Technical Thermodynamics

6
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS
GUSTAV
DR.
FIRST
PBOM
THE
"GRUHDZDGE
ZEUNER
ENGLISH
FIFTH
EDITION
COUPLBTE
DER
AND
REVISED
MECHANISCHEN
II
THEORY
OF
AUTHORIZED
F.
VAN
23
YORK
NOSTRAND
HuBRAT
AND
BY
D.E.
KLEIN,
HEW
D,
VAPORS
TRANSLATION
J.
COMPANT
27
i9or
OF
WAKMETHEORIE'
Volume
THE
EDITION
Wakhen
Stkeeis
l^kiM.Aii^3'f.n'^
T
Birf"rd
College
AQff.
14,
Bequest
Library
leia.
of
Dsrtrin
!"
Leavttt.
.
Copyright,
'
1907
BY
D.
VAN
ROBERT
COMPANY
NOSTEAND
DRCMMOIfD,
PBIirrBS,
NSW
TOBS
OF
CONTENTS
THE
SECOND
THIRD
VOLUMR
SECTION.
Thbort
Vapors.
of
FAOB
1.
remarks
Preliminary
A.
2.
The
pressure
3.
The
heat
4.
Steam
"
5.
Specific
6.
Clapeyron's
7.
Recent
of
heat
8.
Heat
"
9.
The
of
saturated
the
liquid,
1 11.
the
of
weight
of
Saturated
Vapors.
9
vapors
the
heat
total
inner
and
saturated
and
the
latent
outer
latent
heat
20
heat
26
33
vapors
equation
of
38
Battelli
by
investigations
the
on
behavior
of
the
48
water
of
entropy
of
mixtures
of
equations
wet
and
vapor
and
vapors
the
liquid
(wet
vapors)
transformation
53
their
of
61
curves
pressure
{ 10.
Behavior
The
and
vapor
The
isothermal
The
adiabatic
and
isodynamic
the
of
curve
wet
of
curve
wet
71
vapors
75
vapors
APPLICATIONS.
I.
Revbrsiblb
1 12.
Heating
{ 13.
The
i 14.
Investigation
of
constant
Continuation
the
of
wet
at
vapors
weight
of
the
investigation
and
Vapobs.
volume
zero
89
of
curve
concerning
the
wet
99
steam.
of
expansion
engine
steam
of
Wet
of
constant
hypotheses
cylinder
the
State
of
steam
different
of
in
steam
1 15.
of
cooling
or
curve
Changes
different
106
of
curves
1 16
expansion
.
n.
CHANGE
NON-RBVBESIBLB
I 16.
Expansion
i 17.
Mixture
of
of
wet
wet
vapors
different
under
vapors
of
the
OF
same
StaTE
OF
WeT
VaPORS.
circumstances
120
kind
129
v
Vi
CONTENTS
VOLUME.
SECOND
THE
OF
PAGI
condensers
surface
1 18.
Theory
of
I 19.
Theory
of the
i 20.
Calorimetric
135
T.
jet condenser
138
investigation
the
of
i f f
jet pump
steam
(injector)
III.
I 21.
Fundamental
I 22.
Efflux
142
The
Flow
and
formulas
the
for
of highly heated
Efflux
the
flow
liquids
Wet
of
of wet
Vapors.
153
vapors
simple orifices under
from
constant
160
pressure
I 23.
Efflux
of dry saturated
simple orifices under
from
vapors
constant
167
pressure
i 24.
Experiments
f 25.
Efflux
I 26.
Recent
on
efflux
the
with
experiments
investigations
of steam
help of the
the
the
on
I 27.
The
Behavior
of the
Extension
critical
I 28.
The
I 29.
Older
30.
of
flow
189
pump
196
Nossle.)
Sttperheated
propositions
jet
steam
of vapors
Laval
(De
B.
181
Unsaturated
or
limit
the
concerning
Vapors.
and
curve
the
202
temperature
of
equation
condition
approximate
Superheated
dry saturated, superheated
of
forms
the
for
equation
of condition
208
vapors.
of vapors
223
.
229
steam
of superheated
equations
I 31.
The
heat
{ 32.
The
vapor
of
ammonia
" 33.
The
vapor
of
sulphurous
{ 34.
The
vapor
of carbonic
243
vapors
252
acid
256
acid
262
APPLICATIONS.
Reversible
Non-reversible
and
Changes
The
Superheated
Vafob
Water.
OF
{ 35.
of
isothermal, isodynamic,
and
adiabatic
for superheated
curve
274
steam
i 36.
Generation
i 37.
The
flow
of superheated
of
of the
steam
39.
Linde's
Extended
one
vessel
to
constant
pressure
another, and
the
Air
Atmospheric
machine
equation
281
throttling
293
steam
C.
I 38.
from
under
steam
for
of
the
condition
as
Liquid
liquefaction
for
and
of
Vapor.
air
atmospheric
303
air
313
CONTENTS
OF
SECOND
On
the
of
Atmospheric
D.
(a) Mixtures
THE
Behavior
vii
VOLUME,
Mixtares.
of
Air
and
Steato.
FAOB
J 40.
The
41.
Isothermal
changes
" 42.
Isothermal
change
and
i 43.
of
general behavior
the
of state
of
mixture
of
the
air
and
mixture
the
for
state
of
wet
steam
320
wet
323
of air and
mixture
of
steam.
air, steam,
water,
ice
Adiabatic
329
of
change
of the
state
mixture
air and
of
wet
333
steam.
.
J 44.
i
45.
Behavior
of the
mixture
of
air
Behavior
of the
mixture
of
air, steam,
{ 46.
General
remarks
their
t 47.
Recent
unsaturated
and
Different
of
(6) Mixtures
and
mixtures
on
338
vapor
ice
Kinds
350
Vapors.
of
different
of
kinds
of
liquids and
353
vapors.
researches
the
on
behavior
''saturated
of
and
heated
super-
steam''
357
APPLICATIONS.
TECHNICAL
Theory
f 48.
A.
{ 49.
50.
The
Engines,
368
Engines
Steam
Engines
Steam
of
remarks
Preliminary
(a)
PART.
Investigation
for
cycle
the
of
of
(Hot-vapor
Engines).
Saturated
the
perfect
Vapors.
steam
engine
steam
engine
371
and
calculation
of
its
dimensions
{ 51.
Cycle
of
the
381
actual
and
engine
steam
of the
loss
of
work
due
to
perfection
im-
cycle
396
,
work
52.
Loss
of
{ 53.
Loss
of
work
due
f 54.
Loss
of
work
due
due
to
investigation
"
55.
Discussion
and
(6)
{ 56.
The
i 57.
Addendum.
of
to the
of
action
steam
Action
of the
406
of
compression
cylinder walls.
410
Calorimetric
engines
for
the
419
heat
exchange
between
steam
walls
Engines
engine.
expansion
clearance.
to
equations
the
cylinder
indicated
incomplete
work
The
428
for
Superheated
and
the
standard
Steam.
thermal
cycle and
the
efficiency of
the
corresponding
efficiency
steam
441
.
Theory
of fireless steam
engines
449
"
""
CONTENTS
VUl
OF
THE
SECOND
VOLUME.
B.
Cold-vapor
Engines.
PAOV
{ 5S.
Refrigerating
i 59.
Cycle of the
I 60.
Cycle
of
machines
in
general
theoretically perfect cold-vapor
perfect cold-vapor engine
450
engine
according
to
463
o
474
s
....
i 61.
{
62.
Cycle
of actual
Influence
of
in
superheating
the
478
of
compressor
cold-
actual
engines
vapor
I 63.
cold-vapor engines
Calculation
484
of the
dimensions
of the
487
compressor
APPENDIX.
Tables
of
Appendix
the
(French
Units).
"
Saturated
vapor
of water
II
Saturated
vapor
of
ether
VI
Saturated
vapor
of alcohol
X
XII
VIII
vapor
of acetone
Saturated
vapor
of chloroform
Saturated
vapor
of chloride
Saturated
vapor
of
bisulphide
Saturated
vapor
of
anmionia
Saturated
Saturated
Saturated
First
of
vapor
of carbonic
Tables
XIV
carbon
XVI
XVIII
acid
XX
acid
for water
principal table
Second
carbon
of
sulphurous
vapor
principal table
of
XXII
XXIV
vapor
for
water
of
the
XX
vapor
Appendix
(English
VII
Units).
Saturated
vapor
of
Saturated
vapor
of ether
XXXIV
Saturated
vapor
of alcohol
XXXVI
XXX
water
vapor
of
Saturated
vapor
of chloroform
Saturated
vapor
of chloride
Saturated
vapor
of
bisulphide
Saturated
vapor
of
ammonia
Saturated
Saturated
Saturated
First
Second
vapor
of
vapor
of carbonic
principal
table
principal
Auxiliary
Auxiliary
XXXVIII
acetone
table
table
atmospheres
XL
of carbon
table
XLIV
acid
XL
acid
water
for
of carbon
XLVI
sulphurous
for
XLII
water
LII
vapor
LV
vapor
(English units) corresponding

for
conversion
VIII
of
pounds
per
to
pp.
square
62
and
LVIII
63.
.
inch
into
LX
THIRD
Theory
SECTION.
of
Vapors.
TECHNICAL
THERMODTNAMICa
"
which
bodies
like
certain
under
old
to
According
at
liquid
it
without
gases
the
exception
time
same
the
might
the
(p. 93)
justly
even
ally
gener-
conversely
addition
of
of
indicated,
all
be
regarded
given
were
distinction
as
for
between
can
heat.
investigations
sense
reasons
the
Thermodynamics
.in
in
that,
out
the
to
and
the
by
air-
and
cooling,
volume,
bodies
remarks
brought
was
solid
or
by
of
the
liquids
solids
diminution
"
"vapors
as
into
into
introductory
the
(p. 89)
of
from
designate
transformed
circumstances
generated
In
be
by
REMARKS.
we
usage
can
accompanied
be
PRELIMINARY
1.
gases
kinds
vapors;
ing
maintainand
gases
vapors.
In
technical
for
which,
of
needs,
mentioned
vapors
which
others
In
states
exists
present
their
closely
be
must
of
is
for
more
in
of
this
in
acid
their
the
vapor
the
same
very
space
because
lowering
of
also
carbonic
important,
the
engines;
the
and
certain
nically
tech-
do
so
few
observations
investigation.
essentially
two
other;
kind
different
the
vapors
The
refrigerating
each
certain
vapors
are
vapors
from
great
condition,
thorough
space
is
ether
interest
considering
too
the
in
those
condensation.
or
steam;
and
exclusively
only
require
prescribed
physical
more
consider
not
application
distinguished
enclosed
an
do
intended
are
general
is
vapor
fulfill
are
available
are
of
which
liquefaction
sulphurous
account
on
their
important
ammonia,
in
speaking,
for
most
latter
will
we
comparatively
temperature
acid,
investigations,
following
the
liquid
of
from
which
if
namely,
vapor,
according
different
to
then
there
the
whether
the
havior
be-
there
vapor
was
3
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
formed,
the
whether
or
exists
steam
there
without
alone
any
liquid.
In
in
the
other
the
in
may
have
the
space
will
first
the
will
the
of
usually
fog.
eye
as
for
the
sake
the
[1
"wet
"
steam
the
is
liquid
happen
may
in
case
in
the
vapor,
which
the
perceptible
be
to
will
from
to
"wet"
hereafter
mixture
separated
parison
com-
vapor
we
in
the
circles said
for
the
is small
become
mostly
space,
circumstances
expression, however,
of
it
weight
air, will
steam
that
so
vapor,
; but
latter
vapor
of
the
liquid
in
vapor
vessel.
same
sq.
this
in
the
and
hover
is in technical
vapor
though
even
vapor,
its
and
liquid
from
certain
may
ordinary
as
brevity
designation
the
Let
of
Such
vapor),
of
space
under
and
following investigations;
boilers
steam
and
of water;
invisible
as
the
and
the
of
liquid
(particularly if
mass
of little vesicles
form
use
liquid,
the
that
with
is
case
the
separated
ordinary
in
liquid
of the
whole
into
divided
be
"superheated/'
mixture
assumed
the
case
all
"saturated,"
or
or
in
maintained
be
"
"moist
be
to
"non-saturated"
liquid completely
the
part
is said
vapor
be
to
case
is in fact
that
the
case
distinction
this
as
first
the
cylinder
AB
contain
ft.]and
(Fig. 1)
kg. [1
have
lb.] of
cross-section
the
Uquid
head
between
and
its
[32" F.]
at
being
and
of
represented
the
pressiu-e
If, during
the
side,
Pj^
on
is
its
kept
0"
if it is
sure
pres-
represent
mass
volume
the
by
the
operation
piston
C.
the
oq
abscissa
ordinate.
to
be
mediately
im-
pressure
from
the
p,
out-
and
constant
the
liquid
then
the
Ki;
Uquid
the
discussed,
acting
be
will
by
p
the
external
the
instant,
der
cylin-
oq]
m.
when
then
point
sq.
position
the
to
condition
this
its volume
the
p,
the
and
subject
now
the
temperature
the
piston
piston occupies
let
of
temperature
will
receives
rise
heat
from
from
0" C.
the
side,
out-
[32"
F.
PRELIMINARY
evaporation
until
that
suppose
a;
of
state
the
greater
liquid
the
volume
the
whole
liquid
to
of
dependent
existing
the
at
instant,
that
and
come
over-
liquid
and
now
the
steam
particular temperature
"the
only
the
at
consisting
the
proportion
is, on
the
ratio
a
perature
tem-
is
it is not
mixture
in
with
remarkable
of
pressure;
present
last
the
upon
of steam
kilograms
the
to
p";
the
is
is in contact
steam
pressure
of
the
temperature
saturated
volume
that
vdll
state.
steam
the
b, the
jdeld, making
designate
p,
t.
state
will
until
let
the
that
of
value
the
pressure
this
the
so
it depend
does
nor
vapor,
temperature
saturated/'
is that
the
the
on
'^
pressure
the
of
function
for
pressure
temperature
continue
(Fig. 1)
particular
liquid
the
the
t at
corresponding
piston
point d]
called
the
beyond
the
will
steam
bed
path
of
external
the
at
condition
this
corresponds
and
to
oq
temperature
pressure
corresponding
this
of the
falls with
and
time
and
is therefore
and
about
thing
from
us
the instantaneous
upon
value
the
as
steam
the
steam,
the
long
only
continued
into
this
so
become
has
Along
the
of
is
pass
kept constant,
hereafter
occurs;
lower
or
heat
doing
in
unchanged
element
rises
of
gradually
is
to
now
value
higher
will
and
the
the
to
supply
remain
increased
has
corresponds
depends
begins
the
room,
t; let
temperature
volume
diagram
smaller
or
respectively
If
the
phenomenon
evaporation
which
certain
liquid.
the
remarkable
at
instant
b of the
point
the
now
begins
this
at
REMARKS.
of
of
the
unit
of
the
of
same
liquid
mixture
kilograms
weight
of
of
the
mixture.
At
the
point
any
will
mixture
weight
mixture
the
liquid
to
mass
called
be
path
exist
kg. [lb.]of
the
may
of the
the
have
unit
the
will
"specific
designate by
"wetness"
liquid
is
present
of
the
and
of
instead
1-x
instant
that
of
these
the
the
steam
we
the
point
assume
weight
(1 -x)
quality
of
x
the
however,
"quality
6
the
magnitude
and
the
of
by
long terms,
respectively
At
as
kg. [lb.]; the
weight"
mixture.
therefore
the
proportion
determined
it follows
{l"x)
steam
and
at
weight,
be
certain
completely
present
must
present
"specific liquid weight";

we
is
which
steam
(Fig. l)a
bed
"
and
(Fig. 1) only
x=0;
at
the
TECHNICAL
linrit d
other
element
of
liquid
the
pressure
At
is xs,
according
is (1"
present
of
designated
point
if,for
the
of
sake
specificvolume
the
as
volume
the
given notation,
and
specific volume
function
of
the
the
of
steam
volume
the
present
of the
specific volume
the
liquid and
of
and
8,
this
t.
of
liquid
unit
is
steam
(l" a:)"T,
v=X5
or
the
liquid
in
steam
steam;
regarded
x)"7; consequently
of mixture
weight
by
be
to
temperature
the
to
of
last
the
that
means
'^dry saturated";
intermediate
any
this
condition
the
only
are
of the
or
be
already
steam,
and
x"=l,
pajssed into
is siaid to
this
of
have
we
has
condition
THERMODYNAMICS.
substitute
simplicity, we
(1)
U*^S-'(T,
get
we
v^xu+a,
this
and
of
tion
is
of
; it is
only
the
pressure
at
constant
to
the
to
follows
hence
always
steam
Let
state
e,
occur
but
the
now
with
and
the
beyond,
like
be
the
(Fig. 1),
increase
the
of volume
of
steam
"j,
the
gives
steam.
under
constant
volume
from
is
d
in
expended
is
under
temperature;
is
and
there
no
more
constant
the
on
way
"superheated'*;
proposition: Superheated
higher
of
of
because
increment
and
temperature
saturated
supplied
heat
i, is transformed
increment
further
dry
as
kg. [lb.] of liquid, of
is still heated
steam
consequently
is connected
d
into
the
bd
temperature
temperature
hand;
pressure
from
will
the
of
distance
the
when
occurs
d on,
(Fig. 1),
by
condi*
well
as
Uy
function
corresponding
point
there
raising
on
Fig.
which
and
the
state
liquid
in
of
equation
magnitude
o
pressure
p,
the
pressure
volume
p
If from
pressure
the
the
The
represented
of
increment
called
steam.
wet
function
be
equation might
(2)
than
temperature
has
steam
saturated
pressure.
specific volume
then
this
volume
of
the
will
superheated
always
be
steam
greater
in
than
the
the
volume
of dry
specific weight
the
specific volume,
saturated
dry
of
^
can
we
of
in
is
reciprocal
superheated
its
and
of
of
with
that
is
steam
the
steam
pressure,
specificweight
the
finally,because
the
simply
same
specific volume
its
tod
pressure;
comparing
the
condition
but
same
body
say,
steam
dry saturated
the
of
steam
REMARKS.
PRELIMINARY
the
mum,
maxi-
temperature
in
each
are
minimum.
other
the
On
point
with
by
dotted
until
of
maximum
the
under
compression
isothermal
external
represented
temperature
the
case
will
pressure
show
by
gives,
[32" F.],
for
C.
C.
[32*^F.].
is
at
one
the
to
if,starting
pi,
pressure
end
at
two
new
the
p2,
^2.
as
the
from
the
d.
ticular
par-
point
third
and
pi,
ai
liquid
at
the
and
a2
the
at
the
curve
GP
temperature
liquid measured
point
of which
will
point
the
in
the
of
heat
ai,
begin
it will
and
beginning
lower
the
and
generally,
at
the
second
this
more
whatever
Fig.
points
two
point
[lb.] of liquid
namely
of
state
still
or
evaporation
Consequently
curves
the
the
because
the
and
by
the
by
C.
abscissa
pressure.
similarly starting with

pressure
then
of the
ti is reached,
temperature
if in
the
pressure
at
kilogram
greater,
p2,
'pressure
any
piston,
Now
time
specific volume
the
corresponding
Now
0"
[32" F.];
the
heated
super-
possess
of
in
assumed
will
stant
con-
increase
an
with
deb
was
and
oq
coordinates
their
(f
temperature
oioao
against
at
possible
horizontal
the
there
smaller, namely
time
other
into
show
former
the
of the
course
steam
is not
its coordinates
by
saturated
temperature
passes
pressure
will
increase
discussion
foregoing
the
the
}d
curve
the
panied
accom-
compressed
further
constant
this will be
like
occurs
dry
the
beyond
ture/
tempera-
steam
temperature,
same
pressure;
In
somewhat
saturation
such
and
constant
of heat, then
pressure
therefore, comparing
steam
of
under
df; conversely, superheated
curve
pressure;
the
of
diminution
temperature
of
piston position Kz
corresponding supply
the
place
takes
expansion
if from
hand
a2
and
at
end
the
first,lying
the
the
the
and
at
other, lying
62 and
its
have
we
be
to
and
constant
didd2
left, can
the
di;
the
fall
stant
con-
when
point
under
will
to
under
point "i
at
61662
curves
and
imparted
heating
evaporation
the
limit,
is
terized
charac-
the
right.
TECHNICAL
the
as
the
limit;
upper
of
theory
THERMODYNAMICS.
both
Here
vapors.
for
Let
that
suppose
us
limiting
curves
for
where
and
indicate
represented graphically by
the
steam
pressure
and
liquid mixture
and
the
lay
we
limiting
to
is present
and
the
least
point
of
supply
falls
the
on
this
If the
will
heat
as
is,
hand,
the
start
pressure
with
mixed
the
of
limiting
that
nature
if the
Finally
the
the
only liquid
lower
evaporation.
then
liquid,
if it falls
then
the
the
right
but
of such
but
did2,
curve
the
falls between
to
the
and
space
falls
point
know
we
of
weight.
point
the
formulas
constitution
limiting curve,
on
limiting
upper
soon
abscissa
that
lower
is
both
is superheated;
steam
liquid alone
"ib2} then
curve
two
(3a)
the
of
as
into
falls
steam.
no
unit
is wet,
left of the
the
the
vapor
then
as
corresponding
point
curve,
of
suppose
given
volmne
steam
if the
and
ciures,
the
of
the
two
is
if the
the
limiting
area
Fig.
and
curves,
is saturated;
the
volume
off in
ordinate,
into
in
only emphasize
p"0("),
functions,
are
upper
will
we
r61e
by their equations
known
are
and
ip
as
present
particular kind
P=^("t)
j"
the
prominent
following.
the
If
play
curves
steam
present
is dry saturated.
It has
as
already
equation
the
the
equation
and
x.
place of
of
the
three
On
the
steam;
wet
regarded
equation
as
other
superheated
hand
is
steam
be
can
the
functions
latter variable
the
(2)
as
variables,
general expression, therefore,
the
of
embraces
quality
steam
the
T\
be
it must
in
occurring
condition
of
that
remarked
been
values
of
the
pressure
v,
is
by
for
equations
heated,
super-
temperature
of
tion
condi-
given by
r=/(p,i;)
If, as
then
formerly
was
the
place
the
condition
of
equation
of
separate
from
assumption
that
mentioned
of
gases
the
the
is not
used
discussion
superheated
an
in
would
be
Volume
of
wet
ones,
appropriate
like gases,
behave
vapors
foregoing equation
of
investigations, in which
(36)
superheated
assumed,
volume
is taken
the
and
p,
steam
the
pressure
p,
if the
regarded
steams
will
one.
taken
I;
but
will
show
by
the
further
be
that
kept
the
THE
"
The
force
expansive
is to
and
efforts
the
But
between
regarded solely
be
have
any
sort
the
experiments
been
have
far
so
have
to
which
call
relation
the
with
later
to
direction);
the
less
or
more
of
steam
attention
this
in
made
agree
law
t.
setting
closely
we
of
up
with
the
of observation.
results
particularly
for
the
being presented
There
was
such
of
number
large
by
will
quality
temperature
(or saturated)
wet
ourselves
content
formulas
empirical
been
of the
have
we
the
and
general
(we
is, as
steam
volume
of
succeeded
which
obliged
from
temperature
not
the
function
as
develop
to
and
pressure
of
VAPORS.
of wet
pressure
independent
already emphasized,
X,
the
VAPORS.
SATURATED
OF
or
VAPORS.
SATURATED
PRESSURE
THE
2.
SATURATED
OF
BEHAVIOR
THE
A.
OF
PRESSURE
of
vapor
the
at
even
in
used
formerly
formulas
empirical
and
water,
been
ones
new
posed,
prostantly
con-
are
time.
present
technical
have
the
circles
formula
given
namely,
Young,
(4)
which
in
from
formula
fi,and
a,
coefficients
are
of
experience
derived
experiment.
The
older
I d,
of
11
ih
of
values
application.
Roche
and
was
D
P
the
of
were
the
their
of
of
t,
Artizan-Club
only
of
formulas
constants
of
/?,and
a,
the
1 i s,
and
and
of
g o,
more
in
of
the
dthe
differ
limits
from
comes
physical
exact
they
formula
much-used
for
employed
r,
preceding form,i
the
Another
and
gations
investi-
Jog^
^
27,
discussion
"tJber
1833,
and
collection
Expansivkraft
die
p.
9.
des
of
the
4older
Wasserdampfes."
(5)
formulas
is
given
Poggendorff's
by
Anoalen,
n
,
Vol.
JO
TECHNICAL
Here
used
by
the
and
a,
po,
the
in recent
times
here
will
that
formula
the
for
often
has
recourse
the
acid,
sulphurous
follow,
will
we
the
from
his
famous
lated
calcu-
and
cyanogen,
had
been
him
the
mercury,
form
given.
values
of
the
principal investigations
the
employ
ammonia
the
to
numerical
by
of
of
vapors
exclusively
before
determined
experiments
different
very
and
Regnault
by
from
was
Holtzmann^
preceding formulas, for, in

to
are
giving
omit
of the
constants
The
and
formula
latter
water
force.
formula
of the
carbon,
of
of
vapor
expansive
Marx,
bisulphide
used
its
on
constants
gadro,
We
the
The
Magnus.
by
the
quantities;
constant
and
for
experiments
even
fi mean
August
constants
THERMODYNAMICS.
relation
and
t"
reads:
logp-a+6a"+c^^,
(6"
where
(6a)
T=^-fe
and
b, c,
a,
a,
^, and
to
for
saturated
condition,
varied
the
in
tabular
in
millimeters
the
when
which
DAmpfe,"
Rel.
are
an
the
Holtzmann,
Mannheim,
II, 651.
each
(6)
and
of
for
thing
of
die
for
his
WAnne
I,
g g
kind
p,
of
and
the
vapor
them
pressure
temperature
which
smallest
of
underljring
trarily
arbi-
of that
of
one
pressure.
The
equation
(6) is
tion
determina-
the
Regnault
experimental
p
cording
ac-
was
intervals
equal
und
most
grouped
is the
constants
the
to
the
Q7?)
p.
in
vapors
temperature
the
to
five
chosen
''tJber
1845.
for
quantity
is the
values
easy
i
t
constant
graphical representation
"C.
"
was
five
mercury;
and
of
the
constants,
of B
corresponds
determination
only possible
of
of
to is
which
experiments
analytical
is that
of
corresponding
equation
has
Regnault
kinds
reference, Vol.
by Regnault
chosen
different
determined
preceding
Celsius;
to
the
has
(Compare
form.
is measured
of
and
the
of
of
pressures
logarithm employed
The
five
the
temperatures,
constants
series
whole
observed,
quantities.
constant
are
to
do
of
perature,
tem-
because
results.
Elastidtftt
der
Gaae
und
12
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
then
all
by
of
determination
the
for
get
of
combination
suitable
the
formulas
given
the
constants
î the
and
ai
first of
we
two
equations:
8yi'8y2-9yo'9yjt
P
(Sy2)^-Syi-8yz
.
and
follows
then
^"(ai-l)OJi-ax)'
dyi-ai'dyo
''"(i9i-l)(i9i-ai)'
finally, according
and
equation (7),
to
I
and
loga-^-^;j^logai
the
In
formulas
I
values,
functions
the
sign
in
the
of
front
kinds
different
and
second
on
14
page
also
whole
the
of vapors,
of
in
his
log (fta^) and
third
contains
of
equation
values
facilitatingthe
as
indicating
term
the
to
log (c^^)
necessitates
the
writings.
preferring
constants,
this
t, and
temperature
tabulation
the
(6) ;
the
of
of
vapors,
Regnault's
used
ones
these
of
in
constants
the
are
all
different
for
the
and
here
giving
omitted
the
give
determined
were
have
indicated
here
manner
logi^^p^^logft.
of
work
of
for
ical
numer-
computation.
investigated by
vapors
inserted
have
as
have
the
FAcadtoiCi
for
contains
tabulation
The
a\+fii
TAcaddmie
Regnault
Vol.
and
de
it
XXI,
p.
as
596)
there
aifir, Moritz
St.
P^terebourg,
himself
in
the
in
are
Vol.
here
give
to
XIII,
volume
p.
43.
of
kinds
the
errors
to
They
them
are
"Relation/'
are
there
or
could
formulas
in the
in
also
etc.
for
puting
com-
(Mdmoires
papers
typographical
attention
different
application
Regnault's
called
second
such
technical
superfluous
the
from
only
found
because
oonstantSi
selection
Regnault;
already
regarded
not
five
only
the
two
fonnulas
Bulletin
pointed
de
out
de
by
PRESSURE
THE
possibly
of
also
which
few
vapors
whose
examined
by
Reg-
contains
was
suited
seemed
vapors
13
VAPORS.
particulars
therefore
other
the
SATURATED
table
other
which
and
1 1
the
in
behavior
physical
n
used
thus
be
OF
not
were
the
explain
to
havior
be-
fully subjected
so
to
experiment.
these
book
in
If
vapors
the
first
these
if
specific
"the
kilograms
thousand,
ten
is
by
the
but
in
air
kg.
on
scj.
of
due
part
the
can
the
case
is here
is also
done
this
of
appendix
and
Regnault
to
If
the
and
of mercury
of
or
m.
sq.
of
by
kilograms
per
in
pheres;
atmos-
sq.
for
once
of
pressure
is
to
pheres;
atmos-
new
average
corresponds
on
parlance
common
which
sea,
assumed
all
the
be
to
of
pressure
10333
lb.
[2116.3
cm.
in
value
understand
we
the
the
kg.
1.0333
latter
in
of
speak
treatise
level
the
at
the
in
get
we
expressed
expressed
many
responding
cor-
s,"
10333
pressure
which
atmosphere
by
expressed
being
as
the
atmosphere
divide
now
we
for
get
we
obtained
value
present
760
"in
pressure
a
the
by
per
foot].
When
we
use
the
not
"
tables
thus
confusion
of
pressure
millimeters
this
e," i.e.,its
designated
avoid
760
and
values
get
to
atmospheric
mercury,
pressure
meter.
we
also
generally
in
pressure
values
centimeter,
square
there
the
pressur
square
per
the
the
multiply
we
table
enumerated;
in
pressure
temperature
and
the
given temperatures
seven
are
in
given
myself.
to
divide
we
of
computations
due
part
for
pressures
of
in
vapors
these
expressions
millimeters
in
given
for
kinds
eleven
the
of
the
the
computed
be
now
of
help
the
With
to
amounts
that
to
absolute
so
pressure
Now
of
of
the
the
so
one
the
it
is
that
of
always
application
behavior
of
of
area
meant,
the
atmosphere
but
simply
it
is meant.
the
say
being
then
It is
the
never
pressure
pressure
understood
hardly
so-called
remaining
will
we
scientificallyself-evident,
seems
is,
measurement
newer
kilograms,
many
centimeter
pressure
pressure,
gauge
and
because
say,
to
"atmospheres,"
term
square
one
ourselves
adjust
after
sary
neces-
that
the
excess
or
the
back
is subtracted.
laws
Thermodynamic
vapors
demands
not
only
to
a
the
tion
investiga-
knowledge
of
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAUICS.
""
"H
t|1 ^1
1l?
^1
111
1 I?
il?
iii.ot."
lag.
III
'I
^8
5'
"J
""""
Is
II
Ill
Si
.11
-I'
lit ll
?
;s-
-I
131
II
"
b.
gS.'l
PRESSURE
THE
is also
the
B.
g
If
This
relation, however,
-^,appearing
coefficient
with
the
perature.
tem-
easily derived
be
can
it
t, but
temperature
is connected
formulas,
important
from
formula.
the
multiply
we
the
dififerential
the
most
1 t's
how
15
VAPORS.
and
pressure
know
to
necessary
in
the
between
relation
the
SATURATED
OF
equation
log p"a+6a^+c^^
sides
both
on
Tî
"o is
toj where
"
of p;
thus
khd^
ka+
this
differentiate
we
k,
equation
if
or
replace
we
or
g g s,
natural
the
are
for
known
be
j9^ can
from
because
the
that
doing
so
log^.^^
the
by the
right member
logarithms,
common,
~|= (ifc26log a)a^+

Now,
obtain
follows
there
of
logarithms
in
consider
and
-^=A;6
logâ-a^-fAc
get in
will
we
kc^^.
quantity,
constant
we
by
namely
10,
designate by
logarithm
loge p
If
will
we
natural
the
left member
the
value
which
2.302585093,
of
logarithm
natural
the
by
different
let
computed;
data
earlier
the
the
vapors,
designate
us
log p)p^.
{kH
the
6,
constants
coefficients
two
them
by
and
of
and
a^
so
n,
j9
ana
c, a,
if
we
put
nÂ^c
and
m^h"^h\oga
log ^,
(9)
"
follows
there
%-^'^^^'
In
and
{ma^
n,
the
but
and
following
have
tabulation
^ven,
log (n/?^) as
for
more
functions
I have
given
not
convenient
of
/;
as
(10)
use,
a
the
the
consequence
values
values
of
of
I had
log
to
16
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
introduce
into
two
of the
terms
With
the
the
of
help
columns
two
of
member
right
values
the
(p. 17),
first
the
the
to
equation (10).
the
of
expressions
the
signs belonging
following
tabulation
of
dp
Pdt
5, tables
column
in
values
parjt, as
will
there
p,
will
values
different
the
for
differential
of the
they
if
later;
These
computed.
were
because
evident
become
result
Appendix
tables
the
in
placed
were
the
of
1-9
to
are
we
play
portant
im-
an
multiply
them
values
the
temperature
by
responding
cor-
coefficient
dp
which
values
inserted
are
is there
coefficient
it in
formulas
the
kilograms
per
will
We
in
given
which
by
per
be
must
the
ential
differin
using
expressed
in
inch].
square
example
an
This
tables.
of mercury;
it
follow
[pounds
illustrate
now
of said
in millimeters
to
are
meter
square
column
of
use
the
iary
auxil-
two
tables.
The
Example.
for
on
the
temperature
100"
saturated
of
pressure
C.
acetone
[212" F.]; here
vapor
get,
we
is to
according
be
found
to
table
14,
p.
log (6aT)-
+0.5312766-0.0026148
"
log (r/?^)
-0.9645222-0.0215592
/-
=0.2697966,
-3.1204422
"0.8795578-4,
which
from
follows
6a^-
1.8612155,
c^^ -0.0007578.
Now
taking
because
account
[a -3.5949482],
-5.3085419
of the
in
signs
log
[log
p-
front
of
"a^
and
get
we
of
from
cfi^,
-3.4465686
1.7329749]
and
p -2796.20
mm.
[p -54.0723
a
result
which
can
also
be
found
lb. per
in
Table
sq.
4a
in.I).
of the
Appendix.
equation
(8X
THE
OF
PRESSURE
Elements
for
SATURATED
Formula
the
17
VAPORS.
--y-^^ma'^+nB'^,
^
pat
Saturated
of
Values
Vapors
of
log (ma"^)
100"
1.1486877.
{0
100"200"
2.
Ether
log (n^ST)
0.003274463
"
3.3069414+0
006864937
-1.4802398-0
005950708
1.3971597-
-0.001656138
1.3396623
-0.0031223^
-4.4616396
0145775
1
1
3.
Alcohol
1720041
-0.0029143^
"2.9992701-0
4.
Acetone
1. 3268535-
0.0026148^
1.9064582-0
0215592
5.
Ghloroform
1.3410130
"0. 0025856
2.0667124-0
0131824
6.
Chloride
1.8611078-
.0.0002880^
1.3812195-0
0050220
"
"
2.0511078-0
0088003^
1.6177651-0
01
0.0052911
"
-1.7181390-0
-0.0035023
"
059051
5 "
carbon.
of
7.
Bisulphide
8.
Mercury.
9.
Carbonic
10.
11.
of carbon
add
1.4339778-
0.0022372
1.2917974-
-0.0012438^
1.3344869
Anomonia
1.4187347
.
F^^gl^fthunits
and
according
Example.
sulphurous
For
table, for i-0"

log {ma')
(n/9^)-
log
C.
first term
the
to
0.2552725
Celsius).
to
substitute
Fahrenheit,
temperature
arithmetically
auxiliary
-2.3669587-0.01207801
"
(t Temperature
[For
0.0027084
1.4402478
acid.
iSuiphuious
19062
0089584
acid
in
for
and
add
columns]:
according
get,
we
| ("" 32)
both
the
to
preceding
[32^ F.]:
-2],
-1.4402478
-0.5597522
-2
[0.3044797
-2.3669587
-0.6330413
-3
[0.3777688-3].
Hence
and
-0.0362871
ma^
n^-
-0.0042958,
therefore
and
dp
-0.0405829
[0.022546].
pdt
to
of
sulphurous
acid
of
mercury,
or,
kg.
15840
to
the
data
the
According
for
of
C.
"-0"
divided
by
i^quare
meter
the
foregoing
[32" F.]
[22.53
lb.
mm.
The
'^
^*
^^^^^
values
introduced
proceed by equal
highly
or
important
intervals
vapor
into
of
it
per
or
lb. per
0.508
the
auxiliary
equal
[29.922],
760
^-47.281
I
is
sq.
first ten
water
the
1.5330
in.
pressure
[48.8695
mm.
atmospheres
in.]; therefore
642.83
temperature;
of
1165.05
to
becomes
sq.
table
finally
we
in.]
or
get
kg.
and
tables
but
degree
per
of
for
there
the
the
are
F.
Appendix
technically
added
two
1
1
18
TECHNICAL
additional
intervals
equal
n
the
which
table,
like
the
ought
of which
'
the
other
also
was
render
to
used
(6)
formulas
of
the
service
good
the
in
given
was
following
in
(5),
temperature
in
done
and
for
for
by
(4)
computed
be
can
computed
are
formula
determination
this
interpolation;
by
values
temperature
consequently
pressure;
found
12, the
reversible,
that
sense
and
11
of pressure.
is not
1 1
the
tables,
THERMODYNAMICS.
iliary
aux-
certain
com-
parisons.i
Temperature
[To
into
convert
(Celsius)
Fahrenheit
Tables
7 inclusive
to
volume
second
in
issued
book,
because
the
then
equal
to
value
10333
col
specific
in
somewhat
to
edition
in
of
the
from
there
present
present
edition
those
is taken
the
the
given
atmosphere
one
with
of
appearance
edition
tables, but
these
present
the
second
corresponding
the
and
1.8
computed
were
after
The
differ
umns
pressure
by
the
earlier
assumed
was
accurate
more
kg.
in
I have
liquids
are
undertaken
day
my
the
of
might
lead
tables
to
the
in
the
certain
simultaneously
as
well
as
that
laws
subject.
the
laborious
excessively
hope
common
realized, although
been
by others
contained
some
kg., while
10334
computation
time
of
Appendix
the
work.
already
1866.
values
numerical
the
of
11
immediately
Regnaulfs
of
values
of:
32^'].
Table
and
machine
calculating
Thomas
Vapors
tabular
multiply
degrees
add
Saturated
for
tables
comparison
which
to
This
been
have
the
saturated
expectation
much
time-
and
of
absorbing
results
vapors
has
used
not
in
of
culation
cal-
of different
up
to
this
the
interval
and
further
myself.
Tables
8, 9, 10, and
information
concerning
12
their
are
new
ones
production
which
will
be
have
been
given
later.
added,
20
"
TECHNICAL
HEAT
THE
3.
THERMODYNAMICS.
OF
THE
AND
The
utilization
investigation
experimental
have
such
the
from
decide
that
the
upon
saturated
behavior
for
at
quantity
of
its
from
vapor
we
here,
use
above,
thermodynamics,
demands
but
these
least
also
latter
of
is
this
know,
which
for
4)
let
the
liquid
the
being
supplied
corresponds
by
convert
the
liquid, possessing
in
C.
0"
vapor.
from
of
p.
weight
of
[32''F.] temperature
the
by
cylinder
piston
be
ABy
to
position Ki
acted
pressure
of
upon
from
kg. [lb.]
of
Point
area.
volume
the
abscissa
the
point 6,
which
liquid
the
to
the
it will
volume
this
be
pressure
lies upon
at
liquid
this
to
begins,
doing (Fig. 1)
the
heat
and
ao,
the
and
gives
pressure,
latter
the
by
p.
is
which
of
of
unit
C.
him
different
(repeated
piston
unit
regards
as
indicated
formation
state
which
1.
steam
and
confined
left of
per
so
of
saturated
of (f
without
in
those
to
of
into
Fig.
be
the
heat
can
generate
temperature
suppose
to
If
we
quantity
initial
liquid
ordinate
of
are
to
series
weight
In
the
which
through
necessary
[32^ F.],
former
the
pressure
of
the
the
only
case
least
at
the
is
unit
of
the
results
necessary
constant
state
for
observations
sort,
"liquids,
the
other
Regnault;
to
owe
we
Fig.
not
particular
one
which
results
likewise
we
of
vapors,
heat
HEAT
liquid.
Existing experimental
will
of
TOTAL
HEAT.
principles
observations;
character
the
THE
LATENT
discussed
results
come
THE
of
of
LIQUID,
heated
of
of the
the
instant.
from
lower
without,
up
the
the
vapor
liquid
limit
I call
to
the
curve,
heat
before
temperature
to
increases
then,
be
generated;
from
cq
designates
quantity
to
a,
the
neces-
HEAT
for
"ary
the
doubtless
will
1 y
HEAT,
from
state
function
LATENT
of
the
by
heat
of
this
g;
and
temperature
21
HEAT.
the
to
it hereafter
designate
AND
the
is
quantity
be
can
sented
repre-
expression
the
by
of
change
and
liquid,
TOTAL
LIQUID,
OF
?=/"";
(11)
accordingly
ratio
the
da
^-1
stands
forth
the
as
constant
On
temperature
also
regard
Now
if the
likewise
the
connection
of
the
pressure
quantities
both
heat
pressure
till the
this
limit
upper
period
called
designate
if
The
it
by
wish
we
of
sum
last
the
path
regard
may
heat
two
quantities
and
from
generally
of
heat
to
is
the
of
the
t, is
Regnault,^
it
the
and
will
the
"
Rel.
steam,
0^
at
his
from
quantity
corresponding
liquid
C.
s)
always
ty
p.
designate
by
Rel.
the
of heat
at
total
necessary
constant
ture
tempera-
[32" F.].
experiments,
I, 726."
pressure
Regnault)
to
gives
temperature
the
of
we
will
we
the
constant
temperature
to
in
(13)
saturated
dry
p
iy from
(according
steam;
generate
pressure
called
into
lying
^=3+r,
which
the
passed
under
of
function
p.
under
point
hence
hd,
function
as
can
we
hence
has
hereafter
it
the
point d, belonging
(according
perature
tem-
supplied, during
change
or
the
pressure
begin
element
heat
the
h on,
the
of
without
also
it is likewise
r;
the
at
between
of
will
liquid
quantity
of
articles
point
the
to
evaporation;
we
the
functions
as
formation
heat,
of
function
liquid
preceding
from
along
latent
the
heat
the
The
therefore
saturated,
formation
and
dry
curve.
of steam
pressure
is
vapor
the
established
continued
be
of
is
the
steam
will
and
piston position ^3,
vapor;
and
(Fig. 1),
p
in
is continued
supply
constant
or
and
and
position K2
the
heat
account
piston
to
specific
pressure
U
(12)
II. 881.
derived
the
following
22
TECHNICAL
formulas
empirical
vapors
for
calculating
Vapor
of
Water
i="
Ether
="
Acetone
Chloroform
Chloride
of
the
total
Total
Heat
the
of
heat
below:
enumerated
Saturated
THERMODYNAMICS.
carbon.
606.
305
50+0.
X,
i
00055556
94.00+0.45000^-0.
140.50+0.36644
1"
"-0.
000516
""
" -0.
000172
("
(14)
67.00+0.
1375
52.00+0.
14625
"
90.00+0.
1460U-0.
"
Bisulphide
of
Saturated
carbon
Vapor
Total
of
Water
1091.7+0.305
1"
0004123
Heat
X.
Ether
169.2+0.45000
("-32*")
(^-32"^) -0.00031364
Acetone
252.9+0.36644
("-32*")
120.6+0.1375
(t-S2?)
Chloroform
Chloride
of carbon
.
Bisulphide
of
formulas
to
5 for
liquid
(e-32*")"
-0.00009556
("-32*")"
carbon.
According
(t-32")
93.6+0.14625
(/-32*")"
-0.00028667
tf -32**) -0.00022906
162,0+0.14601
data
Regnault's^
these
is to
vapors
be
the
of
heat
from
determined
(i-32*")"
the
the
following;
Saturated
Vapor
Heat
of
Water
f"+0.
5=^+0.00002
of
Liquid
the
g.
t"
0000003
Ether
"0.
Alcohol
0.54754
"+0.
0011218
/"+0.000002206""
Acetone
0.50643
"+0.
0003966
i"
Chloroform
23235
1+0.
0000507
t"
19798
"+0.
0000906
52901
1+0.
0002959/'
(16)
Chloride
of
carbon.
.
Bisulphide
of
Saturated
Vapor
0.
0.23523
""
carbon
Heat
of
Water
g="-32*"+0.
1"
2+0.0000815
of
the
Liquid
000011
(t-32O)"+0.
0001644
(t-32'')+0.
(t- 32^) +0.0006232
Ether
0.52901
Alcohol
0.54754
Acetone
=0.50643
Chloroform
0.23235
("-32*")+0.
0.19798
ft
+0.000000681
Chloride
of
carbon.
(t-32*')
-32"")
+0.0002203
0000282
+0.0000503
Bisulphide
of carbon
-0.23523
Rel.
(t-32"")+0.
I, 746."
Rel.
II,
0000453
262.
q.
0000001
("-32*")"
(/-32*')"
(/-32*")"
(t-32"")"
("-32*")*
("-32*")"
("-32")*
ft-320)"
HEAT
With
find
we
the
help
from
Saturated
of
of
the
heat
of
Vapor
Water
50-0.
r"606.
695
Ether
Acetone
"
Chloroform
"
67.00-0.09485^-0.
62.00-0.05173
90.00-0.08922^-0.
Chloride
of carbon
.
Bisulphide
using equation
(heat
of
Latent
Heat.
formulas
140.50-0.
i"-0.
13999
f -0.
0008514
t"
1-0.
0009125
i"
0000507
/ -0.
0002626
"*
0004938
"*
(13)
for
evaporation)
-0.00002
94.00-0.07901
2a
HEAT.
the
i"
0000003
(16)
carbon
of
and
data
following empirical
latent
the
LATENT
AND
HEAT,
preceding
the
A"
calculation
direct
TOTAL
LIQUID,
OF
Saturated
According
tables
the
to
formulas
computed
been
have
Latent
of
Vapor
formula
for
varied
to
empirical formula
table
the
kinds
The
only
by
from
of
the
carbonic
tables
vapor
which
investigations;
of
those
Appendix,
making
use
of
make
few
in
application.
methods,
which
the
is
the
exist
only
acid
few
given by
concerning
repeated
led
in
which
our
the
are
be
can
especially for
this
have
tabulation
puted
com-
subsequent
the
vapors
in
presented
the
observations.
following investigations
examination
are
because
way.
required by
sulphurous
cal
empiri-
employed
were
above
and
vapors,
there
remarks
Closer
as
and
presented, empirical, formulas

