http://www.colorincolorado.

org/educators/content/cooperative/

Cooperative Learning Strategies

By: Colorn Colorado (2007)
Cooperative Learning has been proven to be effective for all types of students, including
academically gifted, mainstream students and English language learners (ELLs) because it
promotes learning and fosters respect and friendships among diverse groups of students. In
fact, the more diversity in a team, the higher the benefits for each student. Peers learn to
depend on each other in a positive way for a variety of learning tasks.
Students typically work in teams of four. This way, they can break into pairs for some
activities, and then get back together in teams very quickly for others. It is important,
however, to establish classroom norms and protocols that guide students to:

Contribute

Stay on task

Help each other

Encourage each other

Share

Solve problems

Give and accept feedback from peers

Cooperative Learning for ELLs

Cooperative Learning is particularly beneficial for any student learning a second language.
Cooperative Learning activities promote peer interaction, which helps the development of
language and the learning of concepts and content. It is important to assign ELLs to
different teams so that they can benefit from English language role models. ELLs learn to
express themselves with greater confidence when working in small teams. In addition to
'picking up' vocabulary, ELLs benefit from observing how their peers learn and solve
problems. If you decide to assign each student in a team a role (such as reporter, recorder,
time keeper, and materials manager), you might want to rotate roles each week or by
activity. This prevents what typically happens if students select their own roles - the same
students wind up performing the same tasks. By rotating, students develop the skills they
most need to practice.

Some Cooperative Learning strategies

There are some popular strategies that can be used with all students to learn content (such
as science, math, social studies, language arts, and foreign languages). However, they are
particularly beneficial to ELLs for learning English and content at the same time. Most of
these strategies are especially effective in teams of four:
1. Round Robin
Present a category (such as "Names of Mammals") for discussion. Have students
take turns going around the group and naming items that fit the category.
2. Roundtable
Present a category (such as words that begin with "b"). Have students take turns
writing one word at a time.
3. Writearound

For creative writing or summarization, give a sentence starter (for example: If you
give an elephant a cookie, he's going to ask for...). Ask all students in each team to
finish that sentence. Then, they pass their paper to the right, read the one they
received, and add a sentence to that one. After a few rounds, four great stories or
summaries emerge. Give children time to add a conclusion and/or edit their favorite
one to share with the class.
4. Numbered Heads Together
Ask students to number off in their teams from one to four. Announce a question and
a time limit. Students put their heads together to come up with an answer. Call a
number and ask all students with that number to stand and answer the question.
Recognize correct responses and elaborate through rich discussions.
5. Team Jigsaw
Assign each student in a team one fourth of a page to read from any text (for
example, a social studies text), or one fourth of a topic to investigate or memorize.
Each student completes his or her assignment and then teaches the others or helps
to put together a team product by contributing a piece of the puzzle.
6. Tea Party
Students form two concentric circles or two lines facing each other. You ask a
question (on any content) and students discuss the answer with the student facing
them. After one minute, the outside circle or one line moves to the right so that
students have new partners. Then pose a second question for them to discuss.
Continue with five or more questions. For a little variation, students can write
questions on cards to review for a test through this "Tea Party" method.
After each Cooperative Learning activity, you will want to debrief with the children by asking
questions such as: What did you learn from this activity? How did you feel working with
your teammates? If we do this again, how will you improve working together?

Other ideas
A simple way to start Cooperative Learning is to begin with pairs instead of whole teams.
Two students can learn to work effectively on activities such as the following:
1. Assign a math worksheet and ask students to work in pairs.
2. One of the students does the first problem while the second acts as a coach.
3. Then, students switch roles for the second problem.
4. When they finish the second problem, they get together with another pair and check
answers.
5. When both pairs have agreed on the answers, ask them to shake hands and continue
working in pairs on the next two problems.
Literature circles in groups of four or six are also a great way to get students working in
teams. You can follow these steps:
1. Have sets of four books available.
2. Let students choose their own book.
3. Form teams based on students' choices of books.
4. Encourage readers to use notes, post-its, and discussion questions to analyze their
books.
5. Have teams conduct discussions about the book.

6. Facilitate further discussion with the whole class on each of the books.
7. Have teams share what they read with the whole class.
8. For the next literature circles, students select new books.
References

http://www.colorincolorado.org/educators/reachingout/welcoming/

How to Create a Welcoming Classroom Environment

By: Colorn Colorado (2007)

Watch a video clip on Pat Mora's school experience, and get tips on creating a welcoming
classroom environment from a fellow teacher.
Chances are that your English language learners (ELLs) come from a culture with traditions
and family values that differ from mainstream American culture. These young children not
only have the challenge of learning a new language, but also of adjusting to an unfamiliar
cultural setting and school system. Imagine what it would be like to step into a foreign
classroom where you didn't understand the language, rules, routines, or expected behavior.
On a daily basis, ELLs are adjusting to new ways of saying and doing things. As their
teacher, you are an important bridge to this unknown culture and school system. There are
a number of things you can do to help make ELLs' transitions as smooth as possible.

