ICs have in-built short-circuit protection and auto-thermal cutout provisions. If the load
current is very high the IC needs heat sink to dissipate the internally generated power.
Circuit Description:
A d.c. power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective of a.c. mains
fluctuations or load variations is known as regulated d.c. power supply. It is also referred as fullwave regulated power supply as it uses four diodes in bridge fashion with the transformer. This
laboratory power supply offers excellent line and load regulation and output voltages of +5V & +12
V at output currents up to one amp.
1. Step-down Transformer: The transformer rating is 230V AC at Primary and 12-0-12V,

1Ampers across secondary winding. This transformer has a capability to deliver a current of
1Ampere, which is more than enough to drive any electronic circuit or varying load. The 12VAC
appearing across the secondary is the RMS value of the waveform and the peak value would be 12 x
1.414 = 16.8 volts. This value limits our choice of rectifier diode as 1N4007, which is having PIV
rating more than 16Volts.
2. Rectifier Stage: The two diodes D1 & D2 are connected across the secondary winding of the
transformer as a full-wave rectifier. During the positive half-cycle of secondary voltage, the end A of
the secondary winding becomes positive and end B negative. This makes the diode D1 forward
biased and diode D2 reverse biased. Therefore diode D1 conducts while diode D2 does not. During
the negative half-cycle, end A of the secondary winding becomes negative and end B positive.
Therefore diode D2 conducts while diode D1 does not. Note that current across the centre tap
terminal is in the same direction for both half-cycles of input a.c. voltage. Therefore, pulsating d.c. is
obtained at point C with respect to Ground.
3. Filter Stage: Here Capacitor C1 is used for filtering purpose and connected across the rectifier
output. It filters the a.c. components present in the rectified d.c. and gives steady d.c. voltage. As the
rectifier voltage increases, it charges the capacitor and also supplies current to the load. When
capacitor is charged to the peak value of the rectifier voltage, rectifier voltage starts to decrease. As
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the next voltage peak immediately recharges the capacitor, the discharge period is of very small
duration. Due to this continuous charge-discharge-recharge cycle very little ripple is observed in the
filtered output. Moreover, output voltage is higher as it remains substantially near the peak value of
rectifier output voltage. This phenomenon is also explained in other form as: the shunt capacitor
offers a low reactance path to the a.c. components of current and open circuit to d.c. component.
During positive half cycle the capacitor stores energy in the form of electrostatic field. During
negative half cycle, the filter capacitor releases stored energy to the load.
4. Voltage Regulation Stage: Across the point D and Ground there is rectified and filtered d.c. In
the present circuit KIA 7812 three terminal voltage regulator IC is used to get +12V and KIA 7805
voltage regulator IC is used to get +5V regulated d.c. output. In the three terminals, pin 1 is input
i.e., rectified & filtered d.c. is connected to this pin. Pin 2 is common pin and is grounded. The pin 3
gives the stabilized d.c. output to the load. The circuit shows two more decoupling capacitors C2 &
C3, which provides ground path to the high frequency noise signals. Across the point E and F
with respect to ground +5V & +12V stabilized or regulated d.c output is measured, which can be
connected to the required circuit.
Note: While connecting the diodes and electrolytic capacitors the polarities must be taken into
consideration. The transformers primary winding deals with 230V mains, care should be taken with
it.
3.2 IR TRANS-RECEIVER MODULE

These IR Transmitter and two IR Receivers are fitted on front side of vehicle and are continuously
switched ON for obstacle detection purpose.
3.2.1 IR TRANSMITTER
The circuit components are explained as:
IR LED: The IR LED or Infra Red Light Emitting Diode is an electronic device which gives off or
emits light when current is passed through it. Like general diode, this IR LED passes current only in
one direction and requires forward operation voltage of about 2V and forward operation current in
10 to 20 mA range. Maximum reverse voltage that the IR LED can withstand is typically 3 to 5V,
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more than this could damage the component. It does not have any current control function, so, when
the IR LED is used in a circuit, a resistor must be used in series to limit the current flow through it. If
greater range is required, this resistor may be reduced to a minimum value with a consequent
adverse effect on current consumption. Do not reduce the value of resistor unless you do require the
greater range, otherwise the relay may not trip reliably close in due to reflections caused by the high
light output. For a good range, the current through the LEDs must be large. Since, however, currents,
the pulses must be short, and this is why PDM is used (In this type of modulation, the time of
occurrence of the first and last transition edge, is varied from its unmodulated position).
When the IR LED is used in an application such as the remote controlling transmitter, where the
battery is the main source of current, providing continuous high current to keep the IR LED ON will
consume too much of power. So when the power is applied to the IR LED, the supply is provided as
pulses. If the pulse repetition frequency is rapid enough (more than 50 Hz) then to the receiver eye
the IR LED will appear as continuously ON. For example, instead of supplying 25 mA current
continuously, one can provided 50 mA current as pulse to get brighter light output with the same
power consumption.
The Infrared diode used is of plastic pack and is similar in appearance to the familiar Red
LED, except that the plastic encapsulation is deep violet colour.
As stated earlier, the IR Remote Controlling system consists of a set of an IR transmitter and an IR
receiver. Whenever the IR transmitter is activated, it generates a invisible Infra-red light beam signal
and transmits an it towards the IR receiver. The transmitters and receivers are positioned facing each
other.
The source of light in the transmitter is an Infrared LED and rather than merely providing a
continuous source of light, it is flashed on and off at about 10Khz.This is done so that the receiver
can selectively amplify the signal from the transmitter and completely reject ambient light.
The information is passed from the IR Transmitter and Receiver in the form of combinational
digital pulse signals. These pulses are transmitted to the receiver by modulating a carrier frequency
using Pulse Code Modulation [PCM] method. That means it uses pulse-duration (pulse-width)
modulation. The modulated signal is produced in the traditional manner of having the audio signal
set against a pure high-frequency triangular signal generator can be found on 55. If another generator
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is used, make sure that its off-set is equal to half the supply voltage of 5 V and its peak value is 2.5
Vpp.
3.2.2 PCM IR TRANSMITTER IC
PCM IR Transmitter IC:

This 20 pin DIL packaged IC has integrated all the necessary stages to transmit the IR pulse
beams to the receiver. As the pin-out diagram of the IC shows, pin-20 is supply pin and pin-18 is
ground pin. Since the IC has in-built Oscillator circuit, whose frequency can be adjusted between
445 K Hz and 510 K Hz, it needs outer components to oscillate with transmitter circuit needs. SO to
get the calculated frequency range, specific value crystal and capacitors are connected to the pin-2
[OSC IN] and output is taken on pin-3 [OSC OUT]. This frequency is used by the IC as a reference
frequency to oscillate. The pin-19 is the out pin, which is fed to the transmitter circuit.
The IC can be used in two modes: Flash Mode, where pin-1 [Transmission Mode pin] is
connected with Supply pin and the average current consumption is 6.5 mA; Carrier Mode, where
pin-1 is connected to ground and average current consumption is around 13 mA.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF IR TRANSMITTER
R1
20
S1
+Vcc
Infra-Red
LEDs
1
R2
T1
19
IC1
C1
T2
15
18
Signal
Diodes
R3
C2
2
X1
3
C3
Circuit Description
The Infra Red Transmitter is made very simple by employing the dedicated & commercially
available IC1. Here the IC1 is used in flash mode by connecting Transmission Mode Pin 1 to +Vcc,
and thus reduces average current consumption to 6.5 mA. In this mode minimum and maximum
transmission times are 2.1 milliseconds and 3.6 milliseconds respectively and the duty cycle is 0.7%.
Since the Circuit is intended to send only one signal code, IC1 is configured for address one
[refer the table in IC description] by making all the Address Input pins, Code pins to zero or ground.
As soon the switch S1 is switched ON, the circuit gets its working voltage of 9 Volts through pin-20.
Inside the IC, it creates the address 1 as a command code and sent to the output pin-19.
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This command signal output from the IC1 is given through a resistor R1 to the base of the
Transistor T1. The output from this transistor T1 is fed to the base of another Transistor T2. These
two transistors amplify the command signal to the sufficient level and then drive the IR LEDs. The
Collector of both the transistors is connected to the pair of Infra Red LEDs. When the transistor T2
goes to saturation region, that means starts conducting, the current will flow through the two series
IR LEDs. Thus they illuminate for that period and gets off. This process continues as per the switch
S1 is pushed ON and the pulses will be sent through IR LEDs continues. Thus the command signal
is transmitted to IR receiver successfully.
3.2.3 IR Receiver
The packets of infra-red light transmitted from the IR Transmitter of the user remote
control are received on a sensor module which is sensitive to infra-red light. Next, the signal is
converted back into electrical pulses by a 36 KHz receiver and an associated detector. And that
electrical pulse is fed to driver circuit, which in result supply trigger pulse to Schmitt Trigger circuit.
The circuit components are explained as:
IR Receiver eye
An IR Receiver Eye is a module, which is encapsulated with Photo Transistor whose semiconductor
junction is mounted beneath an optical lens. It is normally used in its open base configuration and act
as a light-to-voltage converter. The base is open; the value of the reverse current across collector and
emitter will depend on the amount of illumination on the base face. In dark conditions it is near zero
and under bright light it is tens or hundreds of mA.
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Circuit Description
Power Supply
Section
D
1
23
0
V
A
C
IR Receiver
Section
I IC1 O
3 U
N 1
2
T
C
4
R
1
D
2
X
1
Driver
Section
R
L
1 N/
C
D
3
V
c
1
c
3
1
C
1
C
5
Infra
Red
SENS
OR
MOD3
ULE
C
2
C
3
R
2
To Trains
N/
Engine
OMotor
2
R
5
IC2
8
T
1
G
N
D
R
3
C
6
T
2
R
4
R
6
D
1
G
n
d
This circuit activates the relay whenever there is a presence of Infra Red Rays. The working
principle of this module is very simple:
Power Supply
The mains voltage is step-down to 6V using a transformer. This secondary 6V is rectified
using full-wave rectifier, which is composed by D1 & D2 diodes. This is further filtered using
electrolytic capacitor C2 and fed to regulator IC1. This three-terminal IC stabilizes the input and
gives out the constant +5V as working voltage for the circuit.
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IR Receiver
The IR Sensor Module has 3 terminals: signal input, supply pin and the ground pin. This
module works on regulated +5Votls, and exceeding this limit may cause the damage of it. So, this
Sensor is given Vcc through a biasing resistor R1 and grounded pin is given to negative terminal of
the supply. Whenever the Infra Red rays falls on this Sensors eye [that black mole on Sensor] it
produces varying signal voltages at output pin. This is given to amplifier stage built by an PNP
transistor TR1 through an current limiting resistor R2. The output of this amplifier is fed to a buffer
situated in IC2. This buffer or converter enhances the current capacity of the signal and send to
driver stage. The signal output is monitored by observing the glowing indicator LED D4.
Driver & Circuit Breaker:
The driver is built around TR1 and a low-impedance relay. The signal diode D3 is there to
prevent the back e.m.f produced by the switching action of the relay. When user does not press any
key, the receiver does not receive any IR rays from the opposite end, and hence No signals to TR2
base.
As this E-Power Supply units Receiver senses interrupt of IR Rays from the opposite IR
Transmitter, it alerts driver section. The IR signal from the buffer enters the base of TR2, it
undergoes saturation and activates the relay RL1. Since, relay RL1s N/O [Normally Open] pins are
connected to Schmitt Trigger Circuit.
Note: The circuit is fully stabilized from the false triggering and other interferences. This is
achieved by using capacitors at proper places. As this is an Unlatch Circuit the relay actuates only
when the IR beams are present at the eye of the sensor module. And releases the switching assoon-as there are no IR radiations.
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3.3 DR-25 TEMPERATURE SENSOR

DR-25 heat-shrinkable tubing is flexible and abrasion resistant. It is made from a radiation
cross-linked elastomeric material specially formulated for optimum high temperature fluid
resistance, and long term heat resistance. The operating temperature of DR-25 tubing is from -75C
to +150C for long periods. Shrinking to 50% of its supplied diameter when heated, 10 standard
sizes of DR-25 tubing will cover the diameter range from 1.6 mm to 70 mm.
DR-25 tubing is suitable as a jacketing material for military vehicle cables and harnesses.
When used in conjunction with System-25 heat-shrinkable moulded shapes and S1125 high
performance adhesive, these products provide a complete cable harness system capability.
DR-25 temperature sensor acts as a negative temperature co-efficient, as the temperature

increases the resistance reduces. The equivalent temperature is taken into the comparator section and
compared with the threshold value.
The DR-25 flexible fluid resistant elastomeric tubing,
developed from DR-25, is a thin wall version ideal for use where space and weight saving are
important. It also offers excellent resistance to fluids at high temperature and to long-term heat
exposure. It has a shrink ratio of 2:1 and can withstand high temperature.
The figure above shows the neat picture of DR-25 temperature sensor. This has a minimum
full recovery temperature of +175C. Its weight is 7 gram per meter. It has a spool quantity of 50
meter. After heating it recovers up to 1.6m in diameter.
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3.4 Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a three-terminal resistor with a sliding contact that forms an adjustable
voltage divider. If only two terminals are used (one side and the wiper), it acts as a variable resistor
or rheostat. Potentiometers are commonly used to control electrical devices such as volume controls
on audio equipment. Potentiometers operated by a mechanism can be used as position transducers,
for example, in a joystick.
Potentiometers are rarely used to directly control significant power, since the power
dissipated in the potentiometer would be comparable to the power in the controlled load. Instead
they are used to adjust the level of analog signals (e.g. volume controls on audio equipment), and as
control inputs for electronic circuits. For example, a light dimmer uses a potentiometer to control the
switching of a TRIAC and so indirectly control the brightness of lamps.
Fig. Potentiometer
3.4.1 Theory of operation