to
in
the
Therefore
quantities discussed
heat
all other
of A
graphical
presented
form.
in
an
up
would
that
way
values
in
the
set
alcohol,
A of
complicated
given formulas,
for
heat
in
very
acid, ammonia
of the
Before
of
Regnault
for
ones
total
not
values
inserted
and
did
temperature
alcohol
for
given
foimd
were
the
corresponding
mentioned
vapors
the
computing
with
the
^ven
Regnault
value
an
the
for
Appendix.
of the
here
Heat.
their
of
the
1 1, it is
reliabilityand
of
Regnault's
in
nearly
every
just
sary
neces-
range
mental
experione
of
the
24
TECHNICAL
larger
manuals
of
liquid
the
took
place
In
the
0^
q in
and
with
increasing
of
other
the
on
volume
of
the
in
line;
The
relation
the
the
ordinates
later,
when
We
small
Let
'
the
with
the
be
oq
statements
its
the
to
0*^ C.
at
[32^ F.]
of
with
condition
growing
the
from
to
of
the
an
which
safely
the
the
[a
From
it
(70
we
(To(l+
{1 +0.000005
get
for
(Tq
0.00009
{t
=0.001
32^)
of
question
vapors.
ordinary
sure
pres-
extraordinarily
pressure.
corresponding specific volume
specific
t+
sumed
as-
axis
volume
by
at
the
0"
C.
[32" F.],
following
formula:
a
the
liquid
at
be
may
back
within
of
pressure
It
come
gives
curve,
departs
reproduced
are
in
occurring
volume
particular, experiences
the
quently
Conse-
vertical
limit
and
that
as
liquid
lower
will
perature
tem-
pressure.
equation
H
constant
pressure
possible.
we
temperature,
let
of
figure shows,
grows;
in
and
water,
is
specific volume
of
the
t be
the
as
pressure
water,
increase
regarded
exactly
formation
conclude
limits
the
decrements
formation.
steam
pressure
corresponds
investigating
may
6f
the
between
curve,
the
as
of
oq
OY
negligiblein comparison
are
61662 (Fig. 1), the
of steam
this
volume
between
temperature
the
under
limits
the
realized.
figure, is indubitable;
the
water,
be
c,
of ordinates
that
final
cwi
independent
as
exists
beginning
that
then
specific
curve
which
within
words,
its temperature
when
of
aiaa2(Fig. 1)
other
second
the
axis
shown
pressure,
with
occur
regarded
be
can
of
constant
heat
heat
specific
relation
the
the
in
have
increasing
curve
engineering
indicated
as
liquids, particularly
with
at
approaches
observations
which
those
liquid
of the
completely
not
were
its
of
represents
the
curve
pressure,
hand
but
with
this
also
hence
aiaa2
of
determination
the
which
curve
volume
that
that
and
assumptions
p. 4, the
[32" F.];
shows
particluar,
under
pressure
C.
Physics,
of
Fig. 1,
THERMODYNAMICS.
0.0000034
+0.00000105
[0.01602]
i^)
{t
32")2 1].
at
pirical
em-
HEAT
Up
t^lOO^
to
here
of
[212^]
200"
to
up
in
also
with
the
the
it is
investigations;
of
of
unit
two
61662 and
curves
this
assumption
and
pressure
it is
tacitly
refer
to
to
heat
with
the
observe
it
the
to
the
reversal
of
little
rise
of
pressure,
however,
that
temperature
during
the
of
heat
the
of
water
of
can
The
be
certain
the
steam
with
cold
did
water
by
means
of
bring
to
0"
[32"]
did
nor
he
during
to
ments
experifrom
flow
in
prevailing
under
all
at
in his
observe
the
the
atmospheric
taking place
occurrence
not
of water
and
the
given
in order
did
pressure
liquid there,
pursued
He
withdrawn
quantity
of
granted,
temperature
Regnault
the
filled
which
experienced.
but
let
under
calorimeter
temperature
what
be
specific
formulas
evaporation,
must
its
and
is not
liquid
the
of
puted
com-
invariability
liquid.
from
which
the
empirical
required by
heat
to
was
boiler,
steam
the
temperature
liquid q
assumption
the
fail
not
Regnault
of the
of
must
we
which
this
accuracy
operation
the
one,
If
pressure
quantity
latter, into
heat
the
of heat
quantity
with
a
for
corresponding
observe
with
exceeded
statements
assumption
the
constant
at
the
way,
coinciding
certain
not
are
in
manner
liquid.
the
doubt
Regnault
by
the
tacit
of
must
we
limits
preceding
experiments
his
specific volume
then
it
following investigations, therefore,
these
the
that
fact
involved
another
as
may
which
remark,
between
constant
to
the
following
liquid
it in
is
cycles investigated.
the
from
add
once
all the
in
that
assumed
connection
In
at
permissible
only
limits;
of the
course
is
must
vapors
the
regarded
are
parison
com-
assumption
the
presenting
in
volume
pressure
(Fig. 1)
aiaa2
We
line.
vertical
the
the
or
their
in
is
liquid
missible^
per-
liquid
limit,
the
temperature
subjected;
be
may
that
it is
of
This
treated
pressiue
that
pressure
change.
of
whatever
and
possess
^ven
assumed
weight
small
so
of volume
liquids
therefore
steam
experienced by
other
whatever
quantity
the
to
temperatures
the
is
"t
From
constant.
as
increments
in volume
changes
and
of
25
HEAT.
corresponding
increment
the
LATENT
(7=0.0010
the
to
up
regard
regards
as
regard
negligible up
pressures
made
also
or
the
general, to
as
water
when
[392"],
AND
HEAT,
can
we
atmospheres,
15.4
TOTAL
LIQUID,
OF
our
here
is
plicated
com-
subsequent
26
TECHNICAL
presentations
of
these
of
water
Later
the
speak
of
of
dure
proce-
the
specific
exactly, acknowledge
also
Hirn,
by
with
rapidly
more
nault's
the
it
that
in
the
Pfaundler
by
the
that
and
heat
specific
of
is the
than
temperature
water
in
case
the
Regnault.
by
statements
Nevertheless,
book
present
will
we
hold
fast
to
statements.
HEAT
STEAM
4.
THE
AND
formulas
empirical
The
heat,
calculating
for
given
valid
are
the
under
generated
that
pressure
tensions,
to
During
is
work
just
the
the
assumed
temperature.
the
passage
from
the
to
the
the
the
of
this
for
the
As
the
the
following
the
present
by
law
of
condition
of
volume
is represented
we
bds.
get
If
at
we
once,
case,
magnitudes
two
under
the
vapor
which
was
and
to
rectangle
work
steam
increase
the
(Fig. 2),
area
latent
to
of
represent
that
according
liquid
because
by
the
pressure
corresponds,
produced,
Regnault
and
proviso
express
from
^^
heat
constant
which
OUTER
which
adduced,
total
the
under
AND
INNER
HEAT.
LATENT
just
result
the
method
invariability
more
indicate, however,
above-mentioned
has
liquids;
heated
Regnault's
accept
we
to
or,
experiments
Platter,
"
if
highly
slightly.
but
grows,
is that
permissible,
volume
of
efflux
calculations
is
varies
the
on
THERMODYNAMICS.
formulas
in
and
the
occur
form
of
in
their
^'-
difference,
we
Clausius
equation (2), p. 6)
and
make
will
(as
of
use
"
s"a.
the
follow
was
simpler
the
done
practice
in
notation
of
deriving
28
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
quantities together give

heat.
inner
The
of
units
heat,
how
states
simply
or
contained
unit
the
of
latent
more
many
in
of
steam
the
unit
of
given
weight
of
sure
pres-
liquid
of
temperature.
Combining
the
heat
are
in
same
with
latent
saturated
than
the
total
latent
heat
of
weight
the
the
of
help
(18) and
preceding equations
two
equation (13),
(19)
get,
we
relation
the
J^q+p
the
introduced
I
heat
only
not
saturated
had
The
heat
steam
of
from
r
the
be
evaporation
under
in
p,
temperature,
then
Apu,
the
calculation
the
this
For
of
vapor
(1 -x)
c
as
of
the
let
liquid
may
formed
latent
has
heat
valid
only
are
r.
pendent
inde-
been
the
be,
of
values
other
us
the
the
of
when
taken
place
three
the
heat
of
or
pressure
also
are
which
to
latent
the
temperature,
the
determined
establishing
heat
by
unit
volume
of
r,
relation
Apu.
kg. [lb.] of
equation
weight of
steam
are
belonging
mixture
mixed
to
with
the
point
(2), p. 6,
+
v=xu
supply the heat
of
means
suppose
kg. [lb.]of liquid, then
we
case
single
external
us
in
(Fig. 2), is, according
If
has
nitudes
mag-
X and
both
are
X and
they
function
two
gives
purpose
and
of
formulas.
Thermodynamics
for
heat
these
quantities
steam
that
the
as
determining
and
quantities J,
preceding
total
behavior
because
heat
of
theory
the
on
the
the
the
pressure.
succeed
we
which
view
in
condensation,
or
but
latent
the
using
expressly kept
constant
If
in
in
bearing
form,
inner
the
into
significance than
manner
liquid, while
the
it must
the
and
and
formulas
simpler
on
general
more
all the
took
vapors
quantities
two
because
(20)
o.
quantity dQ
the
amount
dvûdx.
to
volume
this mixture,
will
increase
at
stant
con-
by
the
in
because
liquid
the
THE
AND
HEAT
STEAM
this
is converted
at
OUTER
AND
is constant;
case
INNER
in
constant
LATENT
doing
so
the
into
pressure
29
HEAT.
quantity
steam,
dx
of
that
so
dQ^rdx,
and
combination
from
hence
with
the
preceding equation
get
we
dQ'^-dv
the
From
which
we
second
is valid
all
for
of
set
find
can
expression
another
from
earlier.
equations given
fundamental
the
of heat
quantity
this
For
(21)
under
equations
bodies, namely,
Ilia
according
(Vol. 1,
p.
62),
to
dQ^-^Xdt Tdv],
+
dp
we
get
dp
"
because
it is assumed
here
that
is
heat
imparted
under
constant
temperature.
In
of
the
ential
the
pressure
hence
to
the
the
be
can
combination
us
the
case
p,
coeflBcient
The
brings
present
of
reciprocal
written
this
is only
temperature
in
of
value
the
equation
partial
-^ and
form
with
the
equation
This
represents
equation
prominent
in
the
absolute
constitutes
result
its
we
differ-
get
(21)
then
relation
z-^î
in which
function
thus
investigation
temperature.
the
far
of
(^)
the
most
brought
behavior
important
about
of
by
saturated
and
namics
thermodyvapors.
30
TECHNICAL
equation
The
above
that
time
the
of
which
under
of
the
of
of
which
volume
of
latent
the
assumptions
specific
nated
desig-
was
I, Remarks,
values
the
the
Vol.
(see
known
value
will
the
later.
at
vapors,
function
of
the
heat
and
the
As
will,
we
the
of
question
occasion
of
ease
versed
re-
special
reference,
equation.
investigations
sides
for
cedure
pro-
was
of w,
will
formula
the
formula
values
perature
tem-
ments
experi-
known,
the
of the
th^
to
exact
more
were
Clapeyron's
both
dividing
latent
function
after
directions,
as
purpose
and
determination
other
it hereafter
followed
was
return
in
investigations
the
the
on
exact
more
we
get, by
and
recognized
been
designate
then
the
Clausius
for
the
concerning
Regnault
of
of
relation
true
had
we
function
C which
mula
for-
temperatures.
the
After
For
calculated
different
function
in his
but
(1834),
temperature
vapors,
made
were
Clapeyron
to
basis
different
of
the
as
On
130).
heat
for
Clapeyron
from
comes
is replaced by the
Ar
p.
THERMODYNAMICS.
contained
in
this article,
equation (22) by -Ap,
dp
dt'
(23)
Apu
and
then
can
value
the
compute
"f",where
*-^.
For
there
the
Apu,
the
headings
For
the
utilization
it is
purposes,
established
quantities
As
for the
the
in
be
this
heat
to
several
of
as
the
of
Tables
book
the
rapidly
we
quantities
need
calculated
stick
X and
the
ture
temperaformulas
preceding
of
to
the
formulas
no
that
with
strictly to
q, I do
not
Appendix
and, beyond
further
values, particularly
quantities J,
heat
preceding
columns,
tabular
the
of
temperature.
every
the
function
from
essential, however,
for
can
for
columns
according
of
known
computed
corresponding
computed
were
be
and
p,
is
then
can
values
The
be
which
for
vapors
(24)
explanation.
for
technical
empirical
formulas
and
so
p,
Apu,
sufficient
that
to
these
accuracy.
Regnault's
wish
should
increase
results
the
num-
ber
have
only
INNER
from
latent
heat
inner
and
reproducing
these
Vapors
AND
the
values
is
tabular
given
p^
with
LATENT
OUTER
than
more
any
developed
the
Saturated
THE
formulas
empirical
of
AND
HEAT
STEAM
absolutely
values
in
the
Inner
of
necessary.
formulas
the
following
sufficient
tabulation
accuracy.
Latent
85.54-0.10648
Ether.
Acetone
"131.
Chloroform
Chloride
of
Carbon..
of
Bisulphide
Saturated
Heat.
Carbon.
20184
63-0.
0007160
"-0.
0006280
"
62.44-0.11282
(-0.0000140
48.57-0.06844
"-0.
0002080
82.79-0.
11446
"-0.
0004020
Inner
Latent
of
Vapors
1 -0.
Heat
p.
Ether
153.97-0.10648
("-32"") -0.000398
Acetone
236.93-0.20184
ft-32*")
112.39-0.11282
ft-32*")-
Chloroform
Chloride
of
Carbon..
(26)
((-32*")
1035.72-0.791
Water
(e-32*")'
((-32*')"
ft-32^)"
-0.000349
0.0000078
87.43-0.06844
ft-32*")
-0.0001
149.02-0.11446
ft-32")
-0.000223
16
Bisulphide
the
for
/t"-575.40-0.79U
Water
In
31
HEAT.
of
Carbon.
with
combination
preceding expressions
the
formulas
will
give
given
in the
us
iljm=r"
under
ft-32'*)"
ft-32^)"
(15) and
(16)
relations
/t)
and
J=q+Py
empirical formulas
It
is worth
very
simple
great
accuracy
equality
the
of
the
for
noting
these
of
the
the
that
expression
magnitudes.
connecting
in
formula
differences
in
the
of
vapor
p
water
with
the
question
values
of
is
Column
in
particular has
temperature;
the
evident
the
from
7, Table
lb
of
Appendix.
The
latent
combination
of
equations
(13) and
(19) gives the
external
heat
Ajm^X-q-p,
(26)
32
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
and
therefore
we
the
-4pw
the
of
vapor
Moreover
Saturated
^pu"31.10
Ether
Chloroform
Qiloride
of
Ckkrbon.
.
of
Bisulphide
7.46+0.02747t-0.0001354""
8.87+0.06185t-0.0002845t"
4.56+0.01797t-0.0000367t'
3.43+0.0167U-0.0000646e'
7.21
Latent
98+0.
i4pu-55.
Apu^r^p,
1'-0.0000003(*
(27)
Apu^r"p.
Heat
("-32*")
096
(t -32*")
-0.0000111
(t -32*')
-0.000000093
Ether
-13.43+0.02747
Acetone
-15.97+0.06185
Chloroform
of
Carbon.
.
Bisulphide
In
the
which
of
8.21
5.81+0.01671
-12.98+0.02542
was
heat
for
the
proposed by
of
vapor
C
is
there
water
(t -32")
0000204
("-32")
0000303
("-32*")-0.
("- 32") -0.000051
(t -32")
W-32*")-0.
+0.01797
Carbon.
(t-32")
0000752
(t-32*')-0.
581
0.0001
p-32*")-
physical investigations
latent
latent
external
^-0.0000918""
+0.02524
External
of
Water.
Chloride
(19).
Carbon.
Vapors
Saturated
the
-0.00002
0.096t
Heat
Latent
Acetone
and
(23)
of
calculation
according
computed
formulas
often
an
for
used
("- 32")"
calculating
formula
approximate
namely,
s
,
(28)
r=607-0.708^
[r
Therefore
we
the
for
Appendix,
the
are
of
External
Water
(26a)
of
Vapors
and
Apu
direct
the
(25),
of
12
instead
formulas
following
and
11
of
formulas
get for
we
the
heat
values
the
water,
and
(16)
we
("-32^)-9].
+1.096
Tables,
preceding
the
to
main
two
in
when
water,
31.10H-1.096"-9
[ilpti= 55.98
In
of
vapor
adduced
formulas
empirical
utilize the
for
get
1092.6-
0.708
("- 32^)].
have
ilpti=r-/o"31.6+0.083f
[i4pu"r-iO=66.88+0.083
(28a)
.
(^-32*^)].
"
"
"
SPECinC
But
the
the
lb
of
be
made
"
unit
Appendix
5.
SPECIFIC
WEIGHT
the
the
in
other
in
employed
where
B
The
calculations
formerly
the
no
Table
should
use
weight
for
cubic
connection
the
was
of condition
of
the
that
was
temperature
equation
of
VAPORS.
specificweight, i.e.,the
and
and
same
in
as
latter
the
was
form
the
specific weight
is
kind
the
to
dry saturated
of the
specific volume
belonging
constant
columns
SATURATED
OF
volume
represented
of
in exact
assumption
words,
the
values
that
formulas.^
pressure,
gases;
the
these
vapor,
between
of
3;i
VAPORS.
SATURATED
OF
show
determining
of
and
differences
of
In
WEIGHT
of
considered.
vapor
with
connected
steam
the
specific volume
the relation
by
^s"l
and
hence
have, from
we
the
preceding formula,
r-^
If
of
substitute
here
we
the
pressure
increases
this
result
consideration
observation
by
the
made
the
for
of
values
show
now
with
nearly uniformly
very
caused
under
vapor
j-
values
different
the
corresponding
pressures.
computations
The
Y
will
there
assumed
the
the
determined
p,
temperatures,
to
for
(29)
to
set
up,
for
that
the
the
steam
the
specific weight
vapor
of
water,
relation
the
(30)
r-OL+PPf
which
in
and
determined.
of
and
pressure,
tables
of
This
tables
The
u
the
formula
present
issue.
for
quantities
constant
is
relation
first
of the
'
are
edition
the
of
latent
known
this
heat
in
book
r
were
and
whose
values
circles
technical
calculated
therefore
were
on
differ
the
from
as
basis
the
34
formula.
'
Of
certain
only within
the
by calculating
for
low
the
present
in
steam
in
because
engines
than
of
which
saturated
far
So
doubts
the
to
justly
knew
of
so
the
that
equation
(29)
increased
was
accuracy
both
of water,
vapor
which
is of
pressures
are
methods
of
no
at
use
employed
of calculation
equation
technical
condition
investigations
results
of
of
since
to
gases.
concerned
are
thermodynamics
existed
have
consists
(29), according
of
equation
which
removed
been
have
and
years
customary.
the
important
the
higher
accuracy
of
many
others
values
/?,for
older
obey
needs
the
as
belongs
the
vapors
but
then
were
treatise,
proceeding
for
time.
the
much
now
part of these
assumption
the
high,
extensive
most
which
and
and
for
time
erroneous
the
limits;
constants
and
pressiu-e
The
of
reproduced
pressure
the
Engine,
Pambour,
(30) accurately
relation
made
important
an
as
Navier,
course
Steam
the
physical standpoint
the
from
of
engineers
regarded by
T/ae
his Theory
of it in
use
it
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
the
that
N
'
After
following
p.
the
first
to
function
from
compute,
p. 29, and
was
the
equation
(1),
6:]
reach
from
the
but
that
results
differences
of the
In
so
are
older
u+a'
older
small
very
method
great
that
we
the
pressures
in
used
finally cease
must
to
deviations
insignificant,
were
considerably
pressures
and
water,
of calculation
increased
steam
of
vapor
with
the
vapors
question
the
value
of the
10
to
different
the
'
with
growing
engineering
the
making
use
any
procedure.
Tables
reciprocal
saturated
deviations
With
^=-=:
"^^
that
of the
the
pressures.
of
conclusion
the
and
w^s-a,
dt'
specific weight
the
at
of
equations, [equations (22),
three
in
steam.
the
was
-âT-tt,
for
of
significance
real
the
jecognized
behavior
the
concerning
time
by adding
specific
y
Appendix
is the
given temperature.
volume
the
s
the
values
of
specificvolume
is
easily
specific weight
of
are
of
determined
the
vapor
computed
the
vapor
and
considered
its
36
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
In
order
ordinary
the
of
from
atmospheric
1, while
18, line
formulas
In
(27),
on
of
If
regard
p.
latent
32, with
the
be
the
values
heat
made
from
Apu
of
of
the
the
table
computed
was
of
exception
found
was
may
taken
were
the
at
(at evaporation
use
pressure
which
alcohol,
vapor
boiling
calculating it,
external
the
behave
vapors
pressure)
tabulation.
at
temperature
p.
different
temperature
following
the
the
how
atmospheric
under
on
show
to
the
by interpolation
value
from
for
Table
36.
we
because
be
the
equation
specificvolume
the
neglected
cases,
many
of
condition
of
the
is very
liquid
valid, then^
as
gases
small,
and
can
write
can
we
of
Apu-ÂBT,
and
then, according
equation (23),
to
r.AB'S- f
(32)
at
"p
Values
of
Specific
Weight
Relative
Weight
Vapors
Saturated
of
Apu
Ileferred
ti
to
Hydrogen.
for
atmospheric
pressure.
Water
9.24
Ether
37.06
Alcohol
22.79
Acetone
28.59
Chloroform
60.10
Chloride
Carbon.
of
79.10
.
Bisulphide
For
can
of
for
vapors
calculate
but
Carbon
38.82
which
such
the
are
the
of
must
deviate
g
the
be
of
vapor
which
the
on
with
obtained
For
obtained
results
observations
observations
values
approximations.
results
no
latent
help
heat
of the
1 1.
as
water
in
Attention
is
exist,
only
from
here
we
of pressures;
curve
regarded
extraordinarily
rough
particular,
the
called
perimental
ex-
to
WEIGHT
SPECIFIC
the
because,
matter
vestigations, the
which
from
is very
I
sufficient
found
have
it is desirable
computed
be
can
tables
corresponding
the
calculation
formulas
possess
vapors
for
accuracy,
to
permissible.
as
in
the
above
given
way
for
the
of water
vapor
ordinarily
of
equation
the
that
within
in
occurring
limit
upper
sure
pres-
ing
engineer-
didd2j Fig. 1,
curve
p. 4,
can
simply represented by
very
ps/*
the
is
pressure
[2116.3 lb.
in
If,
the
direct
the
given
in
ft.]) then
sq.
per
of the
constant
for
regarded
in-
physical
in
troublesome.
the
If
is
of saturated
available, and
limits
be
mentioned
37
VAPORS.
frequently happens
specific weight
always
not
SATURATED
investigations
with
and
rapidly
are
the
still
as
assumption
technical
For
OF
right
C.
atmospheres
must
we
member
of
we
the
value
replace
"
per
for
1.7049
by
;-
m.
sq.
and
1.0646,
/i=
specificweight
the
kg.
(10333
put
write
we
preceding equation,
calculation
(33)
the
[32.670].
y-,
of the
get
we
of
vapor
water
(34)
r-ocp'',
in
formula
which
and
accurately
this
Table
of
in
If
11
the
kilograms
steam
formula
the
substitute
must
provided
0.9393,
n"
we
per
expressed
leproduces
Appendix,
pressure
is
p
square
the
is shown
is not
in
values
by
given
[a
-0.6061
the
in
centimeter
"
0.037837]
atmospheres.
of
y,
which
following
are
How
given
tabulation:
atmospheres,
(new
but
atmos-
in
38
TECHNICAL
pheres) [pounds
(34)
the
For
per
[0.00303]
of
course
inch],
square
-0.5875
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
the
If
for
write
to
the
need
of
which
formula,
must
we
0.9393.
n"
in
put
is
however,it
equation
sufficiently
arise
given
to
in
tables
auxiliary formula
an
of
be
can
the
Appendix,
employed
be
to
prove
may
such
possess
the
given
there
perhaps
"6.
curve
make
|f
vapors
and
again
must
in equation
substitute
must
we
[480.145];
should
other
values
/*
and
limit
upper
(33) /*=1.0646andC=1.7617
accurate
then
of
CLAPEYRON'S
derive
to
the
then
the
such
form.
same
EQUATION.
"
"
in
If,
OT
and
point
we
Fig. 3,
to
curve
tangent
at
with
the
intersection
from
tension
the
draw
lay
corresponding
the
of
we
off the
the
the
axis
point 6, then,
absolute
pressure
of
point
of
on
temperature
saturated
a
of
the
ordinates,
the
ordinate,
as
the
and
is
the
one
considered.
it
prolong
If
to
horizontally
pass
hand,
one
at
get
we
vapor
curve,
abscissa
as
angle
of
the
its
over
gent
tan-
given by
dp
tana
dt'
and
on
the
other
hand
by
tana='=r.
ab
As
the
distance
the
value
combination
Fio.
Comparison
namely,
with
mth
we
of
ab
measures
get,
from
the
two
the
mulas.
for-
3.
Clapeyron's
equation
(22),
p.
29,
CLAPEYRON'S
result
the
gives
that
distauce
the
99
EQUATION.
be
represents the value
Au
From
relation
the
Apu
/d +
then
we
get
quantity is represented by
which
this
In
distance
the
Tables
8 of the
Differentiation
(Fig. 3)
Oc
and
can
equation
i;he quantities considered
way
column
the
from
computed
be
^'
Au
Au
la
last
of the
determined
for
Appendix.
the
of
7a
to
been
have
equation with
to
respect
t, moreover^
gives
1"-^^
while
equation (35) directly
from
values
two
but
If,
was
as
pwBT,
of
Wfirme,"
like
a
the
u
on
the
on
in
C.
'
the
functions
are
Fig. 3, directly
36,
p.
right-hand
of
the
pressure
and
pressures,
as
substitute
we
Neumann,
p.
measured
experimental
which
be
can
Vol.
in
found
188.
^The
"
equation
p"
we
can
simply
(37)
has
of
be
on
thus
the
far
work.
latent
been
die
Vol.
vouchsafed
of
long
to
vapor
them.
612)
dei
but
nothing
so
the
p.
Theorie
assumption
however,
heat
tions
investiga-
CIV,
mech.
represents
The
entertained,
classical
the
202, and
uber
expression
imits
cannot
results
in
CIII, p.
"Vorlesungen
in
expression,
confidence
side
(Pogg. Ann.,
f f
1876,
h"it
preceding
1 1
inspire
suggested
Leipsic,
latent
inner
likewise
and
in
p:Au
(87)
get
we
expression
The
and
here,
appear
now
r:Au
follows
^JK^)
Apu
The
(")
the
pU'^BT
as
of
wate)
g-
40
TECHNICAL
designate
therefore
external
ratios
and
p:u
respectively represent
latent
heat
increase
them
For
354.62
for
Likewise,
the
equal
at
get
when
If
relations
the
the
regard
equal
the
pressure
In
and
for
[13.788],
mm.
all
is evident
as
exactly
were
the
from
the
and
where
correct
we
above-
could
/(p) would
could
we
function
same
vapors,
generation
would
all kinds
most
of
the
latent
the
pressures
inversely proportional
with
[18.31],
of
the
put
be
simultaneously
all vapors.
for
For
350.21
la), when
formulas.
above
approximately, ry^jip)^
valid
be
equal,
r:uas
for
(Table
at
given
value
pressure
the
at
^^
and
these
between
connection
given
we
values
the
pressures
approximately
be
if
and
other,
162.95
p"
itself,
little.
water
r:u=
vapor.
pressure
each
and
heat
the
temperature,
with
of
to
the
diflfer but
to
vapor
prove
like
vapors
latent
of
growing
found
total
the
steam,
[18.90].
168.24
with
alcohol,
of
r:u
or,
the
as
approximately
saturated
the
Appendix,
the
be
the
is
volume
of
[13.9615 in.],we
mm.
vapor
have
will
of
different
the
they
example,
of
rapidly
for
pressure,
volume
unit
per
tables
the
to
compare
Since
specific
values
these
the
and
pressure
remark.
the
r:u
inner
of
with
According
p=
internal
the
as
following is worthy
identical
same
/otAu
pressure.
The
the
THERMODYNAMICa
of
to
require
of
their
the
of the
several
specific weights,
unit
cubic
same
heat
of
steam
quantity
would
vapors
or
under
at
constant
this
pressure
vapors.
text-books
proposition given by
heats
Despretz
on
Physics
attention
(1823).
is called
to
this
CLAPEYRON'S
If,
done
was
as
kinds
different
in
of
corresponding
Fig. 3,
tangents
of
substitution
the
the
equal
the
the
pressure
point
common
in
r:u=f(p)
of
for
curves
pressure
points
the
at
through
pass
value
the
draw
we
then
vapors,
41
EQUATION.
and
c,
Clapeyron's
tion
equa-
(22) gives
or
dT
If
function
let
again,
is
integral of
the
designate
we
dp
us
the
say,
right
the
all
for
same
member
by -F(p),which
get
we
vapors,
logar=F(p)+C.
another
If, for
T', then
would
there
the
at
vapor
same
follow
this
for
the
pressure,
temperature
were
vapor
log, r^F{p)+c%
by subtracting
and
equations
these
^=C-C',
loga
or,
in
expressed
is
temperatures
different
relation
to
simple
for
drawn
second
could
vapor
known
were
But
shows
kind
one
for
exact
more
that
all the
for
the
this
if
at
pressiure
then
be
once
the
I, II,
will
vapor
if the
the
drawn,
ratio
the
corresponding
etc.
(Fig. 3),
then
pressure
corresponding
provided
of
the
stand
responding
cor-
in
curve
were
of
curve
given
ratio
curve.
examination
preceding,
we
when
other;
vapor,
second
of
the
vapors
curves
kinds
each
of
of
quantity
pressure
the
to
very
The
kinds
two
constant
alike."
are
pressures
"with
words,
of
derived
results
draw,
according
curves
of
the
Despretz'
to
different
are
proposition
only rough
Regnault's
vapors
adjacent
mations,
approximents,
experito
each
42
TECHNICAL
other,
in
as
is
curves
Fig. 3,
by
results
The
in the
of
at
see
we
means
no
THERMODYNAMICS.
simple
so
the
that
once
calculation
of
tabulation
following
the
as
connection
one
just presented.
like
for
r:u
and
Values
the
likewise
of
for
"
Vapors
between
Pressures
Steam
taken
cannot
in
the
ascribed
Another
to
column
being
been
recently
Avu
help
found
of
the
If, according
the
made
1
o
vapor
be
they certainly
to
few
from
n's
it,namely,
for
to
derive
of
these
the
tion
equa-
saturated
pors.
va-
efforts.
Formula.
i
for
of
Rankine's
C
to
to
means
'
curves
refer
here
(a)
that, for
been
pressure
will
We
that
derived
dt
eflfort has
the
no
Atmospheres
Tdp
this
by
are
marked
so
equation, particularly for equation (23)
with
of
of observation.
errors
has
use
vertical
same
variations
the
equal,
be
values
as
tained
con-
great variation
10
The
are
pressures
show
the
allow
we
s,
r
in
ourselves
particular,
the
to
assume
latent
heat
may
and
then
be
assumed
permit
the
to
ourselves
above
be
to
make
use
of the
formula
equation gives
dpJa-?T)
V
ABT^
dT,
for
gases
pu
BT,
44
TECHNICAL
Unwin
gives
and
vapors
formula
alcohol,
carbonic
results
numerical
regarded
be
limits
his
that
at
for
1.25
to
for
fether, 0.69
one
of
vapor
and
mercury,
regards
as
RaoultPictet's
in
'
this
(equation 39)
remaining
constants
in
be
fact
the
simpler
will
his
later.
during
in later
discussions
of
will
that
be
and
n"l
get
volume
of saturated
same
for
pressure
can
"
"
Comptes
Journal
air
has
attention
later,
called
permissible.
which
and
value
led
from
the
of the
lively
to
that
so
29,
p.
made
were
as
conclusions,
the
by
"ussumption
regarded
replacing
all
given
was
assumptions
(22),
for
additional
i 1 y
equation
results
we
formula.
take
we
by
are
the
the
specific
at
of
calculate
rcDduB,
de
it
development
the
valid
as
then
steam,
atmospheric
we
upon
fully
of
given
of his formula
use
Now
an
far-reaching
generally permissible step
has
be
touched
more
(39a)
theoretically;
cannot
Clapeyron's
in
derivation
the
drew
computation
But
made
works
justifiedin examining
If
the
for
0.77
make
we
shall
we
involved
and
form
mentioned
that
established
as
strictly speaking,
which,
P
presented
much
which
formula
is the
and
vapors
to
water,
loge^=J,
which
'
Formula.
formula
the
suitably change
him
and
acid.
(c)
and
of
also
results,
the
kinds
formula
rate
any
empirical
an
equal
for
1.163
several
experimental
as
taken
for
constants
temperature
be
to
the
Regnault's
it is to
n,
for
If
the
wide
is also
exponent
1.29
by
reproduces
it between
does
(elsewhere)
shows
well
very
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
the
Vol.
Physique,
temperature
same
specific
XC.
Vol.
p.
IX,
1073,
1880.
volume
1880.
and
of
of
the
the
air
if the
and
pv^BT,
from
air, is designated by
to
formulas
weight
of the
r=S",
the
have
we
with
vapor,
respect
combination
of these
gives
equation
The
T;
of
increases
be
can
(see
table,
with
If
is known
re
as
it
while
possible
seems
accordingly
we
tion
func-
increasing temperature
therefore
35);
p.
constant.
as
when
integrated
diminishes
now
treated
be
may
relative
e,
45
EQUATION.
CLAPEYRON'S
that
re
make
re
of
integration
the
also
we
get, when
gives equation
(396)
integration being
of
hand
equation
represented
represents
pi
the
on
po)
corresponding
pressure
stant
con-
other
If
substitute
we
vapor
of water,
where
and
._
is at
what
constants
are
Ti,
to
{Ti-T)
re
pi
by Jog,
the
(39a),
least
be
to
approximately
determined,
we
for
true
also
can
the
write
iogef=j^rr+fi{Ti-T)]^^^,
(39d)
.
and
is the
that
and
equations
(39a)
the
is that
reason
closer
setting
that
re
(39c)
can
examination
up
his
it his
without
in which
form
of
his formula
by
shows
formula
formula
he
cannot
be
means
no
that
does
be
for
all
has
at
all
volatile
as
liquids.
assume
into
brought
P
above
and
constant/and
To
constant.
expressly
not
The
unserviceable,
regarded
it is not
it.
given
themselves
prove
Moreover,
Clapeyron.
is valid
be
in
sure
this,
harmony
maintains
but
with
that
46
TECHNICAL
Emil
(d)
If
(Tables
la
from
and
of the
with
According
to
the
for
kind
of the
Col.
it will
of
be
we
which
tables
steam
my
that
seen
that
so
quantities
each
increase
these
write
may
easily determined
are
of vapor.
equation (23),
integration
in
given
temperature,
The
Formula.
Appendix)
constant
are
tables,
the
values
the
la
to
approximately
where
Herrmann's
examine
we
THERMODYNAMICS.
dj)
is readily
therefore,
p. 30,
effected, and
for
get
we
the
tion
equa-
curve
pressure
(40)
in
which
right
the
represents
po
member
third
determined
and
constant
the
exponent
of
by
1
Equation
(40) is
finds,
only
He
but
book,
the
not
also
all
for
same
for
that
shows
very
between
to
for
wide
he
+410^;
Berlin, 1879,
series
p.
of
vapor
the
temperature
Emil
adduced
in
other
"
that
numerical
in
water
for
Eompendium
the
its
values
of
der
the
for
vapor
to
of
mechanischen
is
and
formula
of
of
constant
the
results
-32.84^
the
Appendix
value
particular
experimental
limits
Herrmann.^
that
vapors,
and
finds, especially
Herrmaniii
133.
of
vapors
gives
satisfactorily
the
Êmil
the
given by
vapors
these
also
Herrmann
the
for
a
relation
the
this
a
=85.8^.
po,
and
duces
repro-
Regnault
+210"
water,
[-27.11^
"=44.6
W"rmetheorie/'
is
and
=7.94400
logiopo
but
d,i
the
this
chloride
of
be
form
be
developed
To
be
all vapors.
results
by
we
stick
closely
Now
substitution
the
Bertrand
leads
gives
would
to
and
be
hardly
used
carbon,
acid,
and
constant
different
that
it would
that
expression
the
last-given relation
by
means
no
the
that
in
be
can
inconvenient
better
were
with
the
proviso
that
results.
formulas
given
been
has
agrees
with
âlways
"
very
if it
even
of
To)y
expression
an
complicated
very
the
of
but
experimental
of
out
through-
the
curve
"fiT,
=a
^BT
Regnault's
to
it
but
calculations
exact
more
pressure
The
by others,
taken
that
says
did, by assuming
constant.
by
sulphurous
Rankine
as
in place of pu
proposed
of
meters
milli-
Shortly afterward
of the
represented
use
represents
frequently
in
work,
be
may
know,
we
pu^B{T
wnere
^ven
ether, bisulphide
water,
equation
started,
to
correct
more
been
acid, ammonia,
for
an
could
heat
expressed
Herrmann's
of
exponent
as
same
he
of
carbonic
carbon,
this
the
vapors
the
latent
the
the
taken
in
is
recently
know
not
that
Herrmann,
did
while
sulphur,
may
for
has
(40)
maintains
=50
"
relation
doubtless
who
former
as
[6.73917], provided
of mercm'y.
[inches]
Exactly
47
EQUATION.
CLAPEYRON'S
equation
(23)
integrated,
but
which
formula,
established
than
is the
case.
unsuccessful
Similar
get the
forni
true
with
vapors,
been
by
made
them,
So
as
it is
fashion
computations,
on
account
the
of
the
the
but
hold
of their
results
between
"
"
Comptes
Ibid.,
the
Vol.
to
number
the
rendus,
CV.
here
later
again
fast
great
will
be
cannot
for
like
the
pressure
omit
further
in
of
more
p. 389.
limits
Vol.
reference
purely
theoretical
exact
numerical
formulas,
after
of constants,
1887,
have
to
on.
Regnault's
,wide
to
of saturated
curve
equation,
found
purpose
indicated,
those
Clapeyron's
we
this relation
to
of
problem
advisable,
of
equation
help
the
others,
touching
long
efforts,
covered
ClV,
p.
1568.
all best
by
the
which,
duce
repro-
ments.
experi-
48
TECHNICAL
"7.
INVESTIGATIONS
RECENT
THE
The
BEHAVIOR
saturated
steam
in the
agree
the
these
nault's
[20.12" F.]
recent
experiments
the
in
later,
due
the
with
of
the
8,
gendorff's Annalen,
'Cailletet
point
du
k
Chimie
critique.
le recherche
et
de
de
Versuche
die
iiber
Vol.
LXI,
and
Colardeau,
1844,
p.
de
la loi des
tensions
Physique,
1892,
16th
F.]
other
value
series
second
observation.
to
up
on,
of
saturated
The
according
to
as
the
lowing
fol-
which
second
and
in
meters
milli-
Cailletet
Battelli.
to
des
to
t =200"
steam
according
is
is due
discrepancies
some
of
will show
we
there
the
to
from
experimental
from
Spannkrftfte
Reg-
exist
as
the
Wasseixiampfes/'
Pog-
225.
''Nouvelle
Application
accuracy
there
part,
of
values
the
treatise,
within
[689" F.],
first
exhibit
values
the
are
ps
**
pressure
pc
mercury;
Colardeau;
and
et
difficulties
to
^ve
columns
they
this
the
Magnus
Now
t =365"
results;
shows,
due
probably
of
sufficiently well
agree
Regnault's
in
and
[-25.6"
Colardeau,^
series
p.
of
pressure
wonderful
those
The
steam.
and
arrangement
third
the
(see
-32"
important
an
the
Magnus^
the
[220.28" F.].
plays
of
both
[392" F.]
and
to
on
determinations.
from
extend
which
theory
Battelli;
are
104.6"
to
of
their
[449.6" F.],
Cailletet
to
proof
of
ON
WATER.
exclusively
use
extended
which
temperature
Regnault
made
physicists
-6.6"
OF
experiments
limits,
"=232*^
temperature
VAPOR
we
the
experiments
BATTELLI
temperatures
which
with
exactly
which
with
of
different
at
temperature
same
THE
results
Appendix),
almost
BY
OF
experimental
tables
THERMODYNAMICS.
cette
de
Series,
m^thode
la vapeur
Vol.
XXV,
m^thode
au
de
particulier
cas
d'eau
p.
determination
satur^.
519.
dePeau,
Annales
de
BATTELLI
ON
For
the
THE
present
Battelli
superheated
saturated
the
e
calculated
reciprocal
the
confirmed
imtil
5, and
here
steam
The
following
of
meters
is
Tu
from
computed
1 i
p(v +0.008402)
In
the
propriety
della
Memoria
1893,
de
is
the
p.
above
text
given
et
in
de
Series
investigations
394, the
of
the
*Tumlirs.
tenniche
reale
63-98.
pp.
Chimie
made
we
dei
delle
partial reproduction
Physique,
6, Vol.
of the
experiments
experimental
''Die
1894,
25,
with
7, Vol.
Series
1892,
behavior
p.
of
38,
the
ether
bisulphide
apparatus
of
with
Zustandsgleichung
vessel.
the
complete
in
Col.
milli-
gives
Col.
kilogram.
instead
of
(a)
article:
Studio
Torino.
Ill,
p.
is
In
408.
des
in the
can
be
of
foimd
d'acqua,"
2, Vol.
given
these
method
and
Battelli,
vapor
Series
experimental
vapor
A.
del
Battelli
carbon
the
that
T],
vapors,
of
the
di
scienze
fact
pressure
per
IV.
Parte
vapori.
in
the
and
following
the
of
made
empirical formula
=1.2034
use
Accademia
steam
=3.4348
[p(i;+0.13456)
of
designated by
^
'
been
the
steam
meters
is here
which
volume
specific
by
Battelli),
in cubic
presented
Battelli.*
of
the
(see
success
]r;
walls
saturated
to
Tate
frequently
the
on
from
suflSciently
are
been
wrecked
contains
specificvolume
that
not
the
saturated
is found
and
have
of
temperature
steam
have
place
given
16
the
same
specific weight
for
(according
mercury
the
"SuUe
for
tion,
equa-
Table
of
the
derived
are
the
in
the
experiments
Col.
of
efforts
give
vaporization,
Fairbairn
takes
tables
of
at
probably
recent
results.
observed
and
the
have
experunental
gives
of
results
Clapeyron's
results
was
always
we
the
and
the
specificvolume
of
experimentally
Now
of
values
thus
of
of water
experimental
condensation
some
of
mination
deter-
the
to
saturated
discuss
heat
help
the
experiments
saturated
of
the
value
the
quite recently, although
case
Other
determine
to
the
by
35).
p.
relate
of
first
specific weight
The
pressure.
the
specific volume
the
of
with
representing
and
steam,
value
the
1 1, and
was
Appendix,
of
help
a
there
and
will
we
49
WATER.
investigations
those
volume
Here
OF
steam.
With
R
however,
specific
steam.
VAPOR
discussion, which
fuller
the
THE
OF
purposes,
deserve
of
by
BEHAVIOR
in
XLIII,
Annales
annals
there
employed
same
year,
and
the
Vol.
in
26,
tion
descrip-
water.
Wasserdampfes."
Sitzungs--
50
which
in
T
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
observed
and
values
besides
to
from
passage
the
specific
first
moment
volume
are
superheated
for
only
in
of
saturated
also
and,
steam
the
to
1 i
with
242
from
1 1
the
and
1 1 i
'
of
for
his
the
the
sure
pres-
formula
values,
results
condition
values
gives
relate
values
the
observation
e
the
to
which
saturated
the
also
3 refer
those
Here
larger throughout,
u
between
condition;
gives
condensation.
difference
the
and
mercury,
in cols. 2 and
1 1 i
of
percentages.
nonnsaturated
the
differences
two
the
1 1
gives
volume
in
smaller.
somewhat
of
and
pressure
values,
these
the
for
for
equilibrium
of
state
Col. 5
values
computed
[inches]
millimeters
[T "459.4"+^];
-273''+^
The
in
is expressed
(a)
there
which
are
exceed
0.90%.
order
In
tabulation
present treatise, the following