Stages of Cultural Accommodation

In the same way that ELLs go through stages of English language learning, they may also
pass through stages of cultural accommodation. These stages, however, may be less defined
and more difficult to notice. Being aware of these stages may help you to better understand
"unusual" actions and reactions that may just be part of adjusting to a new culture.

Euphoria: ELLs may experience an initial period of excitement about their new
surroundings.

Culture shock: ELLs may then experience anger, hostility, frustration,

homesickness, or resentment towards the new culture.

Acceptance: ELLs may gradually accept their different surroundings.

Assimilation/adaptation: ELLs may embrace and adapt to their surroundings and

their "new" culture.

Classroom Strategies: Helping Your ELLs Adjust to New

Surroundings
Although there are no specific teaching techniques to make ELLs feel that they belong in a
new culture, there are ways for you to make them feel welcome in your classroom:

Learn their names

Take the time to learn how to pronounce your ELLs' names correctly. Ask them to say their
name. Listen carefully and repeat it until you know it. If a student's name is Pedro, make
sure you do not call him /peedro/ or Peter. Also, model the correct pronunciation of ELLs'
names to the class so that all students can say the correct pronunciation.

Offer one-on-one assistance when possible

Some ELLs may not answer voluntarily in class or ask for your help even if they need it.
ELLs may smile and nod, but this does not necessarily mean that they understand. Go over
to their desk to offer individual coaching in a friendly way. For convenience, it may be
helpful to seat ELLs near your desk.
Assign a peer partner
Identify a classmate who really wants to help your ELL as a peer. This student can make
sure that the ELL understands what he or she is supposed to do. It will be even more helpful
if the peer partner knows the ELL's first language.
Post a visual daily schedule
Even if ELLs do not yet understand all of the words that you speak, it is possible for them to
understand the structure of each day. Whether through chalkboard art or images on Velcro,
you can post the daily schedule each morning. By writing down times and having pictures
next to words like lunch, wash hands, math, and field trip, ELLs can have a general sense of
the upcoming day.
Use an interpreter
On-site interpreters can be very helpful in smoothing out misunderstandings that arise due
to communication problems and cultural differences. If an on-site interpreter (a paid or
volunteer school staff position) is not available, try to find an adult - perhaps another parent
who is familiar with the school or "knows the system" who is willing to serve this purpose.
In difficult situations, it would not be appropriate for another child to translate.
ELLs can make unintentional "mistakes" as they are trying hard to adjust to a new cultural
setting. They are constantly transferring what they know as acceptable behaviors from their
own culture to the U.S. classroom and school. Be patient as ELLs learn English and adjust.
Invite their culture into the classroom
Encourage ELLs to share their language and culture with you and your class. Show-and-tell
is a good opportunity for ELLs to bring in something representative of their culture, if they
wish. They could also tell a popular story or folktale using words, pictures, gestures, and
movements. ELLs could also try to teach the class some words from their native language.
Use materials related to your ELLs' cultures
Children respond when they see books, topics, characters, and images that are familiar. Try
to achieve a good balance of books and materials that include different cultures. Visit our
recommended bilingual books section.
Label classroom objects in both languages
Labeling classroom objects will allow ELLs to better understand their immediate
surroundings. These labels will also assist you when explaining or giving directions. Start
with everyday items, such as "door/puerta," "book/libro," and "chair/silla."
Include ELLs in a non-threatening manner

Some ELLs may be apprehensive about speaking out in a group. They might be afraid to
make mistakes in front of their peers. Their silence could also be a sign of respect for you as
an authority and not a sign of their inability or refusal to participate. Find ways to involve
ELLs in a non-threatening manner, such as through Total Physical Response
activitiesand cooperative learning projects.

Involve ELLs in cooperative learning

Some ELLs are used to working cooperatively on assigned tasks. What may look like
cheating to you is actually a culturally acquired learning style an attempt to mimic, see,
or model what has to be done. Use this cultural trait as a plus in your classroom. Assign
buddies or peer tutors so that ELLs are able to participate in all class activities. Also, check
out these cooperative learning strategies you can use with ELLs.
Help your ELLs follow established rules
All students need to understand and follow your classroom rules from the very beginning,
and ELLs are no exception. Teach them your classroom management rules as soon as
possible to avoid misunderstandings, discipline problems, and feelings of low self-esteem.
Here are a few strategies that you can use in class:

Use visuals like pictures, symbols, and reward systems to communicate your
expectations in a positive and direct manner.

Physically model language to ELLs in classroom routines and instructional activities.

ELLs will need to see you or their peers model behavior when you want them to sit
down, walk to the bulletin board, work with a partner, copy a word, etc.

Be consistent and fair with all students. Once ELLs clearly understand what is
expected, hold them equally accountable for their behavior.

