Waves, the Wave Equation, and Phase

Velocity
What is a wave?

f(x)
f(x-2)
f(x-1)
f(x-3)

Forward [f(x-vt)] and

backward [f(x+vt)]
propagating waves
The one-dimensional wave equation
Harmonic waves
Wavelength, frequency, period, etc.

Phase velocity
Complex numbers

Plane waves and laser beams

What is a wave?
A wave is anything that moves.
To displace any function f(x) to the
right, just change its argument from
x to x-a, where a is a positive
number.
If we let a = v t, where v is positive
and t is time, then the displacement
will increase with time.

f(x)
f(x-2)
f(x-1)
f(x-3)

So f(x - v t) represents a rightward,

or forward, propagating wave.
Similarly, f(x + v t) represents a
leftward, or backward, propagating
wave.
v will be the velocity of the wave.

The one-dimensional wave equation

The wave equation in one-dimensional form is:

2f
x2

1 2f
v2 t 2

Finding this implies that we are dealing with a field that expresses
itself through waves

Light waves (actually the electric fields of light waves) will be a

solution to this equation. And v will be the velocity of light.

The solution to the one-dimensional

wave equation
The wave equation has the simple solution:

f ( x, t ) f ( x vt )

where f (u) can be any twice-differentiable function.

Proof that f (x vt) solves the wave equation

Write f (x vt) as f (u), where u = x vt. So u 1 and
x

f f u

x u x

Now, use the chain rule:

f f
2f 2f

So

2
x u
x
u2

f f u

t u t

2
2f

f
f
f
2

v
and

t
u
t2
u2

Substituting into the wave equation:

2f
1 2f
2
2
x
v t2

u
v
t

2f
1 22f

2 v
0
2
2
u
v u

The one-dimensional wave equation for

light waves
2E
2E
2 0
2
x
t

where E is the
light electric field

Well use cosine- and sine-wave solutions:

E( x, t ) B cos[k ( x vt )] C sin[k ( x vt )]

kx (kv)t

or

E( x, t ) B cos(kx t ) C sin(kx t )
where:

The speed of light in

vacuum, usually called
c, is 3 x 1010 cm/s.

A simpler equation for a harmonic wave:

E(x,t) = A cos[(kx t) q]
Use the trigonometric identity:

cos(zy) = cos(z) cos(y) + sin(z) sin(y)

where z = k x t and y = q to obtain:

E(x,t) = A cos(kx t) cos(q) + A sin(kx t) sin(q)

which is the same result as before,

E( x, t ) B cos(kx t ) C sin(kx t )
as long as:

A cos(q) = B and

A sin(q) = C

For simplicity, well

just use the forwardpropagating wave.

Definitions: Amplitude and Absolute phase

E(x,t) = A cos[(k x t ) q]
A = Amplitude
q = Absolute phase (or initial phase)

Definitions
Spatial quantities:

Temporal quantities:

The Phase Velocity

How fast is the wave traveling?
Velocity is a reference distance
divided by a reference time.

The phase velocity is the wavelength / period:

v = l/t
In terms of the k-vector, k = 2p/ l, and
the angular frequency, = 2p/ t, this is:

v = /k

The Phase of a Wave

The phase is everything inside the cosine.

E(t) = A cos(j), where j = k x t q

j = j(x,y,z,t)

and is not a constant, like q!

In terms of the phase,

= j/t
k = j/x
And

j/t
v =

j/x

This formula is useful

when the wave is
really complicated.

Complex numbers
Consider a point,
P = (x,y), on a 2D
Cartesian grid.

Let the x-coordinate be the real part

and the y-coordinate the imaginary part
of a complex number.
So, instead of using an ordered pair, (x,y), we write:
P = x+iy
= A cos(j) + i A sin(j)
where i = (-1)1/2

Euler's Formula
exp(ij) = cos(j) + i sin(j)

so the point, P = A cos(j) + i A sin(j), can be written:

P = A exp(ij)
where

A = Amplitude

= Phase

Proof of Euler's Formula exp(ij) = cos(j) + i sin(j)

Use Taylor Series:

x
x2
x3
f ( x) f (0) f '(0)
f ''(0)
f '''(0) ...
1!
2!
3!

x x 2 x3 x 4
exp( x) 1 ...
1! 2! 3! 4!
x 2 x 4 x 6 x8
cos( x) 1 ...
2! 4! 6! 8!
x x3 x5 x 7 x9
sin( x) ...
1! 3! 5! 7! 9!
If we substitute x = ij
into exp(x), then:

ij j 2 ij 3 j 4
exp(ij ) 1

...
1! 2! 3! 4!
j2 j4

j j 3

... i ...
2! 4!