The potentiometer can be used as a voltage divider to obtain a manually adjustable output
voltage at the slider (wiper) from a fixed input voltage applied across the two ends of the
potentiometer. This is the most common use of them.
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The
voltage across RL can be calculated by:
If RL is large compared to the other resistances (like the input to an operational amplifier),
the output voltage can be approximated by the simpler equation:
Potentiometer applications
Potentiometers are widely used as user controls, and may control a very wide variety of
equipment functions. The widespread use of potentiometers in consumer electronics has declined in
the 1990s, with digital controls now more common. However they remain in many applications,
such as volume controls and as position sensors
One of the most common uses for modern low-power potentiometers is as audio control
devices. Both linear potentiometers and rotary potentiometers are regularly used to adjust loudness,
frequency attenuation and other characteristics of audio signals.
The 'log pot' is used as the volume control in audio amplifiers, where it is also called an
"audio taper pot", because the amplitude response of the human ear is also logarithmic. It ensures
that, on a volume control marked 0 to 10, for example, a setting of 5 sounds half as loud as a setting
of 10. There is also an anti-log pot or reverse audio taper which is simply the reverse of a
logarithmic potentiometer. It is almost always used in a ganged configuration with a logarithmic
potentiometer, for instance, in an audio balance control. Potentiometers used in combination with
filter networks act as tone controls or equalizers.
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3.5 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
COMPARATO
R STAGE
R
1
R
5
R
2
OPTOCOU
PLER
R
3
4
6
D
1
R
7
A
1
27
R
8
TEMP
/LDR
SENS
OR
P
1
P
2
1
2
R
4
R
6
R
1
1
1
3
R
1
2
I
C
2
A
2
A
1
A
3
A
A
22
1
1
5
R
9
I
C
4
DRIVER
STAGE
D
2
L
E
D
R14
R100
1
5
D
3
D
6
D
5
R
1
0
T
2
R
1
6
1
4
A1 TO A3
= IC1
R17
R100
1
8
I
C
3
D
4
L
E
D
R
R2
21
0
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R
1
3
R
L
A
L
TO
1W
RL
B
ME
DIU
T M
3
T
4
R
1
9
R
L
C
HI
T G
5 H
T
6
Page 19
Operational Amplifier
Designed originally for analogue computer and control applications, the operational amplifier
has found its way into almost every field of electronics. Todays Integrated Circuit Op-Amps offer
many advantages over their discrete component predecessors. Circuit design is greatly simplified
with the added bonus that the characteristics of the latest generation of Op-Amps, far exceed those of
their predecessors.
An Op-amp is a direct coupled high gain amplifier, usually consisting of one or more
differential amplifiers and usually followed by a level translator and an output stage. Output stage is
generally a push-pull or push-pull complementary symmetry pair. An Op-amp is available as single
IC package. The maximum common mode voltage that can be applied to an Op-amp without
disturbing its proper function is of the order +13 V or 13 V.
THE DESIRABLE CHARACTERISTICS OF OP-AMPS ARE:

a) The open-loop voltage gain should be very high (ideally infinity).
b) The input resistance should be very high (ideally infinity).
c) The output resistance should be very low (ideally zero).
d) Full power bandwidth should be as wide as possible.
e) Slew rate should be as large as possible.
f) Input offset should be as small as possible.
g) CMRR should be as large as possible.
ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS OF OP-AMP:

1. I/p off-set voltage (Vio) :
It is the voltage that must be applied between the two input terminals of an op-amp to verify
the output to be null.
2. I/p off-set current (Iio):

The algebraic difference between the current into the inverting and non inverting terminal
is reffered as input Off-set current.
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3.I/p Bias current:

It is the average of the current that flow into inverting and non-inverting input terminalsof the
Op-amp.In the equation form:
IB= (IB1+IB2) / 2
4. Differential I/p resistance:
It is the equivalent resistance that can be measured at either terminal connected to group.
5. I/p capacitance:
It is the equivalent capacitance that can be measured at either the inverting or non-inverting
input terminal with the either terminal connected to ground .
6.CMRR (Common Mode Rejection Ratio ):
The CMRR is defined as the ratio of differential voltage gain Ad to the common voltage
gain Acm
CMRR = Ad / Acm .
The higher the value of CMRR ,better is the matching between two input terminals and
smaller is the output common mode voltage .
7. SVRR (Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio ):
The change in OP-amps input OFF SET voltage Vio caused by variation in supply voltages
is called the SVRR . These are expressed in v / v or in dBs
SVRR = Vio / V .
Where ,Vio = input offset voltage & V= supply voltage
8. Input Voltage Range:
It is the maximum common mode voltage that can be applied to an Op-amp without
disturbing its proper function. It is of the order +13 V or 13 V
9. Large Signal Voltage Gain:
Since the OP-amp amplifies difference voltage between two input terminals, the voltage gain
of the amplifier is defined as,
A= o/p Voltage / Diff. i/p Voltage = Vo / Vid.
10. Gain Bandwidth Product:
It is the bandwidth of the Op-amps when the gain is unity.
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11 Slew Rate :
It is defined as max. rate of change of output voltage / unit of time and is expressed in volts / sec.
| V / sec
SR = dvo / dt |
| max.
POWER DRIVING CIRCUITS:
In many applications, a relay will require some form of interface to the circuit to which it is
connected. Often such an interface need consist of nothing more than a single transistor. Almost any
n-p-n transistor with a current gain of 50 or more can be used in the circuit. However, it is important
to ensure that it is operated within its maximum collector current (IC(max)) rating. The coil resistance
of relay and preferred transistors are as follows: 50 ohm to 200 ohm - T1P31 (or equivalent), 200
Ohm to 400 Ohm - BC142 (or equivalent), 400 Ohm to 1.2 K Ohm - BC108 (or equivalent). The
circuit requires an input current of about 0.5 mA when operated from a 5V source. In some
applications it may be desirable to increase the sensitivity of the circuit, in which case a Darlington
driver stage can be used. A Darlington driver based on two (discrete) n-p-n devices requires a
current of only a mere 40A at 5V in order to operate the relay. This circuit can be used with relays
having coil resistance as low as about 200 ohm and will also operate reliable with an input current of
as little as 40A.
OPTO-COUPLER IC MCT 2E:

Buffers does not affect the logical state of a digital signal (i.e. logic 1 input results into logic
1 output where as logic 0 input results into logic 0 output). Buffers are normally used to provide
extra current drive at the output are used in interfacing applications. This 6-pin DIL packaged IC
MCT 2E acts as Buffer as-well-as Isolator. The input signals may be of 2.5 to 5V digital TTL
compatible or DC analogue the IC gives 5V constant signal output. The IC acts as isolator and
provides isolation to the main circuit from varying input signals. The working voltage of IC is fed at
pin-5 and input to pin-1. The pin-2 is ground and pin-4 is output. Note that pin-3 and pin-6 are not
available pins, which must be left free. And the isolated circuit must have its own ground
connection.
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The Opto-coupler IC has a photo diode which illuminates whenever input signal appears at
pin-1. A photo transistor, whose Base-lead open, receives the signal from the blinking photo diode
and passes it intact to the output pin-4. As this switching action is very fast, in term of micro
seconds, the signal transfer is successfully done without any delay and signal loss. As there is any
physical contact between photo diode and photo transistor is observed, it is used for isolating two
sections of the circuit. Especially the delicate digital circuits or signal sensitive stages whose output
is supposed to drive a fluctuating stage or mains operated load.
Since the digital outputs of the some circuits cannot sink much current, they are not capable
of driving relays directly. So, high-voltage high-current Darlington arrays are added to this optocoupler IC for interfacing low-level logic circuitry and peripheral power loads. Typical loads include
relays, solenoids, stepping motors, magnetic print hammers, multiplexed LED and incandescent
displays, and heaters.
MCT2E OPTOCOUPLER
INPUT 1
N/C
GND 2
Vcc
N/C
4 OUTPUT
Circuit Description:
COMPARATOR STAGE:
When there is a variation in the temp/illumination in the thermistor or ldr, it measures
impedance of the sensor smartly and decides which gate to open. The circuit diagram shows that
three operational amplifiers compare the drop across the test leads to a fixed voltage and indicate
which of the two is highest by switching their output to the positive supply level or ground [see the
accompanying table].
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3.6 RADIO FREQUENCY OPERATION

Radio must surely be one of the most fascinating aspects of electronics. This part of
explanation provides a brief introduction to radio communication before describing the circuitry of
RF receivers and transmitters. The aim has been to provide the user with sufficient information to
what his or her appetite for a subject which has a broad appeal to a large number of dedicated
enthusiasts all over the world
Fig ( A) The Radio Frequency Spectrum
Frequency
3 GHz
Ultra high frequency, UHF
30 MHz
Very high frequency, VHF
30 MHz
High frequency, HF
3
M
Hz
Medium frequency, MF
300 KHz
Low frequency, LF
30 KHz
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Wavelength
10 cm
TV bands 1V/V
1m
FM broadcasting
10 m
SW broadcasting
100 m
MW broadcasting
1 Km
LW broadcasting
10 Km
Page 24
3.6.1 Radio Frequency Signals:

Radio frequency signals are generally understood to occupy a frequency range, which
extends from a few tens of kilohertz to several hundred giga-hertz. The lowest part of radio
frequency range, which is of practical use (below 30 kHz), is only suitable for narrow-band
communications. At this frequency, signals propagate as ground waves (following the curvature of
the earth) over very long distance. At the other extreme, the highest frequency range, which is of
practical importance, extends above 30GHz. At these microwave frequencies, considerable
bandwidths are available (sufficient to transmit many television channel using point-to-point links or
to permit very high definition radar systems) and signals tend to propagate strictly along line-ofsight paths.
At other frequencies, signals may propagate by various means, including reflection from
ionized layers in the ionosphere. At frequencies between 3MHz and 30MHz, for example,
ionospheric propagation regularly permits intercontinental broadcasting and communications using
simple equipment within the scope of the enthusiastic radio amateur and short-wave listener.
For convenience, the radio frequency spectrum is divided into a number of bands, each
spanning a decade of frequency. The use to which each frequency range is put depends upon a
number of factors, paramount amongst which is the propagation characteristic within the band
concerned. Other factors, which need to be taken into account, include the efficiency of practical
aerial system in the range concerned and the bandwidth available. It is also worth noting that,
although it may appear from Figure A that a great deal of the radio frequency spectrum is not used, it
should be stressed that competition for frequency space is fierce. Frequency allocations are,
therefore, ratified by international agreement and the various user services carefully safeguard their
own areas of the spectrum.
Frequency and wavelength
Radio waves propagate in air (or space) at the speed of light (300 million meters per second).
The velocity of propagation[v], wavelength[] and frequency [f] of a radio wave are related by the
equation:
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V = f = 3 X 108 m/s
This equation can be arranged to make f or the subject, as follows:
F = 3 X 108/ Hz and = 3 X 108 / fm
As an example, a signal at a frequency of 1 MHz will have a wavelength of 300 m whereas a signal
at a frequency of 10 MHz will have a wavelength of 30m.
Modulation
In order to convey information using a radio frequency carrier, the signal information must
be superimposed or modulated onto the carrier. Modulation is the name given to the process of
changing a particular property of the carrier wave in sympathy with the instantaneous voltage (or
current) signal.
The most commonly used methods of modulation are amplitude modulation (AM) and
frequency modulation (FM). In the former case, the carrier amplitude (its peak voltage) varies
according to the voltage, at any instant, of the modulating signal. In the latter case, the carrier
frequency is varied in accordance with the voltage, at any instant, of the modulating signal.
Figure B shows the effect of amplitude and frequency modulating a sinusoidal carrier (note
that the modulating signal is, in the case, also sinusoidal). In practice, many more cycles of the radio
frequency carrier would occur in the time span of the cycle of the modulating signal.
The term angle modulation is the generic term encompassing both frequency modulation
and phase modulation. Frequency modulation involves operating directly upon the frequency
determining elements of an oscillator stage (e.g. by means of a variable capacitance diode placed
across the oscillator-tuned circuit or connected in series with a quartz crystal).
Phase modulation, on the other hand, acts indirectly by changing the phase of the signal in a
subsequent stage (e.g. by means of a variable capacitance diode acting in a phase shifting circuit).
DEPT OF E&C, APSCE
Page 26
Amplitude & Frequency Modulation
If the modulating signal (audio) is correctly tailored

prior to its application to the phase modulated stage,
the end result is identical to that of frequency
modulation. The reason for this is that, in a true FM
system, the deviation produced is the same for all
modulating signals of equal amplitude (i.e. the
amount frequency deviation is independent of the
frequency of the modulating signal).
In a phase-
modulated system, on other hand, the amount of

frequency
deviation
is
proportional
to
both
modulating signal amplitude and modulating signal