Pat Mora and Amber Prentice Discuss Welcoming Classroom Environments

Back to Top

This video is also available on YouTube.

http://www.edutopia.org/blog/esl-ell-tips-ferlazzo-sypnieski
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Do's & Don'ts For Teaching English-Language

Learners
MAR C H 12, 20 12

The number of English-Language Learners in the United States is growing rapidly, including many states
that have not previously had large immigrant populations. As teachers try to respond to the needs of
these students, here are a few basic best practices that might help. We have found that consistently using
these practices makes our lessons more efficient and effective. We also feel it is important to include a
few "worst" practices in the hope that they will not be repeated!

Modeling
Do model for students what they are expected to do or produce, especially for new skills or activities, by
explaining and demonstrating the learning actions, sharing your thinking processes aloud, and showing

good teacher and student work samples. Modeling promotes learning and motivation, as well as
increasing student self-confidence -- they will have a stronger belief that they can accomplish the learning
task if they follow steps that were demonstrated.
Don't just tell students what to do and expect them to do it.

Rate of Speech and Wait Time

Do speak slowly and clearly, and provide students with enough time to formulate their responses, whether
in speaking or in writing. Remember, they are thinking and producing in two or more languages! After
asking a question, wait for a few seconds before calling on someone to respond. This "wait time" provides
all students with an opportunity to think and process, and especially gives ELLs a needed period to
formulate a response.
Don't speak too fast, and if a student tells you they didn't understand what you said, never, ever repeat
the same thing in a louder voice!

Use of Non-Linguistic Cues

Do use visuals, sketches, gestures, intonation, and other non-verbal cues to make both language and
content more accessible to students. Teaching with visual representations of concepts can be hugely
helpful to ELLs.
Don't stand in front of the class and lecture, or rely on a textbook as your only "visual aid."

Giving Instructions
Do give verbal and written instructions -- this practice can help all learners, especially ELLs. In addition, it
is far easier for a teacher to point to the board in response to the inevitable repeated question, "What are
we supposed to do?"
Don't act surprised if students are lost when you haven't clearly written and explained step-by-step
directions.

Check for Understanding

Do regularly check that students are understanding the lesson. After an explanation or lesson, a teacher
could say, "Please put thumbs up, thumbs down, or sideways to let me know if this is clear, and it's
perfectly fine if you don't understand or are unsure -- I just need to know." This last phrase is essential if
you want students to respond honestly. Teachers can also have students quickly answer on a Post-It note
that they place on their desks. The teacher can then quickly circulate to check responses.
When teachers regularly check for understanding in the classroom, students become increasingly aware
of monitoring their own understanding, which serves as a model of good study skills. It also helps ensure
that students are learning, thinking, understanding, comprehending, and processing at high levels.
Don't simply ask, "Are there any questions?" This is not an effective way to gauge what all your students
are thinking. Waiting until the end of class to see what people write in their learning log is not going to
provide timely feedback. Also, don't assume that students are understanding because they are smiling
and nodding their heads -- sometimes they are just being polite!

Encourage Development of Home Language

Do encourage students to continue building their literacy skills in their home language, also known as
"L1." Research has found that learning to read in the home language promotes reading achievement in
the second language as "transfer" occurs. These "transfers" may include phonological awareness,
comprehension skills, and background knowledge.
While the research on transfer of L1 skills to L2 cannot be denied, it doesn't mean that we should not
encourage the use of English in class and outside of the classroom.
Don't "ban" students from using their native language in the classroom. Forbidding students from using
their primary languages does not promote a positive learning environment where students feel safe to
take risks and make mistakes. This practice can be harmful to the relationships between teachers and
students, especially if teachers act more like language "police" than language "coaches."
This is certainly not a complete guide -- they are just a few of the most basic practices to keep in mind
when teaching English-Language Learners (or, for that matter, probably any second language learner).
What are more "do's and don'ts" that you would add to the list?

http://www.ascd.org/publications/educationalleadership/mar11/vol68/num06/Knowing-Your-Learning-Target.aspx
March 2011 | Volume 68 | Number 6
What Students Need to Learn Pages 66-69

Knowing Your Learning Target

Connie M. Moss, Susan M. Brookhart and Beverly A. Long
The first thing students need to learn is what they're supposed to be learning.
One of Toni Taladay's students walked into Lenape Elementary School wearing a colorful tie-dyed shirt with a tiny
bull's-eye shape in the lower front corner. That small design caught the eye of his classmate, who exclaimed, "Look,
Joey, you're wearing a learning target!" In the Armstrong School District in southwestern Pennsylvania, learning
targets are everywhere: in lesson plans, on bulletin boards, in hallwaysand as this story illustratesfirmly on
students' minds.

What Is a Shared Learning Target?

If you own a global positioning system (GPS), you probably can't imagine taking a trip without it. Unlike a printed
map, a GPS provides up-to-the-minute information about where you are, the distance to your destination, how long
until you get there, and exactly what to do when you make a wrong turn. But a GPS can't do any of that without a
precise description of where you want to go.
Think of shared learning targets in the same way. They convey to students the destination for the lessonwhat to
learn, how deeply to learn it, and exactly how to demonstrate their new learning. In our estimation (Moss & Brookhart,
2009) and that of others (Seidle, Rimmele, & Prenzel, 2005; Stiggins, Arter, Chappuis, & Chappuis, 2009), the
intention for the lesson is one of the most important things students should learn. Without a precise description of
where they are headed, too many students are "flying blind."