the
given
temperatures
saturated
der
berichte
Klaaee,
Vol.
kais.
Akademie
CVllI,
very
completely,
gives
the
tables
in Col.
aceording
steam
Part
as
for
with
comparison
facilitate
to
published
superheated
in Col.
in the
steam.
papers
1 i
in
r
of
the
Turin
the
For
computed.
2, the
Wien.
gives the
in
given
of
pressure
in
and
Wiasenschaften
Here
been
has
have,
we
data
Regnault,
to
der
11a.
the
Col.
the
Mathem.-naturw.
tables
Academy,
of
and
1 1
he
1 1 i
also
62
TECHNICAL
differences
greater
calculated
were
tion
evaporation
and
is
then
just
temperature
Even
at
heat
here
of
above,
that
Under
if,in
edition
book,
been
the
of
need
have
"
Wien,
1896,
least,
values
reliable
of
u,
it
ones;
tion
tabula-
the
with
quite irregularly
arrive,
in the
heat
of
entropy
heat
vaporization
in
nical
tech-
steams,
wet
of
it is
the
water,
just
with
in
statements
been
has
take
we
theless
never-
r,
when
specificheat
the
indicated,
utilization
for
the
specific
the
way
fact
another
research
doubt
of
vaporization
play
have
it must
be
fast
in
expressed
this
the
text
the
tne
experiments
new
recorded,
of
opportunity
and
of technical
e
1 1 i
till
to
putation
com-
statements
calorimetric
new
adequate
any
and
non-saturated
to
'
return
to
water.
time
Regnault's
since
for
instituted
been
1 1
of
vapor
purpose
till
earlier
of the
statements
of
for
undertaken
not
the
to
justifiable
thoroughly
seem
behavior
tables
by
will
extent.
superheated
Battelli's
results.
we
Compare
the
from
Regnault's
investigations
the
experimental
Here
be
been
have
there
vapors
the
the
steam
not
observations
During
of
although
say
determination
the
or
hold
we
to
confirmed
observations
such
with
circumstances
respect
recalculation
heat
or
now
is, to
more
vary
calculating
liquid (p. 22),
present
with
supposi-
others.
such
the
heat,
investigations of
can
into
well-grounded
by
and
the
as
of
reliabilityof
the
direction
we
physical
In
importance
to
respect
the
Battelli's
of
reliable
come
results
q of the
is of equal
it
backward
which
steam,
investigations.
the
for
that, by
will
the
of
account
values
25,
p.
closer
my
determination
exact
there
of
values
that
saturated
dry
more
on
help
these
latent
the
explained^
as
on
perfectly reliable;
values
the
4,
t.
assuming
of
with
give
60
p.
volume
the
this direction
in
for
expressed
was
regard
to
on
the
matter
is
23),
Col.
of
equation
formula
(see p.
equation,
values
Clapeyron's
calculate
to
'
from
in this
awkward
r
Our
appear.
Regnault's
that
doubt
THERMODYNAMICS.
may
also:
VoL
CV,
add
that
Sitsungsberichte
Part
11.
der
1 i
Kais.
(ibid.)^ concludes,
Akademie
der
Wissenschaften
from
in
HEAT
the
EQUATIONS
comparison
table
on
of
degree
"
of
in
HEAT
8.
bo
of
accuracy
th
in
of
vessel
quality), and
And
be
The
the
(1"
of
(WET
of
the
of
liquid
heat
weight
C.
na-
overestimates
the
VAPOR
AND
VAPORS).
of
of
the
and
vapor
be
present
steam
let t be
be
liquid
the
closed
en-
(steam
temperature,
pressure.
in
present
0"
at
the
from
statu
OF
liquid present;
x) the
in
probably
mixture
corresponding
excess
weight
let
of
temperatures
MIXTURES
OF
weight
low
at
and
columns.
EQUATIONS
imit
Cols.
of
53
LIQUID.
AND
dissociated
1 i
LIQUID
Let
values
part,
doing
VAPOR
generated
in
be,
so
OF
numerical
steam,
must
i, but
MIXTURES
the
that
51,
p.
boiling water,
s
OF
the
liquid
in
that
over
an
equal
heat
over
is
[32*^F.] temperature
(l-a:)5;
"on
the
hand
other
contained
that
for
in
(see equation
the
quality
steam
of
kilograms [pounds]
18, p.
the
of
excess
liquid at
0^ C. [32^ F.] is
27)
xJ.
w
the
Accordingly
in
contained
that
"over
of
excess
unit
of
contained
heat
the
weight
in
liquid
of
the
of 0^
mixture
C. [32^
F.]
is
temperature
{l-x)q+xJ,
or,
if
consider
we
mixture's
heat
equation
(20), namely
J^q+p,
we
get
for
the
excess
q+xp.
Let
us
now
let
whatever;
.and
"values
its
of
suppose
the
and
p,
this
specific steam
ti, and
temperature
q
that
then
at
the
let
experiences
mixture
quantity
qi
start
qi+xipi.
and
the
pi
said
at
beginning
the
be
heat
any
the
excess
change
be
xi
corresponding
is
64
TECHNICAL
the
During
increased
in
contained
heat
the
change
the
by
THERMODYNAMICS.
mixture
the
has
been:
amount
q-qi+xp-xipi;
but
is
value
this
inner
work,
with
identical
evidently
units
measured
in
A{U-
Ui) =3
of
the
change
heat;
Uioi
"
therefore
we
the
get the
equation
and
passing
di"Ferential
the
to
This
inner
dq
be
may
heat
and
the
long
as
with
the
p
It
the
is worth
noting
of
let
there
state
supplied
been
the
to
the
of the
having
p.
this
hold
long
so
formula
recourse
22
and
only
the
t
can
be
to
the
sure
pres-
only.
derived
general
that
performed
the
supposed
external
an
dv; then
amount
the
during
the
heat
work
dL
quantity dQ
change
while
that
given
was
must
is
mixture
The
two
now
of
volume
vapor
and
upon
p.
furnish
and
changes
26, Vol.
(41) and
equations
the
means
liquid
of
of
the
dO=il(dC/+dL),
which
so
is present
as
temperature
the
equation
liquid
as
words,
preceding
without
assume
us
has
expands
mass
other
function
long
and
on
will
developed
so
here
liquid
course
of
first section.
the
Further,
that
way
of
or
; in
the
formulas
the
saturated
as
of
heat
be
to
change
whatever;
temperature;
mixture
regarded
elementary
an
the
the
the
determining
state
from
about
be
formulas
be
in
steam
can
the
of
remains
steam
of
and
(41"
of
means
known
are
formulas
other
the
us
by c^,
functions
as
=dq+d{xp)
change
any
replaced
latent
31,
in
for
work
inner
p.
equation gives
get
we
AdU
+xp''Xipi,
-gi
for
(42)
I.
(42)
of
in
combination
following
all kinds
state, whether
of
the
heat
they
are
with
behavior
the
of
ceding
pretures
mix-
supply, changes
reversible
or
of
reversible.
non-
EQUATIONS
HEAT
For
the
which
case
work
external
of
that
will
we
dU
Vol.
we
I, replace
substitution
equation
by
given
as
the
pdv;
in reversible
closely,
in
(41)
fashion,
according
can,
the
both
of
value
this
equation
55
LIQUID.
AND
occur
more
31,
p.
VAPOR
of state
examine
on
by
dL
OF
changes
now
presentation
the
to
the
that
case
MIXTURES
OF
of
the
value
and
then
fur*
(42)
nishes
dQ=dg+d(x^)4-ilpdv
If
add
we
volume
the
mixture,
the
of
i;
this
to
equation
equations,
these
briefly,
order
In
form,
another
be
can
to
certain
fundamental
and
there
derived
the
Clapeyron's
are
with
proposed
of vapors
"wet
specific
and
equation,
to
respect
liquids, or,
we
q, p, and
or
if
we
the
efifect
utilize
it is
problems
several
advantageous
from
(43),
such
the
start,
substitute
we
(44) in equation
in
as
the
second
of
term
indicated,
p,
there
of
r='p+Apu,
we
shall
get
the
bring
to
into
transformations.
If
differentiation
functions
speak
to
(43),
there
the
by
value
results
dQ^dq+d(^{v-a)\-"Apdv
If
sible
rever-
vapors.'
equation
equation
from
for
(44)
Transformation.
First
X
that
espect
solve
to
preceding
the
of
with
given
a,
with
of mixtures
of state
changes
more
combined
problems
all
solve
can
already
namely,
v^xu
then
(43)
treating
the
(45)
tities
quan-
follows
right
member
the
relation
86
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
If
we
this
compare
with
equation
the
fundamental
equation
dQÂ[Xdp+Ydvl
in
given
the
steam
into
and
the
the
first
section, Vol.
X
fimctions
two
I,
and
p.
32, there
which
can
be
regarded
general investigations and
be
can
then
found
be
for
introduced
functions
as
wet
of
Accordingly,
V.
^Hi'-ihrM
c^')
also
^Y'^
third
The
the
(Vol. I,
function
p.
(48)
32) there
employed
bears
to
relation
Y^Z+p.
Therefore
we
also
have
^^
Considering
also
recognize
Y
functions
equation
Clapeyron's
the
case
and
with
functions
only
are
gases,
found
(Vol. I,
quantity X, which
for
pp.
that
preceding
the
from
for
(22),
p.
29,
there
Z"
and
and
124
gases
with
of
wet
the
the
steam
pressure
p,
as
two
was
which
y=-^,
were
(49)
follows
We
also
"
131).
was
#c
"
^
On
the
other
hand
the
only
and
MIXTURES
OF
EQUATIONS
HEAT
function
of the
OF
volume,
VAPOR
becomes,
67
LIQUID.
AND
according
to
equation
(47), with
wet
steams,
function
of
the
and
volume
the
of
pressure.
If
there
employed
be
of
in
occurring
coefficients
could
need
were
determining
numerically
equation (47),
then
the
the
differential
following
relations
dq
c_
dp
dp'
dt
where
the
represents
equation (36),
39,
p.
specific
we
should
heat
the
of
liquid; and, utilizing
have
fM-'Û'^t)preceding
The
is
transformation
only presented in order

X,
y, and
we
equation
of
the
(45)
oj
If the
is effected
t, there
temperature
of
the
tions
func-
differentiation
by considering
q, p,
and
dicated
inu
as
follows
simplify by substituting
(O
where
equation (43)
significance
the
out
Transformation.
in
If
bring
to
fundamental
Z.
Second
functions
of the
is for
we
the
present
4(^)'
"
to
be
regarded
as
"""
function
of
perature,
tem-
get
dQ^âxU-hdyv^-Âpdv
Comparison
the
with
the
fundamental
dQ=AdU-\-Apdv
equation
(51)
68
TECHNICAL
gives, for the change
THERMODYNAMICS.
dU
of
inner
the
the
work,
formula
{vi).
AdU^wdt+d
(52)
......
If
relation
the
right member
the
of
introduce
we
of
(35),
equation
39, into
p.
(51)
the
second
get, after
we
term
easily
some
transformations,
followed
dQâxft+iird^T^j,
a
equation used
of
form
early
As
pointed
according
we
[32" F.]
tt"=l,
the
C.
200"
and
did
for
find
of
character
ether
the
vapor
and
wide
(44),
which
in
the
tables,^
my
variations
clearly
appears
p.
349,
ofwater,
with
great
accuracy
limits
be
can
dv
for
with
other
finds
; he
(f
as
C.
the
regarded
oj
stant
con:
=0.201
0.235.
differentiate
specific volume
as
and
the
values
mean
rest
alcohol
of carbon
we
the
to
vapors
of carbon
If
above
only
; with
bisulphide
given
because
investigation
and
chloride
0.232
was
get,
we
(1866),
temperature
Transformation.
Third
n.^
book
constant
=0.532
chloroform
mixture,
for
this
of
extended
greater
oj
(o
[392" F.].
contained
he
(o
the
has
vapors
acetone
is
between
Herrmann
E.
of
quantity
equation (50),
to
take
can
the
that
out
edition
second
the
as
E.
by
(51a)
tion
equaof
the
constant,
^d(ocu),
therefore
ApdvÂpd{xu),
and
this, according
from
to
well-known
principle in differential
calculus,
Apdv
Kompendium
'
Ibid.,
p.
der
139.
^Âdiptut) "Axudp,
mechanischen
W"rmetheorie.
Berlin,
1879,
p.
123.
60
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
It is
for
exact
more
water
^^
logio
=2.4318893
to
-0.0002057
+0.00000045
4f"Q
J-
-0.0001143(^-32^)
4914
("-32^)"],
+0.000000139
according
which
to
(546)
.
logio
[t"2.4318893
relation
the
use
formula
series of values
for
been
have
puted
com-
(p. 62).
If
Transformation.
Fourth
in
indicated
differentiation
(53) the
second
the
in
effect
we
term,
equation
get
we
dQ^cdt+rdx+xdr"xmdi,
right member
if in the
and
after
follows,
is both
oxdt
of the
rearrangement
some
added
and
subtracted,
there
terms,
dQ=-{\-x)cdt'\-rdx+x\c+'^-^\di.
LfCt
by A,
term
quantity in
the
designate
us
parenthesis
the
of
the
third
that
so
dv
(^^
*"''+dr-f'
then
will
we
get
dQ^{l''x)cdi'\-rdx+xhdi
In
this
form
the
first term
the
supplied
of
temperature
time
same
for
second
this
steam
the
heat
heat;
of
hdt
weight
element
the
purpose
finally
part of the
of steam
out, the
heat
and
factor
its
of
mass
plays
which
the
must
expands
in
into
rdxy
that
unit
that
of
dt)
the
as
at
and
steam
dQ
which
of steam
weight
kind
imparted
through
dv
quires
re-
the
enters
requires
Clausius
part of
be
the
constitutes
which
part
part of
raising
amount
an
consequently,
quantity
when
is expended
quantity
the
Clausius;
represents
is converted
represents
mixture;
hdt
quantity
is the
xhdi
member
present
dx
heat
with
first found
which
dQ
liquid (1-x)
the
already pointed
right
of the
quantity
liquid
the
term;
the
(1 "x)cdt
heat
is also
equation
the
(57)
has
of
to
specific
the
in order
unit
that
THE
the
If
making
by
then
in
substitute
we
get
we
can
"
THE
9.
relation
use
of
the
following expression
also
the
for
serve
ENTROPY
I,
again
be
in
place
of
in
OF
WET
of
(56a)
the
VAPORS
THEIR
function
AND
h.
THE
PRESSURE
the
of
dq==cdt,
T^-i+q,
of
heat
(see p. 21) and
=^"9
computation
derivation
the
section, Vol.
may
total
the
the
OF
During
61
VAPORS.
through dt,
equation (56)
hT
which
WET
condition.
saturated
the
OF
being heated
after
steam,
ENTROPY
FORMATION
TRANS-
CURVES.
fundamental
in
formulas
first
the
expression
the
AS
appeared
as
The
T.
simply identical
"Siwas
^he function
differential,and
complete
with
later
it
found
was
absolute
the
that
temperature
integral
~dQ
-/.
AT
was
designated
and
was
specially determined
value
This
forms
weight (entropy, according
heat
as
(51a)
and
(55)
of
the
be
heat
last-mentioned
The
purpose.
easily
can
for
on
gases
calculated
p.
to
135,
Vol.
wet
vapors,
for
equation being
best
the
suited
for
to
the
take
and
Po
solution
two
this
equation gives directly
(58)
P'-Po'-^jlogeT+i^,
Of
s)
other
the
where
I.
P=ô+j(r+y),
and
these
of
Po'
are
to
be
identical
two
regarded
equations
particular problems which
solution;
in
equation (58)
integration
that
basis.
one
evidently
following discussion
the
as
as
we
is
leads
will
;59)
constants.
chosen
most
for
the
for
the
quickly
present
TECHNICAL
the
Suppose
pressure
(Fig. 4a)
ad)
every
is
at
the
to
us
to
the
of
the
specific volume
the
calculate
quality
steam
ad)
curve
this
be
and
and
"a
and
pressure
p,
the
may
be
volume
according
the
to
pressure
and
^ven
determination
the
x
the
the
curve
then
v=xu
instant.
beforehand
of
the
for
temperature
equation
for
and
Vi
pa,
corresponding
quality
steam
x
to
the
of
steam
wet
let it expand
and
volume
by
of
weight
state
given
once
of
^ven,
intermediate
enables
point
be
to
pi
unit
TBERMODYNAHICS.
for
versely,
Conevery
corresponding
required.
Auxiliary
Table
for
THE
If
of the
points
the
in
adb\
curve
absolute
and
boimded
area
by
the
represents
and
this
In
heat
of
expansion
the
state
of
the
calculated
of
in
Steam.
wet
different
trarily
arbi-
hatched
work
outer
in
Fig.
of the
the
during
and
consequently
upper
assist
such
calculated
was
table
in
the
that
the
To
4a.
table
occurring
get
pressure
quite
supplied
expansion
assumed
which
the
area
be
must
and
will
we
the
hatched
overstep
Fig.
abscissa
Here
for
(58);
to
4"
the
vapor,
of work.
remains
not
as
chosen
represents
the
contains
not
limit
units
that
see
whole
the
(see
curve
specially for
only
will arise
Table
the
representations
preceding formulas,
pressures,
investigations. [For English

Saturated
4a
assumed
the
be
Po ==0.
which
course
auxiUary
for
Fig.
while
steam
dd
46
ordinate,
as
can
taken
in units
does
water,
functions
others,
is
by
accompanying
vapor
it
acb
curve
indicated
p. 62)
in
during
is measured
doing
so
change
be
quantity
outside
Fig.
of
Pq
constant
adb
ciu-ve
heat
the
from
vapor
the
during expansion,
produced
equation
to
it off in
temperature
pleasure
at
may
according
lay
63
VAPORS.
transformation
the
doing
so
and
curve,
a\C\h\
curve
WET
OF
value
the
corresponding
the
in
calculate
we
several
ENTROPY
the
perature
tem-
but
in
the
also
quent
subse-
13, Appendix.]
64
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
Aa
special
transformation
of
Fig.
In
point
^ven
quality
steam
the
the
by
be
limit
of
state
discuas
first
us
the
curves.
unit
volume
of
of
weight
and
from
known
let
iovestigation
the
two
let the
5o
be
of
part
the
+
v=xu
wet
pressure
eteana
at
the
and
let
the
p,
a.
Then
transformation
the
when
and
lay
be
placed
calculate
we
it
off
the
abscissa
as
equal
to
this
value
in
OP,
hence
zero;
of
ci
doing
the
in
point
56
Rg.
to
which
constant
abscissa
mined
deter-
(58)
equation
according
the
is
Pq
can
is
K-?)
T
and
is the
ordinate.
temperature
have
we
the
=0
and
hi aod
transformations
the
For
unit
of
for
dry
of
di
the
weight
of
liquid
saturated
points
two
of
steam
the
x
and
same
for
(Fig. 4o)
thea
which
for
magnitudes
steam,
is the
the
rectangle
represents,
necessary
be
can
corresponding
h\di
aceording
for
taken
the
to
transformation
lying
Hf),
and
P,=
of
from
different
the
(horizontally
to
steam
the
the
pressures.
horizontal
hatched)
principles
formation
preceding
pressure
below
enunciated,
under
constant
auxiliary
The
horizontal
bd, and
curve
h\d\
the
table
therefore
heat
pressure,
tity
quan-
i.e.,
ENTROPY
THE
65
VAPORS.
WET
OF
"
this
of
area
latent
the
represents
rectangle
expressions,
be
can
in
measured
r, but
heat
units
work.
of
by utilizing the
computed,
The
preceding
from
(P2-Pi)r=j.
In
order
to
off
the
lay
5a)
transform
for
of
the
the
the
^=0
we
hence
of
also
the
and
have
and
t=0
6o6i is the
liquid
in
is heated
heat
like
manner,
of
(Fig.
sponding
corre-
scissas;
ab-
as
therefore
tion
transforma0"
from
under
Fig. 56)
the
the
preceding table)
curve
the
represents
the
65
curve
ordinates
as
hatched
lying (vertically
area
this
i",
to
curve
liquid
the
q,
in work.
measured
If
when
curve
pressure
Col.
(see
temperature
consequently
6o6i
ddj
z'.A
ol
[491.4] (Fig. 56);
O6o=273
and
values
temperature
values
limit
lower
the
wish
we
off the
lay
we
in
transform,
to
the
limit
upper
curve
values
jG+f)
as
abscissas
(Col.
T
temperatures
0"
The
area
abscissa
which
must
latter
is to
because
quantity,
temperature
imparted
the
according
fallen
has
0" C.
to
then
we
under
in
and
p,
the
[32" F.]
perature
tem-
find
for
[1091.7].
=606.5
of
steam
corresponding
limit
and
the
units
saturated
dry
the
[1716.93], according
measured
pressure
to
to
Fig. 56) lying
the
to
from
expand
and
t=0
the
heat
correspond
=941.958
in
be
tj
OP3
to
corresponding
(Fig. 56) represent
[491.4"],
(vertically hatched
represents
now
r=273"
the
dido
curve
do is
point
[32^ F.], i.e.,to