frequency. Thus in a phase modulated system without
audio tailoring, a modulation signal of 2 kHz will
produce twice as much frequency deviation as an
equal amplitude modulating signal of 1 kHz. The
desired audio response required to produce FM, therefore, is one, which rolls off the frequency
response by half for each doubling of frequency (equivalent to 6-dB per octave roll-off). This can be
easily achieved using a simple R-C low-pass filter.
Demodulation
Demodulation is the reverse of modulation and is the means by which the signal information
is recovered from the modulated carrier. Demodulation is achieved by means of a demodulator
consists of a reconstructed version of the original signal information present at the input of the
modulator stage within the transmitter.
Figure C shows the simplified block schematic of a simple radio communication system
comprising on AM transmitter and a tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver. Within the transmitter,
the carrier wave (of constant frequency) is generated by means of a radio frequency oscillator stage.
In order to ensure that the carrier is both accurate and within in frequency, this stage would normally
employ a quartz crystal within its frequency generating circuitry.
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The output of the modulator (a modulated carrier) is amplified before outputting to the aerial
system. The output is usually carefully filtered to remove any spurious signals (harmonics) which
may be present and which may otherwise cause interference to other services.
At the receiver, the signal produced by the receiving aerial is a weak copy of the transmitted
signal (its level is usually measured in a V). Also present will be countless other signals at different
frequencies (and some with appreciably larger amplitude than the desired signal). These unwanted
signals must be rejected by the receivers radio frequency tuned circuits if they are no to cause
problems in later stages.
3.6.2 RF TRANSMITTER MODULE
The RF transmitter is built around the ASIC and common passive and active components,
which are very easy to obtain from the material shelf. The circuit works on Very High Frequency
band with wide covering range. The Carrier frequency is 147 MHz and Data frequencies are 17
MHz, 19 MHz,22 MHz & 25 MHz. It should be noted that ASIC or Application Specific Integrated
Circuit is proprietary product and data sheet or pin details or working principles are not readily
available to the user.
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ASIC:
Application Specific Integrated Circuit [ASIC] is another option for embedded hardware
developers. The ASIC needs to be custom-built for a specific application, so it is costly. If the
embedded system being designed is a consumer item and is likely to be sold in large quantities, then
going the ASIC route is the best option, as it considerably reduces the cost of each unit. In addition,
size and power consumption will also be reduced. As the chip count (the number of chips on the
system) decreases, reliability increases.
If the embedded system is for the mass market, such as those used in CD players, toys, and
mobile devices, cost is a major consideration. Choosing the right processor, memory devices, and
peripherals to meet the functionality and performance requirements while keeping the cost
reasonable is of critical importance. In such cases, the designers will develop an Application Specific
Integrated Circuit or an Application Specific Microprocessor to reduce the hardware components
and hence the cost. Typically, a developer first creates a prototype by writing the software for a
general-purpose processor, and subsequently develops an ASIC to reduce the cost.
Oscillator:
An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequency is known as a
sinusoidal oscillator. Although we speak of an oscillator as generating a frequency, it should be
noted that it does not create energy, but merely acts as an energy converter. It receives d.c. energy
and changes it into a.c energy of desired frequency. The frequency of oscillations depends upon the
constants of the device.
A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any desired frequency is known as an oscillatory
circuit or tank circuit. A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor (C) and inductance coil (L)
in parallel. This electrical system can produce electrical oscillations of frequency determined by the
values of L and C. The sequence of charge and discharge results in alternating motion of electrons or
an oscillating current. The energy is alternately stored in the electric field of the capacitor and the
magnetic field of the inductance coil. This intercharge of energy between L and C is repeated over
and again resulting in the production of oscillations.
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In order to obtain continuous undamped a.c. output from the tank circuit, it is necessary to supply the
correct amount of power to the circuit. The most practical way to do this is to supply d.c. power to
some device which should convert it to necessary a.c. power for supply to the tank circuit. This can
be achieved by employing a transistor circuit. Because of its ability to amplify, a transistor is very
efficient energy converter i.e. it converts d.c. power to a.c. power. If the damped oscillations in the
tank circuit are applied to the base of transistor, it will result in an amplified reproduction of
oscillations in the collector circuit. Because of this amplification more energy is available in the
collector circuit than in the base circuit. If a part of this collector-circuit energy is feedback by some
means to the base circuit in proper phase to aid the oscillations in the tank circuit, then its losses will
be overcome and continuous undamped oscillations will occur.
Hartley Oscillator is very popular and is commonly used as a local oscillator in radio
receivers. It has two main advantages viz., adaptability to a wide range of frequencies and is easy to
tune.
The RF transmitter is built around the common passive and active components, which are
very is to obtain from the material shelf. The circuit works on Very High Frequency band with wide
covering range.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RF TRANSMITTER
L2
+Vc
c
L1
C5
C7
X
1
17 KHz
S1
C
6
C3
C4
C
7
19KHz
ASIC
S2
R
6
22 KHz
S3
R4
C1 R5
R3
330
K
T
1
25 KHz
R
1
S4
R
2
2
K
7
C
2
0
.
0
0
1
T2
Gnd
CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:
The ASIC Transmitter IC has four inputs and only one output pin. The four inputs are for the
frequency range of 17 KHz, 19 KHz, 22 KHz and 25 KHz and four switches are provided for each
range. When any one switch is selected, that frequency is added to the Transmitter circuit as data
frequency and transmitted in the air. The Crystal X1 with two coupling capacitor provides the
working oscillator frequency to the circuit. The Capacitors C6 and C7 are to stabilize the crystal
oscillator frequency.
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The ASIC output is added to the transmitter circuits oscillator transistor T1s base. The data
frequency is added with carrier frequency 147 MHz and aired for transmitting purpose. The
transistor T1 is heart of the Hartely Oscillator and oscillates at carrier frequency of 147 MHz along
with tuned circuit formed by coil L1 and capacitor C4. The Data frequency is fed to T1 on
base through resistors R4 and R5. Capacitors C1 and C3 and for stabilizing the tuned circuit along
with resistor R3.
To increase the range of the circuit, transmitting signals must be strong enough to travel the
long distance [i.e., upto 100 meters in this prototype]. So the generated signals are made strong by
amplifying to certain level with the help of Transistor T2 and associated circuit.
The Radio frequency thus generated is fed to pre-amplifier transistor T2 on base terminal.
The resistor R6 provides the bias voltage to T2 and capacitors C5 & C7 removes the noise and
harmonics present in the circuit. The antenna coil L2 transmits the radio frequency in the
3.6.3 RF RECEVER MODULE
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM OF RF RECEIVER