The Dangers of Flying Blind

No matter what we decide students need to learn, not much will happen until students understand what they are
supposed to learn during a lesson and set their sights on learning it. Regardless of how important the content, how
engaging the activity, how formative the assessment, or how differentiated the instruction, unless all students see,
recognize, and understand the learning target from the very beginning of the lesson, one factor will remain constant:
The teacher will always be the only one providing the direction, focusing on getting students to meet the instructional
objectives. The students, on the other hand, will focus on doing what the teacher says, rather than on learning. This
flies in the face of what we know about nurturing motivated, self-regulated, and intentional learners (Zimmerman,
2001).
Students who don't know the intention of a lesson expend precious time and energy trying to figure out what their
teachers expect them to learn. And many students, exhausted by the process, wonder why they should even care.
Consider the following high school lesson on Jane Eyre. The teacher begins by saying,
Today, as you read the next chapter, carefully complete your study guide. Pay close attention to the questions about
Bertha Mr. Rochester's first wife. Questions 16 through 35 deal with lunacy and the five categories of mental
illness. The next 15 questions focus on facts about Charlotte Bront's own isolated childhood. The last 10 items ask
you to define terms in the novel that we seldom use todayyour dictionaries will help you define those words. All
questions on Friday's test will come directly from the study guide.
What is important for students to learn in this lesson? Is it how to carefully complete a study guide, the five types of
mental illness, facts about Bront's childhood, meanings of seldom-used words, or facts about Mr. Rochester's first
wife? Your guess is as good as ours.

Constructing a Learning Target

A shared learning target unpacks a "lesson-sized" amount of learningthe precise "chunk" of the particular content
students are to master (Leahy, Lyon, Thompson, & Wiliam, 2005). It describes exactly how well we expect them to
learn it and how we will ask them to demonstrate that learning. And although teachers derive them from instructional
objectives, learning targets differ from instructional objectives in both design and function.
Instructional objectives are about instruction, derived from content standards, written in teacher language, and used
to guide teaching during a lesson or across a series of lessons. They are not designed for students but for the
teacher. A shared learning target, on the other hand, frames the lesson from the students' point of view. A shared
learning target helps students grasp the lesson's purposewhy it is crucial to learn this chunk of information, on this
day, and in this way.
Students can't see, recognize, and understand what they need to learn until we translate the learning intention into
developmentally appropriate, student-friendly, and culturally respectful language. One way to do that is to answer the
following three questions from the student's point of view:
1.
What will I be able to do when I've finished this lesson?
2.
What idea, topic, or subject is important for me to learn and understand so that I can do this?
3.
How will I show that I can do this, and how well will I have to do it?
The online-only figure at www.ascd.org/ASCD/pdf/books/el_201103_brookhart_figure1.pdf illustrates this process
with examples for younger and older students. Carefully tailor your descriptions to your students' unique
developmental levels, cultures, and experiences. A learning target should convey to your students what today's
lesson should mean for them.

Beginning to Share
When teachers in the Armstrong School District began sharing learning targets with their students, their early efforts
were tentative and in consistent. Not all teachers tried it, and some who tried did not share targets for every lesson.
Some simply paraphrased instructional objectives, wrote the target statements on the board, or told students what
they were going to learn at the beginning of a lesson. Yet, even their exploratory attempts became game changers.
When teachers consistently shared learning targets in meaningful ways, students quickly became more capable
decision makers who knew where they were headed and who shared responsibility for getting there.

At Lenape Elementary School, for example, teachers and administrators marveled at the immediate effect of shared
targets and how quickly those effects multiplied. Principal Tom Dinga recalls a visit to a 1st grade classroom during
the first week of sharing learning targets. The teacher, Brian Kovalovsky, led the class in discussing the learning
target for the math lesson that dayto describe basic shapes and compare them to one another. When he asked his
students how they would know when they hit that target, one 6-year-old replied, "I'll be able to explain the difference
between a square and a rectangle."
Invigorated by the changes they were witnessing, teachers and administrators used e-mail, peer coaching, peer
observations, focused walk-throughs, and professional conversations to share what was working in their classrooms
and buildings and supported these claims with evidence that their students were learning more and learning smarter.
Students are now more actively engaged in their lessons as full-fledged learning partners. Because they understand
exactly what they are supposed to learn, students take a more strategic approach to their work. Students have the
information they need to keep track of how well a strategy is working, and they can decide when and if to use that
strategy again. In other words, students not only know where they are on the way to mastery, but also are aware of
what it will take to get there.

The Power of Meaningful Sharing

Learning targets have no inherent power. They enhance student learning and achievement only when educators
commit to consistently and intentionally sharing them with students. Meaningful sharing requires that teachers use
the learning targets with their students and students use them with one another. This level of sharing starts when
teachers use student-friendly languageand sometimes model or demonstrate what they expectto explain the
learning target from the beginning of the lesson, and when they continue to share it throughout the lesson. Here are
two powerful ways to do that.