the
table) and
let the
the
preceding formula,
the
d)do
If
example,
for
water,
C.
above
the
ordinates;
as
transformation.
the
to
of
the
work,
if the
perature
tem-
till its
curve,
to
curve
corresponding
pressure.
Conversely,
the
if heat
limit
were
if the
curve,
not
is to
steam
a
imparted
be
compressed
withdrawal
of
in
case
the
first
according
heat
a
take
must
part
to
of
the
place;
steam
66
THERMODYNAMICS;
TECHNICAL
would
in
while
condense,
the
other
the
case
would
steam
be
superheated.
for
Now,
the
limit
upper
this
the
discovery
in
the
k i
and
in
during
its
reached
In
its
important
change
circles
in
day,
result
decided
expansion
on
lie
to
partially
and
expansion
untenable.
ing
concern-
the
cylinder
in the
later
mentioned,
earlier
edition
of
of
thought
the
be
the
give
at
of the
as
words,
that
in other
Qteam
significance
of
importance,
that
dry
had
the
engine,
the
was
saturated
which
special
of state
will
we
to
become
thus
changes
importance
this
was
cylinder during adiabatic
subordinate
least
there
had
technical
concerning
steam
time
walls
assumption
views
new
book,
long
cylinder
The
steam
Pambour's
of
recognition
the
the
to
expansion
steam;
its
the
above-given
for
this
the
assumed.
in
during
the
and
the
that
expanding
in
cylinder
far
time,
assumption
condensed
on,
so
the
of
saturated
according
that
particularly
the
words
the
dry
saturated
dry
engine
steam
is
cylinder
steam
in
or,
of the
theory
remain
to
as
principally
that
But
fully
in the
might
mentioned,
of his
At
the
influence
no
basis
expands
the
discovery
more
highly
technical
way
with
engines
steam
as
attention
them
way.
in
curve.
expansion
the
diflferent
prevailed
steam
Adiabatic
steam
of
each
effected
steam
the
connected
supposed
first called
but
water,
fall of pressure,
even
steam
for
in such
afterwards,
or
and
adiabatic
during
and
steam
the
limit
little
somewhat
then
that
presentation,
tacitly
thermodynamics
took
and
expansion
in
in
of
expands
upper
of
the
engine.
steam
m
of
Fig. 5b,
in
condenses
partially
and
in
which
hypothesis
the
indicated
course
rightly regarded
behavior
the
transformation
the
water,
vapor
behavior
was
views
the
P
first steps
the
of
of
mentioned
result
the
in fact
particular
the
of
has
kind
expansion.
to
of
curve
this
therefore
vapor
the
technical
discuss
discovery
problem
concerned.
We
according
of
has
heat
the
already
have
to
the
necessary
course
upper
when
indicated
mentioned
limit
the
in
curve
that
dd
expansion
(Fig. 5a)
transformation
makes
dido
Fig. 56, i.e.,when
of
of
the
there
of
the
steam
supply
limit
curve
is connected
is
68
The
else
this
which
the
than
its
fact
very
water
brackets, according
in the
expression
nothing
is
C
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
led
the
his
to
(56), p. 60^
A, introduced
question
negative sign
the
that
function
temperature
decides
sign
equation
to
at
with
occurs
and
once,
in
discovery
the
by
it
vapor
was
of
first article
his
(1850).
The
sign
utilize
(15),
of
is also
formulas
empirical
the
follows
for
of water
there
vapor
hT
-523.23
-941.814
[AT
decided
by
for
+0.00002
+^
and
we
there
(14) and
under
given
9,
if
(56a);
fi +0.0000003
(" -32^)
equation
1^
(^-32^)2
+0.0000111
+0.000000093(^-32")"],
of ether
vapor
hT
[AT
(^-32^)
+51.93+0.2257
+0.2247
1 -0.000119
[hT
-72.851
+0.2247
(^-32")
[AT
chloroform
-29.462
+0.2323
" -0.0000507
(^-32")
of carbon
" -0.000081
[AT
-21.757+0.1041
("- 32")
hT
[AT
the
decided
of carbon
+0.0101
-50.139
-90.250+0.0101
ordinarily
by
the
expressions;
"2,
-
0.000045
("-32^)2],
^ -0.0003308
fi.
(t- 32") -0.000184
occurring temperatures
sign
this
(i -32^)2],
-12.087+0.1041
bisulphide
1^,
-0.0000282
of
{t-32^H
-0.0000661
AT
vapor
P,
-53.032+0.2323
of chloride
vapor
(^-32^)2],
-40.473
of
fi,
-0.0001442
hT
these
1 -0.0002596
hT
vapor
once
+0.2257
+28.85
of acetone
vapor
For
of
term
the
first
of
term
represents
the
("-32")2].
the
the
value
equation
right
of
Ar
member
for
is at
of
^=0;
if
designate
we
of
value
the
subscript 0,
the
OF
ENTROPY
THE
the
function
temperature
from
follows,
there
69
VAPORS.
WET
for
(56a), because
equation
by
t =0
=0,
(AT)o=273(")^-^
For
total
whose
vapor
is
heat
empirical
the
by
represented
formula
where
fi,and
a,
follows
there
factors,
constant
are
therefore
(Ar)o=273^-a
[(Ar)o=491.4^-a].
For
example,
109.00
il
such
Benzine
[-76.156].
of water
p.
0.24429
gives
empirical
0.0001315
already
as
formula
only
from
the
for
values
If
("- 32^)2];
gives
(Ar)o
itself
ranges
mentioned,
liquid
the
given
heat
in Table
-42.309
the
on
side
1 1
gives
(equations
q
36
40P
T+^ =3.1413
only
consequently
i=0"
Of
of benzine
vapor
of the
15,
dix
Appen-
get
we
vapor
the
("- 32") -0.0000731
vapor
vapor,
then
But
22).
As
for
vapor.
alcohol
For
an
1 1
therefore, calculation
vapor,
+0.24429
[;i= 196.20
for
the
latter
also
behaves
the
kinds
the
we
vapor
3.1172
diminish
values
like
of
of
replace
the
equation (61) by h,
the
vapor
ether
and
80"
vapor
which
exhibits
bracketed
remember
3.0447
with
of
growing
this
water.
far
thus
the
temperature
permit
exceptional
quantity
of
the
that, according
investigation,
behavior
right
to
the
member
tioned.
men-
of
definition
70
of
TECHNICAL
the
entropy
P,
there
follows
dQ
but
THERMODYNAMICS.
side
left
the
this
of
equation
nothing
represents
dQ^hdt,
given
by
along
the
if the
For
s.
curve
leads
the
saturated
the
of
in
place
the
quoted
preceding formula
Q
it
which
expands
(57),
takes
state
x=l
quantity
when
equation
heat
change
to
heat
steam
the
substitute
simply
we
determines
from
ensues
immediately
dry
to
whose
parted
im-
be
must
according
the
to
curve.
The
of
which
integration
I'mit
limit
equation,
directly
also
formula
which
table
auxiliary
gives,
63
p.
in
Col.
8, for
the
vapor
of
values
the
water
on
fhdt,
0
which
then
the
along
if î
limit
the
represents
the
mentioned.
reasons
saturated
dry
Let
Example.
expand
for
negative
appear
curve
till the
initial
and
Q-
the
to
amount
supplied
The
the
to
the
represents
equation
(41),
p.
have
table
on
+93.577
63,
p.
heat
cal.
+51.987
B.t.u.],
which
quantity
in
measured
work,
inner
of
change
atmosphere,
shall
in
this
be
must
case
without.
from
steam
we
pressure
(-200.457)-
-148.470-
[Qwhich
to
temperature,
ti
according
final
fallen
fhdt-^
fhdt-fhdt,
Q-
therefore,
atmospheres
has
pressure
t^ the
and
of
steam
imits
of
heat, is found
by
grating
inte-
54:
AdU~dq-{-d{xpX
and
main
if
substitute
we
Table
of
11
the
:c"l
Appendix,
ii(t^,-t/i)-g,-î
consequently
L, produced
we
by
have
and
here
expansion,
the
corresponding
integration
|0,-iO,=
the
utilize
-11.935
diminution
is determined
statement.
of
the
becomes
Cal.[-21.483B.t.u.];
of
by
inner
work.
The
outer
work
which
from
"
but
115.06
there
and
L -27102.9
B.t.u.
and
L -88922
in
is consumed
also
the
of
part
the
is
with
temperature,
wet
and
state,
"straight
the
of
heat
CURVE
The
change
the
isothermal
during
the
the
parallel
of
only
the
during
state.
the
on
assumed
is
curve
the
to
when
curve,
isothermal
the
pressure
changes
constant
therefore
of
depends
pressure
pressure
running
line
whole
ISODYNAMIC
to
constant
the
the
only
VAPORS.
vapor
also
have
we
of
kept
ft-lb.].
THE
place according
takes
because
change
71
VAPOR"
mkg.
not
Curve.
temperature
Now
WET
work.
WET
Isothermal
volume
with
inner
AND
OF
(a)
work
outer
ISOTHERMAL
THE
10.
OF
Cal.
-63.922
[AL
supplied,
CURVE
follows
ilL
Therefore
ISODYNAMIC
AND
ISOTHERMAL
axis
of
abscissas.
We
condensation
and
under
those
discussions.
curve
is likewise
(6)
as
straight
Curve.
"isodynamic
from
we
parallel
Fig. 5,
designate
If
curve."
equation (41),
of
p. 54,
p.
to
the
the
U
""
state
of
and
is
settled
4,
so
by
isothermal
the
axis
the
inner
of
abscissas
work
and
pressure
corresponding
volume
pressure
i.e.,dC/=0,
is constant,
namely,
evaporation
64.
If the
while
constant,
then
change,
the
line
Isodynamic
is kept
in
pressure
transformation
considering
energy)
vapors
the
of
matter
changes
when
explained
was
That
a
the
constant
isothermal
of
question
the
that
fully discussed
already
have
sic
(intrinof wet
curve
lows
it fol-
from
AdU=dq+d{xp),
by integration
that
(62)
q+xp^qi-^-Zipi,
if
for
we
regard
the
This
initial
as
given
the
temperature
and
the
steam
quality
xi,
condition.
equation
in combination
v^xu-â
and
with
the
v,=xiWi+"t
two
formulas
(63)
72
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
solves
proposed
the
of
curve;
the
usual
of
the
volume
v, but
of
coordinates
of
course
the
know
of
the
For
we
(62),
and
their
obtained
as
to
us
is
not
function
the
compute
lay-ofifthen
value
gives,
of
for
shows
the
get from
the
volume
the
for
moreover,
the
right member
second
of
t or
of
equations
pressure
x,
and
of the
of
computation
from
combination
The
direct
the
quality
steam
v.
the
Xi,
also
condition.
temperature
(62),
shall
we
pi,
the
the
initial
quality
steam
pressure
compute
can
the
equation
(63)
the
and
Ui,
the
condition,
hence
its aid
Vi
from
initial
î and
with
equations
equations
enable
isodynamic
the
expressed
secured
points, and
the
volume
compute,
first of
the
and
other
any
can
for
qi, pif
specific
(63) the
just
curve
p is not
equations
temperature
equation
the
pressure
several
given,
values
the
the
the
of
of
course
curve.
is
If there
likewise
i.e., the
form,
the
to
as
equation
the
course
in
question
v,
the
formula
q-^^{v-"j)=qi'^^^{viâ)
Example.
and
form
Let
of
steam,
cylinder
Pi'^S
pressure
then, according
of vapor,
q,
153.741,
the
hand,
other
for
the
we
find
from
Table
to
Pi
according
(62)
of
expansion
-5.8085].
1.6495
-26.423).
-0.8407,
(63)
and
t?
and
1.3877
-22.229
is therefore
-4.766.
0.80
x"
Appendix,
atmosphere,
equation
[Wi -4.0223
ratio
-893.34
/o
V, -0.2911
The
w-
[9- 180.9,
equations
it let
ti, -0.3626
1^-496.300,
and
of
of
of the
11
-454.99,
pressure
9-100.500,
Hence
and
atmospheres,
[poimd]
kilogram
one
^,-818.982.
[g, -276.734,
On
contain
cbm.
cu.
ft.].
we
get
(64)
of
be
water
in
the
Accordingly,
steam
more
If
where
we
the
than
involves
the
to
exponent
atmospheres,
to
73
VAPORS.
because
have
we
results, and
a;"x,
partial evaporation.
make
to
beginning,
the
WET
OF
from
expansion
at
ourselves
subject
is
of the
expansion
allow
we
curve
hand
on
the
therefore
.end
the
at
CURVE
ISODYNAMIC
AND
ISOTHERMAL
the
that
assumption
isodynamic
the
law
is
then, in the
quantity,
constant
example,
present
find
log
-log
Pi
P
1.031.
logv-logVi
the
Hence
exponent
when
obtained
of wet
other
has
vapor
hyperbola;
If
approach
the
result
The
this
sides
of
course
in
gases
both
from
Zip
unity,
assumed.
are
approximately
vapors
subtract
we
little from
limits
pressure
therefore
wet
but
differs
which
is also
iosdynamic
curve
equilateral
an
respect.
of
equation
(62)
we
get
it
from
,.,,.2lZi""lOoLZ")
(65)
If
and
that
consider
we
likewise
side
above
mentioned
diminishes,
With
steam
the
at
ensue;
limit
steam
passes
curve
takes
For
the
substituted
into
a
in
this
of
when
place
that
point
a
If the
steam.
and
the
further
condition
from
course
intersection
equation (62) ;
expansion
continuation
the
that
of
the
formula
q-^P'^qi+xipi,
of
wet
limit
then
to
the
the
dynamic
isovolves
in-
is continued
dry saturated
passes
in which
m
all vapors
compression
curve
seen
x"xi.
according
isodynamic
22,
temperature
hence
and
p.
p. 31, it is
the
will result, and
x^l
superheated
different
point
ether)
takes
(15),
positive for
partial evaporation,
possible
of
under
(25),
to
(65) becomes
vapor
of the
with
curve;
given
therefore, expansion,
involves
it is
g,
according
expansion
condensation
long enough
for
for
p,
equation
(also
vapors,
curve,
a
of
i.e.,when
wet
for
formulas
the
right
the
formulas
the
through
expansion
the
the
isodynamic
field.
curve,
becomes
1 must
be
74
TECHNICAL
furnishes
and
the
the
volume
and
pressure,
quality
the
preceding
formula
the
preceding
example.
the
the
heat
of
intersection
will
be
of
hence
one
phere
atmos-
at
then
be
to
be
state,
the
values
from
given
imparted
to
the
have
we
steam
-0.965,
x,
numerical
must
of
change
lie exactly
found
the
which
and
intersection.
is 5 atmospheres,
utihsation
quantity
temperature,
is to
pressure
beginning,
isodynamic
during
vapors
of
the
point
the
initial
and
the
regards
As
point
if the
at
necessary
x"
of
If the
Example.
of
of computing
means
and
pressure
THERMODYNAMICS.
in
wet
fundar
equation
amental
dQÂ{dU+pdv),
dUÔ,
because
and
dQ^'Apdv,
according
therefore
If,
dL,
for
unnecessary,
quantity,
in
by utilizing
then
first
the
isodynamic
units
of
curve^
it
work;
determination
of
is
this heat
curve.
equation,
preceding
the
in
graphical
the
the
by
measured
the
transform
first
to
bounded
area,
quantity
heat
the
represents
the
which
to
of
designate
we
equations
(63)
the
we
work
pdv
by
of
the
get
dL=pd(xti),
results
which
from
dt)
dL
or,
with
the
use
of
d{jmx)
formula
If,
right
get
for
member
is still
which
the
present
the
xu^dtf
Clapeyron's
equation
dL^'dipux)
general
case,
value
of
we
for
-jjf
every
substitute
which
comes
(22),
p.
29,
dt,
kind
in
the
from
of
expansion.
second
term
equation
(62),
we
76
gives
now
wet
vapors.
the
initial
the
us
For
points
the
first
of
conversely,
we
x,
pressure
and
belonging
and
or,
Xi,
other
any
volume
pressure
a,
of
course
volume
adiabatics
the
and
pi
Vi
of
known
are
for
(67) determines
equations
determine
from
second
the
point
the
to
then
we
adiabatic
the
on
the
fixing
from
the
latter
the
the
Vi.
quality
steam
the
condition
specific volume
of
means
If
quality
steam
of
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
curves
for
get
of
equations
In
(Fig. 6a).
be
can
equation
(67)
this
established
(66)
the
and
specific
a
way
the
its
series
course
determined.
The
from
work
fundamental
the
during
L, produced
adiabatic
expansion,
is found
equation
dQ=il(df/+dL)
when
and
dQ=0
make
we
for
employ
dU
equation
(41),
54;
p.
then
AdL=
and
"dq"dixp),
this, by integration,
from
AL^qi-q+Xipi'-xp.
Accordingly,
the
final
pressure
p
Let
Example.
from
the
initial
atmosphere,
specific
the
when
pressure
by equation
a
kilogram
of
then, according
quality
steam
(66),
to
the
the
[pound]
atmospheres
table
(68)
of
work
dry
down
on
p.
is determined
be
can
saturated
the
to
62, and
also
calculated.
expand
steam
final
for
of
pressure
Table
11
of
Appendix,
[J
-181.103,
^-513.587,
u,
-0.4474
-330.10,
j^
u,
-7.167]
-936.12,
and
132.954,
-^ -609.856,
u,
1.6495
[j-242.34,^-1111.77,t*,-26.423].
the
equation
get from
therefore
We
CURVE
ADIABATIC
THE
(66), for
when
Xi-l,
77
VAPORS.
WET
OF
divide
we
both
sides
value
by il, the
-0.9211,
then
and
-0.4484,
V,
v-24.354].
[v,-7.183,
Since
adiabatic
x"Xi,
for
Furthermore,
present
here
partial condensation.
involves
according
case,
Table
to
51-145.310,
9-100.500,
ie),-461.496,
[9,-261.558,
9-180.900,
/9,
equation
hence, from
and
expansion
the
--3.390.
1.5203,
V-
11,
/o -496.300
-830.693,
/"
-893.340],
(68),
AL
[88.495 B.t.u.l
cal.
-49.064
or
mkg.
L -20845.5
For
solution
the
also
might
made
have
dQÔ,
substitute
of
the
questions
use
of
was
as
assume,
we
in
(51a),
p.
the
foregoing
If
58.
we
there
we
follows
there
results
this
from
treated
equation
("D-o.
wdt+ATd
and
ft-lb.].
[68391.5
the
there
equation
of
indicated,
the
adiabatic
value
the
provided
curve,
constant,
a"
"(^)-^^(5F)x=z'^"-?-''
(69)
"
which
from
the
for
table
of
the
In
we
of
vapor
in
the
produced
water
Appendix
differential
like
determine
can
According
consumed
to
and
coefficients
manner
or
we
second
work
directly
must
also
for
an
"
assumed
table
occurring
expression
in
on
this
can
p.
62
"
pressure
specially substitute
the
"
The
c"i=l.
give
the
p;
value
formula.
be
developed
for
the
L.
equation (52),
p. 58,
Adt7-axft+d(A
(70)
78
TECHNICAL
is
equation
which
THERMODYNAMICS.
general
But
one.
adiabatic
with
of
change
state
AdLhence
also
we
-AdU,
have
AdL^-aOt-dLA,
and
accordingly
in
have
we
the
of
place
equation (68)
ilL=o;(ri-!r)+i;i^-/
The
initial
work
directly,
computed
and
volumes
final
and
be
therefore
can
initial
the
and
as
(71)
soon
final
the
as
are
pressures
given.
For
make
to
It
limit
of
use
This
curve.
of the
this
Therefore,
better
is
there
the
1, then
of the
;.
better
that
start
the
the
with
namely,
of
other
the
to
it is
be
sign
of the
saturated,
by
a
is
the
in
this
book
vapor
of
in
just
phenomenon
which
we
assume
sion
expan-
is
steam
behave
ether, which,
the
opposite
and
expansion
vapor
of adiabatic
the
acts
us
If
x.
doing
so
to
use
wet
that
case
mentioned
sole exception
dry
of
with
converse
in
that
vapors
superheated
compression,
the
(66) enables
quality
is connected
in
thus
state
steam
a;"l.
quantity
may
dry saturated,
steam
while,
occurs,
of
is
steam
of
value
the
Equation
change
change
of water;
All
(68).
we
by equation
matter,
and
in
If such
validity.
impossible
this
adiabatic
the
adduced
vapors
it is manifested
beforehand
to
their
the
control
computed
x"l
manner,
by
to
connected
initially supposed
way
steam
with
vapor
superheated.
place,
quality
the
condensation
compression,
in like
takes
expansion
sion
compres-
remaining
lose
the
crosses
adiabatic
the
formulas
the
adiabatic
the
of the
equations (66)
that
always
for
assume
order
advantage
recognize
to
and
curve
for
alwajrs be
should
xi
in
then
limit
of the
during
of water
vapor
furnishing
(66)
and
advantageous
more
adiabatic
the
that
during
occur
is
(68).
to
instance,
may
treatise; but
crossing
for
of ether
vapor
(66)
equations
happen,
may
of the
it
practical calculations, however,
was
is
densed
con-
fully
THE
discussed
only
on
of
at
the
of
the
Those
before
value
with
occurs
with
of the
Thus
expansion.
of
think
1, in the
for
xi
for
the
the
steam
right
On
member
present,
so
comes
positive,
Finally
assumed
and
the
expansion
the
course
if
from
question
an
tion
evapora-
equation (66)
(72)
we
have
negative
value
^"î,
assume
water,
and
equation,
hence
Xi
0,
"
for
will be
accordingly
same
a;
i.e.,
"xi,
the
beginning
right-hand
formation
the
initial
quality
according
to
be*
conditions
exist
may
at
beginning (but
the
at
member
limits, there
steam
only
occurs.
two
temperature
as
expansion);
of the
the
at
the
between
which
the
then
i.e.,steam
x"Xi;
presupposed
the
that
assume
we
that
condition
initial
of
recognize that,
we
only
dry
diminishes.
hand
is
this
it is not
jf-y-)
therefore
vapor
of
other
water
an
of
case
present
the
and
expansion,
the
sometimes
may
conversely
follows
Ti-T-xi(
we
sense)
sideration
con-
(and
of water
it is here
there
closer
when
quality;
referred
sure,
but
vapor
this
that
steam
(x-a:i)y
If
the
it, in
and
wet,
be
to
vapor;
that
shows
79
VAPORS.
compression,
is
xi
.WET
saturated
grouped
but
beginning
OF
conaderations,
adiabatic
during
initial
of
equation (66)
vapors
condense
CURVE
67.
p.
behavior
the
to
other
ADIABATIC
the
end
not
during
equation (72)
this
case
wheo
occurs
a:i-^^
For
if the
example,
batically from
formula
of
vapor
atmospheres
when
table
values
(73)
is
water
to
given
and
then
atmosphere,
adia-
expanded
the
preceding
gives
xi
least
of
we
on
utilise
the
corresponding
62.
We
get in this way
p.
of
say
=0.501,
Xi
in
which
differ
general
but
value
of
for other
little from
that, during
Cols.
and
so
that
adiabatic
limits
pressure
0.50,
the
we
in the
other
can
expansion
at
of
80
TECHNICAL
vapor
of
steam,
provided,
than
steam
of
there
water,
water
is
water
THERMODYNAMICS.
present
in
the
on
excess,
then
glance
it would
condensation
is, weight
start, there
the
at
occurs
hand
other
if
is
evaporation
of
for
weight,
more
initiallythe weight
connected
with
the
expansion.
At
the
first
but
simple law;
If
a
when
we
or
when
dT
resulting
to
pass
from
for
there
means
s'
xi,
of
(54), we
is not
equation
very
the
case.
is
(73),
whatsoever,
really
find
we
equation (73),
and
utilisse the
value
for
get
L\
of
specificheat
the
function
temperature
of
here
were
this
limits
differentiation
equation
the
that
pressure
hi"
where
shown
quality
any
if there
as
differential
the
the
execute
we
easily
steam
quantity
constant
that
the
that
assume
we
it is very
appear
If
liquid.
from
utilize
we
equation
(56),
here
p.
60,
follows
k^'
for
Thus,
example,
and
the
values
temperature
t=0"
100"
200^0.
p-32"
212"
392"
1.013
1.044
F.J
get
we
from
which
c=
A=
-1.9166
we
k=
The
adiabatic
curve
certain
technical
the
find
0.472
0.343
k is
that
-0.6766
-1.1333
respectively
value
so
for water
by
no
means
of wet
problems
vapors
which
we
0.607,
quantity.
constant
plays
will
an
discuss
important
later;
part
in
it there-
THE
fore
in
form
the
of this
first effort
the
result
the
vapor
=/(v)
CURVE
desirable
highly
seems
ABATIC
ADI
is due
sort
of
WET
VAPORS.
represent
the
equation
if it is
even
only
Rankine^;
to
is
water
he
that
given by
curve
The
from
concludes,
adiabatic
the
the
this
of
formula.
approximate
an
calculations,
numerical
of
to
81
OF
of
curve
approximate
formula
(74)
pvf'^pivi^,
where
and
steam,
is
/i
value
the
water
no
/"
the
go
under
saturated
that
into
the
and
p in the
On
the
gives
this
applying
pure
question
is not
of
help
that
and
have
has
been
presented
on
exponent
fi
76;
in
and
expansion,
the
same
way
value
with
the
assimiption
vapor.
we
to
the
given here,
condition
then
of
the
the
assumed
according
assumed
mixed
under
an
of
tables
is
then
for
p.
and
water
should
1.140
determine
initial
calculated
concluded,
importance
exact
my
of water
certain
/"
beginning
will
no
and
expressly
was
fully
but
f,
that
of the
more
mixture
it
account
beginning,
we
the
expansion
this
question
the
at
question
with
manner
equation (74)
for
the
at
volume
the
that
it.
with
that
Suppose
this
saturated
was
dealing
are
to
in
saturated
k i
the
But
calculations,
assumption
steam
we
or
not.
of
of
show.
(74) with
the
whether,
calculations, however,
mixed
equation
once
of water
steam
I will
which
beginning
the
at
numerical
of
Rankine
of
say
not
returned
these
was
matter,
as
does
I will
as
in
while
that,
Rankine
assume
results
the
used
for
Grashof^
Later
be
quantity
admixture
unimportant,
initial volume
the
Vi
constant
must
we
without
from
1.111.
formula,
steam
initial pressure,
is the
pi
the
(piVi) and
terminal
could
sure
pres-
determine
formula
^logpi-logp
^
For
was
the
assumed
of
the
pressure
of
Engine,
*G
schrift
in
instance,
p.
rash
des
e,
logv"
example
the
pressure
pi
atmosphere
Manual
of
was
Applied
logui
on
p.
76, dry
and
atmospheres
supposed
Mechanics.
to
"
saturated
steam
expansion
we
occur;
Manual
of
the
to
found
Steam
385.
of,
Vereins
Indicator."
"VOlker's
Vorwort
in
deutscher
Ingenieure,
Vol.
VIII,
p.
Berlin,
151.
1863.
Zeit-
S2
TECHNICAL
there
and
=0.4484
Vi
gives
equation
for
THERMODYNAMICS.
this
one
like
value
the
mine
The
constant.
for
final
the
the
there
1.1354.
initial
glance
the
4, 2, 1, and
p, and
that,
the
initial
are
so
table,
may
for
ratio
values
this
given
final
constant
is
dry
saturated
x
lations
calcu-
such
and
the
throughout,
at
the
at
relation
i.e.,the
e,
of
atmospheres
atmospheres;
that
shows
decidedly
the
pressure,
fi
be;
to
within
nearly
results
8, 4, 2, and
deter*
can
really remains
value
specificquality
is assumed
include
the
we
vivi,
the
begin,
end
of
and
finally
the
fi.
diminishes
/"
gives
0.5
tabulation
insignificant that
assume
of
this
steam
expansion
pressure
which
the
that
final values,
not
or
of
pressures
the
at
value
whether
tabulated
are
the
see
and
initial
other
following tabulation
corresponding
we
and
is made
assumption
expansion,
pt
of
pressures
ning;
for
manner,
preceding
case
;i=
In
the
accordingly,
1.5203, and,
the
all the
mean
/!=
for
becomes
value
1.135,
final pressure
the
greater
nevertheless
limits
occurring
for
/ei,
and
initial pressure
given
smaller
pressure
cases
the
the
variations
assumed
in steam
this
larger
value
in
the
engines,
is
84
TECHNICAL
In
all
in which
cases
pV^PiVi^
THERMODYNAMICS.
we
the
compute
can
of
is made
use
the
expansion
formula
approximate
L
work
formula
by
L'-fpdv,
this
with
and
be
readily
formula
approximate
as
base
get,
we
as
may
seen,
^-f?i["-(T)'"T
or
p-i-
'-n}-im
also
or
L"-
which
results
(Vol. I,
before
the
exponent
formulas
and
change
of state
the
of wet
(66)
and
and
p. 82
are
from
obtained
for
of
no
longer
greater
0.5
to
with
gases,
for
1.410
ic=
the
the
the
this
the
they
transcend
limits
exponent
two
beginning,
//
which
the
to
if
and
we
the
differ
on
empirical
take
the
as
for
one
imate
approxpressure
tabulations
two
are
far apart,
vakies
inconsiderably
not
and
p.
formula
steam
approximate
mental
funda-
the
82
p.
adiabatic
convinces
applied
pressures
tabulations
correspond
occur
of the
of
regarded
of
those
preceding
of the
easily
be
be
only
can
law
true
p. 76,
only
can
the
that
examination
and
p. 75
established
If the
from
closer
(68),
that
discrepancies
at
value
the
(74) represent
greatly
not
p. 83.
those
which
than
do
infer
vapors.
equations just
which
the
found
we
of
expansion
substituted
to
relation
the
formulas,
limits
which
those
adiabatic
we
inclined
be
equations
that
with
//.
might
One
furnished
those
with
agree
the
there
that
diflference
the
for
140)
p.
with
well
numerical
limits, give
p. 76.
equations
preceding
The
designated
the
sufficiently
agree
equation (68),
exact
"jlpivi-pv],
within
which,
formulas,
on
(77)
83, values
(76).
quality
Xi
computation
Still
less
be-
THE
ADIABATIC
wholly
comes
untenable
is hereafter
use
made
be
only
it will
CURVE
of
within
WET
OF
for
the
the
approximate
indicated
the
which
in
case
85
VAPORS.
formulas
limits
of
Hence,
Xi=0.
(74) and
initial
the
if
(77),
and
final
pressure.
enunciates,
Charpentier^
proposition
determine
with
that
the
dry saturated
quality
steam
according
i.e.,for
end
of the
proof,
"1
xi
must
we
adiabatic
sion
expan-
-ife.
but
the
must
be
C h
theoretically deduced
nt
the
tabulation
but
Uttle
last
of
in
the
shows
75,
p.
table
the
for
the
quality
steam
the
which
for
limits
pressure
beginning, however,
the
when
is obtained
the
values
formulas;
preceding
dry
for
gives
of
those
(66),
that
relation
the
p. 83
"
formula
formula
r's
on
from
the
is
steam
from
computed
the
formula
the
to
without
sure
steam,
the
at
be
to
at
quality
special
in
case
good
as
end
the
which
in
differ
from
the
which
the
computed
was
just
assumed
agreement
an
is determined
by
formula
the
functions
temperature
long
liquid
total
curve
expansion,
XCVIII,
la
pp.
under
detente
85-87.
the
assumption
of
C h
resulting connection
entering
fast
and
to
into
the
between
is not
formulas
Regnault's
experimental
the
t i
r's
several
confirmed
results
on
heat.
preceding
adiabatic
"Sur
hold
we
as
and
The
that
shows
statement
80
of this
examination
closer
of
investigations concerning
wet
the
assumption
adiabatique
425-428.
bore
vapors
de
the
particularly on
that
la vapeui
the
d'eau."
steam
course
the
was
Gomptes
of
the
question
of
saturated
rendus,
1884"
86
TECHNICAL
beginning,
the
at
with
question
little
comparatively
exceeds
of
that
the
it is of
such
Let
will be
there
enough
be
pi
is
vapor,
the
of
liquid
mixed
was
if the
of
compression
continued
tiU
finally only liquid
and
of these
values
two
will
-ho
Vi ^XiUi
be
may
is
be
called
of
unit
the
the
volume
without
beginning and
the
at
with
and
long
steam.
any
the
then
ity;
qual-
steam
mixture
will
be
to
the
ratia
the
ingly
ratio; accord-
compression
the
this
is continued
initial volume;
the
In
compression,
Xi
liquid present
weight of
hand,
on
d i
importance.
compression
only liquid present
pressure
of the
weight
is connected
that
during
steam
technical
suppose
final
wet
the
one
steam
character
of
when
of the
condensation
case
behavior
the
to
as
compression,
batic
that
or
it.
The
be
THERMODYNAMICS.
.=^1^^^
(79)
because
Moreover,
x=0,
equation (66),
end
the
at
p, 75,
gives
the
this
whole
equation
final temperature
the
mass
(68),
is
the
liquefied,
of
work
(80"
H-jT-;
t and
are
final pressure
the
and
determined,
L
compression
from
then
the
p, at
1.
the
Let
T,
-0.2005,
this
to
60.589
5i-
[^1-109.06
Consequently
we
get for the
two
Xi-O.lO
f
-755.4
1-0.3697
be
pressure
-^-1.6924, u,
from
formula
(81)
initial pressure
kg. [433.26 lb.]; corresponding
which
follows,
AL^qi-q+Xipi
Example
have
must
we
us
T"Ti
from
compression
of
0.2
we
atmosphere
get the
-7.5428
[u, -120^1
and
/",
and
/t",-949.65j.
or
aj,-0.01,
-527.584
cases
"-76.4,
f
-0.2175.
values
or
p. "2066.6^
The
correspond
values
WET
OF
87
VAPORS.
pressures
p -0.256
-2.000,
liquefaction, and
complete
for
the
to
existing
CURVE
ADIABATIC
THE
atmoepheiet,
according
(81)
equatioa
to
find
we
respectively
AL-0.28cal.
AL-8.07
[AL
Example
initial
the
Let
2.
AL
14.526
kg. [2116.3 lb.]. Corresponding
0.3136,
during
two
compression
sufficient
with
/5, -893.34.
-180.9,
the
to
Xi -0.10
and
-26.4221
u,
of
point
liquefaction
get, for the
we
following results:
the
cases,
values
9,
Therefore
the
tt.-1.64M,
^-1.4383,
[T,-
have
p "-10333
or
^1-496.30.
100.50,
5i-
atmosphere
1
we
pressure
"--1.4383,
-0.3136,
T,
be
pressure
this
to
B.t.u-l.
-0.504
or
Xi
-0.01
17.5
"
165.9
"
-0.4575
-0.3280,
5.5
p"
for these
have
we
accuracy
or
values
1.2
"
the
terminal
pressures.
atmospheres.
The
work
is found
equation
from
ilL-7.34
[ALIf
is
compression
volume
V"
the
the
what
volume
according
cases,
If
we
to
AL
at
follows
end
at
v,"
the
law
make
the
and
if
in
steam
possible
at
the
assumption
phere
atmosassume
fi "0.527.
certain
cylinder
proved
"
here
we
then
to
ing
correspond-
Pi
condensing
been
0.10^
","
the
pressure
[2.670];
the
value
then, according
-0.0439
initial
in
is
yet
the
correspond
engine
with
initial
pvf^ ^PiVi^,
compression
mixed
is
the
0.1659
not
the
atmospheres,
to
problems
has
B.t.u.].
0.504
i.e.,for
the
while
to
the
as
It
condensing.
is, in these
curve
during
happens
engine,
[0.3300],
be, respectively,
AL-0.28cal.
from
amounts
to
to
cases,.
quality
preceding
two
two
only
steam
0.0206
compression
The
the
of
carried
(66), the
equation
that
first
the
for
13.212
(81)
of
non-
much
beginning
that
steam
or
how
to
cases
the
water
of
pression.
com-
water
88
with
than
of
means
and
experiments
tunately
mixed
is
finally
do
not
in
with
results
exist,
the
steam
the
fresh
the
will
take
is
just
observations
we
water
cyUnder,
steam
on
it
have
up
again
of
curve
carried
compressed
entering.
this
rapidly
therefore
compression
the
concerning
of
but
of
course
something
confined
which,
steam
the
from
inferring,
We
water.
less
rises
curve
pressure
Uttle
containing
vapor
diagram,
indicator
the
then
considerable,
is
present
and
THERMODYNAMlCa
TECHNICAL
question
later.
by
an
the
there
Decisive
unfor^
APPLICATIONS.
"
OF
COOLING
OR
HEATINQ
12.
State
of
Changes
Reversible
1.
Wet
of
WET
Vapors.
VAPORS
AT
STANT
CON-
VOLUME.
If
pressure
in
and
the
changes
end,
of
weight
to
mixture
quality
of
Xi,
of
liquid
then
its
77,
and
if
volume
of
change
and
is
is
does
given
the
quality
steam
not
the
by
withdrawn,
or
the
has
vapor
volume
imparted
being
heat
value
the
because
then,
steam
consequence
pressure
the
of
pi
if,
now
unit
occur,
we
at
also
have
Vi^'xu+a.
at
these
equating
By
the
two
equations
get,
we
for
the
steam
quality
end,
'-'-f
and
it
this
because
case,
be
may
also
there
di;=0,
the
from
calculated
determines
follows
the
from
("
assumed
value
terminal
u.
equation
(43),
Since,
pressure
in
the
present
55,
p.
dQ^dq-hdixp),
and
from
this
the
heat
to
be
imparted
is
Q^q-qi-^-xp-Xipi,
.
89
p,
90
TECHNICAL
of
help
the
with
or,
THERMODYNAMICS.
(1), we
equation
have
Q-?-9i+x,u,(J-^)
get from
We
of entropy
equation
(58),
61, the
p.
(2)
increase
corresponding
p.p,=^(^.^,+|:_^),
(3)
....
in
If
of p,
is here
equation
computed
T
quantity
for
of the
present
pressure
line
be
stituted.
sub-
abscissa
as
ordinate
straight
also
(1), may
as
temperature
itself
curve
pressure
last
transformation
get the
we
from
x,
off the
lay
we
corresponding
the
value
the
formula
which
and
different
values
curve.
The
parallel
of
axis
the
to
ordinates.
the
If, in
by
and
be
imparted,
then
at
completely
designate
we
the
i.e.,
certain
evaporated
for
pressure
this
so
state
(1)
equation
shall get from
we
p2
will
be
to
increase,
to
pressure
If
obtain.
will
heat
suppose
liquid present
the
all
instant
we
case,
temperature
suppose
that
present
(la)
tt2=xitii,
quantity
the
and
will
point,
of
which
Q2j
heat
be
must
supplied
this
to
up
become
Q2=92-9i+x"".(^-^)
A
and
heat
continued
but
temperature,
the
applied
to
here
the
on
Example.
water
be
and
the
in
and
let
at
the
constant
pressure
sink
volume.
to
formulas
take
now
contains
kg. [lb.] be
liquid condition;
increase
can
the
let the
0.1
steam
place, because
pressure
atmosphere
be
from
condition.
mixture
and
pressure
longer
no
superheated
vessel
let 0.763
will
the
into
Suppose
its vapor;
present
that
passes
still further
preceding
the
occurrences
steam
will
supply
(2a)
let
amount
while
of
the
kg. [lb.] of
rest, 0.237
to
heat
1.5
is
pheres
atmos-
drawn
with-
G,
92
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
"
of
ment
P2i
be
to
have,
we
value
this
to
been
ps"
pressure
the
Furthermore
converted
been
has
determined,
Here
and
has
water
according
there
into
corresponding
pressure
obtained.
to
equation
W2
-0.8589
and
(la),
[13.759],
according
corresponds,
atmospheres
table
the
and
steam
to
of
11
the
C.
^"-120.60"
temperature
Table
Appendix,
[249.08" F.].
gives
9,
--558.86
121.417,
"
"-62.798];
[52-2I8.55I,
hence, according
of
the
mixture
(2a), the
equation
to
heat
necessary
quantity
for G
kg. [lb.]
is
Q3"117.53Gcal.
[Qj
GB.t.u.].
-211.554
"
In
order
to
volume
constant
the
investigate
also
might
we
of
change
used
have
of
state
steam
wet
general equation
at
(51a),
p. 58, i.e.,
dQ
If
dQ
indicate
we
with
the
subscript
the
to
v,
then,
with
the
help
of
volume
constant
because
is
v=Vi
by
providing
constant,
also
we
preceding formula,
a,+AvT-^,
"
or,
under
heating
the
according
have,
wdt+ATd(v^J.
(36),
equation
p.
d.
dQv
(4)
39,
f p\
This
of
quantity
wet
it
steam
by
Cy, which
nothing
represents
at
value
the
specific
volume,
constant
is
but
constant
with
gases,
and
we
heat
if
will
we
nate
desig-
get
c,'-'o+v^[-};
\u/'
(4a)
HEATING
COOLING
OR
hence
c,
here
volume.
(50),
is the
p. 39,
we
can
VAPORS
will
easily followed
and
doing
equation
saturated
for
lose thdr
relation
the
equation
to
(22),
(36),
29, after
p.
few
with
wemakea;
supply
and,
in
this
(46)
and
validity. Equations
of
the
(4c) give
for
so
dry
at
into
pass
equations
the
in
heat
would
steam
case,
but
l;
withdrawal
heat
condition
dul
steam
consider
only
must
superheated
the
the
write
volume,
constant
consider
of
transformations,
dry
we
and
pressure
According
of water.
rdr
For
the
93
VOLUME
follow
also
utilizing Clapeyron's
or,
of
v=xu+o,
specific heat
also
CONSTANT
AT
function
substitute
we
p. 57, there
WET
as
appears
If
where
OF
would
steam
'="=^+4(0'
^^^
or
dr
du
^^^^'^dt'f'udt'
the
last
function
h,
if, with
and
equation,
as
utilize
we
equation
per
(56),
Clausius
the
we
perature
tem-
get
du
'"^-udi'
equation
an
ii 1 1
J.
J.
which
was
Poggendorff's
1 1
"
r,
Annalen,
found
in
another
substituted, approximately,
r,i only he
M
also
^**)
Uber
die
Jubelband,
spezifische
1874, p.
Wftnne
227.
der
way
the
by
quantity
J.
u
J.
for
ges"ttigten Dftmpfe/'
94
TECHNICAL
specificvolume
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
dry
of
For
steam.
the
calculating
specific
"
of
heat
with
steam
convenient
it is most
We
"
c.
decrease
with
and
temperature,
value
and
J. J. M
With,
help
the
different
be
could
equation
of
the
steam
calculated
the
pressures
that
hypothesis
1 1
is
Cv
lies in
quality
specific volume
for
computed
(4a)
equation
of wet
all points
for
constant
be
from
or
the
shows,
observed.
could
x,
in-
neighborhood
the
akeady
has
there
(46)
4d
equation
as
i.e., with
pressure,
probably
u
atmospheres
8.732
growing
which
11,
14
9.638
approach,
value
C. [752^ F.], as
of 400^
there
limit
of
10
11.603
63, Col.
p.
(4d).
or
steam
16.957
values
auxiliary table,
equation (4a)
use
0.5
the
dry saturated
for
19.583
creaang
of
help
to
obtain
thus
The
the
the
under
steam
of
the
plated
contem-
curve.
formulas
The
the
in
running
In
discussing
of
means
the
whioh
in
the
of
continued
quantity
the
p]
to
quantity
heat
equation
to
off the
be
the
of
Gx,
the
boiler
the
during
the
into
is
to
the
be
closed.
the
of
weight
the
which
at
let G
ti and
temperature
q, introduced
heating
the
pipe
steam
boiler, Gxi
the
temperature
heating
risen
has
according
in
let the
supply
boiler
instant
the
shutting
ing
accord-
in
when
time,
steam
water
present, and
with
the
moment
and
steam
furnish
importance
law
pressure
beyond
valve
At
led
has
technical
the
investigate
us
the
continued
the
is of
that
steam
with
increases
is
problem
proposed
question
let
connection
this
the
boilers.^
steam
to
which
to
weight
the
pressure
time
t, and
boiler
the
at
steam
pi ;
^
the
then
steam
pressure
this
here
we
(2),
have
case
of
heat
imparted
under
constant
volume.
*
Compare
Schweiieriache
the
author's
article
polytechnische
"
Neue
Zeitschrift.
Tabelle
fur
ges"ttigte
Jabrg, 1863,
Vol.
Wasserdampfe/'
Vlll.
to
time, is,
Q=(?[3-3.+x,".("-^)].
because
of
HEATING
COOLING
OR
Let
addition
in
us
boiler
every
which
the
VAPORS
by
Qm,
heat
the
then
rises
pressure
CONSTANT
AT
the
designate
minute
boiler
WET
OF
from
quantity
time
to
pi
96
VOLUME
entering
(in minutes)
is found
the
during
from
"=|-[3-3.+x,".("-^)],(5)
....
this
and
the
answers
be
can
In
is
steam
liquid
substitute
can
we
under
1.0224;
boilers
steam
occurring
by
for
in
assumptions
these
this
from
increases
from
to
pi
is, 1. proportional
to
the
steam
weight
water
present;
quantity
heat
series
first
formulas
great
it is
influence
and
'Compare
V.Burg,
Sitzungsberichte
der
p.
312.
k.
is
which
surface
that
a
"Uber
k.
Akademie
value
c"
accuracy,
and
of
water,
in
rise
pressure
with
each
(as shown
by
the
boilers
capacity
WisseDschaften
and
and
water
the
In
the
was
the
to
same
now
my
point
out
the
and
present
have
much
more
by
Thus
Qm).
which
dei
to
but
value
of
corresponded
occasion;
Wirksamkeit
der
the
time.
of
one
of
portional
pro-
weight
(1853)
weight
die
the
unit
completely
cubic
2.
because
or,
to
sure
pres-
is interrupted,
inversely proportional
on
the
boiler
the
(t"ti);
Fairbairn
in locomotive
small
the
doing
so^
discharge
steam
boiler
the
procedure
heating
surface
the
temperature,
possessed by
easily explained
heating
time
amount
same
the
explain
size of the
the
the
-8 within
of steam
equal periods
of
in
mean
rise of temperature
enters
intervals
of
sufficient
neglected, proportional
which
Qm
containing
boiler
finally, 3.* this
that
show
equal
nearly
the
weight
be
can
for
after
special investigations
of
to
total
the
(5a)
time
p,
to
fined
con-
"
the
that
see
we
the
get, with
Q^
and
the
that
heat
and
q=ct,
for
moreover
the
of water
we
^=
boilers
formula
of
present,
omitted;
tion
equa-
form
exact
weight
water
be
steam
specific heat
the
the
the
to
the
preceding
the
sufficiently
equation (5), can
calculated
be
can
in
Xi,
limits
pressure
and
simpler
ordinary
but
proposed;
small, relatively
so
by
affected
the
into
brought
practical cases.
term
question
great
rapid
Sicheiheitsventile."
su
Wien,
Vol.
XLV,
96
TECHNICAL
of steam
rise
in
than
pressure
boilers
the
additional
the
time
for
proportional
the
the
of
The
(5a),
its
of
the
the
easily draw
can
we
is
temperature
boiler
steam
heating
which
to
of
rise
interrupted
preceding formulas
surface;
of p in Col. 3, Table
values
according
the
of
for
engines;
from
is
discharge
steam
stationary
volume
size
boiler, the
intervals
of
particular
to
to
law
when
occurs
conclusion
needed
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
steam
that
the
nearly directly
and
inversely
for
moreover,
portional
pro-
ticular
par-
la, give approximately

increases
pressure
in
equal
time.
increment
temperature
demands,
dt
according
equation
to
time
the
Gc
dd=-^-dt
(6)
dp
We
call
can
steam
value
the
pressure
in
grows
if
beating;
shut-off
designate
we
velocity
-j^ the
with
boiler
steam
velocity by
the
dp
O^dp.
dd
Gcdt'
which
subjected
w
the
to
tinued
con-
get for it
we
is
it
proportional
therefore
p with
pressure
The
in Ccl.
values
table
auxiliary
velocity,
p.
calculating
formula,
we
of
coefficient
la, and
Table
that
also
the
with
the
the
3 of the
for
measure
employ
we
w,
in Col.
those
rapidly
it grows
velocity
the
of
temperature.
62, accordingly furnish
it is evident
and
If, in
on
the
to
respect
differential
the
to
^^^
this
pressure.
exact
more
find
Qm
dpr
"H
/T^x
'^+^'"'^(9
The
we
may,
expression
without
calculating
During
w
of
the
the
the
the
pressure
in
the
differs
brackets
hesitation, employ
velocity
normal
of
change
should
stoking, i.e.,variations
in
of
be
the
steam
in
of the
plant
the
that
when
boilers.
steam
boiler
small, and
value
unity
simpler equation (7)
increase
pressure
running
the
little from
so
the
velocity
irregularitiesia
heat
quantity
Qm,
HEATING
entering
on
CXX)LING
the
boiler
is the
that
w;
of
OR
and
water
boiler
per
0.6
than
small
influence
small
the
(7), when
and
great
it is far
weight
differential
the
easier
high-pressure
locomotive
corresponds
to
run
large
boiler, particularly
boiler, is provided
the
then
temperature;
engine
of
with
large
regularly supplying
water
of
quantity
surface
that
the
suppose,
latter
has
ft.]
cu.
and
pose
sup-
per
hour
pressure,
that
moreover,
is fed
generated
steam
steam
atmospheres
at
[388.5
powers)
kg. [5.12 lb.] of
25
[274.3" F.];
C.
and
cbm.
horse
15
boiler
steam
of 11
capacity
about
normally,
^'-152.22^
is filled with
boiler
and
running
temperature
of the
an
surface
[square foot] of heating
meter
cylindrical,
ordinary,
an
to
when
generates,
square
i.e., at
is very
97
VOLUME.
have
equation
to
Accordingly
[193.75 sq. ft.]heating
m.
(the boiler
it
should
time,
boiler
the
Suppose
Example.
sq.
of
CONSTANT
AT
surface.
heating
18
VAPORS
according
small.
latter, like
the
WET
unit
in
steam
low-pressure
when
in
case,
-jjis
coefficient
OF
15"^ C.
at
minute,
per
[59" F.]
when
is
it
is
steam,
18X25
_.,
^"^^"
-60"
[i"?:^p? 16.5331b.].
=
If the
from
total
the
feed
-go
Qm
ft.];
2.75
-4784
amounts
0.6
to
cubic
one
[cubic foot]
meter
during
minute
since
of
lb.] and
weight
the
-6612.1
11, and
the
of
find
steam
The
volume
weighs
the
weight
to
12.1
lb.] and
the
1 1 cbm.
water
the
engine,
the
in
water
kg. and
[155.4
amounts
cu,
cubic
one
(Table
kg. [26.68 lb.], so
get
we
enters
0.4
as
must
we
the
of
pressure
of
which
of
but
[27.(X)9];
Qm,
1000
atmospheres
that
[59"]
"o'-15"
volume
to
demands
[1175.274];
rimning
B.t.u.].
water
weight
kg. [14577.2
quantity
atmospheres,
[pound]
9o-'15.(X)5
heat
steam
11)
of
normal
[18985
steam
value
the
cal.
of
kilogram
one
temperature
the
met^
kg. [0.17167 lb.], we
[14550
for
of 5
pressure
(Table
corresponding
[1148.265], and
-7.5X637.93
boiler
constant
then
the
possesses
the
from
per
the
[32"] temperature,
aU-eady
water
-637.93
boiler
under
generated
i-9+r-94-|t"+Apu"652.93
heat
subtract
"l
(f
at
water
the
is
steam
11), weighs
to
that
6600
the
kg.
total
quality is
steam
12.10
*"
Now
the
boiler
let the
go
atmospheres?
on
steam
supply
unchanged;
-6612.1
be
in
^^,""
-"""'"3.
interrupted,
what
time
but
will
the
the
imparting
pressure
then
of
grow
heat
to
to
10
98
TECHNICAL
According
the
values
and
for
the
the
11,
final
of
pressure
[328.90],
the
[257.66], and
of 5
pressure
[sW];
atmospheres
10
atmospheres
PjIu,-
1254.7
table
gives
therefore
[140.987],
the
values
(5) gives
equation
time
The
and
corresponding
temperatures
e
which
sufficiently
is
the
For
of
increase
for 5 [w -0.052
for
0.162
when
take
we
values
These
the
the
proportional
the
boiler
and
the
If
we
bairn's
the
of
led
the
for
1""
F.],
auxiliary
table,
p.
62,
atmospheres.
the
corresponding
in
the
mentioned,
pressures,
atmospheres,
under
increment
of
the
pressure
time.
F
formulas
temperatures
boiler
in
to
for
atm.
measured
minute,
moment
are
given
Fairbairn
to
to
the
according
compute
F.],
from
get
respectively,
pressure,
-0.090
boiler, and
per
of
experiments
correctness
where
the
to
[w
to
1"
for
atm.
order
in
the
that, from
supposition
The
pressure
final
coefficients
this
for
give
of
increment
10333
by
the
atmospheres
10
differential
them
first dividing
the
of
velocity
-0.708%,
initial and
get for the
-0.094
the
pressure,
therefore
we
gives
minutes,
(7) gives, for
equation
and
employed
is
accurate.
example
same
1.0224
c"
mean
introduced,
are
(t -it) -39.69
1.413
the
(5a), when
formula
approximate
the
minutes.
-41.00
is
initial
-0.3626
",
-2293.0
^:u
for the
have
we
[276.732];
153.74
gi-
182.72
"
Table
to
THERMODYNAMICS.
above
n,
here,
the
mentioned,
made
were
confirm
locomotive
relation
Fahrenheit
scale.
then
Celsius,
to
on
which
the
time
for
is
e-0.405U-l,),
and
the
velocity of increase
of pressure
tr
is
-2.466^;
at
therefore
stationary
said.
the
time
boiler
is less
assumed
and
above,
the
velocity
which
is
essentially greater
explicable
from
what
than
has
the
been
100
TECHNICAL
00i
off
then
a,
bear
from
Oi,
have
simply
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
abscissas
ratio
constant
for
the
same
each
to
estimated
pressure,
other;
from
the
figure we
OiVt
0,1;
,o
(8a)
351=^=-==^=Oi8
differentiation
By
by
(8)
equation
and
sides
multiplying both
get
we
of
OiSi
pdv"Xipds;
integration gives
then
L=XiLu
Li represents the work
where
to
the
limits
limit
curve,
when
the
constant
steam
The
p.
55,
to
produced during expansion
L is the
of
changes
produced
work
state
for the
according
occur
according
same
to
pressure
the
of
curve
weight.
quantity Qi,
heat
according
and
(9"
limit
the
which
is to
be
DD,
curve
supplied during expansion,

found
is
from
equation
(43)^
be
to
Qi^q-qi+p-Pi+ALi;
hand,
other
the
on
utilizing equation (9)

Q^q-qi
from
follows
which
+Xi(p''Pi
get for the
we
EE
curve
+ALi),
by combination
(3-(l-Xi)(g-gi)+Xi(2,
The
be
found
heat
from
(10)
quantity Qi, corresponding

the
presentation
from
p. 70
on
to
limit
the
the
curve,
may
formula
If the
Example.
sion
is continued
last formula
we
till the
initial
pressure
get for the
limit
0, -51.987
pressure
has
curve
Cal.
is 5
fallen
(see
atmospheres,
to
and
atmosphere,
example,
p.
[93.5766 B.t.u.);
70)
if the
then
expan-
from
the
CURVE
ZERO
because
(10),
for the
of constant
curve
Q
From
this
when
Xt"
in
the
at
limit
at
the
points
two
The
of
state
of heat
from
Moreover,
u
initial
steam
which
is
quality
the
may
second
the
be
of
curve
the
constant
figure)
the
in
same
for
get
we
(dotted
AA
curve
value
the
in
x, "0.506
proof that
of
Wet
of
corresponding
weight
of
wet
Vapors.*
to
infinitesimal
an
according
steam,
change
equation
to
been
has
what
said
for
negative
of
vapor
quality
steam
it is
water;
C!onsequently
right member
within
vapors
we
x
can
varies
of
above,
that
know
we
the
function
temperature
(11)
(l''X)cdt-^zhdt+rdx
dr
is
quality
steam
adiabatic
an
Curve
dQ
the
pressures,
negative
supplied,
be
must
end
and
0.506
Xi"
heat
same
p. 60, is
(57),
Q when
equation
limit
(x, -0.506).
105.228
get, from
we
Xi for the
weight
case
the
by
Zero
unit
[180.9]
101
(Fig. 7).
x,
quantity
9-100.500
for
Q "0,
is intersected
(b)
of
at
For
pressures
weight
the
first
that
beginning.
assumed
steam
the
In
order
VAPORS.
-53.241
X,
positive value
WET
steam
105.288
0.506.
withdrawn,
as
get
we
and
[276.734]
153.741
9i-
OF
certain
negative
in
conceive
of
in such
equation
(11)
all
a
the
to
in
curve
pressure
equal
for
practically occurring
that
way
are
limits, particularly
first two
zero,
so
cases.
which
the
the
of the
terms
that
the
relation
(l-x)c+xA=0
(12a)
obtains.
this
From
derive
we
^=c-^'
'
The
designation
attention
der
Theorie
1876,
to
p.
193.
the
zero
Dftmpfe."
is due
curve
remarkable
to
properties
Zeitschrift
des
J.
of
Vereins
(12)
Weyravich,
this
curve
deutscher
first called
who
in
his
article
Ingenieure,
Vol.
"Zur
XX,
102
and
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
the
corresponding
specificvolume
cu
(13)
and
this
aero
curve.
equation
As
given
are
is the
and
the
of
hence
for
compute
therefore
picture
In
every
From
the
the
A, and
c,
ture
temperawe
can
and
can
pressure,
pressure
the
curve.
the
again represent
and
curve
of
the
8 let DD
Fig.
pressure
quantities
functions
as
for
sought
NN
the
zero
curve.
(13) follows
equation
cu
v
a"
"
c"K
For
limit
the
at
curve
the
same
pressure
"~"7
and
U,
this, by division,
from
If, in Fig, 8,
we
"
"
lay oflF OOi
"j,
c"h*
then
0,v
As
expression
the
the
limit
From
we
have
point,
the
easily
can
we
on
right
the
be
can
the
construct
for every
computed
zero
perature,
tem-
backwards
curve
from
curve.
the
x
A=0.
calculation
temperature
intersection
\\
of
accordingly
the
From
of h
t, and
we
can,
hence
the
we
get
the
be,
pressure
given
determine
at
the
Umit
the
equation
from
formulas
empirical
if need
with
curve
zero
the
point
curve
(12), for
on
p.
68
this
for
corresponding
of intersection.
ZERO
For
of water
vapor
in
0.1
p-
[1.]
[t-115.18
c-1.0038
2.
-fc"1.4942
3.
x-=-"-r-0.4018
4.
from
If
-0.3999
(14)
off
lay
we
(according
Weyrauch
line
the
line
to
this
in
indeed,
particular
get
we
144.00**
170.81**
195.53**
179.08
212.00
249.08
291.20
339.46
383.95]
1.0039
1.0130
1.0179
1.0244
1.0331
1.0420
1.2439
1.1333
1.0209
0.9063
0.7894
0.6930
0.4479
0.4720
0.4992
0.5306
0.5669
0.6005
0.4475
0.4720
0.4996
0.5309
0.5669
0.6000
abscissa
as
then
ordinate,
as
for
the
points
out, the
and
shows
0.5
in lines 4 and
lie in
nearly
water,
as
straight
which
(^'-32)].
5 of the
between
agreement
limits
atmospheres,
14
to
of
vapor
value
of water
vapor
values
excellent
an
the
substitute
of the
of the
atm.
120.60**
t [=0.338+0.000744
a;=^=0.338+0,00134
Comparison
14
100.00**
pointed
case
103
VAPORS.
81.71*"
therefore
can
we
WET
temperature
4)
has
and
OF
0.5
(-46.21^
1.
5.
CURVE
(14a)
preceding
the
limits
pressure
rarely overstepped
are
lation
tabu-
with
steam.
the
With
the
zero
the
equation
intersection
l and
of
case
regarded
as
of
therefore
equation
from
the
of
(13)
we
then
get for the
equation
of
curve
For
have
help
water,
zero
(14a)
provided
for
curve
and
A=0,
still reliable
of equation
the
the
with
accordingly
temperature
the
the
empirical
far-off
limit
the
we
get
494** C.
formula
temperature.
at
curve
the
we
section
inter-
[921.2" F.]
in
used
be
may
tion
Differentia-
(14) gives
,
dx^pdt.
For
expansion
(11),
with
the
according
help
of
to
the
zero
curve
we
get, from
tion
equa-
(12a),
dQ=rdx=^dt,
(16)
104
which
t;
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
equation
be
can
it is necessary
during expansion
ishes,
the
in
From
it;
impart
to
in
the
to
first
is known
as
withdraw
heat, durmg
the
case
pression
com-
dimin*
quality
steam
of
function
it increases.
other
fundamental
the
since
integrated
equation
dQ=dq'hd(xp)'\-AdL
there
easily be computed
can
equation
The
the
and
(16)
of constant
curve
From
dQ
DD
I,
zero
into
the
to
dQ
from
the
to
adiabatic
and
to
adiabatic
if
curve,
we
there
0,
-^-T^bh-^y
"^^
The
substitute
we
weight.
steam
(11) follows, for the
equation
substitute
relations
peculiar
has
curve
zero
if
L,
(14).
equation
from
work
the
NN
curve
two
parts
left
of
the
divides
now
I and
the
II, Fig. 8,
zero
curve,
within
area
for
p. 102;
have,
we
^17)
the
all
for like
limit
points
in
curve
space
pressure,
x"
and
of it, in space
ri^t
the
at
II,
x"
c-h'
for
the
the
through
passage
zero
the
curve
compared
values
are
equal.
values
The
expansion,
(c" A), r, and
and
AA
in
dx
this
is
positive
it follows
on
as
the
in
the
Fig. 8,
point
that
other
the
in
to
the
I,
space
adiabatic
hand
adiabatic
of intersection,
are
Fig.
negative and, according

of
positive;
adiabatic
the
preceding
while
it is
expansion
in
space
A A
and
II
cuts
therefore
if
we
considered,
equation
negative
in
zero
in
then
(17),
the
II;
space
I involves
space
it involves
the
adiabatic
assimie
change
of
then
sign
value
from
tion,
evapora-
condensation.
curve,
dt is
dx=0
takes
If,
at
place
ZERO
before
in z;
this
adiabatic
WET
OF
point evaporation
the
condensation;
CURVE
with
occurs
takes
opposite
105
VAPORS.
of
place,
after
expansion,
if
course,
assume
we
compression.
For
the
of
curve
constant
weight
steam
equation
(11) gives
dQ^(C'h)[^^Xt'^dt,
when
there
we
all
For
brackets
other
the
make
it follows
dQ
that
heat
zero
the
then
be
at
dt is
I and
according
constant
the
withdrawn
in
to
this
II.
space
of constant
curve
is necessary
in
space
II.
point
itself
according
the
to
its
be
must
same
of this
imparted.
the
curve,
the
cuts
course
ahead
dQ=0;
it heat
after
in
weight
steam
zero
from
negative;
the
the
on
according
positive
to
II,
point
During
conditions
just reversed.
are
circumstance
The
with
give
The
the
(12),
of
curve
zero
name
If
heat
there
Now
also
and
if
transformation
that
to
of
the
substitute,
we
weight
at
the
dQ
=0
constant
curve
transformation
effected.
the
the
c{x=0
that
curve,
zero
with
curve
for
expansion
then
in the
quantity
in space
positive,
suppose
space
in space
compression,
to
is
withdrawal
of
ciure
must
in
negative
supply
curve,
heat
is
we
the
pressure)
weight,
steam
heat
weight,
If
If
during expansion,
Therefore
and
(for like
negative.
of constant
curve
space
(18)
constant.
preceding equation
it is
hand,
a:=xi
in
points
of the
steam
it
in
intersection
zero
the
of
wet
as
abscissa
here
curve
can
curve
adiabatic
an
of
intersection
W
led
weight,
steam
the
the
at
of
zero
discussed.
also
be
very
easily
formula
steam,
the
value
from
equation
follows
we
lay
off P
desired;
in
like
and
manner
as
the
ordinate
curves
we
of
get the
constant
106
TECHNICAL
weight
steam
in
x=Xi
the
cut
be
can
THERMODYNAMICS.
transformed,
the
last
zero
then,
will
element
of
the
first
element
in
the
transformation
INVESTIGATION
14.
is
steam
expansion
engine
has
often
designing
in
in
that
curve
second
discussed
this
occurrence
course
of the
regards
from
to
discussion;
indicator
fact
that
as
certain
is
need
constitute
curve
certain
the
we
the
end
hindrance
no
analytically;
just mentioned
and
in
to
return
place
we
will
general,
the
of
sion,
expanBut
expansion.
expressing
to
it is
takes
(which
first part
of
In
expansion
this
at
that,, in
the
vations
obser-
heat
observations
during
toward
influence
other
of
that
engine;
steam
the
explained.
will
steam
it
the
cylinder walls,
on), indicate
to
be
thus
of
course
mentioned,
that
the
the
curve.
the
later
has
equilibrium-pressure
heat
existing
one
exchange
an
regarded
fact
no
of
question
of
with
easily
can
be
of
THE
diagram
the
The
the
IN
performance
that
heat
expansion
the
the
and
the
heat
in
steam
fully
impart
and
the
different, however,
and
to
which
I first
attention.^
The
velocity;
^
doubt
no
exchange
more
extract
called
vertical
STEAM
the
occurs,
specially discussing
walls
Vol.
can
only emphasize
be
as
the
regards
when
will
latter
HYPOTHESES
of calculations
agreement
expanding
strictly speaking,
As
it
is
it
place
rise
ones.
diagrams
the
between
curve,
one
which
is
the
ENGINE.
judging
new
an
there
place
first
the
constitute
presentation,
representing, analytically,
so
of indicator
place
tions
transforma-
curve,
OF
curve
given
in
importance
and
expansion
the
earlier
STEAM
the
succeeded
far
adiabatic
DIFFERENT
of
great
engines
an
stitute
sub-
to
intersection,
will
and
EXPANSION
THE
OF
course
of
of
an
THE
CYLINDER
The
vertical
OF
CONCERNING
the
to
be
these
of
point
the
at
If
one.
only
have
we
line.
straight
"
curve
according
transformation,
but
formula
curve,
here
for
piston
steam
at
the
ends
1881,
of the
stroke
Untersuchiuig
"Kalorimetrische
XXVII,
(in the
moves
p.
395.
der
crank
it stands
with
train)
still for
Dampfmaschinen/'
moment
variable
and
Zivilingenieur,
108
TECHNICAL
far
a
as
regular
more
the
of
of
matter
and
expansion
the
it will
walls
the
during
in
the
into
be
maintained
each
other
forward
and
return
remarks
it
cover
that
had
just
its former
path
compression
and
when
stroke
end
the
at
which
along
even
latter; if,
engine,
steam
boiler
the
the
of
curve
steam
compress
hardly
would
curve
could
one
it back
force
expansion
the
stroke, again
admission,
of
than
course
experiment,
piston
expanded,
THERMODYNAMICS.
of
the
influence
the
piston
of
was
disregarded.
the
hitherto
less
or
preceding
the
By
set
for
up
the
from
volume
the
time
fact
that
expansion
unit
depart
v, the
wet
Curve.*
steam
pressure
of the
equation
from
expand
to
changing
at
expansion
the
(19)
formula
the
from
is found
the
when
L,
expansion
of
work
the
exponent
is
constant,
^=^3i[PiVi-H
We
specially
have
confine
now
the
for
attention,
our
.(20)
of
vapor
water,
which
to
we
the
have
proved
in
of
equation
the
already
between
relation
been
to
given
be
practice;
*
the
the
on
p.
pressure
(21)
as
sufficiently exact
here
See
Vol.
we
must
1, p.
151.
take
an
within
the
and
limit
upper
37
just
formula
the
p"'*'=pi5i'*"
for
same
be
curve
pv^^pivi^,
then
more
curves.
of
weight
let the
and
pitop
of
vance
ad-
h3rpothese8
all
curves
in
out
different
Polytropic
volume
the
point
to
the
really observed
of
to
Vi
from
of
course
intended
Hypothesis.
suppose
us
the
course
First
Let
the
explaining
reasons
was
curve,
volume
the
a
relation
exponent
'
limits
pressure
See
ni
Vol.
1.0646.
1, p.
164.
i.e.,we
which
formula,
approximate
the
8,
but
has
one
occurring
There-
OF
said
practical limits,
within
fore,
as
EXPANSION
polytropic
If
we
is wet,
of the
quantity
addition,
in
present
in
that
so
is
eliminate
time
same
the
then
and
greater
the
cylinder
weight
the
than
neglect
can
we
in
steam
the
minute
8=u+o,
equations
two
and
consider
from
Ui
equation
and
(21)
pi^'""=piUi'*".
the
(19),
(Pl)-^
(19)
and
p(xw)"=pi(xiWi)'*
we
regarded
formulas
the
get in place of the
If
be
is to
curve
always
0.5,
x"
v=xu+a
and
while
that
weight present
steam
water
limit
this
109
CYLINDER.
THE
IN
curve.
assume,
the
STEAM
and
equations
two
(21a)
get
we
-=(-)~.
or
(22)
...
\p/
Xi
from
we
its initial
provided
From
other
any
value
second
the
whether
once
for
compute,
can
of
the
evaporation
or
taking place according