+Vc
c
R6
R
2
R
3
R
1
R7
C
1
C2
L
1
C
3
R8
T
3
T
4
ASIC
8
1
0
1
1
1
2
1
3
1
4
+Vc
c
T1
C
6
C
5
R4
T
2
C
7
R
L
1
R9
C
4
R5
R
L
2
R9
T
2
T
3
R8
T
4
RF RECEIVER
This circuit is built around the ASIC i.e., Application Specific Integrated Circuit, hence less
circuitry is observed. The Radio Frequency tuned circuit has 147 M Hz carrier frequency with four
options viz., 17Khz, 19Khz, 22KHz and 25KHz.
The transmitted signals are received on coil L1 which acts as receiver antenna. The oscillator
transistor removes the received signals from 147MHz carrier frequency and fed to ASIC. The tank
circuit formed by C1 and L1 gives the carrier frequency range. The current limiting resistor R1 and
bypass capacitor C5 stabilizes the oscillator. The resistor R2, R3 and R4 provide the biasing voltage
to the oscillator transistor T1. Capacitors C2 and C3 are there to bypass the noise and harmonics
present in the received signals. Through coupling capacitor C7 output of the RF Receiver is fed to
ASIC.
The ASIC manipulates the received signal and gives out four channels as output viz., 17
KHz, 19KHz, 22KHz and 25KHz. Each channel is amplified by pre-amplifier transistor T2 along
with bias resistor R9. The output of the pre-amplifier transistor is fed to relay driver stage to activate
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the respective relay ON. The Darlington pair T3 and T4 are arranged in driver stage to drive the low
impedance relay.
3.6.4 TELESCOPIC ANTENNA:A telescopic antenna is collapsible. It is a series of small diameter tubes of 6 to 8 inches in
length nested one inside the other. The antenna ca be extended to its full length or retracted to a
small length for storage of portability.
Radio antennas are optimally sized based upon wavelength of the frequency they are expected to
"see" . Even multiples of wave length are also used for antennas to minimize there length. i.e. ( 1/2
or 1/4 wavelength)
Antenna wave length (lambda) is base on the speed (c) that a radio signal travels which is about
3x10^8 m/s (300000000 m/s) divided by the frequency(f)
lambda=c/f
Frequencies in the hertz range would have wavelengths in the 1000's of kilometers range. So
any practical length antenna (2 or 3 feet in Length) would work just as well as a larger 5 to 10 foot
antenna as the wavelength is so large.
Fig. Telescopic Antenna

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3.6.5 Loop Antenna

A loop antenna is a radio antenna consisting of a loop (or loops) of wire, tubing, or other
electrical conductor with its ends connected to a balanced transmission line. Within this physical
description there are two very distinct antenna designs: the small loop with a size much smaller than
a wavelength, and the resonant loop antenna with a circumference approximately equal to the
wavelength.
Small loops have a poor efficiency and are mainly used as receiving antennas at low
frequencies. Except for car radios, almost every AM broadcast receiver sold has such an antenna
built inside of it or directly attached to it. These antennas are also used for radio direction finding.
Resonant loop antennas are less common. They are typically used at higher frequencies, especially
VHF and UHF, where their size is manageable. They can be viewed as a modification of the folded
dipole antenna and have somewhat similar characteristics. Although the loop may be in the shape of
a circle, distorting it into a somewhat different closed shape does not qualitatively alter its
characteristics in a resonant loop antenna the most important characteristic, resonant frequency, is
determined by the circumference of the loop. For a given loop area, the length of the conductor is
minimized in the case of a circle, making that shape optimum for small loops. Loop antenna use
coupling coils for inductive transmission systems including LF and HF RFID tags and readers.
Although these do use radio frequencies, and involve the use of small loops which may be physically
indistinguishable from the small loop antennas discussed here, such systems are not designed to
transmit radio waves. They are near field systems involving alternating magnetic fields only, and
may be analyzed as poorly coupled transformer windings; their performance criteria are dissimilar to
radio antennas as discussed here.
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3.7 MICRO CONTROLLER