Designing a Strong Performance of Understanding

The single best way to share a learning target is to create a strong performance of understandinga learning
experience that embodies the learning target. When students complete the actions that are part of a strong
performance of understanding, they and their teachers will know that they have reached the target.
When introducing the lesson, the teacher should explicitly share the learning target for the day and explain how each
of the tasks that are part of the lesson will lead students toward that target. Remember the lesson on Jane Eyre?
Consider this lesson introduction:
Today we will learn more about how Bront uses her characters to explore the theme of being unwanted. Remember,
a theme is an underlying meaning of the story. Yesterday, we examined Jane Eyre's life experiences as they relate to
the theme of being unwanted. Today we will do the same for Adele, Mr. Rochester's ward. As you read, find examples
of Adele being unwanted, unloved, uncared for, or forgotten. Then, in your learning groups, discuss your examples
and your reasons for choosing them. At the end of class, use your notes to draft a short paragraph that answers the
question, How does the character of Adele deepen Bront's theme of being unwanted in the novel Jane Eyre?
Note how the teacher explains what students will learn that day and how each task explicitly connects to that target. If
students perform all of these actions, they will better understand how Bront uses her characters to explore the
theme of being unwanted. The tasks clearly lead students to the target, and the students can see how each task
leads them to their goal. A strong performance of understanding helps students understand what is important to learn,
provides experiences that will help them learn it, and gives them a chance to observe their growing competence
along the way.

Explaining the Criteria for Success

Success criteria are developmentally appropriate descriptions and concrete examples of what success in a lesson
looks like. They are not the grades students should earn, the number of problems they must get right, or the number
of times they should include something in a performance or product (for example, how many descriptive adjectives
they should include in a paragraph).

"I can" statements, like those pictured on p. 67, are a great way to explain success. Another useful strategy is to ask
students to examine work samples that represent various levels of quality and discuss what makes some samples
better than others. Teachers can also use rubrics to define the elements of a successful performance or product and
describe various performance levels for each element. An especially powerful way to do this is to have students apply
a rubric's organized criteria to work samples with various levels of quality. Then ask students to explain their
decisions using the language in the rubric. When students know the success criteria, they can be mindful of what
success looks like as they use the rubric to guide their learning.

Empowering Every Student

Armstrong teachers began embedding learning targets into their lessons in October 2009. Now, almost a year and
one-half later, shared learning targets guide lesson planning, formative assessment, and classroom walk-throughs.
But the most impressive transformation is that of students into full learning partners. Now that students know where
they are going, they are more motivated to do the work to get there.
It's just this simple. Do we want classrooms full of empowered, self-regulated, highly motivated, and intentional
learners? If we do, then it is time to own up to the obstacles that educators create by withholding the very information
that would empower learners. Students cannot regulate learning, use thoughtful reasoning processes, set meaningful
goals, or assess the quality of their own work unless they understand what success looks like in today's lesson.

References
Leahy, S., Lyon, C., Thompson, M., & Wiliam, D. (2005). Classroom assessment: Minute by minute, and day
by day.Educational Leadership, 63(3), 1824.
Moss, C. M., & Brookhart, S. M. (2009). Advancing formative assessment in every classroom: A guide for the
instructional leader. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.
Seidle, T., Rimmele, R., & Prenzel, M. (2005). Clarity and coherence of lesson goals as a scaffold for student
learning. Learning and Instruction, 15, 539556.
Stiggins, R. J., Arter, J. A., Chappuis, J., & Chappuis, S. (2009). Classroom assessment FOR learning: Doing
it rightusing it well. Columbus, OH: Allyn and Bacon.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2001). Theories of self-regulated learning and academic achievement: An overview and
analysis. In B. J. Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Self-regulated learning and academic achievement:
Theoretical perspectives (pp. 165). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Connie M. Moss is director of the Center for Advancing the Study of Teaching and Learning (CASTL) in the School of
Education at Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; moss@castl.duq.edu. Susan M. Brookhart is an
independent educational consultant based in Helena, Montana, and a senior research associate in the School of Education
at Duquesne University; susanbrookhart@bresnan.net. Beverly A. Long is coordinator of P12 Curriculum, Instruction, and
Assessment and Accountability for the Armstrong School District in Ford City, Pennsylvania;

http://homepage.ntlworld.com/vivian.c/Writings/Papers/L1inClass.htm
http://www.aicls.org/pages/10steps.html
1. Leave English behind.
2. Make yourself understood with nonverbal communication.

3. Teach in full sentences; teach in conversations.

4. Aim for real communication in your language of heritage.
5. Language is also culture.
6-Focus on listening and speaking, rather than writing and grammatical
analysis.
7. Activities for master and apprentice to do together.
8. Audio and videotaping.
9. How to be an active learner.
10. Be sensitive to each other's needs; be patient and proud of each
other and yourselves!