Thus,
if n"ni,
quality
is
now
easy
a
condensation
to
the
settle
supply
equation (20)
or
then
water
from
the
fundamental
is
present
for
in
withdrawal
that,
recognize
we
x,
because
dlli^dq'\'d{xp)-\'Aih
sion
expan-
steam
conversely
n"ni.
proposed
of heat.
equation
i.e., the
evaporated;
the
'
the
v=xw,
at
contemplated.
curve
get x"Xi,
we
whether,
follows
(pi, Vi)
quality
steam
accompanies
polytropic
during expansion
to
v, the
or
condition
'
given.
n-1
and
of
initial
preceding equations
1.0646,
part of the
occurs
involves
From
grows,
condensation
It
i.e.,n"
value
is
Xi
certain
\Vi/
Xi
Accordingly, starting
the
at
case,
sion
expan-
110
TEGHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
get directly
we
dQ-d"Z+d[x(^-^)],
which
intâtiog
(23)
gives
"-.-".^"(.-^)-.(..-^;,
m
.
in
which
equation
According
(22).
imparted
If
the
to
necessary
in
doing,
so
is
of
value
positive
with
dealing
not
are
of
weight
as
the
from
heat
negative,
or
of
one
tions
equabe
must
withdrawn.
or
we
substitute
we
the
consider
we
unit
mixture
expanding
multiply
the
of
weight,
of steam
right
and
member
of
that
so
is the
it is
Uquid,
simply
(24) by G;
equation
if,
relations
the
GxiUi^Vi
and
Gxu^V,
(25)
....
there
follows
"."(,_,,^r("_^^)_K,{a_4"L)..
(2e,
.
In
at
position
clearance
In
identical
and
the
of
with
the
piston,
in
both
this
for
the
steam
in
over
the
present
determining
in
course,
the
of
but
the
assumption
mixture
space
weight
because
quantity
the
volume
the
steam
at
any
volume
of
however,
special
culty
diffi-
determination
the
This
per
the
piston
stroke
of
the
the
effected
been
means
have
of
water
which
the
is not
supplied
mass
that
preceding stroke,
be
no
of
weight
weight
from
cannot
with
found
is present
tainty
cer-
thus
with
space.
preceding
that
to
includes
this
time,
hurtful
of
cylinder
quantity.
hurtful
of
the
equation,
the
also
the
the
volume
is, includes
that
steam
weight
determination
at
far
the
and
respect
confined
the
cylinder
cases.
with
boiler,
steam
the
express
of
the
represents
expansion
space
remained
Of
of
encountered
weight
has
Vi
practically utilizing
is
by
formula
beginning
the
other
the
this
the
equation
expansion
(26) is valid
curve
can
only
be
under
regarded
the
as
OF
EXPANSION
polytropic
all parts
of the
from
corresponding
V
intervals
and
(19)
indicator
the
pressure
F"
and
for
corresponding
p''
the
we
find
of
To
and
If
points.
final
for
log p^ -log
and
the
of
one
volumes
then, according
pressures,
for
same
this matter
test
volume
the
initial
the
the
really
diagram.
series
represent
is
diagram
Ill
CYLINDER.
exponent
indicator
of the
THE
IN
the
that
curve
ascertain
we
and
curve,
STEAM
the
and
p'
equation
to
p^^
^^^'^
^"logF"-log7'
_
If
for
is
this
all
Only
for the
ii d
of
height
the
case
mentioned
greatly
from
found
by
varied
from
For
1 1
of
each
'
'
ii d
Vol.
1881,
de
la
* '
1874,
Kalorimetrische
concludes,
ratio
p.
of expansion.
smaller
like
in
result
is
given
results
value
the
1,
special
experimental
engine (here
by
than
the
of
to
prove
be
polytropic
water
present
p^rimen
tales
took
to,
but
curve,
from
conclude,
must
we
referred
equation
place during
p.
ex
''
(Bulletin
de
la soci^t^
the
indus-
1874).
des
Indikatordiagrammes."
Zivilingenieur,
226.
Versuche
Vol.
XX.
uber
p.
den
Nutzen
des
Dampfmantels.''
339.
Untersuchungen
," etc.
Zivilingenieur,
Vol.
1881
,
405.
ing
accord-
furnished
special investigation
of
the
Theorie
'^
*Bi8Binger,
CorUss
1.0646
France,
"Zur
s,
the
stant
con-
0.436).
not
of
the
(varying
0.535);
n=
of
engines,
diagrams
utiUzing
cases
n"
and
been
have
expansion.
XXVIl,
Zivilingenieur,
^'Recherches
Noid
e
did
cases
LeLoutre,
du
two
curve
of
course
trielle
to
different
for
expansion
same,
expansion
permissible, but
is, throughout,
to
from
evaporation
(22), that
whole
the
all
in
because
0.900
n=
expansion
the
0.903
n=
curve
assumption
pressure
the
investigations,*
own
my
is
indicator
with
of
indicated
the
that
value
the
the
the
one.
curve
from
nearly
or
direction
the
admission
the
same,
that
is different
that
diminishes
by
expansion
finds
Bissinger^
but
in
holds
that
experiments,
to
the
permissible
investigations
value
is
be
to
assumption
the
curve
few
published.
from
then
intervals,
polytropic
is found
quantity
XX
VII,
112
TECHNICAL
It
diagrams
indicator
Pambour
of
the
the
dry during
to
assumed
the
he
the
it also
that
the
superheated
expanded
the
view
Xi
for
neither
condition.
cording
Ac-
Pambour
matter,
limit
the
to
in
=a:i,
to
that
the
of
such
apply here;
curve
of
in
n=ni
constant
tion
equa-
steam
is of
the
species
same
for
the
of
curve
constant
steam
weight
we
have,
x=xi,
according
(19a)
to
equation
(20)
the
work
produced
per
unit
of
is
^=:;^^[PiWi-pw]
the
is
=1.0646;
PiVi'^=pv'^,
weight
curve
expansion.
curve
therefore
limit
water
Pambour's
to
substitution
the
this
therefore
according
of
vapor
for it n=ni
above,
of
course
practice,
assume
while
the
curve.
Accordingly,
because
that
concerning
must
we
whole
the
directly
and
weight,
and
mains
re-
nected
con-
steam
according
(26), developed
to
it is evident
(22) leads
above
occurring
only
curve,
(22) only gives
Moreover,
the
limits
(22)
formulas
said
been
pressure
polytropic
equation
and
the
diminution
that
the
in
steam
and
pressure
assumes
expressing
steam
has
what
within
as
the
the
that
engine,
steam
curve.
From
the
and
the
on
dry saturated,
into
of
way
that
limit
also
our
is
words,
over
passes
nor
treatise
assumption
expansion
; in other
therewith
condenses
the
engine
steam
other
Pambour.
esteemed
from
of
investigation
polytropic expansion.
show
highly
starts
cylinder
the
cases
Hypothesis.
formerly
his
certain
may
Second
In
in
that
possible
is
THERMODYNAMICS.
heat
to
be
supplied
(20a)
is
g.,_,.,,[(,_^).("_^)].. .,^)
EXPANSION
By
in
only
doing
so
here
given
the
water
the
unit
If
for
V
must
not
it is
as
THE
the
113
CYLINDER.
propositions
the
of
curve
overlook
constant
fact
the
the
to
formulas
the
that
valid
are
specificvolume
the
of
the
X\u
weight,
which
neglect
volume
extended
are
steam
formulas
permissible
contained
steam
in
the
for
of
pose
pu'
in
Xi=l
preceding equations
expansion
greater
the
respectively;
the
according
accuracy,
work
replace
we
therefore
limit
the
to
Ui
the
heat
be
to
curve;
and
is
(206)
imparted
the
of
r,
according
Thus,
saturated
steam
be
to
to
that
see
supplied;
the
assumed
here
calculated
he
work
the
specific weight
the
r,
determined
formerly
was
not
(246)
formula.
another
by
steam
could
course,
heat
required
expansion
of
by
Q-{q+p)Hqi''Pi)+AL
the
get
we
^=;^;3i[piî-H,
and
of
weight.
mentioned
quantities
and
for
substitute
we
here,
above
we
IN
formulas
relatively to
of
STEAM
approximate
are
long
so
these
found
were
but
Vi
of
means
which
OF
from
the
of
dry
formula
r=i9(a+p),
where
^ and
different
the
relation
curve
the
for
certain
are
high
found
curve)
to
this
hence
the
horizontal
abscissas, and
ordinates.
curve
should
asymptote
the
vertical
and
the
which
low
be
may
From
pressure.
equation
taken
of the
sion
expan-
be
(a+p)i;
and
pressure
Pambour
vy^l
(Umit
of
cases
quantities
constant
be
(28)
(a+pi)t;i,
equilateral hyperbola
an
lies at
asymptote
distance
coincides
below
with
in
which
the
axis
of
the
axis
of
114
TECHNICAL
Utilizing equation
Pambour,
THERMODYNAMICS.
(28),
work
of
expansion,
according
to
becomes
L-/pdv=
while
the
this
work
is
from
correctiy found,
more
and
equations (22)
(a+pi)i;i log, ~-a(v-t;i),
(19),
(29)
.
combination
of
be
to
^-^['-")""'l
Engineers,
hour's
properly,
very
longer
no
make
of
xise
any
formulas.
Third
the
that
assumes
whose
simply
he
coordinates;
Poncelet.
Hypothesis.
hyperbola
coincide
asjonptotes
is
expansion
of
curve
with
lateral
equi-
an
the
of
axes
makes
(30)
pv=piVi
the
Accordingly
.The
of
work
is
curve
expansion
poly tropic
is then
found
with
one
the
exponent
from
L=/pdv=piVilog.--,
(31)
"I
or
from
L=piVilo",^
These
universally
formulas
the
are
used
deviates
curve
much
of the
to
the
at
the
doing
because,
indicator
diagram
so
one
side
present
calculations,
steam-engine
in
justificationin
expansion
which,
(31a)
or
the
as
has
other
time,
and
there
of
matter
a
a
is
the
fact,
which
course
from
almost
are
tain
cer-
the
never
equilateral
116
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
"
CONTINUATION
15.
DIFFERENT
could
we
walls
with
We
of
the
already
have
adiabatic
the
the
expansion
the
der
cylinwould
curve
is
for
that
p. 81
on
with
represented
wet
the
steam
suflicient
course
accuracy
by
83, namely,
by
equation
the
the
where
exponent
is given
where
and
Xi
initial
is the
by equation
(76),
p.
=1.035+0.1x1,
and
quality
steam
is confined
between
0.7
1.
Therefore, under
as
of
influence
line.
shown
curve
the
then
steam,
adiabatic
Curve.
Adiabatic
insigmficant
as
expanding
the
on
coincide
neglect
OF
EXPANSION.
OF
CURVES
Hypothesis.
Fourth
If
INVESTIGATION
THE
OF
poly tropic
of Xi,
limits
the
only
one,
made,
assumptions
here
have
we
accordingly equation
and
the
between
n"ni
(22)
again
curve
is written
appears
the
in
the
given
form
k-Q)^-if)
It follows
from
and
diminishes
as
of
The
then
was
adiabatic
the
work
be
this
of
calculated
that
with
condensation
already pointed
expansion
expansion
by
the
of wet
of the
volume
growing
therefore
above
out
the steam
accompanies
in
our
fuller
quality
the
pansion,
ex-
discussion
vapors.
unit
of
of wet
weight
should
steam
formula
.
^-s[' -(?)"]"
The
of
measurement
general, the
curve,
real
even
expansion
when
we
indicator
curve
assume
diagrams
sinks
much
less
has
shown
rapidly
moisture
at
than
the
that,
the
in
batic
adia-
outset
of
expansion;
walls
fast
here
have
we
that
the
the
explain
walls
and
solely by
occurrences
reality both
In
steam.
is
Supply
of
" 14,
on
p.
at
107,
the
probably
occur
to
Change
confined
in
as
and
ning
begin-
cylinder
taneously.
simul-
Heat
when
Proportional
an
necessary
between
exchange
actions
as
pressure,
means
no
Expansion
Hypothesis.
Fifth
heat
by
hold
to
possibility that
depressed
it is
then
end,
the
is
curve
the
to
der
cylin-
regarded
change
remarks
expansion
toward
raised
we
the
wish
we
be
curve
concede
that
if
steam^
non-reversible
the
introductory
the
consequently
and
to
in
suggested
was
with
if
117
EXPANSION.
conclude
to
expansion
but
ciuê;
do
to
the
that
OF
expanding
the
to
assumption
the
to
off heat
give
compelled
therefore
are
we
CURVES
DIFFERENT
OF
INVESTIGATION
of
Temperature.
If the
G
quantity
kg. [lb.]the
heat
of state
change
of
and
steam
quantity
is, according
liquid
absorbed
dQ,
to
equation
during
(55),
p.
the
an
cylinder is
infinitesimal
59,
dO=(?rd(T+^).
If
the
we
weight
of the
that
value
this
suppose
c, then
G'
and
mass
we
whose
of steam
also
to
mass
be
in
temperature
and
whose
contact
at
every
with
instant
specific heat
has
body
having
is equal
the
constant
have
dQ^-cG'dT
After
sake
of
equating
these
two
(34)
expressions and
substituting, for
the
simplicity,
Q^^^f
we
to
""""""""
get
or
T+|^)=0,
d()Mclog.r
+
(35)
118
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
and
from
log,
;"C
while
combination
the
+jr
of
log,
;"C
equations
ri+T,+-^,
and
(34)
(36)
.
the
(35) ^ves
ferred
trans-
quantity
heat
(2=/"c(?(ri-r)
For
is water,
heat,
of
special assumption
the
and
water,
equation
(36),
Equation
factor
the
(34)
account
on
body
the
that
will
(37)
can
be
of
the
variable
the
represent
written
which
0\
in
given
meaning
specific
form
the
delivers
dQ
to
r,
heat
"G'dq,
takes
the
form
(/i+l)r+^ (;"+l)ri+^,
(36a)
and
(37)
equation
"
becomes
Q^lsGiqi-^q)
Under
the
for
or
pressure
any
(36a), and
Equation
the
The
been
curve
work
to
whole
the
from
host
value
in
Now
curve
measure
and
is to
of
in
measured
expansion,
of
determine
(36)
the
for
curves
for
/";
heat
steam.
expansion
taken
pute
com-
/i=0
units
of
is
heat,
mined
deter-
formula
be
substituted
order
expansion
the
(37a)
expanding
(38)
AL=^Q-G[q-q^'\'Xp"Xipi\
where
can
equation
or
the
to
we
appears.
of
the
by
imparted
a
x,
given,
(37)
equation
(36a) represents
or
is
/i
quality
from
has
ratio
the
steam
species, according
same
adiabatic
the
the
far
thus
(36)
that
compute
can
which
quantity
of
supposition
(37a)
volume
the
is
which
one
value
and
x
equation
from
ascertain
to
the
from
....
(37)
whether
or
not
occurs
in
steam
pressure
the
relation
for
or
the
(37a).
here
discussed
engines,
its different
we
must
points
INVESTIGATION
substitute
and
really
it in
regarded
as
My
the
found
curve
this,
but
formulas,
increasing
expansion.
According
for
all
the
one
about
will
the
pressure,
of
and
mode
For
the
other
work
will
of
d i
djmamics
cycle
of
of
expansion
as
t i
changes
demands
steam
it leads
of
such
as
state
in
the
will
changes
the
of
the
case
without
one
the
height
ing
follow-
the
initial
steam
KompeDdium
"
Zivilingenieur, Vol.
der
for
the
on
turns, the
kind
Poncelet's
time
long
simplest
the
other
subsequent
be
for
W"rmetheorie.
mechanischen
XXVII,
p.
405.
the
at
assumed,
the
to
formulas
hand,
for
in
because
(C
Berlin, 1870|
the
purely
here
ones
perfect
if for
come,
given,
Thermo
a
engines.
of
analytical
in
of
crank
In
rendering
the
case
engines,
new
to
course
another,
Moreover
the
with
etc.
gear,
basis
clear
in
the
accuracy
course
moisture
firm
con-
in
the
case
from
the
not
discussed.
other
the
which
compression;
investigations,
a
with
designing
that
and
the
valve
the
taken
than
reason
influence:
of
expansion,
of
be
self-evident.
once
velocity
purpose
theoretical
a
action
of
assumption
no
the
admission,
end
of
degree
in
than
do
sufficient
different
of
also,
occurring
just
the
increase
perfectly-
jacket
be
in
may
expansion
an
presented
expected
have
of
/",
with,
and
be
to
will
at
curve
conclusion.
marked
far
same
engine,
hypotheses
hardly
steam
seems
circumstances
five
course
Corliss
reproduced
the
curve
i t h
jacket
steam
the
the
investigation
the
to
thus
h3rpothe8es,
is
of
engines.
very
agreement.
curve
that
cylinder
the
better
treatment;
of
of
of the
course
is not
one
any
one
case
brings
the
by
cases
quantity
observations
of
different
hypothesis
closer
the
the
that
experiences
curve
of
of
with
all the
to
expansion
the
basis
the
indicate
rather
should
fi
the
course
present
different
Hallauer
by
the
earlier, comes
on
for
constant,
basis
two
question
preceding
of
on
investigations,^
own
ratio
the
us.
the
of
If
assumed
here
believes
diagrams
considered
who
before
confirmed
indicator
the
one
Herrmann^
Emil
be
the
that
119
EXPANSION.
OF
(36a).
or
nearly
or
show
is the
expansion
of
(36)
constant,
would
this
CURVES
equation
be
to
prove
points,
DIFFERENT
OF
p.
214.
t)
120
TECHNICAL
IL
"
-reversible
Noil
of
Change
EXPANSION
16.
THERMODYNAMICS.
WET
OF
State
VAPORS
Wet
of
UNDER
Vapors.
DIFFERENT
CIRCUMSTANCES.
" 15, p. 74, of the
In
treated
was
in
behavior
the
of gases
presented
case
In
Fig.
cylinder by
in
this
and
respect
in
then,
easily be
can
unit
of
of
wdght
wet
let pressure,
K;
piston
be
by
given
the
transferred
be
volume,
Now
without
back
pushed
from
by
work;
the
if
law
the
is
If after
piston (supposed
external
is the
will
pressure
this
and
t ;
the
pressure
steam
satisfies
the
without
at
pressure
gradually
will
mass
be
to
will
quality
the
p'
correspond
will
settle
in
the
the
to
to
itself
is
the
is
piston
and
which
the
forms
perternal
ex-
subjected
the
is
working-
the
to
then
the
to
Vi
held
the
fast, and
stormily
equilibrium,
nôved
the
ternal
in-
p,
equiUbrium-temperature
particular value
x, which
equation
initial state
of
(1)
equilibrium
Vi'^'XiU^+a
obtained.
then
from
suddenly
of
state
v^xu+a.
while
is
instant,
a
from
grow
p/,
mass
acb,
expansion
the
weight)
into
pass
pressure
piston
the
thus
curve
be
curve.
pressure
0.
the
by
Xi
the
and
to
let
the
to
pi
steam
pressure
determined
and
against
reduced
in
temperature
Ti,
equilibriimi is disturbed,
p'
the
to
confined
and
and
vi,
pi,
from
suddenly
if
I,
investigation.
to
steam
quality.
steam
acting
Fio.
operation
" 23, p. 128, Vol.
subjected
was
established
there
non-reversible
the
here.
let
volume,
general fashion,
propositions
The
first
(2)
NON-REVERSIBLE
Points
EXPANSION
and
at
"i lie in
the
OF
121
VAPORS.
WET
aiCibi
curve
(Fig. 9).
introduction
The
indeed
and
external
initial
this
in
(hatched
the
whole
takes
procedure
place by
the
to
pi
work
diminution
lease/'
"reof the
p/.
is
performed
below
by
here
occurs
sudden
the
value
thus
figure) lying
is determined
and
the
pressure
external
The
of
the
working
the
by
given
area
acb,
curve
pressure
by
V
L'^-fp'do,
(3)
Vl
where
j/
regarded
work
of inner
change
Ui
"
given
as
by
function
is determined
of
the
from
The
v.
equilibrium-
curve
pressure
and
be
must
the
for
follows,
there
hence
heat
this non-reversible
supplied during
Q'
Q'
quantity
which
is
to
operation,
(q+xp)-{qi+Xipi)+AU,
(4)
....
passing
or,
to
the
differential,
dQ'=dq+d{xp)+Ap'dv
preceding
The
and
of
the
and
the
both
doing
it is not
the
solution
possible
of
the
problems
determine
to
the
quality existing immediately
steam
are
curves
and
curves
of
given,
as
curve
heat
supplied
is
coincide,
that
then
the
state,
was
the
developed
were
equiUbrium-pressure
the
change
which
so
give
now
preceding equations
work
two
the
formulas
(5)
at
perature
tem-
the
end
occurrence.
The
that
in
but
presented,
be
if
the
are
and
to
p^^^'P, along
reversible
fully treated
in
the
article
special case
of
the
present
the
assumption
working-pressure
aiCibi,
Q'
under
also
be
that
the
nal
exter-
determined.
the
whole
operation
above,
acb
curve
and
general
one.
can
If the
path
of
is before
only
be
the
us,
sidered
con-
122
TECHNICAL
The
with
formulas
the
help
operation;
given
of
the
the
the
the
here
relations
the
equations given
becomes
steam
First
Vol.
of
here,
of
Case.
the
other
the
I, " 16,
forms
reversible
74,
p.
fully discussad
We
state.
lose
course,
during
for
also
was
changes
superheated
Special
before
in
there
non-reversible
of
brought into
developed
procedure;
necessary
be
easily
can
general presentation
transfonnation
that
THERMODYNAMICS.
their
change
gests
sugthe
add
must
validity
when
of state.
Non-reversible
thermal
Iso-
Expansion.
At
equilibrium-temperature
constant
aiCibi is
curve
pressure
=
becomes
constant.
equations
(1) and
pi
From
horizontal
(2)
v-Vi
equilibrium-
straight line, because
then
can
the
sure
pres-
found
be
(x-Xi)tti,
(6)
(4) gives
equation
and
the
"="i,
Q'
According
with
varies
special
Now
the
in
manner
volume
v,
we
which
shall
here
case,
let
(7)
external
the
have
an
infinite
pressure
p'
number
of
cases.
selecting
pressure
p'
pressure
curve
The
the
to
(x-XiVi+il/p'dv
external
is
only
kept
one
constant
is the
work
then
assume
during expansion;
horizontal
can
us
the
that
then
the
nal
exter-
ing
work-
acb.
be
found
U=Ap'(v-'Vi)=Ap'Ui{x-Xi),
by
"
"
(8)
"
and
the
heat
to
be
supplied from
0'-(x-x,)(î+.lp'tt,)
(r-r,)(g-+Ap').(9)
.
124
which
as
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
equation
z^l,
long
so
or
well
as
(10) remains
equation
as
valid
only
long
so
as
V
Vi"U
"
XiUi
"
obtains.
Third
Case.
Special
Non-reversible
Adiabatic
In
the
present
withdrawn,
because
case,
Q' =0;
have
we
Expansion.
heat
and
be
must
neither
therefore, according
supplied
nor
equation
to
(4),
Affdv^(qi-hzipi)-(q+xp)
according
will
we
law
the
to
number
infinite
the
Among
again pick
of
special
of
change
special
the
out
of
the
in
one
which
cases
external
which
(12)
arise,
can
p',
pressure
p'
we
Here
is constant.
find
L'=p'(v-Vi)=p'(a:w-XiWi),
(13)
....
and
according
hence,
for
the
corresponding
(1) and
from
(2),
these
we
and
then, according
the
adiabatic
off
and
initial
the
and
from
volume
remains
j/
pressure
ratio
regard j/
equation (14)
the
laid
be
x,
Xi,
pi,
determine,
can
to
also
the
ceding
pre-
the
p"pi,
equations
volume
and
Vi,
(equilibrium curve)
curve
diminishes,
equilibriiun-pressure p constantly
expansion
If
the
120,
we
given
are
here.
this
ejitemal
p.
can
presented
As
quaUty
steam
there
assumed
any
(14).
.
p',
pressure
for
equation,
(xipi +ilp'wi).
=gi
initial condition,
the
external
constant
(12),
equation
4-x(/) H-Ap'w)
When,
to
there
corresponding
given,
is also
value
which
for
v:vi
as
constant,
a/
then
known
=
before
have
we
while
us
the
tain
cer-
p=p'.
for
the
(f^q^p'
is obtained
value
terminal
^p,
p=p'
in
consequently
û\
from
g'+x'r'=gi+Xi(î+ApiWi"
j,
....
(14a)
NON-REVERSIBLE
and
external
OF
value
corresponding
the
then
EXPANSION
WET
125
VAPORS.
and
v'^x'w'+a
ing
correspond-
the
work
L'=2/(t/-Vi)=p'(x'ti'-xitiJ
this
external
constant
then, according
Table
to
and
-2
"
volume
inital
The
153.741,
-0.0645
work
the
from
the
or
Xi
-4471.1
-0.8589
t*-13.75861
[1 X2116.31],
x,.
+0.0010
+0.0564
x,
+0.90341
mkg.
f t-lb.]
1878.1
ar, +
at
the
(13), is
equation
to
+572.4
X,
14696
beginning
-0.3636,
[a;-0.9904,
v,
-5.8245,
"-
here, the
0.870
been
had
that
so
Xi
1, there
"
follows,
from
the
pressure,
would
an
L' -5043.5
-0.8517,
change
L'-
13.6433,
of
have
165471
involves
state
taken
place if
condensation;
x"
Xi
had
on
obtained
assumed.
Suppose
2.
constant
until
assumed
evaporation
hand
adiabatically
external
-480.005,
+0.016].
a;,
V|
x"Zi
-5.79511
Xi
an
-0.9904,
Example
doing,
w,
preceding formulas,
other
"
^,-818.989,
according
is dry saturated
"
Ab
-0.3626
+0.9259
-0.7953
+tf
performed,
L'
steam
atmospheres;
two
u,
-0.3626
+"'
-arw
\L'
If the
to
continue
to
-454.994,
X10333
p^-l
[v- 12.7391
external
and
so
is
final volume
the
in
overcoming,
/)-864.009,
[v,-5.7951
and
expand
to
is
î-aJit*i
The
is equal
/)"
121.417,
(14) gives, because
equation
steam
Appendix,
^-218.551,
-2X2116.31,
wet
atmosphere
end
^,-276,734,
10333,
the
at
^j-
16.31,
p, -5X21
for p
[for
of
of the
for pi -5X10333,
of
of five atmospheres,
pressure
11
weight
of
pressure
till the
[for
unit
initial
the
from
adiabatically
doing,
Suppose
1.
Example
(13a)
initial
external
unit
pressure
of
pressure
then,
with
the
weight
of
of
wet
of five atmospheres,
help
the
at
of
the
atmosphere,
end
has
tables
steam
expand
in
overcoming,
and
become
of
to
the
let this
equal
to
Appendix,
so
tinue
con-
the
we
126
TECHNICAL
detennine
from
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
(14a)
equation
quality
steam
a/
the
at
end,
by
the
fonnula
"'
-0.8645x1+0.0992,
"
and
the
external
work
L', according
V
\U
If the
is
steam
10988.1
equation
to
x,
-36051
the
at
mkg.
1690.5
ft-lb.].
Xi +5546.3
dry saturated
(13a), by
beginning,
get, from
we
the
preceding
formulas,
there
consequently
been
superheated
other
words,
formula
if
gives
we
but
this
the
L'
are
to
l
"
be
again
the
x'
the
steam
if it is
the
1 at
"
result
and
hence
x,"
the
steam
just dry saturated

end
; for in
this
therefore
1.042,
above
(14) given
that
no
the
the
the
steam
is present
latter
is
under
therefore,
to
according
to
the
beginning,
pressure
that
at
a
its
equation
expansion
becomes
the
steam
equation
according
to
(136)
equation
(14),
from
the
continues
here
identical
quality
7f
with
the
the
at
till the
end
external
constant
be
can
the
relation
(146)
computed
pressure,
the
at
then
according
to
(14a):
x'-2lZ2:,
and
the
(13),
is
is determined
end
is
in
temperature;
a;(/t)+ilp'w)=gi-g
If
sible
impos-
naturally valid
U^p'xu,
where
end, in
preceding
which
X|"1,
have
must
at
case
also
are
corresponding
pressure
and
work
-415971
condensation;
beginning
have
12678.5
indicate^ supierheating.
(13)
Xi=0
case
external
and
liquid, provided
only
to
[x' -0.9637
assumption
the
equal
L'-
will
for x'
Equations
under
and
at
simply
condition
x' -0.9637
external
work
from
equation
(13a)
(i4e)
y",/
i'-(3i-3')^
(13c)
NON-REVERSIBLE
The
last
EXPANSION
correspond
equations
in
ordinarily designated
older
the
as
the
correct
and
which
does
papers
which
theoretical
tion
explana-
does
day
present
is
"spontaneous
as
all correspond
at
127
VAPORS.
occurrence
found
of the
not
the
to
they
thermodynamics
WET
technical
evaporation "; there, however,

which
OF
the
to
regard
not
preceding
formulas.
Example.
of
Suppose
corresponds
which
Appendix)
and
then
[180.9
jf from
work,
g,"*
(Table
the
the
to
hence
[965.7], and
to
the
phere
atmos-
one
of state
[328.894 B.t.u.]
of
pressure
find
we
of
11
change
cal.
182.719
pressure
[356.56" F.],
the
one
steam
(14c) to be
equation
external
the
C.
brought
during
B.t.u.], corresponding
r'"^+ilp'u'-"536.50
under
180.31"
suddenly
have
we
be
atmospheres
constant
Here
to
/,-
10
be
pressure
a/
and
of
maintained
following.
of water
temperature
pressure
external
be
weight
of
steam
to
cal.
and
atmosphere,
quality
it
suppose
1(X).5(X)
9^"
the
to
have
to
let the
now
(evaporation)
and
and
atmospheres,
10
unit
-0.1717,
according
equation
to
(13c),
L'-2926mkg.
\L'
volume
The
(4.637
atmospheres
when
occurs
case
without
the
atmospheric
boiler
steam
supposing
Disregarding
boiler.
v-o/m'+cf-
to
cbm.
0.2832
ft.].
cu.
This
increases
[0.01602]
-0.0010
i;,-"j
ft-lb.].
"9600
steam
any
there
pressure
be
to
in
present
is overcome,
explodes
work
the
will
under
the
expended
boiler,
for
destroying
here
behind
remain
of
pressure
in
the
the
10
the
external
quantity
of
water
(l-x*)G
provided
In
kg. [lb.]of
conclusion
we
also
given above,
here
vacuum;
to
equation (14),
which
at
the
end
the
of
steam
the
originally present.
were
will
include
from
water
point
the
p'=0,
that
out
of
case
equations
expansion
of
is determined
the
steam
in
(13) and
of wet
L'=0
consequently
quality
spreading
G,
-0.8283
steam
and
when
the
so,
the
vacuum,
(14),
into
according
pressure
is known.
p,
128
TECHNICAL
initial
The
if the
volume
final
empty
equation
Vi=XiUi-ha
volume
(15)
may
v=xu+ais
in which
space
THERMODYNAMICS.
will
given
the
be
assumed
by
the
capacity
vi
"
now
of
the
with
place, combination
takes
expansion
known;
as
give
-hxipi-q
qi
'
in addition
and
by equation
the
(15),
the
at
the
end
the
and
v=o!m-"a
Example.
Suppose
adiabatically
of
equalization
Here, according
to
9,-153.741,
to
take
/o,
to
equation
"1.6495
initial
volume
-0.1073
-I-"y
the
capacity
of the
-v,
[v -V,
Compare
Poggendorff's
with
the
Annalen,
author's
1860.
steam
of
volume
to
expand
finally, after
and
vacuum
into
v"Vi.^
vacuum
atmosphere.
one
-496.300,
and
9-100.500
/d-893.340,
and
g-180.901
-1-0.9168
volume
-0.1780
(15a)
x"
at
+24.2248
the
end
1.5123
becomes
aJi
x,l
to
+o
[v,-0.01602
therefore
wet
the
minal
ter-
(15),
amounts
Vi -XjUi
of
the
the
passage
found
be
of
the
finally,
Appendix,
/o
[v -2.8512
the
after
can
press\u"
[26.4232] the
t? -a^
while
into
-454.994,
a;
because
weight
^,-=818.989,
hence, according
and
of
of the
11
and
volume
if
conversely,
or,
the
unit
Table
b, -276.734,
and
hence
p, and
pressure
there
given,
atmospheres
pressure,
x;
spreading
is
five
from
t^minal
quality
steam
equilibrium condition,
the
"
corresponding
after
p,
pressure
-0.0010
-1-0.3626
"i
-t-5.7951a:J;
initially empty
-0.1770
-H.1497X,
-2.8352
article
is
space
18.4297
''Beitrage
xj.
zurTheorie
der
D"mpfe"
in
MIXTURE
If only
the
OF
saturated
dry
formula
preceding
WET
VAPORS
steam
is
will give
points
the
to
of superheated
for this
the
case
for x, the
(15a),
In
this
"
according
case,
Let
the
and
Pi
the
steam
by
the
the
having
Then
in
G2
and
the
p2
following
0.9737
Xj"
formulas,
cbm.
confined
volume
the
volume
SAME
heat
heat
in
that
over
[32^ F.], amounts
in
Ji
contents
C?
the
kg. [lb.] of
of
steam
steam
X2.
Fxg.
10.
V2^G2(,X2U2+a).
i.e., the
space,
of
water
(16)
the
excess
of
its
temperature
0"
C.
to
Ji-Giiqi+Xipi),
and
the
in
contents
the
second
(17)
likewise
space
amount
to
J2^G2{q2+X2P2)
If
we
occiu*s,
after
supplied
been
and
and
steam
the
suppose
now
the
first
in
KIND^
The
ia
arated
sep-
quality
and
Vi=Gi(xiUi+a)
beginning.
initial
contain
former
the
exist
equation
Gi kg. [lb.]of pressure
"2^
kg. [lb.]of
relations
THE
(Fig. 10)
steam
to
[20.7669].
OF
space
at
the
it has
after
the
[26.43921
1.6505
v-
from
ab
enclosed
pressure
the
Xi
be
oonditioa
consequently
vacuum
then, according
x^l,
VAPORS
V2
the
just dry saturated
is
1.2964
"
Vi let there
quality
be
is
into
passes
into
quality
and
partition
let there
space,
v"Vi
ihatXi"I^
so
validity.
preceding
volume
Vi
steam
that
so
WET
spaces
in space
kind;
same
is
OF
two
steam
the
final
space
MIXTURE
17.
the
steam
to
[5.6723], the
initially empty
their
vacuum
the
presupposes
V| -0.3541
the
the
beginning
value
expands
lose
example,
in
12"
KIND.
1.0241,
former
formulas
given
spreading
this
the
SAME
the
at
dry saturated
that
when
proposed
If, in the
finished
fact
steam
hand
on
a:-
which
THE
OF
nor
partition
equilibrium
which
to
is established
withdrawn,
quality
a"
(17a)
there
can
be
will
be
removed,
and
result
easily
heat
a
mean
calculated.
has
mixture
neither
pressure
130
THERMODYNAMICa
TECHNICAL
mixture
After
and
heat
the
will
volume
the
be
contents
But, according
made,
assumptions
the
to
7, +72
and
eo
that
with
get
we
the
utilization
((?! '\-G2)xU
of
(16) and
equations
GiXiUi
(17)
'\-G2X2U2
and
{Gi +G2)(q
+xp) =Gi(3i
+X1P1)
+"2(92
+X2P2),
or
+G2X2U2
GiXiUi
_.
and
Giqi
GiXipi
(72^2
G2X2P2
,-^v
?+^^=-G7TGr'^~57TG^
These
two
equations
spaces
after
hence
and
of
assumed
the
pressure
given
will
x"l
will
will
occurrence
the
at
be
end
not
to
be
the
case
commimication
be
of
t, and
in
occur
at
this
the
judged by
here
Of
other
of
the
g, and
the
these
are
ture,
temperaequations,
and
the
it is here
course
in such
mixture
formulas
than
more
w,
operation;
end
temperature
mixture.
the
"
when
from
this
to
"
therefore
determined
belonging
elUperheated
have
"
to
temperature
can
extended
into
mixture,
that
steam
the
be
the
quality
steam
the
brought
are
functions
known
can
(19)
"
which
case
and
the
will
be
later.
If the
values
of
the
right
member
of
equations
(18)
and
(19)
132
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
these
From
pheres belonging
The
differ
values
dry
If
found
V,
(Ui
3.0388
[7,-
differing but
result
pressure
is
receiver-space
the
cylinders
steam
subjected
are
If
for
problem
find
unity,
from
that
result
the
in
wet,
of
here
If
p.
be
may
Vi
129),
proof
G,l
the
closely
more
it arises
with
one
sudden
mixing
of its reliability;
investigating
engines;
of
the
x,
after
when
the
or
the
other
of
changes
of
pressure
the
(20)
p
we
its
indicated,
be
as
well
with
the
do
as
the
in
the
not
exceed
too
the
mixture
the
ia
tity
quan-
considerable
limits
to
calculation
other, provided
is not
steam
the
the
led
are
before
steam
ia
calculated
Pursuing
we
for
employed
the
vapors
be
(20).
little
that
assume
may
equation
manner
but
saturated
dry
the
always
we
p2;
differs
well
may
pressure
to
can
and
pi
of
when
even
preceding example
mixture,
the
mixture
that
in
the
pressures
according
of
dry saturated
developed
is the
V2
G^
and
customary
in
practice.
mixing
the
0.6331
value.
without
when
the
pressures
steam-engine
For
suppositions
determining
for
but
manner
and
space
mixed
steam
used
steam
of
equation
one
water
the
that
the
found
consequent
from
mixing-pressure
the
the
10.1416
formerly
practical cases
further
that
approximately
as
under
(u, + a)G^
communication
the
accm-acy
still
problem
in
results
sufficient
with
in
saturated,
again dry
the
atmospheres,
the
quality
steam
so
F,-
been
values
other
which
steam
of
to
the
that
but
calculation.
investigate
we
and
the
and
1.012.
"
had
G,
vapors,
into
put
atmos-^
mixture,
steam
steam,
F,
compound
and
If
Woo
have
is encountered
problem
the
the
saturated
dry
of
the
and
often
has
quality
the
after
of
steam
the
G,
little from
(20)
Equation
also the
assume
of
3.075
p"
can
we
should
we
a)Q^ -0.1897
and
p,
pressure
atmospheres.
pressure
(20),
the
found
slightly superheated
is 3
the
equation
underlying
q, and
1 that
found
pressure
had
we
be
can
u,
accordingly
little from
so
the
and
values
the
to
is
steam
expressions
two
the
specific
into
volume
specific volume
somewhat
more
dry
steam
in space
F2,
of
the
vapors
general
in
and
proposition given
space
form.
Vi
finally v
the
(Kg.
10,
specific
MIXTURE
volume
of
WET
OF
the
VAPORS
saturated
dry
OF
after
steam
SAME
THE
133
KIND.
then
mixture,
the
the
relation
{Gi+G2)v=GiVi+G2V2
and
holds,
according
furthermore,
(21)
equation
to
(20),
{GiVi-]-G2V2)p'='GiViPi-\-G2V2P2
Dividing
ratio
G2:Gi,
both
equations
there
is found
by Gi
and
(22)
from
eliminating
both
(a+p)v-C,
the
where
two
(23)
equation
is
the
reproduces
far
apart.
able
been
have
here,
to
according
content
of
mixing
the
to extend
order
quantity
after
be
to
the
from
wet
limit
113),
which
and
pi
(23)
as
for
of
curve
in
fact
accuracy
in
do
lie
p2
basis
(20) directly
at
vapors
heat
that
not
should
we
dry
saturated
has
total
constant
neither
been
volume,
supplied
nor
mixing.
the
problem,
from
supplied
the
designations
mixture
is
and
equation
the
sufficient
pressures
equation
it is assumed
during
withdrawn
then,
derive
problem
the
treated
In
to
the
used
we
p.
with
curve
when
of
equation
(see
this
of
course
Had
the
from
of water.
vapors
In
but
(23)
determined
are
Pambour
to
calculations
approximate
and
nothing
according
steam
too
constants
the
this is found,
from
however,
the
outside
let
us
during
introduced
given by
the
suppose
on
p.
the
130,
the
heat
mixing,
the
heat
formula
Jl+J2+Q,
given formulas,
QîGi+G2Kq+xp)-Gi{qi-^x,pi)-G2(q2+X2P2),
(25)
.
134
TECHNICAL
while
THERMODYNAMICS.
also is found
here
{Gi-\-G2)xu=GiXiUi+G2X2U2
the
If, therefore,
in
each
(Fig. 10,
space
calculated
129) and
the
equation
from
before
steam
p.
then
given,
is
of
state
(26)
the
and
mixture
pressure
quality
steam
(26)
the
the
after
x,
heat
p,
is known
after
the
ture,
mix-
mixture,
the
Q from
quantity
is
tion
equa-
(25).
If
in
whole
the
of
one
in
assume,
we
is p=p2,
space
the
then
spaces,
substituting
ti=W2,
after
particular, that
i.e.,is
the
equal
mixture
the
to
preceding
two
and
3=?2,
the
the
initial
pressure
in
pressure
equations
give,
after
p=^2,
G1X1U1+G2X2U2
.
,.^
^^^
''
((?,+(?.)"2
and
after
easily made
some
reductions
get from
we
equation (25)
Q=(?,[g"-?x+x,",(g-g)] (25a)
It follows
the
heat
Vi,
or,
if Q
is
and
V2
steam
contain
-25
and
G2
having
values
the
and
of Table
11
Appendix,
of the
a:
and
then,
from
we
Q,
space
till the
prevailing
in
mixture.
and
of the
After
atmosphere.
=0.1
p^p^
water
atmosphere.
of 0.1
prcssiu-e
the
the
to
withdrawn
pressure
atmospheres,
1.5
pressure
been
the
supplied
mixture,
(Fig. 10) contain
F,
(7i kg. [lb.]of steam

pressure
the
suppose
of
effect
space
one
the
with
have
might
we
have
might
till then
Let
Example.
saturated
it
identical
became
not
that
before
volume,
negative,
Vi
in
formula
this
constant
at
pressure
space
from
other
quality
at
get first,from
the
of
dry
space
x,
=0.01,
volume,
constant
utilize
we
kg. Qb.]
let the
steam
mixing
If
Gi
ing
correspond-
equation
(26a),
-0.0126,
(25a),
equation
Q
-511.45
(7| [-920.61
0,1
"
Accordingly
conditions
which
heat
may
must
arise
be
in
withdrawn.
condensing
The
engines.
example
corresponds
to
THEORY
"
Let
the
kg. [lb.]of
be
of
steam
the
CONDENSERS.
cylinder
and
let
the
pi
and
of
pressure
of
cylinder
let.
engine;
steam
filled with
be
(?i
x\.
Let
represent
denser^
space
vertical
tubes, through
from
coming
through
When
steam
flows
ward.
down-
cold
by
and
steam
flows
away
passes
through
the
takes
place;
the
condensation
tubes
the
of
6.
pipe
the
which
at
con-
series
surrounded
enters
the
surface
cylinders
are
which
the
enclosing
the
tubes
The
water
end
the
at
135
CONDENSERS.
SURFACE
OF
(Fig. 11) represent
piston
quality
SURFACE
THEORY
18.
OF
at
collects
water
condenser
jB, the
air
in
lower
the
and
is removed
and
hot-water
of the
part
by
the
pump
pump.
Fio.
Let
first
us
to
space
c,
be
and, likewise,
that
the
the
condenser
the
cock
off
d cuts
B,
pump
11.
inder
cyl-
steam
off from
shut
and
condenser
the
the
suppose
the
communication
is
piston
whose
by
space
cock
between
in
the
lowest
position.
(?2 kg. [lb.]of
Suppose
let the
quality
steam
determine
the
and
cyUnder,
steam
heat
be
and
steam
and
X2
the
of
contents
water
^1 =Gî(3i +xiî)
be
pressure
the
be
to
in the
Here
p2.
contained
mass
condenser;
in
first
we
condenser
+0^2(92 +2:2/02).
(27)
....
Suppose
both
is
mixture
there
the
simultaneous
two
spaces
where
pump
the
B.
of
these
down
pushing
weight
Gi,
d to be
and
cooling
settles
and
forward
cocks
to
the
in
in
masses
of
the
and
the
whole
form
p2,
steam
of
the
mass
water,
that
in consequence
condenser;
cooling water,
value
the
the
opened
the
steam
into
because
in
pressure
piston
the
is drawn
of
the
going
condenser,
out
by
the
136
At
of
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
the
end
of
whole
the
the
operation,
in
mass
and
condenser
the
for
have
we
heat
Ja
contents
pump
(28)
J2=(?2(g2+X2/t)2)+Gi92,
in
for
latter
the
condition
the
the
has
the
same
apply
to
at
as
normal
the
to
condenser
beginning,
the
water,
the
for
the
transfer
in
the
through
If
p2.
condition
running
volume
of
received
has
mass
form
the
is the
Li
whole
the
cylinder
steam
swept
pressure
for
work,
work,
piston
steam
under
GiixiUi+a)
corresponding
the
heat
constant
the
then,
in
so
doing,
heat
the
ALi=AGi{xiUi+a)p2
is
and
generated,
Simultaneously
the
Gi"T under
the
in
so
has
piston
pump
heat
the
doing
L2
mass.
through
swept
If
p2.
whole
the
by
pressure
then
(29)
absorbed
constant
work,
designates
the
the
space
sponding
corre-
quantity
(30)
AL2=AGip2a
disappeared,
has
Finally
the
mass
during
there
obtains
for
this
engine.
During
from
be
must
is intended
development
of
end
the
at
in the
"2, while
temperature
of
form
the
in
weight Gi
the
now
condenser
the
possessing
is
there
heat
the
at
contents
subtract
the
there
assumed
the
the
by
process
heat
into
withdrawn
the
work.
from
cooling water,
the
and
whole
hence
equation
contents
beginning
rejected heat
been
Q has
fundamental
get the
must
we
quantity
heat
transformed
been
i.e.,has
the
at
the
end
absorbed
From
quantities.
when
heat
the
we
add
to
quantities
preceding
the
and
tion
equa-
is found
Q=Ji-J2+ALi-AL2,
and,
if
we
here
utilize
equations (27)
to
(30),
Q=Gi[qi-q2+Xi(pi+Ap2Ui)]
we
get
(31)
THEORY
it is this
Now
cooling
enters
pipe
through
the
also
have
we
SURFACE
the
with
(Fig. 11)
pipe
with
which
the
be
must
taken
this
t' be
temperature
is
t and
temperature
by
up
which, during
of water
weight
137
CONDENSERS.
quantity
heat
Let
water.
the
OF
the
process,
discharged
designated by G,
then
Q-Giq'-q)
By equating
with
this
(32)
formula
preceding
the
find
we
_qi-q2+xi(pi-\'Ap2Ui)
G,
g'-q
(33)
in
and
for
this
condensers,
which
water
is
there
equation
contained
now
it is determined
for
is necessary
by
"
principal
G
of
the
mixture
Gi
the
values
of the
condense
to
the
weight
the
"
"
"
the
result
cooling
of steam
and
liquid.
In
practice,
of
G
Xi
and
this
the
in
is customary
substitute
in
the
this
liquid,we
of
as
pi
If,
taken
in
be
addition,
ber
mem-
water
quality
th3
get for practical purposes