The field parameters are monitored by this Microcontroller chip with the help of user written
program and generates alert message for LCD display and fault code for remote monitoring end
transmission. The Microcontroller Chip has input port for getting fault condition of field parameters
and Stop signal through RF Receiver and output port for sending fault code to DTMF Encoder and
switching Relay [MCB] for isolating power line from load.
3.7.1 INTRODUCTION OF MICRO-CONTROLLER
What is a microcontroller?
The general definition of a microcontroller is a single chip computer, which refers to the fact
that they contain all of the functional sections (CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O, ports and timers) of a
traditionally defined computer on a single integrated circuit. Some experts even describe them as
special purpose computers with several qualifying distinctions that separate them from other
computers.
Microcontrollers are "embedded" inside some other device (often a consumer product) so
that they can control the features or actions of the product. Another name for a microcontroller,
therefore, is "embedded controller."
Microcontrollers are dedicated to one task and run one specific program. The program is
stored in ROM (read-only memory) and generally does not change.
Microcontrollers are often low-power devices. A desktop computer is almost always plugged
into a wall socket and might consume 50 watts of electricity. A battery-operated microcontroller
might consume 50 mill watts.
A microcontroller has a dedicated input device and often (but not always) has a small LED or
LCD display for output. A microcontroller also takes input from the device it is controlling and
controls the device by sending signals to different components in the device.
A microcontroller is often small and low cost. The components are chosen to minimize size
and to be as inexpensive as possible.
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A microcontroller is often, but not always, ruggedized in some way. The microcontroller
controlling a car's engine, for example, has to work in temperature extremes that a normal computer
generally cannot handle. A car's microcontroller in Kashmir regions has to work fine in -30 degree F
(-34 C) weather, while the same microcontroller in Gujarat region might be operating at 120
degrees F (49 C). When you add the heat naturally generated by the engine, the temperature can go
as high as 150 or 180 degrees F (65-80 C) in the engine compartment. On the other hand, a
microcontroller embedded inside a VCR hasn't been ruggedized at all.
Clearly, the distinction between a computer and a microcontroller is sometimes blurred.
Applying these guidelines will, in most cases, clarify the role of a particular device.
Why are they so popular?
The programmability of modern desktop PCs makes them extraordinarily versatile. The
functionality of the entire machine can be altered by merely changing its programming.
Microcontrollers share this attribute with their desktop relatives. The chips are manufactured with
powerful capabilities and the end user determines exactly how the device will function. Often, this
makes a dramatic difference in the cost and complexity of a particular design. The true impact of this
statement is best illustrated by example.
For every clock pulse, the circuit produces one of the three bit numbers in the sequence 000,
100, 111, 010, 011. This design has been implemented with three flip-flops and seven discrete gates
as well as a significant amount of wiring.
The design of this system can be quite laborious. One must begin with a state graph followed
by a state table. Then, the flip-flop T input equations must be derived from a set of Karnaugh maps.
Next, the t input equations must be transformed into the actual T input network. All of this circuitry
must then be wired together; a task that's time consuming and sometimes error prone. On the other
hand, this can be accomplished with a simpler, less costly microcontroller design. Notice the
dramatic difference in the amount of hardware and wiring. This simple circuit, along with about a
dozen lines of code, will perform the same task as the first circuit. There are other benefits as well.
The microcontroller implementation does not have to contend with the undetermined states that
sometimes occur with discrete designs. Also consider for a moment what would be required to
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change the sequence of numbers in the first circuit. What if the output needs to be changed
to eight bits instead of three? These are trivial modifications for the microcontroller while the
discrete circuit would require a complete redesign.
The example above is not an obscure case. The effects of this device are being felt in almost
every facet of digital design. A sure method of determining the popularity of an electronic device is
to note when they attain widespread use by hobbyists. It therefore becomes essential that the
electronics engineer or hobbyist learn to program these microcontrollers to maintain a level of
competence and to gain the advantages microcontrollers provide in his or her own circuit designs.
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CIRCUIT DIAGRAM [MOTHER BOARD] OF 89C51
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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
The mother board of 89C51 has following sections: Power Supply, 89C51 IC, Oscillator,
Reset Switch & I/O ports. Let us see these sections in detail.
POWER SUPPLY:
This section provides the clean and harmonic free power to IC to function properly. The
output of the full wave rectifier section, which is built using two rectifier diodes, is given to filter
capacitor. The electrolytic capacitor C1 filters the pulsating dc into pure dc and given to Vin pin-1 of
regulator IC 7805.This three terminal IC regulates the rectified pulsating dc to constant +5 volts. C2
& C3 provides ground path to harmonic signals present in the inputted voltage. The Vout pin-3 gives
constant, regulated and spikes free +5 volts to the mother board.
The allocation of the pins of the 89C51 follows a U-shape distribution. The top left hand
corner is Pin 1 and down to bottom left hand corner is Pin 20. And the bottom right hand corner is
Pin 21 and up to the top right hand corner is Pin 40. The Supply Voltage pin Vcc is 40 and ground
pin Vss is 20.
OSCILLATOR:
If the CPU is the brain of the system then the oscillator, or clock, is the heartbeat. It provides
the critical timing functions for the rest of the chip. The greatest timing accuracy is achieved with a
crystal or ceramic resonator. For crystals of 2.0 to 12.0 MHz, the recommended capacitor values
should be in the range of 15 to 33pf2.
Across the oscillator input pins 18 & 19 a crystal x1 of 4.7 MHz to 20 MHz value can be connected.
The two ceramic disc type capacitors of value 30pF are connected across crystal and ground,
stabilizes the oscillation frequency generated by crystal.
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I/O PORTS:
There are a total of 32 i/o pins available on this chip. The amazing part about these ports is
that they can be programmed to be either input or output ports, even "on the fly" during operation!
Each pin can source 20 mA (max) so it can directly drive an LED. They can also sink a maximum
of 25 Ma current.
Some pins for these I/O ports are multiplexed with an alternate function for the peripheral features
on the device. In general, when a peripheral is enabled, that pin may not be used as a general purpose
I/O pin. The alternate function of each pin is not discussed here, as port accessing circuit takes care
of that.
This 89C51 IC has four I/O ports and is discussed in detail:
P0.0 TO P0.7
PORT0 is an 8-bit [pins 32 to 39] open drain bi-directional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can
sink eight TTL inputs and configured to be multiplexed low order address/data bus then has internal
pull ups. External pull ups are required during program verification.
P1.0 TO P1.7
PORT1 is an 8-bit wide [pins 1 to 8], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. P1.0 and P1.1 can be
configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input and the timer/counter 2 trigger input
respectively.
P2.0 TO P2.7
PORT2 is an 8-bit wide [pins 21 to 28], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. The PORT2 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. It receives the high-order address bits and some control
signals during Flash programming and verification.
P3.0 TO P3.7
PORT3 is an 8-bit wide [pins 10 to 17], bi-directional port with internal pull ups. The Port3 output
buffers can sink/source four TTL inputs. It also receives some control signals for Flash programming
and verification.
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PSEN Program Store Enable [Pin 29] is the read strobe to external program memory. ALE Address
Latch Enable [Pin 30] is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during accesses to
external memory.
EA External Access Enable [Pin 31] must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch
code from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH.
RSTReset input [Pin 9] must be made high for two machine cycles to resets the devices oscillator.
The potential difference is created using 10MFD/63V electrolytic capacitor and 20K Ohm resistor
with a reset switch.
3.8 LCD MODULE

LCDs can add a lot to any application in terms of providing an useful interface for the user,
debugging an application or just giving it a "professional" look. The most common type of LCD
controller is the Hitatchi 44780 which provides a relatively simple interface between a processor and
an LCD. Using this interface is often not attempted by inexperienced designers and programmers
because it is difficult to find good documentation on the interface, initializing the interface can be a
problem and the displays themselves are expensive.
The most common connector used for the 44780 based LCDs is 14 pins in a row, with pin
centers 0.100" apart. The pins are wired as:
LCD DATA WRITE WAVEFORM
DATA
R/_S
R/_W
E
450 nSec
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Pins Description
1
Ground
Vcc
Contrast Voltage
"R/S" _Instruction/Register Select
"R/W" _Read/Write LCD Registers
"E" Clock
7 - Data I/O Pins

14
The interface is a parallel bus, allowing simple and fast reading/writing of data to and from
the LCD.
The LCD Data Write Waveform will write an ASCII Byte out to the LCD's screen. The
ASCII code to be displayed is eight bits long and is sent to the LCD either four or eight bits at a
time. If four bit mode is used, two "nibbles" of data (Sent high four bits and then low four bits with
an "E" Clock pulse with each nibble) are sent to make up a full eight bit transfer. The "E" Clock is
used to initiate the data transfer within the LCD.
Sending parallel data as either four or eight bits are the two primary modes of operation.
While there are secondary considerations and modes, deciding how to send the data to the LCD is
most critical decision to be made for an LCD interface application.
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The different instructions available for use with the 44780 are shown in the table below:
R/S R/W D7 D6 D5 D4
D3 D2 D1 D0 Instruction/Description
14
13
12
11
10
Pins
Clear Display
Return Cursor and LCD to Home Position
ID
Set Cursor Move Direction
Enable Display/Cursor
SC RL *
Move Cursor/Shift Display
DL N
Set Interface Length
Move Cursor into CGRAM
Move Cursor to Display
BF *
Poll the "Busy Flag"
Write a Character to the Display at the

Current Cursor Position
Read the Character on the Display at the
Current Cursor Position
The bit descriptions for the different commands are: "*" - Not Used/Ignored. This bit can be either
"1" or "0"
Most LCD displays have a 44780 and support chip to control the operation of the LCD. The
44780 is responsible for the external interface and provides sufficient control lines for sixteen
characters on the LCD. The support chip enhances the I/O of the 44780 to support up to 128
characters on an LCD. From the table above, it should be noted that the first two entries ("8x1",
"16x1") only have the 44780 and not the support chip. This is why the ninth character in the 16x1
does not "appear" at address 8 and shows up at the address that is common for a two line LCD.
The Character Set available in the 44780 is basically ASCII. It is "basically" because some
characters do not follow the ASCII convention fully (probably the most significant difference is
0x05B or "\" is not available). The ASCII Control Characters (0x008 to 0x01F) do not respond as
control characters and may display funny (Japanese) characters.
<<,,
The last aspect of the LCD to discuss is how to specify a contrast voltage to the Display.
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Shift Register LCD Data Write