This is a set of pointers for master-apprentice teams, or people who might

want to be master-apprentice teams for their language of heritage.
1. Leave English behind. During the 20 hours per week that masters and
apprentices will be working together (or however many hours you commit
yourselves to), aim for communicating only in your language; try not to use
English at all. At first there will be difficulties because the apprentice will not
be able to understand or communicate. You can enhance communication
with mime (gestures and actions and facial expressions), objects and
pictures, context, and rephrasing what you are trying to talk about (see 2).
(a) Basic questions. Early on as an apprentice, you should learn how to ask
things in your language. You should learn how to ask 'What is this?" and 'What is
that?" (Remember, in most languages there will be lots of different words that
translate into English as "that" or "this," depending on how far away something is
or what kind of thing it is.) Or ask, 'How do you say X"? (If you were trying to learn
Spanish, and wanted to know the word for table, the sentence would be "Cmo se
dice 'table' en espaol?" In Karuk one can say simply, "piipi 'table'?") Other
questions to learn might be, "What are you doing?" or "What am I (or what is he)
doing?" Or maybe, "Tell me a story." (But see also point 5.)

(b) Reminding each other. Another important thing for the apprentice to
learn early is how to communicate the idea: "Now say that in our language"
Whenever one of you says something in English, it would be a good custom
for the other to ask for it to be resaid in your language.
(c) If you lapse into English, get right back into your language. Think
of English as a habit you are tying to break. Some of us have gone to
weight-loss programs where the staff says, "If you go off program and

binge, don't think of yourself as awful, don't decide you can't do it and give
up; just put it behind you and get back on the program again." Do the same
for your language.
2. Make yourself understood with nonverbal communication.
(a) Actions. At the workshop, Nancy Richardson and Terry Supahan demonstrated
the enormous value of acting out what you are trying to say. If you are the teacher,
your apprentice will understand better; if you are the apprentice, you can help your
teacher understand what you are trying to communicate even when you don't know
the words. More importantly, research suggests that we learn much better if we
learn words embedded in actions.

Examples: Think about a basketry lesson. As Nancy Richardson

demonstrates, she is able to teach not only words for basketry materials, but
also action words, commands like "Sit down" and "Pick up the sticks," and
words like "under" and "over" making us learn by doing the actions. Or if you
don't know the word for a man swimming, for instance, perform the actions
of a person swimming in order to get your teacher to understand what you
are asking. Teachers can also mold apprentice actions to get them to
understand; when Steve Thorne was teaching us the Hindi gesture for "come
here," he went over to the person he was working with and took his arm and
actually brought him over, to show what it was he wanted the person to do.
(b) Gestures and facial expressions. Point to things you are talking
about, do facial expressions that illustrate what you are talking about.
Remember that the appropriate gesture for something differs from language
to language, and gestures themselves can be what you try to teach in a
language lesson. In Karuk, for example, it is impolite to point with the
finger---one points with the whole hand, palm up. In Havasupai, one points
with pursed lips instead.
(c) Pictures and objects. If you have the things around you that you are
talking about, you can use them to help convey your meaning. Use books
and magazines and talk about what you see in them.
At the training workshop, Matt and Agnes Vera told us of one thing they do,
which is to watch TV with the sound turned off, and just talk in Yowlumni
about what is going on.
3. Teach in full sentences; teach in conversations. Even though often
you will be trying to teach or learn specific words, the real lesson comes by
embedding the words in sentences and conversations that are in your
language.

Example: If you are trying to teach the word for door, don't just say "door," and
don't use English to translate the word or explain it. Instead, speaking always in
your language, say things like, "This is a door." Ask, "Where is the door?" Say, "Now
I am going to open the door. Now I'll close the door. I'm knocking on the door." Tell
the apprentice, "Open the door." "Close the door." Extend communication further
using gestures to help in your communication say, "It's hot in here! Let's open the
door." Or tell the apprentice, "Go out the door." Then say, "Now, close the door."
Then, "Now, knock on the door." When s/he knocks, say, "Come in!"

It is very important for the apprentice to hear a word or sentence

many timesbefore s/he learns to recognize it, and then to say it. Through
varied sentences, including commands, along with the physical activities
elicited by the commands, the apprentice hears a given word (in this case
"door") many times in different contexts, and will be able to pick out that
word in the future when s/he hears it, and later on be able to use it in his or
her own speech. The teams should remember the adage used by language
teachers that comprehension precedes production -in other words, an
apprentice should focus on learning to recognize and understand the words
and sentences. Being able to actually say the words and sentences will
naturally follow.
4. Aim for real communication in your language of heritage. Aim at
doing every thing in your language. Once the apprentice can do some basic
communication, don't start your sessions by saying in English, 'What shall
we do today?" Say it in your language. If you need a break, say, "Let's have
some coffee" in your language, not in English. If you know how to greet each
other in your language, never do it in English. As we advised at the
workshop, if you get sick and tired of each other, get angry in your
language, not English. Don't think of your language as something you do
just during lessons, but as the language of communication between you two
always, and with other people too who know the language or are trying to
learn it. Someday, even if the house caught fire, maybe you would be so
accustomed to speaking your language that you would yell "Fire!" in your
language of heritage! Is this going too far? Well, it's something to think
about, anyway

5. Language is also culture. Your language is not just a translation from

English, Learning your language of heritage also means learning about all
kinds of customs, values, and appropriate ways of behaving.
Examples: I mentioned using gestures to communicate; learn how to do
gestures in your culture of heritage.