G
larger
then
atmosphere,
substitute
we
[893.34];
place
of
at
the
the
old
Watt's
technical
point
of
numerical
has
low
heats
suflScientlyaccurate
peratures
tem-
of
but
formula
^^^
value
which
[1080],
formula
the
total
equal simplicity
is still to
falsely based
Watt's
6(K)
and
structure
same
is
the
II12-/2I
formula,
manuals,
view.
the
get
we
600-^2
rG
formula
than
must
we
or-r^
This
=1,
Xi
/"i =496.30
p2=0.1
in
themselves
temperatures
atmosphere,
[180.9]
gi =100.50
condenser
in the
the
is assumed
is also
expansion
cooling
therefore
cylinder
steam
right
engines.
(33)
[7.236].
the
pi
the
pressure
equation
pressure
Ap2t/2=4.02
in
of
mass
strictlynecessary
condensing
assume
we
letting
pressure
the
that
chosen
so
is
safety,
of
expansion
terminal
the
If
of
are
than
greater
end
sake
the
equation
becomes
at
for
from
be
the
contained,
heat
of the
found
in
with
all
the
thermodynamic
in
steam
place
of
the
correspond-
138
TECHNICAL
ing
the
to
temperature
numbers
be
to
cal.
640
be
engine
Let
pressure
formula
for
in
and
of
the
[59*^ F.]
p'-35
to
the
justify applying
not
one.
in
steam
-"0.80.
Xi
and
atmosphere
0.1
than
expansion
quality
steam
be
fore
there-
water
correct
of
pressure
in round
formula
will
place
tenninal
t^W
from
the
circumstance
this
condenser
the
in
warmed
be
water
cooling
atmosphere
pi ^0.6
the
values
the
Let
assumed
was
Watt's
formula
established
Example.
[212"], which
[1152 B.t.u.].
but
preceding expression;
falsely
100"
still greater
gives
THERMODYNAMICS.
let the
[95" F.].
Here
cooling
the
exact
(33) gives
1-23.24
the
because
according
to
conditions^
In
Fig. 12,
gives
JET
end
of
and
C
the
G2
are
under
the
is
'1
-"|I I
pheric
Gi
^W^p
^
t^
the
connected
^"
"
to
cocks
a,
6,
and
c;
then
the
heat
be
shut
contents
with
having
of
the
the
vessel
kg. [lb.]of cold
The
cylinder
the
lower
the
by
water
atmos-
of
part
a
pipe
B.
the
suppose
oflf from
the
spray;
t, under
of
and
steam
side
the
is connected
all
in which
of
in
po.
condenser
with
[]y"'yj--fl^4^^^^P
pump
^
-^
First
of
^
of pressure
p2 and
into
ends
pressure
to
X2.
opens
suppose
xi.
[lb.]
temperature
genera!
cylinder
steam
pressure
contains
which
'
kg.
and
condenser
the
condenser
the
the
pipe
and
quaUty
steam
pipe
engine;
quality
represents
water
of
stroke
of steam
there
for
27.69
steam
Gi kg. [lb.]of
contain
pi
ratio
CONDENSER.
of
cylinder
the
upper
[115.18** F.J
29.69.
THE
OF
represents
at
"j"46.21*'
to
this
for
(33a) gives
formula
the
amounts
Appendix.
formula
be
to
the
condenser
THEORY
19.
piston
of
tables
Watt's
and
"
the
the
approximate
The
in the
temperature
each
mass
four
other
of steam
spaces
by
the
and
140
of the
of
quantities
therefore
If
for
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
amount
to
here
we
the
use
fundamental
the
which
the
this
transforming
simple
the
and
denominator
if, besides, the
be
can
formula,
be
can
for
condenser
the
the
is
take
can
of
pressure
p2=0.1
obtaining
cylinder
steam
of
purpose
Aa(po"p2)
term
we
terminal
pressure
get
we
"
the
i.e.,for
use,
moreover
in
"
For
small
very
steam
"
'
calculated.
neglected;
dry
assume
the
(38),
to
jet condenser,
practical
for
equation
atmosphere
one
the
(34)
q2-q-Aa{po-p2)
water
approximate
therefore
of
equation
jet
equations
preceding
Gi
from
of heat, and
in units
received, expressed
work
and
in
Xi
we
must
assume
gi
100.60,
pi
ApzUi
496.30.
"ApiUi
"
4.02
Pi
[gi- 180.90,
and
ilp2tti 7.236],
^1=893.34,
therefore
_600-g2
Gl
?2
rg
or,
if
we
itself,we
substitute
for
"
1080
the
heat
-g2i
of
the
liquid
get
G
rg
_600-fe
1080~"2-32)
1112-^-1
""
iGi
12-1
t2-i
the
also
expansion
atmosphere,
temperature
THEORY
formula
This
condenser,
differs
equation
denominator
the
As
the
we
In
Example.
the
the
in
jet
be
and
Po,
the
remarks
the
in
that
of
place
with
formula
this
that
be
equal
of
0. 1
f.
customary
made
on
137
p.
be
have
we
i^
that,
the
"^
the
of
the
of
temperature
and
[2116.31]
of
denominator
11
sion
expanLet
0.80.
10333
po*
Table
using
a:,
and
atmosphere,
an
of the
pressure
quality
(po"pa)*
so
terminal
steam
Here
Aa
term
0.026,
to
the
[59"].
the
let the
engine
and
t-^ld""
hence
becomes
(39),
in
(2 appears
of
say
steam
condenser
water
Pj,-=0.1
may
atmosphere
pi"0.6
pressure
member
right
surface
the
particular,
this
in
137, only
p.
for
foimd
was
also.
here
be
the
which
that
comparison
formula,
apply
from
141
CX)NDENSER.
JET
THE
(33a),
of
regards
Watt
OF
equation
Appendix,
the
we
get
^-14.37.
(39a)
Equation
for
gives
conditions
average
1-17.69,
according
while,
(39a),
equation
Into
off
given
lower
in
to
In
more
condenser,
take
Ordinarily
pump
have
we
place
where
600
large
thereby
the
to
in
of
air
which
it, and
is
mostly
and
temperature
but
or,
substitute,
we
volume
with
higher
if
[1080].
along
outside;
touched
18.97
of
is carried
preceding
speak
far
theory
of
accurately,
more
degree.
account
of
to
it is estimated
amounts
in
enters
than
dimensions
simultaneously
the
there
subordinate
to
[1152]
jet water,
is not
generous
12).
640
prevails
very
order
value
the
the
condenser
only
by
by
pressure
the
is
the
formula,
condensers
jet
is absorbed
Watt's
to
withdrawn
to
this
air
the
11/14
and
that
with
of
it is
fact,
the
pimip
of
volume
water
from
volume
Ga
to
necessary
hot-water
the
the
only
the
the
of
the
air,
give
(Fig.
which
condenser,
jet
water.
TECHNICAL
"
Let
mode
Fig.
of
JET
schematically
13
the
actjon
I F
-
STEAM
THE
OF
PUMP
(INJECTOR).
represent
in
occurrences
the
from
apparatus
an
i f f
whose
injector
may
derived.'
A
of
represents
and
steam
the
(i ;
vided
with
which
the
temperature
and
opened
be
mixture
The
through
of
cold
pushed
forward
'
outflow
that
first
in
with
the
level
investigation
Zivilingenieur,
Vol.
the
VI.
of
the
constant
vessel
Ibe
1850,
problem
p.
from
316.
is
vessel
will
of
A
spaces
are
now
immediately
vessel
the
water
cocks
C.
The
consists
accordingly
kept
piston
pressure
both
air.
open
cold
but
F,
i8.pro-
open
both
whose
of
steam.
be
can
suppo^ng
in
If
condensed
cylinder
an
that
6.
Fq
the
contmns
suppose
orifice
outer
with
and
coming
which
Ff, into
at
nozzle
the
pipe,
D,
caang
pipe
and
water
the
kg. [lb.]
temperature
discharge
the
first
at
through
by
of
vertical
cocks
with
pi
conical
pressure
us
the
water
pressure
the
by
cold
the
corresponding
discharges
that
the
by
flow
by
during
suppose
off
will
steam
pasang
Let
t.
condensed
jet
interior
atmospheric
shut
are
in
connected
is
under
is
with
large pipe
and(?i
xi.
is provided
the
piston
and
pi
is
there
hes
orifice
Casing
pressure
quality
cylinder
discharge
of
cont^ns
which
cylinder
water
steam
The
in
INVESTIGATION
CALORIMETRIC
20.
be
THERMODYNAMICS.
in
the
in
the
cyUnder
Let
in
kept
text
height
constant
pi.
always
treated
at
us
the
was
to
be
moreover
satne
given
posi-
by
me
THE
by
tion
at
the
of
water
water
new
into
the
Now
be
by
caught
second
casing
take
let the
second
where
back
pressure
p2.
introduction
the
cylinder
that
the
water-jet
and
the
heat
the
wet
combined
of
heat
the
pipe
mixing
guided
overcoming
tube
the
air
make
assume
us
and
removed,
with
velocity
cocks
vessel
C;
Ji of both
contents
6 the
hence
heat
and
Gi(qi +Xipi),
were
in
water
and
contents
Gq
there
the
was
follows,
cocks
"?i and
are
referred
[lb.],and
the
1^0;
since
heat
orifice
the
through
the
second,
the
to
and
opened
now
in
this
quantity
of the
whole
J2 of the
(40)
simplify
then
the
Fq
temperature
contents
to
for
spaces,
/i=Gi(9i+x,î)+Gg
If the
constant
let
are
open
it to
by
must
mass
Fq,
orifice
the
investigation
into
two
cylinder
cold
of the
flow
the
^2.
in
steam
fluid
receiving
directly
be
and
and
piston
general
the
flows
opening
content
the
and
temperature
Before
of
the
through
transferred
the
that
so
be
pressure.
(Fig. 13),
and
toward
horizontally
back
to
flow
it may
occurrence,
pipe Kj
the
constant
the
by pushing
that
whole
the
pipe
for itself
Wo
and
under
place
place
an
of
jet, discharging
cylinder
As
axis
the
143
INJECTOR,
that, during the
so
h above
height
likewise
may
GIFFARD
time
of
mixture
there
weights
will
charge
dis-
(Gi +G)
water
is ^2 aiid
will
mass
the
matters
its
kg.
velocity
be
/2"(G+Gi)(?2+a|^),
(41)
Wo^
where
il^
liquid
measured
The
heat
with
occurrence
In
units
in
contents
the
the
cylinder
value
the
of
energy
the
unit
of
weight
of
of heat.
Ji,
J2
whole
kinetic
the
represents
at
mass
the
at
end
the
has
piston
beginning,
is
of
taken
moved,
the
up
are
by
procedure,
and
with
given
constant
no
means
for
tical
iden-
during
its
off work.
pressure
pi,
144
TECHNICAL
the
through
in
units
of
THERMODYNAMICS.
Gi(xiUi
space
therefore
heat,
the
+a);
amounts
work
taken
Li
measured
up,
to
ALiÂGipi(xiUi+o)
In
the
pressure
and
added
vessel
the
Gh
work
of
through
moves
L2 taken
of work
level
the
of the
force
also
up,
(42)
the
water
is under
the
space
Ga;
of
the
atmospheric
this
to
gravity; accordingly
measured
in
units
of
heat,
still be
must
the
here
amount
sums
up
to
AL2=AG(pa+h)
Finally
has
Fo
the
volume
the
atmospheric
work
of
weight
liquid ((?i +6)

and
{Gi +G)a
pressure
flowing through
must
during
the
which
is
in heat
Z/3;expressed
(43)
the
the
overcome
discharge.
orifice
constant
Accordingly
given off, amounts
to
AL3=A(Gi-\-G)pa
Now
heat
the
contents
of the
of
heat
the
work
at
taken
up,
it
the
and
(44)
end,
evidently
are
increased
when
beginning,
the
at
given off;
work
J2,
contents
the
diminished
the
by
by
the
equal
heat
heat
to
the
lents
equiva-
equivalents
that
follows, therefore,
J2=Ji+ALi+AL2"ALz,
if
or,
consider
we
relation
the
^1
-ÂpiUi
(G+(?i)(g2+A^')
=(?i[gi+xiri
is
This
first
the
problem
leads;
into
parts,
two
the
the
formula, and
of the
First
Fo
i f f
fundamental
the
into
which
will
the
divided
be
now
of
utilization
continues
proposed
the
the
ceding
pre-
investigation
injector.
Suppose
Part.
(Fig. 13)
includes
of which
second
to
investigation
which
(45)
+.4(pi-p)]+(?(5+AA).
equation
subsequent
first of
=ri,
the
open
the
jet, flowing through
air, is caught
by
the
measuring
orifice
tank
in
THE
which,
at
tz; at
the
Let
the
the
is G2
start, there
end
be
if the
heat
the
contents
the
the
at
(Gi +G2
weight
end
J4,
are
mixture,
the
since
Now
mixture,
is the
J4,
or,
taken
up
according
to
(92+^1^)
=((?+(?!
second
have
we
2v
(?i)
(G+
which
neither
was
liquid.
of
+G)
G293+(Gi+G)(g2+^^).
2g
work
have
we
temperature
have
we
/3
of the
(Gi+G2+G)q4.
before
hand,
other
of water
kg. pb.]
^4.
J4
On
145
INJECTOR.
contains
tank
the
temperature
Then
GIFFARD
fundamental
nor
given off during
the
preceding equations,
the
+(?2)g4-(?293,
equation
for
the
(46)
lar
particu-
present
case.
Combining
(45) and
equations
(46) gives
Gi[5i-?4+Xiri+i4(7(pi-p)]=(?(94-?-i4A)+(?2(94-93).
All
quality
steam
If
here
Fo
the
to
ascertain
If
of
means
boiler
in square
is
Uquid
directly
is
quality
with
equation,
found
ascertaining
by
the
exception
to
whether
the
or
wet,
and
Gi
boiler
steam
flowing
steam,
and
in
latter
the
in
efflux
of
the
orifice
[square feet], there
units
velocity
of
Wo,
the
have
we
from
the
case
can
xi.
are
of
taken
efflux
follows,
per
in
from
second,
pipe K,
the
FoWo-^{G+Go)a,
the
of
observation.
attached
dry
quantities
cross-section
meters
this
be
injector,
steam
the
is the
can
xi,
injector
the
a
of
quantities
the
(47)
and
from
this
the
and
if
measured
formula
(48)
kinetic
energy,
measured
heat,
-f -K^r-
"""
146
the
corresponding
temperature
injector,
the
water
has
that
saying
of
the
in
water-jet
some
sure,
the
water
nozzle
and
seems
to
tainty;
uncer-
Fq
be
is
the
of
an
loosely put
explain
Many
water.
the
and
and
to
jet, and
and
a
be
may
which
becomes
lower
pressure.
probably
phenomenon
to
which
steam,
caught
the
During
the
In
the
time
the
likewise
the
kg.
[102.0
due
to
interior
of
has
absorbed,
and
subjected
directly
was
with
water
tank,
measuring
in
which
condensed
there
kg. [98.47 lb.] of
G, "44.665
experiment
tank
there
accurately
an
=46.266
jet flowing through the orifice Fq (Fig. 13),
flowed
C.
the
from
existed
of
water
the
and
at
the
end
kg. [204.979
=-92.977
[96.24" F.].
vessel
measuring
whose
seconds,
60
(Sr+G,+G,
14 -37.76"
constructed
lb.]
exactly
was
contained
temperature
time
same
be
the
water
cooling
in
all, whenever
injector which
an
have
[90.68" F.].
the
measuring
of
water
of
great velocity.
is warmed
with
experiment
C.
of
at
the
water
mixture
the
steam
uncon-
jet
accordingly
which
experiment
the water
the
^ "32.6
duration
this
lb.] of
of
beginning
The
the
carefully constructed
temperature
an
boiler,
steam
constituted
in
when
it
sure
milk-white
particles in
the
air
be
to
possessed
may
of
the
to
no
with
of
mixing
motion
due
possible;
was
character
free
Example.
attached
there
in the
opaque
pecuUar
is
phenomenon
same
in which
still carries
place,
which
jets engaged
two
coloring
-eddies
this
at
steam,
jet apparatus
The
the
jet,
precisely
of the
one
the
particles
water-
be
to
specific volume
the
that
so
ordinary
than
observed
of
from
appearance
swollen,
eater
densed
at
the
of
92
by
was
heat
(2 of
exists,
there
jet, issuing
milk-white
and
together
to
(48)
utilizingequation
In
the
Fq.
orifice
the
(46)
equation
we
and
liquid
find
from
Furthermore
TflERMODYNAMlCa
TECHNICAL
tank,
(Fig. 13), which

the
quantity
amounted
temperature
to
of
was
water
"-12.0"
C.
[53.6" F.].
From
passed,
this
in
60
seconds,
Gi
The
of
mercury,
absolute
Das
of the
out
(G, +G,
steam
which
the
first determined
was
+G)
pressure
pressure
was
weight
boiler
-G
and
-G,
in
read
Lokomotiven-Blasrohr.
the
Gi
of
through
oflf from
the
liquid which
injector, namely,
kg. [4.511 lb.]
-2.046
boiler
and
steam
1743.5
was
mercury
Zurich,
1863,
mm.
[68.642
manometer.
p.
117.
in.}
The
148
TECHNICAL
in
Moreover,
forward
far
so
in
seemed
water
failed
tube
from
and
the
At
Let
orifice
end,
after
tj and
initial
contents
(41).
The
then
work
the
in
2,
have
this
and
is evident
boiler, of
the
to
1.3
pheres,
atmos-
[43.964 ft.].
m.
in
is
addition,
caught
where
the
piston
and
by
the
mass
the
that
receiving
into
passes
in
overcoming,
so
p2.
heat
taken
has
Fo,
in
L, performed
let
place,
be
will
contents
orifice
the
sucked-
the
of
injector would
the
assume,
spreading
the
in
13.4
(Fig. 13)
pressure
the
of
back
greatly
was
[14.626 ft.]corresponding
now
Fq
pushed
was
water
experiment,
m.
cylinder B,
back
constant
the
the
to
us
the
pressure
column
water
rest, pushing
be
The
excess
the
is led
of
condition
doing,
to
this
4.458
cold
(7, to the weight
apparatus,
of steam
Part.
jet flowing
feed
underlying
data
the
corresponds
Second
As
nozzle
steam
the
for
weight
steam
velocity head
of the
adjustable
cross-section
of the
the
because
t"o,
influx
ratio
with
value
velocity
the
abnormal.
work
to
the
from
the
the
experiment,
that
and
contracted
this
THERMODYNAMICS.
J J
the
(G -\-Gi)q2.
determined
are
cylinder
perature
tem-
by
B, is found
to
tion
equabe
L-((?+(?i)(p2-p)"T,
and
there
and
with
follows
from
help
the
equation
of
the
given expressions,
g2+il-2-=32'+il(p2-p)"7
be
characterized
I
scale
hoped
successful
as
again
favorable
conditions;
but
the
for
curious
fact
that
injector
that
is based
meet
numberless
more
I will
in
the
boxes
the
add
dry
which
accurate
in
saturated
were
the
in
needs
the
determination
by
at
The
has
been
not
do
we
their
of
water
the
cost
employed
plates
levels.
and
this
still
3.3
conduct
possess
It
pheres,
atmos-
surely
theory
of
is
and
mean,
more
similar
is
apparatus
kind
but
the
more
under
fulfilled.
not
extended
about
to
cause
be-
reported,
would
although
Zurich
tanks
iron
went
others
would
needs,
planed
of
only
on
perhaps
interval
time
experiments
and
Zurich
experiments,
condition.
jointed
the
far, been
experiments
pressure
experiments,
practical
my
at
thus
not,
the
boiler
present
and
purely
that
that
reliable
on
cases
than
continue
scientific
at
even
they
and
experiments
expectation
have
ones,
higher
the
suitable
experiments
up
with
particularly
and
in
take
to
(50)
the
wo
ing
ik-
wh
ch
little.
steam
entered
consisted
provided
the
of
with
injector
rectangular
verniers
for
THE
If
substitute
we
G[q2-q
If
equation
cylinder
+A"t(pi
+Xiri
the
by
-P2)].
and
accordingly
boiler,
steam
(51)
then
p2
J"\
into
-Âa(pi -p)
G(qi -qj)
-52'
get
we
feeding apparatus
as
(45)
equation
is transformed
-q
add
now
we
and
(51)
C{q2
in
-Ah]^Gi[qi
injector
the
regard
we
If
value
-\-Aaip2-v)
replace cylinder
and
this
149
INJECTOR.
GIFFARD
-Ah]=Gi(qi
both
to
+Xiri).
-q2
members
of this
(51a)
equation,
we
get
G[qi
+i4(T(pi -p) -Ah]
-q
constitutes
equation
This
needed
quantity
of
weight
the
say
in
with
the
feed-water
Now
of
{G\ +G)
and
be
again
must
demands
running
for
is needed
According
to
be
then
injector
the
Qi
given
united
and,
after
from
the
heat
tity
quan-
quantity
steam
which
pressure,
maintained,
was
as
the
ture
tempera-
there
quantity
((?i +(?)(?! -32') +Gîxin.
equation
(52)
there
is then
also
found
Q=(?[gi-5+il(T(pi-p)+ilA],
(53)
....
sign
when
the
water
is not
has
to
be
the
The
shows
of
forced
sucked
changed
the
the
and
injector
height
it is assiuned
from
the
through
pressure
the
that
the
head
injector,
as
feed-
h,
but
is ordinarily
case.
preceding
that
is
on
up
is
^2'.
constant
heat
in
boiler
requires
fact,
For
injector;
the
to
consumed
under
in
the
brought
the
GiX\Ti\
the
which
ti, which
evaporated
quantity
heat
water
to
but
nothing
injector.
returns
must
(52)
calorimetric
the
the
temperature
temperature
((?!+(?) (51 -g20j

GiXi
the
has
^GiZin.
pump.
boiler
the
(?,it
quantity
there,
of
and
steam
of
represents
running
from
passes
boiler
the
to
quantity
weight
the
t2
the
itself
distributing
steam-jet
equation
for
second,
time,
this
of
result
principal
the
i f f
right member
The
heat
of the
investigation
((?i+(?)(gi -92O
the
heat
equation
needed
leads
for
to
feeding
very
with
remarkable
the
injector
results;
is
it
entirely
150
TECHNICAL
independent
and
of
which
xi)
the
of
is
is
height
two
and
the
identical
injector,
be
the
several
.for
of marked
the
sure,
pressure
external
the
in
pressure
which
the
be
given
comparison
of
the
injector,
S
whatever
the
to
as
injector;
action,
feed-water
the
is
chamber.
into
t of
with
injector
will
be
ordinary feed-pump
the
ia
importance.
be
the
piston, S
the
(Fig. 14)
of the
of
cylinder
piston
to
be
specific
suck
water
the
is
supposed
will
where
of
weight
side,
and
will
piston;
two
the
through
there
to
the
prevail
the
exist
left
the
represents
the
The
water
diff'er-
temperatures
is
14.
accordingly hy,
suction
cross-
right-hand
[r= 62.425].
of
ence
the
(p"h^r),
(r"1000)
Fio.
of
piston
pressure
the
the
pressure
right
the
the
single-acting,
as
atmospheric
of
vessel
on
open
the
pump
TJie cylinder
rârded
to
the
open
h.
height
let
the
feed-pump,
stroke
from
during
ference
of indif-
the
clue
setting
temperature
in
no
suction
the
matter
mixing
the
to
are
cases
subordinate
very
as
give
and
starting
of
i f f
or,
fail.
practical
amount
the
obtained
formulas
h and
in
as
atmosphere,
dimensions
head
the
the
injector,
not
most
it is therefore
Q;
p,
in
accordingly
have
of the
does
are
neglected;
quantity
with
Ah
of
influence.
of technical
section
the
the
suction
Let
heat
is identical
To
be
may
pressure
the
with
and
Aa(pi"p)
and
more,
boiler, and, further-
the
and
all,
at
independent
(Fig. 13)
dimensions
separate
(of Oi
steam
it is also
Fq
enters
the
of
it;
orifice
water
works
the
on
the
in
of all the
they
whether
The
which
terms
that
influence
the
jet
it
small
but,
of
independent
The
to
for
the
constitution
running
necessary
t2 at
provided
and
quantity
temperature
temperature
so
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
is Fhx,
hence
the
work
U^Fhrs.
is
and
the
piston
force
the
During
back
pressure
action
of
return
into
pi
151
INJECTOR.
GIFFARD
THE
the
piston
the
the
boiler, and
forced
is
water
of
L"
work
the
against
this
the
forcing
is
L""Fs(pi-p).
Both
taken
works
all frictional
neglecting
course
then
whole
the
give
together
(of
which
resistances)
hydraulic
and
work
pump
to
amounts
^F.r[^-,K]
Let
be
Fay^G
;'"7=1 obtains,
relation
of
weight
the
for
have
then
we
feed-water,
the
work
the
because
and,
of
the
the
pump
(54)
L^G[{Vi-V)o'^h]
In
boiler
the
requires
quantity Q'
heat
feed-water
the
be
must
heated
from
is determined
which
"i, which
^ to
by
Q'-G{qi-q\
but
in
the
present
pump
work
pump
is driven
the
is
not,
by
quantity
heat
"/""!, there
but
something
consumed
ÂL
for
the
AL,
say
corresponding
quantity
heat
greater,
If
theoretically perfect engine.
follows
by feeding with
the
case
(55)
the
in
quantity
the
Q,
which
of
heat
the
if the
even
substitute
we
performing
to
work,
where
is absorbed
feed-pump,
Q=G(qi-q)+"f"A[(pi-p)a+hl
While, according
proved
to
to
equation
(53),
the
amount
found
for
the
injector
be
Q-G(qi-q)+A[(j)i--p)a+h].
Accordingly
the
must
feed-pump,
be
the
injector,
indeed
regarded
as
from
the
most
as
the
feeding apparatus,
theoretical
is better
standpoint
perfect feeding
the
apparatus
than
injector
conceiv-
152
TECHNICAL
this
able;
water-raising
is, mechanically,
pump
heating
of
fashion.
there
developed
when
the
left
utilizes
of
worthy
in
derived
unnecessary
unsuitable
an
formulas
formulas,
approximate
factor
the
jet
steam-
all the
from
that
the
steam
containing
terms
i f f
boiler
of
case
are
out.
In
this
equation
case
(45),
144, gives
p.
(G+Gi)32=(?i(9i
or
the
note
be
easily
can
the
because
unprofitable,
water
it is
Finally,
for
the
apparatus
very
lifted
the
holds
only
however,
statement,
As
feeding.
THERMODYNAMICS.
if
total
heat
saturated
dry
assume
we
+ri
qi
t2 and
by Ai, and
+xiri) +Gq,
finally,for
t, substitute
designating
steam,
the
the
before
as
low
comparatively
themselves,
temperatures
the
peratures
tem-
get
we
GiAi +Gt
^^^^
^^--g^TgAccordingly
the
jet
at
its entrance
Neglecting
52' =52
determine,
we
into
before,
as
approximately,
the
receiving
there
follows
the
tube
from
^2 of
temperature
(Fig. 13,
equation
142).
p.
(50),
148,
p.
or
"2'=fe,
according
to
and
as
nearly
be
taken
Equation
did
not
notice
If the
from
its
to
and
as
in
most
of
^2 at
the
cases
can,
jet,
the
rest,
after
its
be
assumed
can
into
entrance
with
tribution
dis-
the
sufficient
ceiving
re-
racy,
accu-
value.
has
been
it is
only approximately
(45a)
that
condition
temperature
equal
temperatures
equation
of
probably
of
tz^ of
temperature
attainment
equal
tube,
the
which,
(50a)
used,
much
ti , t, and
^2
were
but
known
of
the
course
users
correct.
there
would
follow
(45a)
G
^1"^2
(456)
Gi
tz-t'
FORMULAS
and
this
would
the
steam
by
in
would
give
detennine
IIL
minimum
p. 225, for
If
at
of
wished
we
of
water
formula
fe, this
choose
to
is sucked
which
water
and
flow
the
be
once
Efflux
the
effect
to
necessary
of Wet
FORMULAS
VAPORS.
equations
derived
fluid, with
any
converted
into
for
the
in
in
general
which
form
Vol.
OF
I, " 40,
there
will
made,
render
investigating
of
piu'pose
FLOW
assumptions
the
the
Vapors.
THE
FOR
WET
of
directly serviceable
them
flow
the
of
vapors.
Suppose
through
under
FiF
vertical
for
that
given
also
the
the
lower
Vy
and
then,
for
the
and
pressure
velocity
Wi
and
cross-section
w
the
(h"hi);
the
at
designations
similar
represent
Vi,
that
suppose
there
and
pi
flow
to
pose
sup-
Fi
volume
gravity
down
15)
section
upper
of
continuously
(Fig.
height
influence
sole
the
of
cross-section
through
are
fluid
vessel
varying
p,
weight
153
VAPORS.
WET
OF
quantity
Flow
The
fundamental
The
wet
the
FUNDAMENTAL
21.
can
FLOW
Gi.
weight
the
THE
condensation.
complete
"
FOR
quantities,
first fundamental
(Vol. I,
equation
there
229),
p.
is
found
QÂ[pv^p,viHU+H)-{Ui+Hi)-(h^hi)l
or,
in
written
the
differential
form,
dQ=Â[d(pv)+dU'\-dH-dhl
.(la)
.
where
from
without
from
Fi
to
to
F;
Ux
quantity
the
represents
the
and
unit
U
(I)
of
are
of
heat
weight
the
values
of
which
the
of
the
must
fluid
inner
be
along
work,
supplied
the
and
path
Hi
154
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
and
the
values
the
are
of
H-|
As
of
unit
the
of
in
wdght
H,.^
and
there
equation
fundamental
second
flow
of
energy
cross-sectionS; i.e.,
second
first and
the
(1)
found
was
Q+AW''A{U-Ui)+Afpdv,
(H)
.
"
"
"I
or,
differential
in the
written
form,
.(Ha)
dQ+AdWÂ[dU+pdvl
where
path
the
on
Finally,
from
Fi
if G
is
addition
the
fluid
the
of
of fluid.
weight
which
through
passes
conditions,
running
normal
encountered
resistance
unit
the
to
of
weight
the
hurtful
the
F, reduced
to
under
cross-section
every
of
work
the
represents
have
we
in
equations
#
In
applying
these
formulas
in
as
w^
jt
flowing
'*
it
rej ec
of
ts
will,
we
vessel
the
Fig. 16, i.e.,will
sequently
(2)
vapors,
axis
the
fluid
the
heat,
and
assume
spite
of
Ai
plicity,
sim-
; let
flow,
neither
therefore
for
is horizontal
adiabatic
also presuppose
"
to
that
throughout
assume
Gvi:=FiWi
and
Gv-=-Fw
fer
con-
receives
=
0 and
us
nor
dQ
0.
9i
Fio.
16.
may
moreover,
In
easily
all technically
We
now
get from
be
dropped,
important
equation
these
the
limitations,
following
which,
formulas
clude
in-
cases.
(la)
ildff--il[d(pt;)+dC7],
156
It is evident
from
this
the
of
known
all, it
is not
transformed
and
into
how
of
is connected
heat,
quality
of
resistance
with
the
lead
not
to
because,
x,
AdW,
the
AdW
hence
possible;
which
in
case
and
from
get
we
the
first
that
is
variables
independent
hurtful
solution
the
0,
"
this
From
substitute
we
When
once
dered
ren-
steam
quality
this
in
(Ic)
second
one
determined,
and
get
we
determine
can
we
be
can
equation
in
flows
(3)
weight
the
the
through
tion
cross-sec-
G{xu+o)^Fw
given
p. 58,
on
form
following
the
According
equation
(52)
assume
the
assume
dh
The
axis
formulas
resistances
blasrohr/'
nieur.
0;
Vol.
are
Zurich,
X,
1864,
of
in
vessel
the
addition
given
in the
neglected,
1863,
p.
inner
the
tation
presenwork
("e
and
87,
and
be
to
will
we
text
""
general equations
the
to
return
now
us
gives
there
the
to
AdU--ôjdt+d
Let
(4)
Transformation.
Second
of
equation
the
from
F,
Ti+-y-
from
which
liquid
and
steam
is found
at
course
lected
neg-
XiTi
(3)
equation
of
is
be
may
the
equation
resistance
(lie)
equation
XT
T
in
p.
For
if
the
work
the
it,also, does
that
equation
determination
solution, i.e.;to
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
for
the
developed
later
Vol.
horizontal,
efflux
first
in
continued
XVII,
1871,
as
take
again
of
wet
and
(la)
up
in
(Ila)
Fig. 16, i.e.,
the
steams,
thought
when
my
book
the
investigation
p.
71.
"Das
and
the
of
ful
hurt-
Lokomotivenin
Zivilinge-
FORMULAS
THE
FOR
supply, then, taking
heat
substituting
equation
(5)
in
(la),
equation
we
and
r=p+Apu
relation
the
of
account
157
VAPORS.
WET
OF
FLOW
get
dH^dQ-ajdT-d(^v)
equation
follows
there
Moreover
(Ila), with
equation
from
(Ill)
help
the
of
(51a),
dQ+AdW^wdT+ATd(i^y
According
equation,
Clapeyron's
to
dp
dt
which
the
causes
however,
AuT
preceding equation
take
to
the
form
following
dQ+AdW^wdT-^-Tdl^v)
(III) and
Equations
(IV)
include
the
result
of
If,
as
without
in
heat
equation
the
first
transformation,
and
dQ=0
then
supply,
we
the
preceding
we
flow
imagine
occur
(III),
equation (IV)
be
can
again applies
(lie), which
are
what
of
written
^wdT
AdW
Here
to
get by integration, from
j!^.^T.-T)^l,.-%.
and
(IV)
transformation.
second
while
course
was
in
the
when
identical
on.)
form
+Td(^v^
said
(iva)
.
discussing equation (Ic)

with
the
preceding
tions.
equa-
158
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
until
Not
can
know
we
determine
we
for
i.e., for
neglected;
from
the
wet
place)
this
equation
in
steam
be
then
can
cross-section
found
As
are
the
and
steam
cross-section
liquid
steam
relation
quality
+
this
at
x,
the
second
per
weight
last
hurtful
formulas
from
exist,
resistances
along
is
and
by
loss
the
of
energy,
supplied
the
to
yet
having
When
is
there
supposition
of
the
that
no
fluids
flowing
recourse
the
work
flow,
and
the
action
from
above
the
way
to
of
resistance
the
and
(lie)
and
same
this
as
on
the
of
work
corresponding
is
representing
certain
calculations,
the
outside,
formulas
of
the
the
diminution
as
appears
always
however,
are,
of
mass
no
resistances
energy
heat,
investigating
into
tiiat the
the
friction
as
work
the
the
of
structure
As
of
into
transformed
were
under
only
such
such
Strictly speaking,
kinetic
(6)
walls.
the
hand
valid
are
of
the
through
Gv=Fw
The
of
a.
formula
flows
which
found
specific volume
v=xu
this
from
mass
be
can
the
(IV6)
.
(Ilia) gives
is determined
as
soon
the
the
in
(IV6)
Utilizing equation
calculate
F;
from
sponding
corre-
tion,
gives, by integra-
equation (IVa)
can
we
the
resistances
the
^lofor+î;"a;log.
Ti+^^vi,
and
volume
w.
which
dW=0,
and
pressure
cross-section
of
velocity
in
with
changes
pressure
the
special case
the
the
and
volume
For
how
if heat
is indicated
(IVa).
AdW
analytically
out
with-
hypotheses.
eflSux
I
dW
have
may
of
gases
and
started
be
taken
introducing
from
the
ances
resist-
assumption
proportional
to
the
FORMULAS
of
change
THE
(see
temperature
supposing
'
FOR
the
that
under
certain
through
simple
orifices,we
for
is
wq
the
in
case
From
for
is
which
159
VAPORS.
(28),
be
may
246).
p.
made
example
for
during
Now
flowing
the
efflux
take
then
may
WET
I, equation
conditions,
constant
Vol.
OF
assumption
same
vapors,
where
FLOW
to
be
determined
Td
(^t?)
by experiment
question.
(IVa)
equation
follows
then
6xir
ft;odr=
and
from
^t?"(6; +
and
then, according
Qf)
(Ilia),
equation
to
jT+^^jlJp-^
a"o)loga
^(^^^f)^_^^^^^_^^^^^^^^_^_^^_^^^^^
(VI)
If
there
(V),
equation
the
on
are
resistances,
no
specific voliune
other
diminished,
If
aderable,
then
therefore
develop
to
and
the
that
velocity
in
w,
resistances
the
also
consequently
then, according
the
the
to
increase
quality
steam
cross-section
jP,
will
x\
be
things being equal.
difference
the
log.
v,
hand
other
the
conclude
must
we
is, a;o=0,
that
the
of
pressure
temperature
the
logarithm
in
the
cross-sections
two
difference
is still
occurring
in
more
is inconwe
so;
equation
(VI),
can
cording
ac-
series:
"y=log^[l+
J"'~r
2\
"*""'""
(7)
160
and
TECHNICAL
ourselves
content
THERMODYNAMICS.
with
the
first two
of the
terms
series.
Then
(VI) gives
equation
A^^)-[^..-.o-f(a,+.^)^](7'.-T).
(Via)
From
we
(V)
equation
with
ourselves
content
is also
there
found
the first term
when
approximately,
of the
series
in
equation
(7),
^r-^^îî
(a" a;o)(Ti-!r)
"
EFFLUX
22.
SIMPLE
ORIFICES
Suppose
and
HIGHLY
OF
of
steam
the
the
the
section
and
the
initial
ity
"
will
give
According
to
of
plane
the
Let
pressure.
rounded
the
be
inside
efflux
Fsq.
of
orifice
the
efflux
us
be
velocity
and
the
the
following, when
then
p, its
we
liquid
boiler
the
Let
the
in
must
there
the
put
initial steam
of the
cross-
pressure
specific volume
we
qual-
first transformation
neglect resistances.
(la),
^2^=?i-2-r(Ti-T)+A(7(pi-p)
The
quality
steam
by equation
(3)
x, in
plane
the
of the
orifice,is
to
be
(8)
determined
from
xr^Tin^T)
and
then
the
in
discharge-pipe
possessing
the
formulas
of
a
Here
w.
likewise
"0,
equation
with
and
contain
ti corresponding
part
[sq. ft.].
m.
velocity WiÔ,
xi
lower
provided
the
on
to
temperature
the
FROM
PRESSURE.
boiler,
steam
and
space
LIQUIDS
CONSTANT
example
pi
water
well
V,
for
pressure
to
HEATED
UNDER
vessel,
(Va)
specific volume
v,
at
(9)
the
same
place,
is to
be
found
from
v"xu-ha
(10)
EFFLUX
The
of
mass
OF
orifice
the
flowing through
in
in
measured
liquid,
and
steam
kilograms
[pounds]^
is
second,
161
LIQUIDS.
HEATED
HIGHLY
G'F~
The
second
per
is
of
weight
the
(11)
which
quantity
steam
the
passes
orifice
finally
D^Gx,
while
liquid passing
the
If
the
the
pressure
leaves
liquid
rest,
of
part
constant
the
from
this
and
p,
outside
to
If x' is the
quality
steam
in
will
then
with
when
the
condition
into
steam
take
place
of
under
if heat
as
equivalent
amount
an
identical
into
passage
converted
given by equation
of flow
energy
be
boiler,
the
the
kg. [lb.].
orifice,is
the
of
during
pressure
supplied
were
outside
will
liquid
the
G(l "x)
of
plane
the
and
orifice
the
is
orifice
the
prevails
that
pressure
in
p,
(12)
the
to
(8).
final
the
condition
of rest, then
the
relation
A^^rix^-x)
will
hold
of
for
moreover,
with
equation
this
be
it x' may
from
and
equations
calculation
direct
the
determined.
From
and
(8)
of
(13)
the
the
(9)
tion
combina-
follows,
there
quality
steam
x',
the
formula
rx'^qi-q+Aaipi-p)
In
Example.
and
[212"].
steam
Using
boiler,
into
Table
quality
the
11
in
of the
and
we
consequently
find
that
the
"a:"
specific
0.9071
volume
i;
that
so
of the
a;
steam
pressure
[3a5.996^.
Appendix
plane
the
/, -152.22"
air,
open
the
has
water
is
temperature
discharge
water
the
its
(14)
we
"
Let
atmosphere
of p,
the
5 atmospheres
"
hot
and
boiler
t^lOO^
calculate, by equation
now
orifice;
(9)^
then
-0.0929,
is the
v
-0.1532
at
quantity
the
of water;
orifice
[2.4541];
is
from
equation
(10)
162
TECHNICAL
furthermore
from
THERMODYNAMICS,
equation
(8),
V?
A"
Cal.
-3.516
[6.3288 B.t.u^l
2g
from
and
this
the
get
we
171.02
w-
flows
second
per
and
of steam
mixture
The
velocity
efflux
through
in the
exists
there
of this
the
xf^ after
quality
to
equation
(11),
equation
(13)
steam
130.0
[D
steam
of
shape
which
[poimdsl
JT,
-227.12
The
kilograms
1108.99
[G
in
[sq. ft.] is, according
m.
and
measured
water,
sq.
ft.].
[561.097
m.
F].
26.626
distribution,
is found
from
or
(14):
x' -0.1068.
If,
in
as
and
water
for
of
external
the
which
can
the
Here
the
of
plane
be
the
thus
greater
appear
will
the
the
the
the
that
nearly
only
the
of
and
supposition
on
higher
magnitude
proposition
at
once.
quality
the
dent
indepen-
the
shown
steam
external
constant
orifice,â
be
that
weight
approximately
depends
pressure
velocity
orifice
is
tions
calcula-
the
with
result
second
theoretically justified, as
efflux
the
peculiar
per
and
pressure
pressure,
under
it is therefore
pressure;
boiler
of the
through
is identical
cases
get the
discharged
steam
boiler
every
we
pressure,
in all
carry
we
and
pressures,
orifice
the
in
pressure
atmospheric
of
boiler
different
for
the
preceding example,
the
boiler
in
the
pressure
considered.
if
Accordingly,
from
to
the
calibrated
boiler
preceding, equal
times, independently
^
See
allow
we
author's
FliiBsigkeiten."
article:
water
through
quantities
of the
''Uber
Zivilingenieur,
boiler
den
Vol.
under
the
be
von
p.
discharged
D"mpfen
105.
to
flow
then, according
whether
pressure;
1864,
pressure
cock,
water
should
Ausfluss
10,
steam
the
und
in
equal
emptying
hocheiiiititen
164
the
sure
m
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
1 y
of the
quantity
independent
place into
takes
formula
discharge
for
r,
the
boiler
the
and
air
open
T
and
u,
we
values
the
find, because
we
pressure,
of
be
may
G=
kg. [lb.] per
0.1090
(see example
for
the
For
the
substitute
in
the
preceding
the
to
pheric
atmos-
1,
a"=
F],
lb. per
in.] of orifice
sq.
cold
flow
the
does
of
not
investigation depart
area,
water,
toward
occur,
the
the
the
when
or
completely
laws.
hydraulic
known
by
efflux
during
formation
discharge
[1.5512
preceding
furnished
simple
temperature
steam
the
of
results
the
water
1090.2
cm.
If
161).
p.
results
The
from
on
sq.
pressure.
corresponding
[0^223.287
or
regarded asapproxi*
orifice
equations
changes
small
so
are
(8)
to
(11),
of
that
p.
160^
give
2^-^(pi-p);
furthermore
which
x=0,
flows
second
per
and
vâ,
accordingly
through
(neglecting resistances),
the
weight of the water,
the
of F
cross-section
m.
sq.
[sq. f t.|
is
From
formulas
these
in
given
pressures
[pounds]
the
second
per
[square
is
attains
computed
inch],
cold
of water
efflux
from
first row,
through
gives the discharge