Data
Processor
Data
Clock
S/R
0
0
E Clock
R6
D0
D1
Dn
E
LCD
+Vcc
Pin-3 Contrast
10K pot
LCD
LCD Contrast Circuit
Experts typically use a potentiometer wired as a voltage divider. This will provide an easily
variable voltage between Ground and Vcc, which will be used to specify the contrast (or "darkness")
of the characters on the LCD screen. You may find that different LCDs work differently with lower
voltages providing darker characters in some and higher voltages do the same thing in others.
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Liquid crystal panel service life 100,000 hours minimum at 25 oC -10 oC
sumption becomes three times higher than initial value
Safety
the liquid crystal
touches your skin or clothes, wash it off immediately using soap and plenty of water.
Handling
frame from the module.
Mounting and Design
placing transparent plates (e.g.

acrylic or glass) on the display surface, frame, and polarizing plate
-supply voltage is applied.
transparent electrodes may break.
Storage
o
C - 10 oC and the humidity below
65% RH.
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3.8.1 LCD BASIC

A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a thin, flat display device made up of any number of color
or monochrome pixels arrayed in front of a light source or reflector. Each pixel consists of a column
of liquid crystal molecules suspended between two transparent electrodes, and two polarizing filters,
the axes of polarity of which are perpendicular to each other. Without the liquid crystals between
them, light passing through one would be blocked by the other. The liquid crystal twists the
polarization of light entering one filter to allow it to pass through the other.
Many microcontroller devices use 'smart LCD' displays to output visual information. LCD
displays designed around Hitachi's LCD HD44780 module, are inexpensive, easy to use, and it is
even possible to produce a readout using the 8x80 pixels of the display. They have a standard ASCII
set of characters and mathematical symbols.
For an 8-bit data bus, the display requires a +5V supply plus 11 I/O lines. For a 4-bit data bus
it only requires the supply lines plus seven extra lines. When the LCD display is not enabled, data
lines are tri-state and they do not interfere with the operation of the microcontroller.
Fig.4.1: A typical LCD
3.8.2 Signals to the LCD

The LCD also requires 3 control lines from the microcontroller: Enable (E)
This line allows access to the display through R/W and RS lines. When this line is low, the LCD is
disabled and ignores signals from R/W and RS. When (E) line is high, the LCD checks the state of
the two control lines and responds accordingly.
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Read/Write (R/W)
This line determines the direction of data between the LCD and microcontroller. When it is
low, data is written to the LCD. When it is high, data is read from the LCD.
Register select (RS) With the help of this line, the LCD interprets the type of data on data lines.
When it is low, an instruction is being written to the LCD. When it is high, a character is being
written to the LCD.
Logic status on control lines
E
-0 Access to LCD disabled

-1 Access to LCD enabled
R/W - 0 Writing data to LCD

- 1 Reading data from LCD
RS
- 0 Instruction
- 1 Character
Writing data to the LCD is done in several steps:

1) Set R/W bit to low
2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)
3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)
4) Set E line to high
5) Set E line to low
Read data from data lines (if it is reading):
1) Set R/W bit to high
2) Set RS bit to logic 0 or 1 (instruction or character)
3) Set data to data lines (if it is writing)
4) Set E line to high
5) Set E line to low
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Pin description
Most LCDs with 1 controller has 14 Pins and LCDs with 2 controller has 16 Pins (two pins
are extra in both for back-light LED connections)
Fig.4.2 Pin diagramof 2x16lineLCD
Pin Details
Table: 4.1
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3.9 BUZZER AND BUTTON INTERFACE

3.9.1 Buzzer
This is a small 12mm round buzzer that operates around the audible 2kHz range. We drove it
directly from a 5V Controller to generate the tones for our Simon demonstration game. Use buzzers
to create simple music or user interfaces.
Fig:.1 HDX
Button interface:
The Button Interface module provides you with a set of programmable buttons that can be
made to create and reset variables when clicked.
There is a Push button used in our project which basically used to reset the Microcontroller.
A push-button is a simple switch mechanism for controlling some aspect of a machine or a process.
The surface is usually flat or shaped to accommodate the human finger or hand, so as to be easily
depressed or pushed.
Fig:.2 Button
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CHAPTER 4
SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
The software we have used in our project is C and C-Graphics. This software is user
friendly and can be programmed in easy way. In our project we had used this software because it can
easily read the signals from the parallel port and display the consequences.
The KEIL is a software package, which is a part of an Embedded C. This is used to
program the microcontroller. The KEIL program which executed will generate .hex file that is used
to program the microcontroller. The starting address from which the code has to be transferred can
be changed and selected by the user.
The KEIL software helps to make the programming easy. The hex-codes can be transferred
into the microcontroller by using a serial bus RS-232. The microcontroller has a program in its
internal ROM and when executed will receive the data from the RS-232 that is connected to the
serial port or mouse port of a computer.
The MicroVision4 IDE from KEIL software, combines project management, make facilities,
source code editing, program debugging and complete simulation in one power environment.
MicroVision2 helps you get program work faster than while providing an easy use development
platform. The editor and debugger are integrated into a single application and provide a flawless
embedded project development environment.
The microcontroller has been programmed using KEIL software. The program is written in
the KEIL software and then executed. The software will provide .hex file. The .hex file will consist
of hexadecimal codes, which are the op-codes that have to be coded into the microcontroller. By
interfacing the computer and the microcontroller with RS-232 bus, we can download, the hex codes
into the microcontroller from away address. This codes when executed provides the output, which is
required by the programmer.
Hence the difficulty of the assembly language programming has been replaced with KEIL
high-level-language, which is easy to program.
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CHAPTER 5
APPLICATION
For test rig security areas especially in fighter aircraft.
It can be used in industries for security purposes
It can be used in homes
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CHAPTER 6
Advantage & Limitation

6.1Advantage
It is easy to use
This provides a high level of security
By using this, the manual error is reduced
It alerts the operator who is at the control room and intruder who is entering the test rig area
The concern person is alerted when there is any deviation from the normal condition using
pager device
6.2 Limitation
There are some chances of false alarming
Distance is reduced
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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
In todays world security is needed in almost all the field. Large number of accidents occurs
in the industries due to negligence and lack of security in this project, we have included the alarm
system to intimate both trespasser and the operator at the control room, This concept is quite
efficient because we can monitor it any where
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CHAPTER 8
FUTURE ENHANCEMENTS
This project can be used in many others scenarios to measure other different parameters such
as temperature, humidity, smoke etc..also by using visual basic(VB),we can enhance the graphical
representation of various system parameters
Instead of using RF transceiver, we can use GSM modem for communication purpose
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Page 55

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TEST RIG SECURITY & MONITORING SYSTEM

PC BASED SAFETY AND SECURITY MONITORING ANALYSIS AND

DEPT OF E&C, APSCE