We said above that the apprentice should learn how to ask various
questions, such as "What's this?" or "What are you doing?" Such questions
may actually be impolite in your language of heritage, and you may need to
learn a polite way to get your point across. While storytelling is a good
activity for language teaching and learning, it is probably the case that many
stories are not supposed to be told in the summertime. Learn about the
stories and the restrictions governing them.
A great deal of vocabulary is embedded in traditional ways of life. Doing
traditional activities such as participating in ceremonies, or traditional foodgathering, or making or using objects such as traditional houses, tools,
weapons, or cooking utensils will be important for language learning. In
some cases, the master and apprentice may not know how to do these
things; in that case, maybe you can go to someone else together for help.
Or maybe no one knows these things anymore; in that case, reading some
of the old ethnographies might be useful, to learn about both vocabulary and
traditional cultural practices.

6-Focus on listening and speaking, rather than writing and

grammatical analysis. Writing and grammar have important uses, but you
don't need to focus on these to learn to speak a language. Language
learning in classrooms is sometimes only about writing and grammar, but
people almost never learn how to speak a language fluently when writing
and grammar are the focus. So we urge you to focus on listening and
speaking.
You don't have to know
what a relative clause is
to use one.

Remember these points:

(a) The apprentice can learn the grammar of the language unconsciously,
simply by hearing it and using it. That is how children learn grammar, and despite
what we have been told in the past, adults can still learn new languages the way
children learn their first language. You don't have to know what a relative clause is
to use one.

(b) Although writing things down is a nice crutch for reviewing

words, you only really learn them by hearing them and saying them
many times. A team needs to make sure that vocabulary items are used in

conversation over and over for a long period of time; that is the way they
will be learned.
(c) One bad thing about writing is that it makes pronunciation
suffer. A better memory aid is to have the words and sentences you are
trying to learn recorded on tape by the teacher (see 8).
(d) Writing also tends to make us insert English too much into the
learning process, because we are likely to write English translations beside
the words and sentences in the language of heritage. Communities who have
long used writing as part of language learning in the schools report that
when the children write in the language of heritage, it is quite changed and
much more like English.
However, this is not to say that you should give up all writing and
grammatical analysis. Grammatical analysis may in the long run be very
useful; languages might have a lot of special constructions and affixes that
are hard to learn, and one might want to study these seriously and
consciously. Also, many communities already have writing systems, and
becoming competent in your language might include competency in reading
and writing. Writing a language, so long as it is not always tied to an English
translation, might be something you want to develop as a new form of
language use for your community. You might want to use writing to record
old stories, or write letters to each other, or begin a new art form of poetry.
But just remember that to learn how to speak a language fluently, writing
and grammar are not as important as just listening and talking, talking and
listening.

7. Activities for master and apprentice to do together. One question

people always ask is, "What do we do to learn/teach the language when we
are together?" Here are some of the most important things you can do.
Maybe you'd rather relax
and watch a baseball game
or the World Cup on TV.
Just turn the sound down
and be your own announcers.

(a) Live your daily life together. Don't think of this time together as outside of
your normal patterns of living. Do you have to do the laundry? Do it, and talk about

what you are doing in your language. Do you want to go gambling? Do it, but only
use your language. Do you want to fix your car, go to the store, plant a garden,
paint your house, cook supper? Do it in your language. Would you like to take a
drive or a walk? Maybe you'd rather relax and watch a baseball game or the World
Cup on TV. just turn the sound down and be your own announcers.

(b) Do traditional activities.

(See 5.)

(c) Play-act. This might be hard for some because it might seem too
childish; but think of yourselves as children, for they are the best language
learners in the world. Put yourselves into pretend situations and try to use
the language to ad them out. Play with hand-puppets and act out a
traditional story. This sort of activity is easiest for those masters and
apprentices who are involved in children's language programs as well; you
can always justify these childlike activities by saying to yourselves, 'Well,
we're really just doing this to prepare a lesson for the kids!"
Examples: Ray and Melodie made a Hupa language video of a waitress and
customer in a restaurant. At the training workshop, Sylvia and Claude gave a
performance in Mojave of eating together. Terry Supahan tells and acts out
the story of the theft of fire in Karuk to his schoolchildren; Sarah Supahan
tells "The Three Bears."
(d) Planned lessons. You can also plan out lessons together on a more
formal basis. Think of sets of vocabulary words you would like to teach or
learn. Bring pictures or objects to work with. Remember to always embed a
lesson in real sentences and communication. For example, if you are going
to teach the body parts, teach them as a series of commands or questions.
"This is my head." "This is my shoulder." 'This is my knee." "Is this my
knee?"
(e) Visit other speakers together. Try to get together in groups as much
as possible. This is relatively easy for communities with more than one
master-apprentice team. The masters can talk to each other, which will be a
relief to them-it will be the one time when they can communicate freely and
expect the other to understand. By listening, the apprentices will get good
exposure to the language. Most of the other activities mentioned above
could also be done by the group as a whole.
(f) Teach what you learn. As the apprentice, one way to increase your
own language use is to teach what you have learned to someone else. Teach
it to your child, or to an interested relative or friend. Many of you are
already teaching in schools or in summer programs or evening classes; apply
what you learn to those classes.