1! 3!

cos(j ) i sin(j )

Complex number theorems

If exp(ij ) cos(j ) i sin(j )

exp(ip ) 1
exp(ip / 2) i
exp(-ij ) cos(j ) i sin(j )
1
cos(j ) exp(ij ) exp(ij )
2
1
sin(j ) exp(ij ) exp(ij )
2i
A1exp(ij1 ) A2 exp(ij 2 ) A1 A2 exp i (j1 j 2 )
A1exp(ij1 ) / A2exp(ij 2 ) A1 / A2 exp i (j1 j 2 )

More on Complex Numbers

We can also differentiate exp(ikx) as if

the argument were real.
d
exp(ikx) ik exp(ikx)
dx
Proof :
d
cos(kx) i sin(kx) k sin(kx) ik cos(kx)
dx
1

ik sin( kx) cos(kx)

i

But 1/ i i, so :

ik i sin(kx) cos(kx)

Waves using complex numbers

The electric field of a light wave can be written:

E(x,t) = A cos(kx t q)
Since exp(ij) = cos(j) + i sin(j), E(x,t) can also be written:

E(x,t) = Re { A exp[i(kx t q)] }

or

E(x,t) = 1/2 A exp[i(kx t q)] + c.c.

We often
write these
expressions
without the
, Re, or
+c.c.

where "+ c.c." means "plus the complex conjugate of everything

before the plus sign."

Waves using complex amplitudes

We can let the amplitude be complex:

E x, t A exp i kx t q

E x, t A exp(iq ) exp i kx t

where we've separated the static stuff from the rapidly dynamical stuff.
The resulting "complex amplitude" is:

E0 A exp(iq )
So:

(note the " ~ ")

E x, t E0 exp i kx t

As written, this entire

field is complex!

How do you know if E0 is real or complex?

Sometimes people use the "~", but not always.
So always assume it's complex.

Complex numbers simplify optics!

Adding waves of the same frequency, but different initial phase,
yields a wave of the same frequency.

This isn't so obvious using trigonometric functions, but it's easy

with complex exponentials:

Etot ( x, t ) E1 exp i (kx t ) E2 exp i (kx t ) E3 exp i (kx t )

( E1 E2 E3 ) exp i(kx t )
where all initial phases are lumped into E1, E2, and E3.

The 3D wave equation for the electric field

and its solution!
A light wave can propagate in any
direction in space. So we must allow
the space derivative to be 3D:
or

2E 2E 2E
2E

2 0
2
2
2
x
y
z
t

which has the solution:

where
and

E
2
E 2 0
t

E ( x, y, z, t ) E0 exp[i(k r t )]

k kx , k y , kz

r x, y, z

k r kx x k y y kz z
k 2 kx2 k y2 kz2

E0 exp[i(k r t )] is called a plane wave

A plane waves contours of maximum phase, called wave-fronts or
phase-fronts, are planes. They extend over all space.

Wave-fronts
are helpful
for drawing
pictures of
interfering
waves.

A wave's wavefronts sweep

along at the
speed of light.

A plane wave's wave-fronts are equally

spaced, a wavelength apart.
They're perpendicular to the propagation
direction.

Usually, we just
draw lines; its
easier.

Laser beams vs. Plane waves

A plane wave has flat wave-fronts throughout
all space. It also has infinite energy, and so
we have no means to produce them in reality
A laser beam is more localized. We can approximate a laser
beam as a plane wave vs. z times a Gaussian in x and y:

x2 y 2
E ( x, y, z, t ) E0 exp
exp[i (kz t )]
2
w

y
Localized wave-fronts

Laser beam
spot on wall