which
have
we
under
an
water
the
water
orifice
being
(measured
the
equations (8)
for the
computed,
discharged
of
area
assumed.
in
the
corresponding
to
(11).
different
The
interior
steam
in
boiler
kilograms
square
second
of the
pressure
meter
centirow
boiler)
and
EFFLUX
The
difference
the
in
S
to
the
it, did
make
with
determined
and
from
feed
had
water
22.4
from
boiler
the
observed
the
been
shut
of
for
in
presented,
for
by
and
then
another
in
provided
was
during
the
The
(above
the
and
about
discharge
of
efflux
was
tubes)
heating
the
water
level
series
of
experiments
must
following
there
of
of
quantity
period
An
1890.
the
cock;
pipe only
direction.
article;
boiler
few
in
discharge
and
of
and
boiler)
with
this
of
statement
a
1 i
boiler
cross-section
'
water
water
conducted
the
lowering
and
boiler
(after
off).
complete
looked
by collecting in
[0.882 in.] in diameter,
mm.
boiler
the
ago
known.
Field
horizontal
were
(the
space
in
place
from
The
the
boiler
years
experiments
engineers
which
orifice
discharged
water
some
cold
become
have
is evidently
rows
equality, already
steam
of
jet
Recently
the
steam
the
took
therefore
two
I made
of
mass
[7.874 in.] long, provided
mm.
the
the
that
by
considered,
well-rounded
connected
200
it there
experiments,
these
discharging
induced
upright, cylindrical
with
of
row
attempt
succeed.
not
direction
the
second
the
The
condensing
measuring
kind,
vessel
and
cooling
in
values
foregoing propositions experimentaUy,
receiving
and
is apparent.
discussed,
test
numerical
the
marked,
very
to
of
166
LIQUIDS.
HEATED
HIGHLY
OF
the
pressures,
kilograms [pounds]
per
in
the
observed
are
values
mean
for
orifice
of
[sq. in.]
cm.
sq.
be
area.
Boiler
pressure
1.09
[15.503
first
The
reported
as
given
here
it will
the
results
out
without
but
the
1.34
16.357
19.059
be
of
in
noticed
that
remark,
further
the
give
discrepancy
enormous
if
we
of
row
is
former,
about
ten
explained
lb.]
of
pressure
preceding
the
differ
as
atm.,
tion,
tabula-
greatly
the
more
short
is
values
from
points
Sauvage
times
by
2
the
compare
observations
the
calculations;
my
But
second
the
boiler
unreliable.
being quite
those
to
atmospheres.
kg.
1.15
value, corresponding
with
discharge,
length
of
^Sauvage,
1892.
Ninth
de
''Eooulement
Series, Vol.
II,
p.
192.
Teau
des
chaudidres.''
Aimales
des
Mineb,
166
orifice of
the
is assumed
flow
that
assumption,
The
however,
existed
as
quantity
relatively
that
assume
the
C.
is
fall from
of
water
discharged
the
in
keeping
the
"
100"
to
the
to
orifice
is the
case
gives
in
orifice
clearly
the
there
of
of
ordinary
for
F.].
does
not
Consequently"
into
boiler
the
heated
super-
orifice,corresponding
fiow
the
by
the
reproductions
of
the
steam
and
less
Doubttoward
the
That
this
jet
jet
the
the
the
form
lies
vertex
more
outside
in
appears
whose
jet spreading
which
water
steam
all
at
6 atmospheres
highly
the
revolution
would
which
the
agree
better
if
gave
cool
we
down
with
steam'
shell,
because
vapor
can
the
hot
greater
near
the
here
in
conical
discharge
of the
fiowing
above
of
fashion.
boiler
theoretical
toward
corresponding
orifice outward,
the
the
the
to
other
orifice
the
hand,
may
small
be
amount
and
thus
when
inserted
of
water
gation
investi-
orifice
chance
orifice pressure,
by inserting a long pipe between

the
short
the
results
pressure
On
simply
on
water
easily evaporate,
temperature.
expands
the
realized
orifice.
boiler
it
dififerent;from
very
observations
the
to
be
could
and
jet looks
steam
long distance,
Doubtless
wall
with
water
directly
of
therefore
experience
the
sive,
exces-
pressure.
The
to
short
process.
orifice, the
the
such
must
we
of
inserted
The
This
orifice.
the
example,
exists, during
199).
p.
the
[212"], will rapidly evaporate.
shown
and
have
steam
not
212"
to
outside
photographs
(see p. 198
plane
boiler
for
efflux, anon-reversible
is
and
orifice itself in
the
of 100"
ofaparaboloid
the
F.
into
disproportionately
temperature
[318.56"
discharge
with
does
water
orifices
orifices
short
of
C.
and
temperature
with
the
mind
condition
is
temperature;
will reach
water
the
path
of
the
discharged,
steam
short
and
realized
not
experiments.
pressure
159.2"
always
wall
boiler
evidently
these
to
when
plane of
the
the
expansion during
that
water
in
[212" P.]
prescribed lowering
of
the
in
this
on
therefore
both
place
100"
of
temperature
orifices
orifice,and
takes
adiabatic
it
given above,
formulas
the
deriving
is reversible
there
the
air
open
In
discharge.
toward
the
of
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
boiler
the
discharging ordinary
directly in
water
perfectly
mixed
follow
boiler
the
with
the
the
change
EFFLUX
If
the
the
done
It
above
of
the
of
would
be
theoretical
the
well
water
become
may
careful
more
then
it
boiler
of
discharge
and
167
VAPORS.
SATURATED
importance,
repetition
desirable.
DRY
question
technical
special
then
whole
OF
extend
to
would
appear
fully
more
of
investigation
sometime,
so
experiments
the
of
were
than
was
here
occurrences
taking place.
"
EFFLUX
23.
SIMPLE
Let
is
ORIFICES
the
maintained
another
space
(hence
substitute
xi
in the
exists
efl[lux
the
at
constant
in
which
==
large
in
WiÔ
1, because
velocity
is
it is assumed
the
we
at
(Id),
that
then
which
orifice
for
and
156,
p.
must
saturated
the
to
height
constant
dry
get
boiler
simple
kept
equation
discharging vessel) ;
in
space,
through
pressure
FROM
PRESSURE-
steam
pressure,
the
make
must
we
from
VAPORS
CONSTANT
UNDER
flow
steam
SATURATED
DRY
OF
steam
calculation
of
equation
il2^=jr(ri-r)+gi-5-r(ri-T)+^"7(pi-p),(18)
the
where
pressure
orifice
the
The
to
the
assumed
are
steam
and
quality
temperature
the
equation (3), p. 156,
in
the
p 1
plane
the
of
orifice
is found
Ti
(19)
from
(20)
vôcu+a,
and
then
through
from
the
the
F
weight
square
of
ing
accord-
"jr=Ti-T+jr,
specificvolume
from
XT
the
known.
as
in
meters
of steam
and
[square
water,
which
of
orifice
feet]
flows
per
section,
second
is found
equation
Gv^Fw
(21)
168
TECHNICAL
But
and
also
are
be
may
In
of
here,
of
the
take
we
the
to
Vi
ui+(t
into
for
have
we
unity
when
the
The
vessel.
The
of
equation
to
in the
v,
for
(V),
of the
plane
159, from
p.
quality
this
at
place
from
discharge
the
equal
put
which
depends
the
derived
be
orifice,may
formula
H-^^Vi,
(23)
.
from
follows
(24)
vôcu+a,
and
in
steam
be
must
value
the
^t;=(a"H-6"o)logey
steam
dry
of the
steam
(22)
log. jt,
resistances.
the
specific volume
to
=0:
experimental
an
according
then^
account,
k;i
value
represents
cdq
magnitude
according
the
(p. 156, etc.).
specificvolume
the
represents
discharging
upon
resistances
159,
p.
transformation
second
the
made
be
may
use
+ (oo)T
^-':;^^(Ti^T)vi+w{Ti''T)-("o
2g
where
resistances
the
that
assumption
express
efflux
adiabatic
presuppose
foregoing equations, however,
of
equation (VI),
the
the
to
equations
neglected.
equations
If
these
there,
as
subject
place
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
..."""..
equation
"
Gv=Fw
If
formulas;
resistances,
the
neglect
we
lead
then
they
(25)
to
the
we
substitute
must
results
same
wo=0
in
equations
as
these
(18)
to
(21).
Example.
7)1
1.6
assumed
extends
write
the
into
that
external
the
to
the
atmosphere.
Table
to
steam
atmospheres
up
p*"l
to
Suppose
of
11
the
we
Appendix,
from
air.
open
boiler
In
carrying
of
must,
substitute
steam,
in
the
sure
presit
is
pressure
orifice,
the
for
the
doing
so
atmospheric
plane
Here
flow
so
that
we
place ft"=l, and,

preceding
may
ing
accord-
formulas
the
quantities:
r, -386.69,
r,-526.786,
-373.00,
-536.500,
r,-948.215,
-671.40,
-965.700,
v,-
1.0606
-26.423,
for
v,-16.990
for p,
f or
1.6X10333,
pi-
forp
1.6495,
w,-16.974,
[7^1-696.042,
r
1.0596,
","
10333,
-1.6x2116.31,1
-
2116.31.J
EFFLUX
Let
i.e.,for
of
first work
U8
"0,
(Ug
the
out
next
results
find
we
the
example
work
these
for
on
the
to
two
to
18.917
"
A"
or
tt^
^34.051
A"
or
the
efflux
velocity:
-396.70
[u;-
of
coefficient
follows
the
the
1301
second
velocity;
.5
value
specific volume
in
quality
steam
the
"
The
quality.
Finally
the
[pounds], according
the
of
coefficient
of
the
or
of
in
(23) there
equation
now
-26.040].
-0.9826.
specific volume
the
and
steam
(25),
F
amounts
to
-233.48
or
G-
or
value
efflux, and
called
1.6218
increase
equation
second
is
t;-
[G -50.621/^
ratio
first
From
or
0=247.16
The
1242.3].
the
or
-0.9724
discharge
to
m;-
-378,66
place is
this
resistances, therefore,
or
orifice
1.6050
at
tx7
is 0.954,
[v -25.710
the
or
to
ratio
the
r-
And
J',
2a
of
-31.025
2(7
ratio
the
-17.236
2g
A"
The
hydraulics
(Wo"0.125,
or
(22),
equation
[vf
this
the
by side.
side
2g
from
put
will
We
0.125.
tion
considera-
for
A-
and
(Oq^
resistances;
the
that
supposition
value
cases
aio""0
according
the
the
considering
without
it out
led
has
resistances
approximate
Here
and
DRY
169
VAPORS.
SATURATED
OF
the
to
47.82
first is
and
the
in
water
steam
kilograms
i^
designated
in
hydraulics
as
is here
0.945.
The
quantity
of steam
discharged
Gx
[Gx
and
the
quantity
240.34
F
F
-49.225
[G(l-x)
conical
example
adjutage
is
or
Gx
or
Gx
-46.988
229.42
IT,
of water:
G(l-x)-6.82F
The
second
per
may
that
well
-1.397
or
G(l-x)-4.06F
or
G(l
correspond
is well
rounded
to
on
the
the
-x)
-0.832
conditions
inside.
F].
which
exist
with
170
TECHNICAL
With
be
regarded
(see Vol.
gases
for
the
with
then
in
to
right
be
(25)
in
member
neglect
we
the
neglected
of
term
because
the
efflux
seem
receiving
For
able,
unaccept-
tô
we
utilize
formulas,
is
fuller
tion
presenta-
first convert
resistances
the
the
always
above
that
so
by putting
second
the
right
the
it is very
namely,
to
vessel
mulas
for-
small
and
member
of
equation
thus
can
we
of
terms
write
can
we
and
third
"oo=0,
(23)
write
^"-^"^
If
of
ones.
nearly equal,
first
in
as
preceding example,
the
the
equation (22)
are
closely examining
on
in
will
we
might
which
orifice.
approximate
to
that
Moreover,
can
the
in
pressure
doing,
so
find
we
in
pressure
of steam
results
fast, as
question indicated,
the
(22)
If,
the
the
here,
encounter,
numerical
hold
we
that
assumption
of
if
that
sometimes
240),
of efflux
question
it not
were
we
p.
example,
identical
the
I,
the
given,
settled,
as
formulas,
given
the
been
has
what
THERMODYNAMICS.
n's
"27)
equation
(22),
p. 29,
in
these
use
dp
(28)
AuT
abbreviating
with
right member,
we
in
shall
dt'
doing
so
differential
the
coefficient
of
the
get
MTi-T)vu
(26a)
also
(f"v=="f"iVi,
and
there
discharge
accordingly follows,
G
of steam
and
water,
from
the
the
(27a)
relation
approximate
^S^'^(^"-^."
Gv^Fw
for
the
formula
""")
172
TECHNICAL
According
orifice
from
for
p,
pressure
presented
there
propositions
the
to
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
calculate
we
of
maximum
the
charge,
dis-
equation
the
tiî)^'and
specificvolume
the
in
the
orifice
(")
from
(32)
p/
where
and
pi
discharging
the
pressure
p2,
regarded
as
We
value
which
values
here
distinguish
resulting
from
external
the
p2
of
regarded
outside
between
of
the
as
given
and
two
establishes
specificvolume
X2
in the
according
cases
V2
itself in
in
the
The
p. 247)
the
value
efilux
by
W2,
is
is
(32a)
from
the
formula
X2W2+"7,
corresponding
velocity
to
the
determined
pressure
p2,
is known,
(Vol. I, equation
"l;^Px''i[l-(^)""'],
(33)
....
the
second,
(33),
formula
the
and
the
to
orifice,and
the
orifice
is calculated
orifice
V2
because
also
Letp2"p.
pressure
the
quality
steam
the
orifice, is
the
V2=vi(^)^
The
in
steam
(31).
equation
Hypothesis.
Here
volume
be
can
vessel
receiving
the
and
pressure
known.
First
hence
vessel,
in
must
of p
the
represent
vi
discharge
is found
of
steam
and
water,
in
kilograms [pounds]
per
from
jw
G=F-,
(34)
V
taking
p=p2
and
v^V2
and
letting
represent
the
cross-section
EFFLUX
of
orifice
the
in
steam
in
SATURATED
DRY
OF
[square
meters
square
with
D=Gx2
Second
the
orifice
from
the
follows
into
of
external
the
from
tion
equaand
pressure
specific volume
and
(32)
found
once
The
equation
from
is at
vacuum.
be assumed.
p2"p
orifice
the
independent
discharge
for
even
of
it is then
(31);
valid
pressure
x=X2'
Let
Hypothesis.
the
the
orifice is
the
Here
of
weight
The
feet].
17
VAPORS.
the
is
v
in
quality
steam
formula
v"xu-â,
where
corresponds
The
efilux
velocity
(33) and
equations
the
to
p.
is determined
(31)
pressure
from
the
combination
^=NI^Piî"
discharge
the
is found
(33a)
from
G'F'-j,
and
and
steam
the
formulas
all these
In
substitute
n=
in
the
quality
steam
Example
the
air, under
open
Let
under
the
let
work
us
ou
value
the
inside.
We
then
to
the
the
might
to
example
vessel
steam,
equation
-1.135
(31), the
where
Xi
is
itself.
flows
steam
the
neglecting
side
by
side
efflux
the
(30), corresponds
arise
wet
dry
from
boiler
into
atmospheres.
and
for
for
for
1.135
n=^"
with,
say,
and
with
exponent
to
resistances, and
controlling
n"
orifice
-1.121,
pressure
this
coefficient
conical
get for
"
according
xi
pi ^-LG
example
equation
which
+0.1
dry saturated
1.135
n"""c"
out
substitute
discharging
pressure
out
assumption
value, according
^"0.1,
the
first work
us
1.035
Suppose
1.
Gx.
must
we
(34a)
is
of steam
corresponding weight
the
of
ratio:
next,
first calculation,
1.121, which
of
well
resistance
rounded
174
TECHNICAL
f-^V~
P
--
THERMODYNAMICS.
-0-5774
and
p -0.9328
and
f-^-V" 1-0.5460,
and
this, for
from
in both
therefore, values
cases,
first of the
the
us
pheres,
to
and
we
one
atmosphere
the
get from
of
relation
the
pressure,
The
efflux
velocity
and
calculated
w,
i""
-397.02
--F
ti;
and
u;-
in
atmos*
equation
(32)
[26.423] for
1.6495
u-
the
orifice:
(33), is found
to
be
-378.27
1241.1];
of
sq.
[sq. ft.],is
m.
and
-234.50
and
-48.029
lb.],
-247.41
1.6
0.977.
orifice
an
before
[25.840],
equation
and
with
second,
per
from
[ti7-1302.6
finallythe discharge
quality
and
0.972
from
because
a,
of
pressure
follows
1.6131
steam
the
to
v-
vxu
have
we
above.
there
[16.990],
[25.706]
1.6047
V-
consequently
p"p2;
or
corresponding
1.0606
v^-
-0.8736,
mentioned
hypotheses
two
amounts
then
"1
specific volume,
the
Since
-1.6,
pj
kg.
50.673
[G --F-
"
there
whereupon
G(l
weight
as
Pi
"
again,
flow
steam
from
let
preceding example;
the
becomes,
ratio
Let
2.
and
atmod[)heres
Here
the
weight
steam
Gx
and
the
water
x).
"
Example
in
found
easily be
can
for
""
let it flow
1.121
the
the
boiler, imder
boiler
open
steam
the
same
be
at
tions
assumpa
pressure
air.
respectively, the
controlling
pressure
preceding example,
in the
as
and
1.135
into
?-
and
-0.5771
0.5460,
Pi
and
hence
the
orifice
pressure
p"
and
us
is therefore
the
From
2.887
greater
second
equation
of the
than
above
(32) there
is
and
one
2.730
atmospheres,
atmosphere;
hypotheses.
is found
accordingly
we
have
before
EFFLUX
and
Vi
henoe
the
in the
specific volume
[5.82451
-0.3636
and
-1.6223
orifice,because
-0.5899
[v -9.4496
Table
ti
the
find
we
-0.6081
from
from
and
then, from
G-
[G
Of
there
this
where
and
u
w-
find, by
we
from
interpolation
and
-442.64
10.270].
in the
quality
orifice
as
-0.971.
the
velocity for both
efflux
cases:
[1452.3 ft.],
m.
discharge:
and
2^
-0.6411
steam
and
the
orifice
726.35
and
Gx
148.76
and
Gx
the
in
form
kg.
lb.].
145.33
of steam:
689.01
141.12
of the
cross-section
-709.59
the
represents
orifice
153.68
in
[Gx
9.9926].
compute
we
750.36
appears
Gx
and
the
(34a), the
equation
0.6238
and
-0.969
(33a),
equation
v^xu
Now,
and
atmospheres
"
values
[t*-9.7411
Accordingly
pi
and
the
in
pressure
Appendix,
of the
11
the
to
1.7157,
is
V
Corresponding
175
VAPORS.
SATURATED
DRY
OF
orifice
kg.
lb.],
in
(square
meters
square
feet].
By
methods
the
and
examples,
and
following
table
P2
by
table
works,^
extended
later
to
works
"
been
the
in
the
that
p.
and
book,
1877.
2d
99.
p.
414.
edition
The
aasumed
"
Lokomotivenblasrohr.
1864,
found.
it
used,
of
preceding
ances
resist-
short, simple orifices,the results
of
plane
the
efflux
the
statements
which
in
employed
neglecting
have
Saint-Venant
computation
presupposing
dififer from
earlier
of
was
of
Zurich,
present
1863,
book,
in
1,
p.
1866,
which
the
after
84.
p.
of
it
was
had
New
in
in
my
of
convinced
Zivilingenieur,
414.
the
pressure
hypothesis
the
the
published
external
all cases;
do,
now
n
table
that
orifice
the
as
the
results
computed
in
reprint
Vol.
X,
of
the
176
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
u
e
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SATURATED
177
VAPORS.
C
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"HC"C0îO"t*00"O^ClC0'"r
178
TECHNICAL
of
myself
its
THERMODYNAMICS.
reliabilityby
extensive
experiments
efflux
the
on
of
Bxr.
At
this
place
theoretical
studies
mulas
the
for
much
this
purpose
air
open
amount
pressure
be
It
shown
saturated
dry
is
obtain
the
converted
into
efflux
the
boiler
the
into
does
atmospheres,
practical
equation
an
then
cases,
(31),p.l72,
the
where
n=
by equation
the
(33),
that
of
in
limits
pressure
the
[pounds
for
pi
per
is
in prac*
occurring
cbm.
the
in
inch],
from
kilograms
then
equation
take
(35)
meter
centi-
square
per
must
we
in atmospheres:
for
pi
in
kg.
C-
1.7617
get, with
we
sq.
w=421Mpi^-^^
(?=- 157.55
FpiO"""
(37)
1383.4
pi0""03
w?
32.268
Fpi^'^^
"
the
last formula
[w?-
From
specific volume
the
equations (32), (33a), and(34a),
pi
In
is
pi
[cu. ft.].
(36)
pressure
corresponding
expressed
Vi
when
M;=421.67pi""""
for
(35)
[32.67],
is the
Vi
square
Eliminating
[480.144].
of
in
steam
pressure
1.7049
and
atmospheres
dry saturated
help
C=
and
1.0646
)w-
If
",
exists
there
Pivi'-C,
given
for*
relation
tice, the
where
the
orifice.
between
steam,
in
steam
most
from
p. 37,
on
given
during
1.8
in
computed
in
the
than
will
established
was
of
more
which
that
assume
us
pressure
which
last
be
can
vapors
of
the
that
vapors,
statement
practical use.
let
the
to
assumption
will
for
of
saturated
of
closing
the
as
efflux
the
efflux
form
add,
may
on
simpler
For
the
we
equation (35)
for G
the
there
is
area
Fpi^-^^
1275.2
pi^-^^
is in
sq.
in.]:
(36a)
152.59
0.016545
[lb.:
cm.
(37a)
1
FpiO"""
square
inches.
found, approximately,
pu'*"=plWl^
Moreover
c,
the
we
ratio
get
from
v^zu+a
and
Vi ^XiUi
+a,
after
neglecting
180
TECHNICAL
identical;
with
saturated
steam,
and
Equating
172,
p.
and
n=ic,
combination
^^^^
/MT./M
\pi/
"'
"'5a"
"
"
according
the
external
In
application.
will
flow
pressure
way
turbine;
discussed
quite
p.
267.
Laval
outer
''
is
pipe
pressures
from
an
added
F
to
Fq
cross-section
efflux
the
has
efflux
the
Vorlesungen
designed
through
different
Laval
reliability of
the
Suppose
the
through
recently^;
of
consumption
^Zeuner,
computed
to
Fq,
portant,
imthe
then
with
the
nozzle
for
p2.
his steam
established
(42)
"
recently found
have
gradually enlarges
which
F,
orifice
this
be
can
and
inner
the
when
formulas, just developed,
efflux
steam
F,
"
given.
are
technical
short
Fo
cross-section
efflux
the
"
"ia--{g)^'
orifice cross-section
last
The
which
to
p2
(41)
TTif
"
1.135,
"c=
and
(31)
\K+lf
\pj
pi
(33a), (34a), (32), and
the
equations
get
we
I-eT/-
from
of
gives
(Fo\^ \k+i}
or, with
discharge for
the
combination
the
equations
find
we
be
to
of
cross-section
orifice
the
exists,
case
for
(32a),
the
moreover
will coincide
cross-section.
first-mentioned
(33), (34),
effliix cross-section
the
happens
the
If
and
this
orifice
the
dry
when
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
uber
the
the
nozzle
steam
I have
experiments
steam
turbine
completely
the
on
have
steam
already
calculations.
Theorie
der
Turbinen."
Leipeic,
1889,
EXPERIMENTS
"
ON
THE
EXPERIMENTS
24.
There
are
but
1s t
steam.
older
the
on
from
the
oldest
valves
safety
experimentally, rules
safety valves;
blow
should
boiler
the
is
boiler
with
in
thin
with
plate
[0.43495
inserting
the
the
steam
If
inches]
and
pi
we
became
pressure
^Rud.
the
pp.
433
and
mines,
1841,
in
efflux
efflux
in.] and
sq.
0.2551
each
sq.
therefore
cm.
2.8061
soon
0.01575
[(?=
0.016545
in
in
centimeters
square
p.
343.
reading
[square
[lb. per
atmospheres
(37),
p.
sq.
in.],
178, gives
[pounds] discharged
since
the
Dampf
und
des
XII,
sur
JpiO^MW];
''
Uber
das
Ausstrdmen
die
Dimensionen
Vereins
deutscher
uber
und
Vol.
the
as
each
FpiO-^""
Helsingfors,
Zeitschrift
711."
for
(?=
in
observed
he
as
possible and,
as
it.
kilograms
stationary
XX,
and
experimental
smallest
the
by
disregard resistances, equation
"Recherches
Vol.
the
impossible.
of
was
and,
pressure
Gefftssmiindungen
'Tr^mery,
be
his
[0.11862
order,
their
manometer
steam
Kolster
au8
when
of steam,
uniformly
as
cross-section
orifice
Sicherheitsventile."
1867,
the
at
weight
steam
Luft
the
it
open
regulated by operating
he
cros"H3ection
in
orifices
separate
when
then,
the
is
when
it,may
successively
heated
was
stationary, recorded
became
cm.
sq.
of
that
cross-sections;
0.7653
dimensions
orifice
an
establish,
to
boiler, even
the
the
in.].
sq.
pressure
valve
cross-section
greatest
boiler
steam
the
provided
increased
the
of
with
emery
to
attempted
accumulation
an
connected
efflux
ones
in.];
in
that
so
whose
amounted
sq.
possessing
different
following
The
cock
large
nine
cm.
sq.
Tr
such
formed
rise of pressure
[0.039541
of
of
of steam
mentions
doing
so
who
y,^
in
determination
the
steam
purpose
cross-section
required
off all the
this
the
excessively heated,
For
of
for
it is
consequent
and
efflux
the
especially to
boilers,
of
by
those
ones,
relate
which
experiments,
own
efflux
the
on
experiments, presents
his
STEAM.
OF
experimental investigations
reporting
181
STEAM.
OF
EFFLUX
THE
ON
few
e
EFFLUX
1868,
p.
von
der
gebr"uchlichen
Ingenieure,
Vol.
XI,
97.
T^coulement
de
la
vapeur."
Annales
des
182
TECHNICAL
this
in
formula
be
must
experiments,
Now
and
in the
orifice
coefficient
in
because,
in
was
cross-section, then, according
plate"
thin
steam
pressure
preceding equation,
the
to
Trdmery's
of the
independent
were
contraction
of
right member,
efflux
the
if the
orifice
coefficient
the
substituted
THERMODYNAMICS.
quantity
the
Fp:^^^
should
lead
to
section
series
of
under
different
same,
for
the
and
proposition;
diminishes
orifice
sian
with
section.
in
that
conducted
they
increasing
steam
must
air
when
behave
but
in
results
the
views
had
not
we
from
see
question
Mi
^
and
nary
the
ingenieur,
1.
Vol.
des
1862.
tales
but
out
mines,
Vol.
really
tion,
examina-
way,
Tr6mery
rounded
the
on
jet, his experiments

for
the
of
hypothesis
1.
by
I'^coulement
1S6I
that
experimental
if
orifices
Kolster
unfortunately
sur
fact
general
of vapors;
support
n
the
orifice
it does
further
contracted
excellent
pointed
exp^rimen
VIII,
efflux
the
Unfortunately^
that
in
contraction
the
plate
permit
not
plate,
by
thin
of
experiments.
of the
R^sal;^
and
Annales
thin
and
in
least
the
form
conclu-
the
and
grows
preceded
at
on
an
experiments
''Recherches
R
to
Venant
Other
of
in
orifices
furnished
have
Saint
de
above
developed
used
do
has
confirm,
quantity
diminishing
draw
to
is confirmed
older
what
and
coefficient
pressure
orifice
an
my
said
product
the
which
experiments
inside, according
would
by
is shown
as
m
through
rather
confirm
not
the
that
results,
0.0096
the
smaller,
discharges
so,
the
when
becomes
series
such
does
pressure
the
accordingly
that
increase
cross-section
individual
the
five
omit,
show
ought
we
preceding equation
and
constant,
here
contrary,
aFp
is
orifice
every
experimental
will
we
Consequently
the
of
pi
Tr6mery's
of
the
on
pressure
for
heating.
reproduction
wnose
value
same,
Tr^mery
examination
closer
the
corresponding
of
rates
nearly
or
experiments.
however,
this
the
des
XIX,
these
experiments
vapeurs/'
p.
379.
those
are
by
Gennan
i
in
Zivil-
EXPERIMENTS
furnish
solid
no
under
in
t
drawing
conflict
the
above
conclusion
with
here
which
through
and
(1869),
the
The
these
circle
alone
about
book,
different
efflux
the
to
of
sults
re-
steam
rectly
indi-
whole
the
on
tion
ques-
of N
experiments
which
the
same
form
any
time
and
In
series
sought
experimental
results,although they
own
the
will
experiments
k i
article,^ that
The
Engineer
p i
basis
for
furnished
discussed
but
the
omitted
confirmation
of
principal results
the
far
so
without
advance
to
method,
following
be
1870,
as
limited
our
of
(see Engineer
methods,
Zivilingenieur,
hand
other
handed
This
found
1st,
compares
X,
in
1864.
the
and
Prof.
work,
with
the
1 i
Rankine
În 1870
"
True
e
the
Zivilingenieur,
und
in
Vol.
XVII,
of
Zurich
reproduction
sent
the
to
of
1871,
the
p.
hand
215.
or
woik
the
mental
experi-
tions,
investiga-
my
me
in his
the
Velocity
Discharge
be
Vol.
Fliissigkeiten/'
hocherhitzten
Napier,
Principles
with
the
German
Napier's
formulas
"On
in
of
Ziviiingenieur,
presentation
Rankine
by
in
the
adducing
larger
introduction
also
1869:
discusses
D"mpfen
little article
the
to
principle
3d,
Dampfes"
Napier's
von
in
notes,
December
des
without
1869)
Ausfluss
drawings
to
article
and
Vol.
Gases,
this
Oct.
den
''Uber
and
Ausfluss
accessible
fundamental
the
26th
den
.In
35.
p.
November
of
expressly
considers
he
first made
were
who
e,
''Uber
title
XVI,
be
the
experiments,
experimental
the
this
investigations.
under
and
and
discussed.
hypothesis
by
steam
boiler; they, too,
finally thrown
experiments
entirely
an
his
by
his
some
light was
of saturated
Napier's
the
permits.
space
to
of
experimental
the
for
locomotive
Napier's
Napier's
of
of
correctness
of
of
publish
valve
obtained
referring
the
in
experimental
of
with
recorded
do
constants
the
those
least
at
question.
author
question by
himself
the
from
present
also
the
experiments
these
ourselves
are
of
justifiedin
above;
deduced
not
is
he
of
made
content
it is these
the
knowing
clearer
efflux
and
deciding
safety
somewhat
of the
to
will
Is
confirm
will
we
There
the
be
cannot
ducted
con-
examination
an
that
results
the
were
difficult.
very
assumptions
mentioned.
source
way,
that
the
formula
sal
render
believes, nevertheless,
results, consequently
Re
which
and
question
the
183
STEAM.
OF
EFFLUX
deciding
theoretical
the
not
for
ground
circumstances
occurrences,
K
THE
ON
of
worked
drawings
up
letters
of
Fluids,"
for
with
Steam
which
nieur.
Zivilinge-
mentioned,
can
184
TECHNICAL
of
theory
these
just referred
of
plane
Vol.
In
Here
and
of
the
Ti
p2
to
[pounds]
orifice of F
sq.
m.
the
these
a
k i
work
formula
specific volume
of
the
the
; if
for
in
before
Napier,
of
per
we
use
tion
equa-
efflux
the
in
vessel
of
second,
in
in
in
the
in
air
the
through
an
formula
the
where
of
charging
.dis-
the
resistance
weight
gases,
the
under
for
receiving
gives
gas
of
given by
were
temperature
coefficient
is valid
which
efflux
the
on
formula
discharged,
is
which
the
investigations
derived
was
the
(^ the
in
e.
and
in
pressure
the
1, long
there
[sq.ft.]cross-section
piVi^BTi,
pressure
in
principle
pressure
propositions
the
discussion
approximate
the
are
The
kilograms
the
orifice,and
given.
there
that
and
foUowing
the
pi
plane
relation
work;
of
discussed
complete
255, of this
p.
vessel,
sense
the
unknown
I,
(47a)
the
in
Venant
doubtless
been
The
correct.
determination
it lias
and
perfectly
as
the
to
I of this
Saint
was
relates
above
in Vol.
gases
experiments
orifice,as
the
presented
de
to
THERMODYNAMICS.
Vi
the
represents
discharging vessel,
there
follows
um^-f)?,
and
that
have
to
is, at least
applied
in form,
efflux
the
to
the
equation
of
"")
for
steam
Napier
which
wants
of
slight differences
pressure.
Closer
becomes
consideration
of
maximum
when
formula
this
shows
that
discharge
the
22-1;
Pi
we
get in this
case
n
Q
If the
and
(44)
p2i
pressure
if it extends
to
in
the
the
I
2g
[
1
1
On
m.
pi
(45)
than
receiving vessel, is smaller
plane
of
the
orifice, then
with
}pi,
constant
EXPERIMENTS
inner
pressure
formula
the
proceeds
therefore
be
must
and
in
the
orifice;
this
the
used
the
on
external
down
in this
the
We
pressure
completely
equation
vessel
is
equation
that
in
half
(45) is
of
plane
the
internal
the
to
be
to
used
relation
the
orifice settles
the
pressure
difference
expressions
pi.
perfectly with
agrees
and
only
the
approximate
as
plane of
the
to
subject
assumption
above;
discussed
extends
Saint-Venant
de
rârded
be
must
by
^ven
2'
pressure
Napier's
of
hypothesis
the
is
than
assumption
p2
that
receiving
Jpi, i.e.,to
that
see
the
case
value
the
to
smaller
2'
hand,
other
in
pressure
that
185
STEAM.
whenever
the
case
the
on
Pi
and
be
will
Pi
when
OF
(45).
Napier
(43)
discharge
the
pi
EFFLUX
THE
ON
Wantzel
so
is that
his formulas
of
above-given
the
formulas.
If
Gvi
"
is
Fw
from
velocity,
efflux
the
equation
by
get
we
of
means
the
relation
as
mately
approxi-
(43)
provided
volume
the
equal
to
that
in the
plane
in
the
discharging vessel;
also
given by Napier,
orifice is taken
of the
then
equation
(45)
gives
equations
These
that
his formulas
experiments
My
do
coefficient
we
not
the
on
orifice
rounded
If
are
contain
efflux
gave
the
of
but
coefficient
air
through
^=0.066
(Vol. I,
p.
the
of steam
and
with
the
ference
dif-
of resistance.
a
270)
wellfor
the
of resistance.
transfer
this
value
to
efflux
suppose
the
186
THERMODYNAIOGS.
TECHNICAL
pressure
in
(45), by
placing
shall
get for
Some
for
gives
172]
(43) and
equations
in
pi]
of
place
we
pi,
do
radical, but
the
the
furnish
the
fact
in
values
two
Neglecting
45)
in
co"
general Napier
and
420
resistances,
[344 and
210
i.e.,
coefficients
two
the
^ve
for
450
C^'Oy
and
225
184.5].
Now,
incomplete,
gives
apparatus
Napier's
regards
as
is very
report
of the
orifices
and
(43)
[2116.3
pi
experiments
in front
respectively.
and
10333
Napier's
well-rounded
equations
in
substituted
orifice
an
standing
be
to
there
such
of
efficients
[369
atmospheres
and
clear
no
experiments, unfortunately
of
description
the
into
insight
all
the
experimental
of
parts
the
different
the
experiments.
In
the
main
by Fig.
cated
The
the
the
apparatus
of
was
kind
the
boiler
left the
by
orifice
well-rounded
the
and
pipe A,
B, but
on
in
lengths
and
pressure
by
the
with
flowed
cold
through
water.
The
pipe
lower
bent
end
of
down
the
p2
was
to
pipe
nearly
tube
larged
en-
receiving
the
measured
From
a.
vessel
catch-basin
periments.
ex-
stituted
con-
which
in
receiving
an
which
manometer
this
real
the
the
different
entered
pipe D,
vessel
of
different
the
steam
was
which
of
From
the
diameter
chosen
was
there
pipe
inside
same
discharged
was
orifice
the
at
screwed
steam
indi^
18.
steam
through
experimental
the
G, filled
touched
the
188
TECHNICAL
In
series
one
presented
Fig.
18
in.];
cross-section
the
boiler
pressure
diameter
in
all the
from
which
gives the observed
which
there
amounted
to
used
14.3
mm.
equal
was
are
apparatus
well-
[0.563
[0.0017289
m.
sq.
results
the
was
experiments
sq.
ft.].
four
to
found
was
si
^'=2.9867
1
whose
for
and
F=0.000160606
pi
atmospheres,
Col.
Napier,
by
employed,
was
orifice,whose
rounded
The
experiments
of
following tabulation,
in the
in
indicated
THERMODYNAMICS.
[=0.74625].
pressure
in the
p2
receiving
D;
space
"
Col.
the
gives
i.e.,the
from
the
amounted
first three
0.0953
to
only 0.0127
Those
m.
considerably
the
hypothesis
smaller
in
second
increases
The
in
Napier's
kilograms [pounds]
Col.
area;
gives
second
the
the
ments,
state-
second
per
value
of
and
per
(p calculated
in the
last
pipe
four
(Fig. 18)
experiments
[0.04167 ft.].
in which
smaller
than
sufficient
the
of
half
the
to
the
coefficient
of
resistance
in the
boiler
than
in
greater length
experiments,
^
on
pressure
the
confirm
value
pipe C,
in
equation
of
experiments
of the
occurring
account
receiving vessel
the
That
accuracy.
is due
of
pressure
experiments
first three
group
of the
length
[0.3127 ft.],but
m.
with
group
the
the
experiments
experiments
was
the
orifice
from
computed
equation (48).
In
to
discharge
[sq. ft.]of
m.
sq.
G:F
value
the
is
of
which
shortness
(45).
of
the
pipe C,
through
the
another
orifice
the
furnished
experiments
this
be
may
differs
regarded
the
series
is doubtless
these
experiments.
the
Unfortunately
into
for
paper,
the
experimental
EXPERIMENTS
provides
of
the
this
steam,
jet
way,
to
in
of
mean
value,
The
the
than
nothing
in
the
description
nor
they
derived.
preceding
in
existing
definite
more
method
that
so
resistances
greater
separate
proposition
the
gives
into
the
i f f
provided
flow
in
the
with
us
steam
jet
means
of
we
through
1870
JET
take
be
can
no
plete
com-
tion
composi-
the
(see reference
on
certain
under
examining
mixing
OF
THE
PUMP.
pump
away
HELP
THE
WITH
STEAM
The
one
smaller
the
to
experimental apparatus.
EFFLUX
25.
much
an
i.e.,the
p2,
equal
value
confirming
the
to
the
ments
experi-
varying.
pi
185,
with
pressure
results
efiBux
p.
the
for
throughout
was
on
Napier,
by
also, the
essentially
Napier's
insight
"
likewise
shown
was
external
little from
but
due
made
following
series
is here
value
in
of
the
as
That
found
p. 270.
exactly
almost
C found
pressure
experimental
experiments
I,
series
boiler
as
resistance
receiving vessel,
the
atmosphere,
leads,
of
[0.374 in.],the
mm.
in
pressure
in Vol.
experimental
of 9.5
In
coefficient
same
representing
as
orifice and
air discussed
on
In
considered
well-rounded
almost
to
be
may
189
EXPERIMENTS.
EFFLUX
the
tube
p.
fully the
more
receiving
to
circumstances
tube
measuring
147), the
author
discharge
and
allow
tank.
conducted
In
190
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
series
has
experiments
of
thus
not
it confirms
because
Fig.
the
for
apparatus;
sake
the
it
whose
axis
steam
pipe
the
to
the
lower
becomes
the
the
When
B,
the
mixed
H
catch-basin
suck
the
up
the
iron
plates
for
water,
which
vernier
ginning
and
scale
end
and
observed,
be
to
its
C,
zle."
noz-
with
an
water.
pipe
the
is
casing
chamber
mixing
is
thus
densed;
con-
passes
to
the
not
need
to
does
The
two
made
provided
measured
sels
ves-
planed
of
levels
water
thus
in
casing
into
and
and
there
water
the
boxes
the
is
cold
which
calibrated
permitted
which
conica]
the
pressure.
finished
previously
were
the
therefore
under
suppUed
carefully
very
were
vertical
it is
pipe
"
enters
nozzle
injector
The
below.
steam
conical
in
steam,
the
the
connecting
The
which
or
water
the
leaves
then
"
through
with
contact
jet
just
and
in
comes
and
containing
cock
passes
nozzle,
enters
G,
the
opened,
in
pipe
vessel
upper
below
pipe
injector
vertically.
chamber
mixing
laterally,
employed.
the
casing
from
parts
supplies
ends
by
there
which
surrounded
"
all
actually
steam
part
in
placed
A,
here
experimental
represents
boiler,
tube,
the
ditTers
is
it
reproduce
of
ABC
part
it
report;
above.
developefl
proportions
The
and
will
we
clearness
of
briefly
now
representation
schematic
will
but
propositions
the
gives
19
he
published,
been
far
which
on
with
the
be-
the
at
quantity
of
in
water
the
conducted
were
Before
water
the
level
pipe
white
A,
and
The
discharge
rule
lasted
60
at
and
in
this
from
occurred
seconds:
time
the
the
on
at
Ihe
the
five
end
the
opened
ments
experi-
were
minutes
and
later
the
(see remarks
boiler
cock
pressures
and
the
on
p.
and
steam
the
were
steam
in
jet discharged
water
different
The
vessels
two
chamber
mixing
under
cock
and
opened
was
finish.
manner.
the
temperatures
cock
and
start
following
the
pipe
the
from
condition
in
steam
and
the
observed;
tanks
calibrated
milk-
146).
as
valve
EFFLUX
observed
both
this
In
unit
catch-basin
flowed
the
way
the
of
weight
there
and
temperature
in the
the
the
injector in
of
excess
weight
and
the
to
that
the
in
the
steam
discharged
was
in
water
the
of
were
H.
catch-basin
supplied
from
nozzle
steam
and
water,
determined
was
the
through
and
measured,
was
level
water
vessel
supply
in the
time,
of
and
closed
quickly
were
191
EXPERIMENTS.
same
time.
The
steam
finished,
from
the
of the
the
and
capacity
of
the
observed
the
(48), p. 187,
equation
the
i.e., within
boiler
hardly
pressure
of
in all the
experiments
represents
which
under
below
flows
the
Gy
tank
the
nozzle)
the
po
into
the
the
the
this
the
There
and
the
of
steam,
half
to
the
atmospheric
mixing
by
say
C,
space
way,
employed
was
way
(p,
course
is still another
this
the
factor
the
of
equal
the
its
and
determination,
into
the
discharge G,
orifice
than
direct
gage
with
provided
most
is smaller
pressure,
mean
to
specific
pressiu-e
the
steam
of
pressure
if ii?i is the
mixing
at
of
mentioned.
here
annular
of
therefore
not
or
constant,
purpose.
flows
water
orifice,and
through
the
this
determining
however,
if h
vacuum
accomplish
of
For
whether
was
its
because
orifice
ascertained
discharge
the
p2
but
injectors;
tube
the
of
in.];
sq.
the
testing
chamber,
This
all
in
inserting
would
mixing
the
pressure.
pressinre
outside
p2
pressure
and
really
was
Uttle
end
and
beginning
but
taken
was
[0.4173 in.],and
mm.
pressure
mean
(discharge
[0.1368
for
the
the
well-
employed.
nozzle
boiler
in the
pi
by
course
the
at
boiler
mm.
sq.
of
readings differed
10.6
provided
were
means
that
=88.25
pressure
and
barometer;
steam
was
determined
was
observed
steam
the
pipe A, Fig. 19)
cross-section
the
from
these
of
diameter
steam
boiler
readings
experiment,
The
in
read
manometer
great
the
manometer,
mercury
open,
simultaneously
was
in
pressure
chamber
nozzle
the
velocity
cross-section
head
column)
(water
from
the
ing
measur-
atmosphere,
with
(round
(Fig. 19),
which
about
then
the
p2
the
that
water
the
steam
following
relation:
H+^â-Ô^.
obtains,
where
represents the specificweight
(49)
of the water
(;- 1000)
*=
192
[f =62.43]
and
hydraulic
resistances
from
all
the
cross-section
possible
to
the
hand
but
here
From
i.e.,find
it
itself
the
in
of
the
water
in
velocity
chamber
hence
Gi
of
the
speak
to
or,
it
render
data
^ required
Thus
which
the
in
was
can
resistance
of
the
flowed
formula
for
steam
apparatus
laws,
For
the
then
coefficient
C"
mental
experi-
following
1.227.
can
we
easily
now
last
the
of
for
atmosphere
find
from
in
tion
equa-
the
experiment
(No.
second
per
was
cbm.
water,
data
the
pressure
latter
pressure
column).
0.000877
the
the
over
determine
thus
following experimental
the
tî
and
annular
iî.
through
the
external
and
in water
7i=
Wi
weight
these
hydraulic
C=
given
the
of
drawn
volume
been
excess
(measured
ft.],and
be
way
in each
injector,
of water
tank
the
moreover
resistance
of
determination.
to
the
value
the
Thus,
coefficient
determines
proved
has
mixing
the
the
of efflux
known
to
this
omit
what
(49)
the
injector;
the
measuring
which
found
we
in. ];
sq.
by
quantity
the
the
from
series
in
and
According
be
second
to
the
below,
determined
per
all the
on
special preliminary experiments.
of time
easily
[0.23995
velocity
the
closed
measured.
in
overcome
tabulation
the
was
forced
was
other
was
unit
there
includes
chamber.
nmi.
sq.
determine
to
of
must
water
mixing
sucked
was
ite determination
pipe
the
which
resistance,
of
the
experiments
correctly,
On
which
Fi =154.8
which
more
coefficient
experiment
separate
water
^ the
vessel
the
In
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
in
the
annular
m.
of
the
cu.
A =1.303
series)
the
m.
[4.275
quantity
ft.];consequently
cross-section,
the
was
[18.57 ftj,
experiment
considered,
equation (49)
gives
-2^-^^=2.333
m.
kg. [1.9334 lb.], or
Gi =0.877
[0.030934
=-" =5.66
of the
series,
[7.6543 ft.]water
column,
EFFLUX
171
or
[6.732 in.] of
mm.
Since
in
in
pressure
in.], and
following
series
of
this
this
as
the
728
chamber
mixing
mm.
557
was
minimum
the
was
we
the
pressure
half
than
in
pressure
here
that
see
1265.3
to
boiler
smaller
always
was
amounted
experiment
experiments,
chamber
mixing
the
in
pressure
read
barometer
the
as
mercury.
boiler
the
[49.815
mm.
the
of
in.]
[21.929
mm.
mercury;
absolute
in.], the
[28.661
193
EXPERIMENTS.
the
boiler
pressure.
This
of
method
the
used
Let
us
On
the
results
far
it bears
results
For
for
on
but
few
of
remarks
computed
1
given
concerned
not
havior
be-
the
into
go
them
on
the
steam.
will
we
is
in
and
series
efflux
here
steam.
made
were
investigations
whole,
of
have
these
already
147.
p.
steam-nozzle
diameter
cross-section
jF
of
reading
of
88.25
728
10.6
[0.13679
mm.
sq.
[28.661
mm.
in.] and
[0.4173
mm.
in.], and
sq.
the
in.]
fore
there-
following
for
results
found.
were
and
injector
the
in
Four
out.
the
text)
another
in
series
the
88.25
sq.
sq.
there
a
shaped
the
[0.12665
mm.
stream
of
unmentioned
furnished
which
spindle
had
vapor
sets
results
of
the
was
of
which
the
the
in.].
sq.
in
employed
was
conical
of
in.],but
sq.
were
the
cross-section
cross-section
efflux
In
pushed
cross-section
experiments,
(of
so
that
the
nozzle
the
other
pipe
Aj
with
far
forward
of
group
only
so
48.76
far
sufficiently
the
well
as
the
of
four
same
sq.
steam
in
the
of
those
ments
experi-
nozzle
then
discharge
adduced
use;
text,
chamber
[0.07558
mm.
the
in
was
sets
the
in
of
one
mixing
four
that
with
each
given
of
pushed
is mentioned
supply
that
was
be
one
for
water
cross-section
so
could
which
nozzle,
for
steam
steam
agree
(Fig. 19)
conducted
positions
annular
[0.13679
mm.
81.71
different
four
nozzle
steam
series
experimental
for
series
each
the
employed,
several
All
as
efflux
this
and
the
of
the
barometer
was
of
fully;
more
inserted
question
piu'pose
injector
the
series,
one
the
on
principal
general
but
for
be
may
experiments.
experimental
the
however,
it
that
similar
the
chamber
mixing
order
series
eight experimental
whole,
given
of
of
question
the
to
in
here
performing
when
tabulation,
as
been
others
in the
pressure
introduced
been
return
now
are
The
in
by
hereafter
the
determining
has
injector
following
so
of
tions,
posi-
annularsq.
is
in.}
cerned,
con-
here.
194
TECHNICAL
From
with
computed
of Cols.
values
the
help
the
cross-section
the
from
The
still
the
higher
the
were
to
the
the
for
were
paratively
com-
stitute
sub-
we
the
G, discharged
steam
nozzle
ments
preceding experi-
results
in
Col.
the
propositions
of
confirmation
minute
per
period
with
values
great
of
the
this
be extended
care,
the
water
in the
in
Col.
the
few
beyond
nevertheless
discharge
in
some
on
of
60
supply
to
us
derived
from
1.
Of
experiments
to
duration
the
of
the
Although
receiving vessels
uncertainty
account
ratus
appa-
experiments
seconds.
and
in
see
experimental
and
purpose
restricted; only
the
W
the
extend
unfortunately
for
of efflux
of
to
sufficiently
agree
for
and
desirable
been
pressures;
also
was
of
5 and
Saint-Venant
de
have
measurements
made
then
of
substitute
(48) and
experimental
boiler
experiment
the
equation
if
^=225;
in Col.
inadequate
was
could
value
mean
entered
it would
course
given
Col.
they differ
187;
p.
in
of ^
are
hypothesis
the
equation (48),
weight
results
computed
experiments
these
values
3, the
meters,
square
the
2 and
equation
with
well
in
calculate
we
in
value
mean
of
the
little from
this
THERMODYNAMICS.
of
attaches
the
short
196
TECHNICAL
"
INVESTIGATIONS
RECENT
26.
THERMODYNAMICS.
ON
THE
FLOW
OF
VAPORS.
Laval
(De
experiments
The
gimple
orifices
orifices
(with
orifices
of
reliabilityof
recently,
Moreover,
form, with
is
introduce
to
orifice
short
such
conical
this
for
de
widens
author
here
on
toward
place
published
de
the
and
the
The
under
the
kg. [lb.]flows
of G
wall
the
of
anywhere
steam
the
from
pi,
Ver.
'
d.
e
Ingenieure,
n
r,
tended
ex-
are
Laval
If there
wall
the
of
of
the
conical
discharge,
nozzle
then
(Fig. 20)
investigations
relations
the
on
dimensions
be-
of
the
quantities discharged,
efflux
of
the
steam.
calculations
made
were
hypothesis
the
in
in
Vol.
which
jet
that
and
furthermore
of
steady
it
den
Ausfluss
des
XLVIII,
1904,
p. 75.
uber
Theorie
Vorlesungen
iiber
der
under
is
separation
no
that
to
the
Wasserdampfes.
Turbinen,
but
touches
is assumed
entrance
steam
same
everywhere
there
the
of
front
the
cross-section,
every
steam
tube
wall;
Versuche
^Gutermuth,
d.
the
diverging
the
pressure
through
that
proviso
express
an
20
flow
weight
rectness
cor-
through
outside
Laval
the
tube,
in
the
bear
tween
j;
extensive
more
in
turbines.
inside,
the
vapors
which
is attached
is called
in
investigations
the
the
with
made,
up
and
his steam
which
Pj^
such
been
taken
nozzle
the
on
which
been
of gases
into
steam
diverging tube
the
flow
Laval
rounded
to
gradually
that
the
the
well
discharging vessel,
tube
to
with
above.
developed
cross-section;
exclusively
employed
the
to
shorty
experiments
recently
has
question
respect
variable
pipes with
the
to
they fullyconfirmed
formulas
the
experiments
have
Gutermuth^;
by
related
rounding ofiF)and
the
rectangular cross-section
and
discussed
just
cross-section;
without
and
large numbers,
confined
efflux
on
circular
of
Nozzle.^
p.
267.
the
tube,
is
Zeitschr.
Leipeic, 1899.
RECENT
INVESTIGATIONS
than
greater
1.7318
ON
where
p,
is
saturated
In
the
be
shown
formulas
refer
must
nevertheless
author,
change
steam
flows
of
state
through
tion
addi-
represents
specificvolume
cross-section
the
of
the
in
pressure
with
obtains,
the
and
cross-section
F,
weight
of
the
for
adia-
which
the
(50)
cross-section.
section,
If
relation
the
is the
"
(51)
steam,
which
flows
through
combination
the
gives
the
have
the
from
the
formula
cross-section,
becomes
same
the
maximum
(52)
equations
of these
connection
cross-section
must
the
is
G=F-
From
in
(Vol. I, p. 247)
this
in this
steam
the
pressure
then
there,
velocity
the
for
be
pi
book
-4M^^^W]
the
of
Let
Laval
de
pv'=PiVi*
which
will
as
above-mentioned
the
to
specificvolume
get
we
a
remarks.
the
Vi
just-mentioned
briefly add
following
the
batic
where
dition
con-
In
the
concerning
the
to
will
we
discharging vessel,
the
1.333,
/c"
the
is assumed.
1.135
/c"
make
must
we
0.5774,
turbines.
for which
steam
in
pressure
^^"
have
197
VAPORS.
the
Laval
de
information
further
for
reader
the
efllux
the
is presupposed
superheated
OF
later.
Although
nozzle
in
always fulfilled
steam
of
case
also
must
we
FLOW
represents
discharge orifice; inversely