(g) Have "immersion gatherings." Some tribes run immersion camps,

where kids or families come together in a nice place and all activities are
conducted in the language. If your community doesn't do that and you don't
want to plan something so extensive yourself, you could just have gettogethers, where all the master-apprentice teams, and perhaps other
speakers and interested people, could come together for a potluck supper or
an overnight trip somewhere. If you want to find out more about immersion
camps and how to plan them, Nancy Richardson, Terry Supahan, Ray Baldy
and other Hupas, and Matt and Agnes Vera are among those who have
conducted them.
... one way to increase your own language use
is to teach what you have learned
to someone else.

8. Audio and videotaping. These can be a very important aid in language

learning.
(a) If the elder that you work with finds it objectionable to repeat things often, you
can get added practice from tapes. Even if the elder will repeat words often, you
will probably still want added practice.

(b) The master can tape all kinds of things, including stories and songs, that
the apprentice can listen to, and that the two of you can go over together for
added vocabulary, grammar, etc.
Martha Mach suggests that one way to make a practice tape would be to
record the elder repeating a word or sentence UP to ten times, leaving a gap
of several seconds between each repetition. Then when the apprentice plays
the tape, s/he can repeat the item during the gaps.
(c) You might need to drive a lot; you can play audio tapes on your car
stereo if you have one, or perhaps on a Walkman when you are driving or
walking or just doing chores.
(d) Video can also be used to make practice tapes, with the added
advantage that all the gestures and action we have been talking about above
can be recorded.
(e) Audio or video can be used to make more formal lessons to teach to
classes. (The Hupa videotape mentioned earlier is a good example.)

(f) In the long run, the audio and videotapes you make will be extremely
valuable to your family and community as a record of the language as it was
spoken by the elders. Label your tapes well, and store them safely. Make
copies for safekeeping. Keep in mind that someday you may want to deposit
them in a community archive, museum, library, or university, for posterity.

9. How to be an active learner. The master does not always have to take
charge of deciding what, how, and when to teach. The master is the expert
who knows the language and a vast store of cultural knowledge that goes
with it, but in many cases the apprentice may know more about teaching.
The apprentice should feel free to guide his or her own learning experience
as much as suits the relationship and the situation. As the apprentice, you
can guide the teaching by asking the master questions about the language,
by suggesting what sort of activity you might do on a given day, by setting
up play-acting situations, or asking the master to tell you things like what
s/he has been doing, tell a story, etc. Your master may have a lot of ideas
too, but may need to be encouraged and drawn out. As an active learner,
you can also focus on trying to understand what the master thinks is
important to do. Which one of you guides the learning the most will depend
on the particular team; but aim for making the learning experience a true
partnership.
... keep in mind that
anything the master wants to teach
is of great value,
even if it is not
what you had in mind
at the moment.

10. Be sensitive to each other's needs; be patient and proud of each

other and yourselves!Personalities and cultural differences will play a big
role in how you develop as a team. There may be a "generation gap"
between the two of you, as Martha Macri pointed out in the training
workshop. Coming to understand each other and respect each other's
philosophy, values, and needs is an important part of your partnership. Also,
remember that language teaching and learning are bound to produce
frustration along the way for both members of the team. If you get

frustrated, do something to relieve the tension- talk it out, or change the

activity, or take a break.
The master needs to keep in mind that language learning is a slow
process, and needs to be patient when the apprentice doesn't learn
something as fast as the master thinks s/he should. Being overly critical or
teasing someone when they make a mistake will discourage the apprentice
from using the language. Learn to correct without being judgmental. When
your apprentice says a sentence, it may have lots of errors and it may sound
terrible to you; but be proud of the effort he or she is making to learn.
Correct errors by simply repeating the sentence correctly. Think of a mother
interacting with her toddler: the toddler might say, "Daddy goed in car!" and
the mother would respond, "Yes, Daddy went to town in the car!" She is
correcting errors, extending the sentence further to increase the child's
learning, and expressing pride in her child's language use, all at once.
The apprentice needs to keep in mind that anything the master wants to
teach is of great value, even if it is not what you had in mind at the
moment. Also learn what things the master gets frustrated about in
the language teaching Process and try to find ways to relieve the
situation.
If you start to get discouraged, remember that you are doing the best you
can, and you deserve to be proud. You are making a heroic commitment to a
wonderful cause, by working together to bring your language back from the
brink of death.