which
THE
between
F,
value
that,
the
because
for
other
expression
for
the
there
pressure
weight
p
G
bracket
certain
value
or
the
the
with
under
of
p,
sponding
corre-
discharge
Moreover
things being equal

the
and
of
all cross-sections.
in
results
we
a
the
but
see
variable
radical
then
the
108-
TECHNICAL
the
conical
will
nozzle
Laval
de
is
tube
of
differentiation
If
substitute
we
the
the
diverging
which
we
from
the
is found
equation
and
(53)
is
equation
same
for saturated
1.136
ic"
in
quantity
of
mentioned,
there
pm
pressure
bracketed
the
from
follows
then
and
cross-section
The
Fm.
designate by
Accordingly
initial cross-section
the
minimum
the
minimum.
Fisa
cross-section
corresponding
in
THERMODYNAMICS.
steam
find
we
from
p,"=0.5744pi
this
(54a)
and
_
(55a)
and
from
the
combination
of
equations
(53)
and
(55)
get
we
0.1550
(56)
Fm
The
the
eflBux
velocity
section
smallest
we
I /p\l
/p\
computed
from
V"-"
is
get (when
pi
w",^323Vî
is in
all
equation
(50),
according
to
equation
[w^=26iW^l
If
the
we
efflux
suppose
of
the
the
steam
(50)
we
conically diverging
the
(57)
have
"im)Hfy^)
into
for
atmospheres)
while
and
tube
receiving
(^)
to
space
be
removed
to
take
and
place
INVESTIGATIONS
RECENT
directly
the
gives
the
from
in
0.5744
pressure
calculated
from
F,
to
and
velocity
flow
is to
in
and
still
at
condenser
the
steam
or
weight G;
found;
cross-section
and
according
to
are
the
in
from
there
occurs
and
of
the
F,
diminish
to
the
to
as
the
or
then
Laval
the
running
buckets
of
and
equation
from
from
pi,
(55a)
in
determined;
on
so
p.
the
doing
we
can
37, equation
turbine,
the
also
to
the
according
designing
pressure
p,
smallest
(56),
and
by
in
In
the
equation
extend
and
atmosphere
equations (57)
from
presentations
pressure
The
we
of the
consequently
condensation.
energy
corresponds
wheel
without
the
if
w^heel
the
the
the
show.
turbine
de
flows
is indicated
as
of
therefore,
and
direction,
pose
sup-
steam
on
pressure
known
must
we
The
there
the
lated
is calcu-
calculations
from
be
to
area
off.
cut
in which
space
is also
orifice
further
the
greatest velocity;
the
whole,
as
be
to
as
entrance
with
regard
is
tube
In
20.
into
place, therefore,
outward
an
pressure
works
we
Ffn
Wfn
the
pressure
turbine
section
in
wheel
the
of
turbine
not
this
at
Wm
pressure
if this
and
necessary
with
flow
of
Fig.
the
to
the
the
is always
increase
an
nozzle
this
at
maximum,
more
of
pressure
the
is
tube
increases
gradually
occurs
such
the
(56);
energy
lines
interior
efflux
than
in
exists
flow
of
cross-section
prevails,
orifice, then
is then
also
also
equation (56),
to
mean
through
pressure
the
nozzle
the
flow
equation
TT-
dotted
the
this cross-section
velocity
as
sure
pres-
it is less
diverging
velocity
the
cross-section
conically diverging
through
and
on
w.
prescribed
the
and
(58) there
equation
to
from
to
the
cross-section
smaUest
the
If steam
flow
for
the
of
of
pressure
conically
the
tube
diminution
the
only
whatever
vessel,
equation (54a),
to
equation (55a)
conical
the
according
of
depends
(54a)
equation (57).
from
In
when
discharge
the
place,
according
pm,
cross-section
removed
the
equation
then
here
l^
VAPORS.
be, only provided
may
space
Fn,
which
discharging
the
receiving
orifice
the
OF
pi.
smallest
in
pi
the
The
Fm
in
pressure
FLOW
THE
cross-section
smallest
the
pressure
ON
follows
(58) the
also
(34),
and
cross-
the
ities
veloc-
substitute,,
200
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
ri
pi-o-"303
1.7022
pi-o"3"],
[vi =330.1
where
is
pi
[pounds
tables,
correct,
turbines
steam
i,i
superheated
with
and
we
formulas
must
apply
is to
efflux
Since
of
separately here,
take
which
saturated
of
later
of
by
given by
in
the
the
k
stants
con-
1.333
but
above
the
to
slight
formulas,
coefficients
of
in
number
discuss
them
emphasize
Hans
and
occurrences
great
cannot
we
therefore
we
space;
found
on
hydraulics.
given rise
has
works,
the
in structure
superheated
but
by introducing
S t
to
steam
experiments
nozzle,
nozzle
lack
for
for
his
extended
results
theoretical
the
make
must
we
E.
on.
is customary
thoroughly
up
mined
deter-
of
only
vapors,
condition
Laval
as
in
identical
are
equation
agreement
special studies, those
two
formulas
for
de
the
and
experimental
signing
de-
investigations
application
for here
de Laval
the
1900
be
can
experiments
experimental
efflux
given
of contraction
and
in
that
found
the
their
calculated
effect
to
only
course
shown
be
to
by auxiliary
of
are
have
changed,
the
the
the
from
seeks
and
the
above
be
to
facilitated
consider
{ibid.) likewise
steam
differences
quantities
are
Gutermuth
saturated
the
and
derived
the
which
steam,
experiments
corresponding
those
in
but
steam
The
turbine.
centimeter
square
elsewhere,
shown
extended
who
is much
use
chiefly
should
we
per
reliability.
sufficient
with
Here
has
author
the
as
approximately
whose
given formulas,
The
kilograms
inch].
square
per
in
inserted
be
to
the
only
Lorenz,
interior
of
the
nozzle.
The
investigations
of
well-justified appreciation
and
in
a,^ which
have
engineering circles, are
"
von
"Die
Lewicki,
Êrnsl
Zeitschrift
Dampfturbinen.''
Anwendung
des
received
Vereins
hoher
almost
"
Uberhitzung
deutscher
high
beim
Ingenieure,
Vol.
Betrieb
XLVII
,
1903,
p.
441.
^Stodola,
maschinen.''
"Die
''Die
des
Zeitschrift
Dampfturbinen,
maschinen
Dampfturbinen
und
iiber
mit
die
Vereins
einem
Gasturbine/'
und
deutscher
Anhang
iiber
die
Aussichten
Ingenieure,
die
2 J edition.
der
1902,
Aussichten
Berlin,
Wasserkraftp.
der
1904.
1.
See
Wasserkraft-
also
RECENT
INVESTIGATIONS
of
exclusively
with
tube
of
vessel
highly
are
axial
an
given
above
by
efflux
orifice,
and
sufliciently
are
make
in
equation
vessel.
unique.
in
in
when
in
that
derived
in
above
in
for
the
law
the
of
cross-section
does
jet,
the
nozzle^
minimum
the
neighborhood
the
the
experimental
pressures
Laval
the
with
pressures
The
de
through
particularly
The
the
conditions
so
formulas
the
receiving
(53)
flow
the
and
different
and
flowing
jet
steam
themselves
concern
having
approach,
confirmed
of
use
the
interesting
direction,
in
201
VAPORS.
OF
and
cross-section,
tube
and
FLOW
kind
pressure
diverging
discharging
results
the
variable
pocsessing
conicaDy
THE
experimental
observations
the
in
the
ON
hesitate
not
quantity
to
of
steam
discharged.
Hans
Lorenz^
discusses
in
the
correctness
time
refers
H.
Rohre
mit
iDgenieure,
Munich
of
Stodola's
z,
''Die
Berlin,
of
station"re
Querschnitt.''
Vol.
XLVll,
1904*
and
p.
Prandtl
Stromung
1600."
von
Zeitschrift
See
also
und
Technische
des
proves
the
at
and
Gasen
prehensively
com-
and
presentation
observations,
work
and
elearly
problem
mathematical
additional
ver"nderlichem
1903,
and
elegant
the
to
an
this
D"mplen
V^reins
Wftnnelehre,p.
same
1.
durch
deutscher
122.
THE
B.
BEHAVIOR
OF
SUPERHEATED
UNSATURATED
"
EXTENSION
27.
AND
between
pointed
been
"dready
PROPOSITIONS
THE
CURVE
difference
The
VAPORS.
OF
LIMIT
THE
CRITICAL
saturated
out
in
CONCERNING
THE
"
and
1,
with
and
here
and
three
is
unit
given
and
the
and
then
other
value
steam,
two
limit
of
steam
and
falls
then
in
the
liquid
the
limit
without
curve,
any
liquid
is
before
the
to
space
falls
say
at
liquid,
the
is
left
of
into
the
the
point
superheated
space
e,
then
ordinate,
point
the
other
and
to
we
hand
curve,
if
point
the
have
or
right
of
before
been
point
between
mixture
pressure
the
the
falls
if
state
already
have
we
lay
abscissa
if
figiu-e,
that
lower
steam,
the
the
sign
on
us;
without
present
state,
this
then
curves,
in
as
steam
p;
as
has
as
specific
as
elsewhere;
explained
c,
of
completely
the
other
corresponding
determines
of
each
pressure
value
the
rate
sepa-
the
former
the
upper
weight
the
limit
curve,
possessing
volume
off
of
repeated
the
from
ar
as
two
limit
areas
suppose
is
didd2,
lower
the
4,
p.
The
21.
ftnd
"1""2
1,
diagram
Fig.
ha^
vapors
Fig.
the
in
curves
ATURE.
TEMPER-
superheated
4,
p.
basis,
the
OR
point
the
say
c,
at
terizing
charac-
the
upper
steam
us
unsaturated
902
a,
204
TECHNICAL
certain
at
outside
arise
may
liquid or
A
the
Let
of
by its volume
exists;
now
the
along
become
let
the
for
has
curve
the
been
along
the
whole
the
to
place
can
the
whole
a.
of
we
the
steam
parent
trans-
observe
portion
the
of
de
and
the
during
case
of
as
limit
curve.
the
begins;
whole
widely
as
aggregation,
gas
appears
the
sure
pres-
in
Fig. 22,
Here
the
and
path,
as
the
it follows
indicated
characterized
regarded
state
at
no
ceases
tions
liquid condi-
separated
proposition
mass
"
"liquid
and
lies
that
forms
of
first
was
Andrews.
the
will
pressure
in
us,
final
supply,
along
state
be
to
enclosed
of the
by
to
tkf which
which
it
limit
and
the
designate by
p*
the
steam,
temperature,
like
the
the
to
heat
condition
state
state
function
the
gaseous
area
saturated
also
was
this curve,
when
where
state
suitable
(homogeneous)
by
as
into
and
before
steam
pressure
continues
place
last
be
limit
the
the
passed
the
the
will
and
separated
only
initial
alike
same
enunciated
The
with
accordingly
the
has
only
of
of
at
takes
homogeneous,
region beyond
or
ab
has
in
expand
us
space
begins
mass;
volume
phenomena
portion
steam
liquid
the
vapor
and
and
have
the
from
see
we
are
one
be
inner
a,
ab.
when,
in
completely
seems
be
to
the
sideration.
con-
pressure
before
the
occurrence
this
the
have
element
liquid
if the
we
ab'd'e, and
curve
the
state
supply,
where
then
the
initial
which
heat
we
evaporation
the
curve
portion
different
which
last
of
transition
in
as
following
its
under
state
that
the
in
given
pi
steam,
liquid
see
seems
initial
The
and
we
be
traverses
bd,
diminution
mass
very
the
the
so
V2,
in
path
evaporation
doubts
curve,
regarded
by
suitable
to
pressure
where
vessel,
continual
abde
traversed,
whole
the
be
question
pressure
liquid, with
moment
point d,
the
the
by
superheated
the
At
curve.
is to
liquid
volume
the
the
on
of
curve
as
follows,
to
and
mass
gaseous
as
Vi
and
substance
thrown
weight
pressure
p2
the
limit
the
state.
light is
unit
whether
gaseous
better
above
points, particularly
to
as
THERMODYNAMICS.
Vk
corresponds
curve
since
the
pressure
culminating
and
also
p*,
will
appears
belongs.
point
also
as
is here
c, whose
correspond
maximum
to
the
only
ordinates
co-
to
value
THE
LIMIT
According
Andrews,
to
"critical
the
as
definite
temperature
tk is
and
it will
e/'
value
different
pressure
v*;
and
pk
be
is called
fectly
per-
will
the
cal
criti-
the
and
volume,
Vk
so
is called
p*
designated
and
liquid,
each
critical
the
Vk
coordinates
the
for
volume
and
pk
and
pressure
point having
the
206
TEMPERATURE.
temperatur
but
corresponding
CRITICAL
THE
AND
CURVE
the
critical
the
point.
The
in
mass
and
of
liquid
the
critical
will
different
for
example,
for
C.
140"
"
which
those
F.]
does
liquefaction
the
critical
[ -220"
not
place
atmospheric
at
and
C.
fjb=187"
262.5"
pjfc=119;
la
[504.5"]
and
and
for
for
the
[788"], all
are
The
the
on
first
theoretical
basis
of
Avenarius^;
"
Annaies
in recent
accurately
more
chim.
de
1823, p. 410.
' "tJber
innere
latente
listes des
1873, Vol.
Moacou,
with
XLVI,
the
takes
pressure,
That
cal
criti-
first shown
sulphuric
pressure
p*
of
by
ether
37.5
carbon
[498.2"]
given
was
and
that
of
îfc=420"
temperature
been
naturally
have
pressure
this
to
^jb=259"
of
the
theory
of
XXI,
1822,
Bulletin
de
part
critical
heat
mined
deter-
II,
p.
pp.
127
la soci^t^
117.
temperature
given
was
idea, introduced
the
phys., Vol.
W"rme."
the
low
be-
times.
mechanical
the
et
about
investigation
starting
de
alcohol
which
values
for
temperature
to
fallen
has
bisulphide
for
its
atmospheres;
F.] liquefaction
found
is
air
smaller
corresponding
p*=78;
corresponds
which
is 39
low
gases;
atmospheric
liquids, was
for
found
melting zinc, which

of
permanent
as
temperature
he
he
water
particularly
(boiling-point).
sense,
the
furthermore
lies
liquid air,subjected
this
and
and
["311.8"
Tour^;
[368.6" F.]
atmospheres;
^ft
"191"
of increase
critical temperature
it falls the
C.
pressure;
de
Cagniard
its
lower
the
at
exists, in
temperature
until
degree
no
The
pressure
given temperature
the
at
evaporates
critical
the
occur
given value,
for
below
then
amount
no
designated
temperature
and
liquefaction will be;
of
vapors,
formerly
were
the
liquefaction.
different
the
for
and
mixture
lies
this,
than
compression
or
of
form
its temperature
if it is greater
about
bring
the
assume
when
vapor
of volume
of pressure
only
can
temperature;
of diminution
is very
vessel
and
by
me,
128;
imp^riale
Vol.
des
by
of the
XXII,
natura-
206
TECflNICAL
inner
by
latent
for
me,
heat
the
concluded
as
aforesaid
the
limits
from
by
for
Regnault's
to
the
empirical
Avenarius
formula
for
heat
also
could
is
which
for
inexact
by
table
gives
critical
kg./sq.
for
pressure
series
p*
[2116.31
atmospheric
pressure.
xu
the
him
for
den
in
by
makes
liquids
of
atmospheres
Ib./sq.
Annalen
der
tk
ft.]),
Fhysik
and
of
duced
repro-
w=s"
and
r=0
Avenarius
by
the
fact
that
shown
are
the
to
Sajotschewsky,
following
(an
atmosphere
equal
the
temperature
temperature
boiling
VoL
be
of
The
mention.^
Chemie.
is
"7
critical
und
the
external
the
the
and
At
for
make
vapors,
the
^0=0.
for
time
taken
back
going
constants
same
several
the
formulas
disregarding
made
recognized
temperature
way
goal,
himself
m.
Beibl"tter
the
case;
to
the
at
far
very
whenever
new
critical
tion,
observa-
constants
the
that
gave
perature
tem-
are
and
the
for
stants
con-
narrow
was
vapor,
evaporation
the
at
the
experimentally,
of
way
value
of
experiments
other
Avenarius
which
by
given
th,
heat
the
lead
found
should
not
not
such
since
formulas
therefore
values
in
can
method
by
This
modified
also
the
but
Ajm)
his
zero,
Ajm==0,
time
same
latent
for
experimentally
the
varieties
several
the
limits
these
determined,
observations,
formula
empirical
and
the
we
this
but
for
temperature.
therefore
he
31,
p.
determined,
heat,
critical
corresponding
temperature
total
on
approximations,
holding
only
and
zero
temperature.
i^th\
rough
to
be
must
given
Regnault
the
Avenarius;
critical
lead
at
temperature,
critical
the
formulas
the
formulas
and
heat
temperature
which
for
liquid
the
in
only
c^n
be
Avenarius
liquids,
increasing
latent
must
corresponding
determination
the
with
established
formulas,
different
for
inner
t the
temperature
the
of
of
/t""0,
empirical
the
diminishes
substitute
we
calculate
of
with
temperature
corresponding
If
and
computation
that
particular
THERMODYNAMICS.
III,
iky
to
1879.,
the
10,333
at
p.
741
"
THE
CURVE
LIMIT
THE
AND
"
Water
Bisulphide
of
',
carbon
'
Chloroform
"
Alcohol
Ether*
acid
Sulphurous
*
.
365.0^
100.0*
271.8
74.7
46.2
260.0
64.9
60.2
62.1
78.3
200.6
Ammonia
*.
oxide
232.8
62.2
66.3
197.0
36.77
36.0
166.0
78.9
130.0
116.0
10.0
Nitrous
+234.3
'.....
Acetone
207
TEMPERATURE.
CRITICAL
33.0
36.0
75.0
89.0
31.36
72.9
80.0
10.0
62.0
-102.0
93.0
acid
Carbonic
"
Ethylene
'
oxide
Nitric
Oxygen
lîtrogen
Sl^r::-.;;.:::::::;
For
of
fluids
some
and
liquid
and
a
made
t h
acid
carbonic
-191.0
the
of
investigations
microscope
gradually brought
conversely,
first case,
say
^By
Cailletet
at
31"
he
given
for
Vjb=" 0.00481
makes
[0.030756]
^jt==364.3
the
with
connected
liquid
and
latter
the
to
acid
according
critical
ture,
tempera-
enclosed
gas
and
the
in
C.
31"
below
this
surface
of
in the
liquid
scopic
micro-
that
topaz;
and
the
vapor
d.^
and
the
objective
which
water-bath,
[87.8*^F.]
separation
was
and
then,
In
temperature.
Golardeau.
and
the
specimen
prepared
[87.8"], the
in
are
temperature
and
accordmg
carbonic
for
immersed
^Cailletet
*Battelli.
however,
and
s,
again brought
was
been
gives
0.00192
the
were
to
specificvolume
[cubic feet],has
Stelzner
by
i.e.,the
v^,
minerals, particularly in
contents
foimd
was
the
39.0
[0.03452].
the
on
cells of certain
of
-243.0
-140.0
Battelli
1?*=
0.002155
1?*=
been
have
In
20.0
doing,
Interesting observations,
Btate
-194.0
-234.0
meters
so
acid
sulphurous
36.0
atmospheres.
p;|.= 194.6
Oailletet
to
-182.0
-146.0
Thus
in
water;
and
For
in cubic
temperature.
for
(0.07705]
(687.74]
-164.0
61.0
critical volume
the
vapor
critical
the
71.0
-119.0
"*
of the
the
liquid
'Sajotschewsky.
'Dewar.
Mathias.
*Amagat.
Ôlszewski.
and
'Erhard
keitseinschlusse
Ton
G.
Tschermak.
im
Stelsner,
Topas."
^'Ein
Mineralogische
New
Series, Vol.
Beitrag
und
zur
Kenntnis
petrographische
I, 1878,
p.
450.
der
Fliissig-
Mitteilungen
208
TECHNICAL
carbonic
in
acid
the
the
which
at
observers
with
lowerings
these
liquid reappeared,
the
motion
of
the
in
mass
Avenarius
of
tubes, and
the
at
conducted
of
change
unusual
an
on
ous
tumultuthe
ments
experi-
large scale, in glass
peculiar coloring of
gases.
instant
the
at
the
to
other
seething froth;
cell, a
the
with
temperature,
occurred
there
were
moment
of
was
due
was
mixed
different
the
what
deviation
this
impure and
was
for
below
and
29.19
supposed
acid
varied
which
reappeared
and
disappeared
topaz
and
28.74
carbonic
Moreover,
the
temperatures
between
The
that
at
case
experiments
fact
in
confined
second
expected.
THERMODYNAMICS.
liquid
the
occurred.
last-mentioned
The
"
carbon, chloride
of
bisulphide
THE
28.
experiments
carbon, and
of
dry
latter, namely
the
it has
VAPORS.
they
nearer
are
the
only
is
Now
as
and
vapors
deriving
of
an
the
true
considerations.
only
results
views
held
in
point
we
of
of
from
the
exists
there
we
can
say
form
of the
The
various
observation,
concerning
the
at
forms
without
nature
of
it
depart
that
the
quently
conse-
be
regarded
to
vapors,
as
and
equation
the
series
for
possible.
as
be
no
of
in all
more
it is
cases
has
one
liquids, vapors,
fully
only
in
theoretical
differ
the
contradicting
posals,
pro-
succeeded
of conditibiTfrom
accurately,
condition
different
of
discussed
proposed
less
or
but
pointed
steams
and
must
that
once
equation
more
dry
of
superheating, i.e.,when
of
will
formula,
empirical
that
applied
whole
former;
already
gases
of
the
have
of condensation
important
most
for
condensation,
form
possible
the
condition
preceding formula,
when
point
the
used
the
of
of
equation
vapors,
high degrees
reproducing,
of
fact
condition
for
gases
which
be
approximation
following, but
question
other
far
also
results
of
used
regards
as
of
be
in
saturated
the
equation
only
steam
in the
and
the
to
first, rough,
should
the
from
more
the
gases
could
known,
investigating
and
more
like
pv=BT,
been
long
when
out
of
behaved
vapors
URATED,
SAT-
DRY
OF
SUPERHEATED
If
ether,
acetone.
CONDITION
OF
EQUATION
with
conducted
were
from
each
ing
correspondthe
and
ordinary
gases.
EQUATION
THE
From
of
traced
the
time
will
of
Let
us
ab
curve
point
constant
dry
as
along
the
limit
complete
with
acid.
In
indicated,
fashion
C.
Fig. 23^
sketched
are
simple
very
31"
but
whose
the
ments
experi-
(Fig.23)
unit
v, the
of
weight
of gaseous
p, and
pressure
the
responding
cor-
are
be
curve,
is
saturated
pi
acid
vapor;
compression
isothermal
bed
was
below
or
is
acid.
pressure
carbonic
remains
path
in
words,
other
curves
curve
isothermals
the
till it reaches
further
during
these
each
noted
of carbonic
carbonic
limit
in
perature
tem-
pressure
the
where
exists
the
the
the
but
in
above
was
of
volume
it to
suppose
rise
of
tion;
investiga-
to
and
curves
course
of the
point
ti
b of
which
and
lem
prob-
s.
temperature
will
the
explain
to
the
tij then
the
the
experiments
acid
place;
took
isothermal
course
which
at
which
different
the
at
for
compressed
at
beautiful
the
temperatures,
temperature
us
assume
Now
given.
the
of
temperature,
temperature
five
enable
d
acid
carbonic
as
general
the
same
discussion
the
critical
the
constant
that
shown
was
initial
various
of the
it
Fig. 22,
the
at
pressure
according
[87.8" F.],
in
of
course
doing
different
different
compressed,
increase
gradual
so
with
started
experiment
at
by
especially subjected carbonic
he
as
solution
the
20^
VAPORS.
Andrews.*
Andrews
In
advanced
considerably
been
has
DRY
OF
physical standpoint
purely
the
CONDITION
OF
the
sure
pres-
along
constant
till at
point
the
liquefaction
further
23.
Fia.
tains;
ob-
compression
the
rises
de
curve
pressure
rapidly.
The
higher
shorter
course
of
temperature
horizontal
"Andrews,
isothermal
No.
and
traverses,
distance
than
Phil.
Trans,
for
is
similar;
inside
for
bed;
1869,
p.
575;
of
it
corresponds
the
limit
isothermal
also
1876,
curve,
No.
p.
to
421.
this
^10
TECHNICAL
horizontal
distance
THERMODYNAMICS.
is 0, for it touches
point tk, being horizontally tangent

isothermals
The
with
exceed
result
of
is
the
the
that
only
be
sense
where
is
the
points
the
and
by
indicated
by
from
But
inner
bent
between
the
from
and
that
is
one
must
then
can
which
are
really
not
in
unstable
hypothesis
which
*James
make
of
critical
OY.
been
has
by
and
one
value
the
when
usual
the
liquid
exist
the
second
is made
that
Proc.
the
of
Roy.
dotted
Soc.
of
of
abcde
the
transition
sented
represtates
of
son's
Thom-
certain
course
of
London,
Nov.
(Fig.
figure;
intermediate
by
sition
tran-
conceivable,
in
correctness
probable
more
dotted
that,
gradual
line
kind
The
equilibrium.
curved
it contains
because
attention,
is
abfcgdey partly
that
conclusion,
condition
broken
the
that
be
horizontally
the
curve,
the
to
appear
run
draw
limit
of the
space
places,
called
first
through
pass
and
curve
therefore
can
we
which
it in two
limit
the
course
it appear
Thomson,
curve,
the
to
change
constants
cutting
curve,
to
the
assume
limit
course
represented
isothermals
those
conceive
replaced by
23)
only certain
the
gaseous
can
we
be
can
Thom"on^
passing through
when
general
lie in
curve.
James
which
belonging
whose
intersections;
these
tj4 of the
all',
that
which
state
isothermals,
by
begins is
others
of ordinates
intersections
the
at
condition
liquid
branch
the
ordinary
with
say
the
and
taking place instead;
liquid
isothermal
Fig. 23,
limit
of the
space
in
as
liquefaction of
the
axis
that
see
we
now
in
to
curve
can
pression
com-
corresponding
the
left
in which
equation
passing
of
series
we
right by
the
on
series
whole
The
regarded
tjê'of the
and
the
when
that,
an
tial
essen-
temperature,
in
change
example,
the
on
branch
the
temperature,
same
be
shall
bounded
area
for
fact
critical
and
into
The
gas.
to
that
see
passes
gradual
liquefaction
ceases
can
temperature
the
continuous
state
gaseous
the
than
can
case
entirely arbitrary;
those
less
observed,
and
belong
23
we
ideal
an
is the
when
occur
other
no
with
case
Fig.
isothermal
condensation
taking place,
isothermal
in
is the
as
of culmination.
and
one,
the
foregoing discussion
the
can
vapor
to
to
critical
the
in
highest
the
at
curve
point
and
sufficiently high temperature
equilateral hjrperbola,
the
at
designated by
which
temperatures
limit
the
tions
observa-
the
curve
1871.
is
212
TECHNICAL
On
THERMODYNAMICS.
of
must
specially substitute
vapor.
basis
the
kind
for
that
provided
in
(pressure
On
the
kg.
hand
0.001870,
[5=0.016642,
For
the
made
has
form
of his
der
^Van
the
normal
under
to
is to
Vn
of
pressure
be
equation
p.
105,
7'"273
of
om
pv^^T
If
the
book);
present
22.330r
example,
carbonic
for
17, 64, and
ively, m"44,
acid, ammonia,
therefore
for
substitute
place
of the
derived
for
in
constants
carbonic
equation
given
acid
these
sulphuric
freezing
then
,
(see Vol.
"
[2116.3]
10,333
under
the
the
text
(2b), those
experiments
acid
in their
vapors,
I,
and
have,
we
respect*
order,
0.3489
21.0408,
(2) of
from
and
1.3136,
[t;,"=8,1296,
we
at
weight,
1540.521,
p^
place
volume.
%-0.5076,
If
steam
for
in
normal
357.702n
For
r_
get
represents
molecular
1 B
we
the
theory
because
of the
is the
D
5"=
consequently
(2),
volume:
normal
[491.4] the
and
so-called
volume
m
kinetic
constants
the
to
the
the
the
for
understood
equation
highly interesting
constants
values
4.
temperatiu-e
of
help
degree, by
its ratio
v^.'.
substitute
must
we
=0.018694].
are
845.182
..
(2")
167
theoretically justified
has
atmosphere.
one
the
which
the
of
0.001
[459.4 +1],
certain
substitutes
he
write
must
we
absolute
the
as
he
gives other
volume
the
up
Waals
specific volume
of the
T
+t
and
ured
meas-
in atmospheres
expressed
investigations
introduction
The
gases.
and
equation,
be
"
'*
(ibid.), with
of
kg.
specific pressure
p the
above,
as
"
7=273
Waals
(vol. of
ft.]),then
sq.
and,
regard
physical standpoint,
By
must
series
a,
from
of
we
relation
the
der
Van
0.57762,
rest
obeys
which
C=
=0.018694],
is to
per
(2a)
ft.]).
sq.
pressure
[2116.3
m.
and
ft.]),and
cu.
0.002251,
[lb. per
if the
sq.
per
in
m.
sq.
per
other
(10,333
lb. measured
[1
a=0.001167
specific volume
the
we
and
1222.45,
represents
in cbm.
35,238,
experiments
acid
carbonic
C=23.260,
fi=19.333,
[B=
Andrews'
of
6.5761].
0.5075
values
of
in
place of
which
A
v,
der
van
s.
we
get^
Waals
in
in
difference
the
make
we
behavior
the
of condition
quantity
The
volumes
for
exist
would
lie close
of
if the
vapors
to
"
zero
has
would
213
VAPORS.
from
that
there
remains
of
for
gases,
the
if
known
and
other
far
further
the
volume
the
represent
so
"
called
aheady
compressed
were
each
to
atoms
gas
DRY
OF
gases.
is what
of the
would
CONDITION
quantities equal
these
equation
of the
OF
EQUATION
THE
that
the
sum
which
molecules
compression
would
be
impossible.
second
The
to
which
perfect
According
gas.
depends
only
been
made
has
already
the
possible
up
presently, relate, in
which
we
deviations
L
Let
one
to
form
by
of the
may
call
of
vapors
member
of
v,
others.
equation
of
from
the
of
this
to
examine
us
the
formula
Equation
quantities
If
the
with
comparison
der
van
we
(2)
of
which
form
of
this
critical
brought
term,
the
expresses
and
be
written
Waals
in the
of
(1)
cubic
now
in at
equation (1)
least
form
following
"
"
"
significance
possess,
according
Waals.
volume,
the
point by
t?*, p*,
possesses
one
and
pressure,
tk respectively, then
root
for
point
we
or
v3-3rjbv2
combination
with
temperature
and
this
+3rifc2t7-vjt"=0,
equation
(3)
will
give
"3"
"
what
shows
(v-i;*)"=0,
that
which
second
Mariotte
concerning
will be
which
and
der
van
can
equation
b, and
a,
characterize
(3) only
80
in
magnitude
assumptions
"^-p^'^+rT"^'
the
the
c.
direction.
and
of
general assumption
term
law
attraction
Waals
the
to
is intended
(2)
insignificantlysmall
condition,
correction
the
as
Other
main,
the
mutual
der
volume
equation
of
the
regarded
van
specific
the
on
be
only
can
right
the
influence
the
express
molecules
of
term
because
have
for
tion
equa-
214
THERMODYNAlflCS.
TECHNICAL
BTtt
(4"
Pk
Ca
vi?^
"
Pk
and
from
the
three
combination
the
of
quantities corresponding
critical
acid
specific volume
p*
critical
according
'*
of
Now
a,
theoretically
and
Tk,
would
at
be
shown,
about
C,
we
and
critical
us
and
should
of
then, according
the
of
with
and
of
equation
C^SpkVk^
equation
made
particularly in
If
the
the
and
(3),
from
on
Waals
his
says
the
value
equation
magnitudes
help
calculate
of
condition.
5=g-^,
As
can
of
were
Vk,
equation
directly
get
to
the:
ft.],
cu.
statements
der
van
observations
backwards
the
[0.05608
inconsiderably
not
agreement.
temperature,
work
to
from
constants,
better
for
get
[549.72**],
differ
deviations
the
a^g-v*,
and
32.40",
values
founded,
well
the
enable
B,
in
changes
bring
=*
/ib=90.32^
Concerning
will
305.40^
Fahrenheit
these
cbm.
tk
observations
we
atmospheres,
19
"
these
(26)
(46)
Celsius
course
small
that
61
to
Andrews'
p. 207.
T*
temperature
PkVk^^BTi,.
under
0.003501
'
*'
point
va"
pressure
find
easily
we
^^^
given
constants
carbonic
of
point
the
'
the
use
vertical
the
to
^*'"27al'
P*-27^,
here
we
equations
8C
v*=3a,
If
three
these
the
pk,
(46),
stants
con-
easily
THE
EQUATION
Accordingly,
and
isothermal
the
in
pressure
OF
will
of
parts
be
absolute
the
The
for
same
absolute
the
deviations
influence
which
if
in
volimie
the
the
express
we
it,
to
of
parts
in parts of the
the
above
led
and
mutual
attraction
following
form
of
especially
volume
of
pressure
[cubic feet], we
B-
kg.
per
B-
other
per
of
sq.
in cubic
acid
carbonic
letting
ft.],and
metera
j9= 0.000494,
(5a"
C-5533.
35.129,
C-
if the
is
pressure
[2116.3 lb.
per
sq.
623426.
given
ft.])we
in
must
atmospheres
employ
the
constants
^Clausius,
und
Volumen
1880.
New
'*Uber
das
Temperatur."
edition, Vol.
IX.
the
Clausius,
to
fi 0.007913,-1
m.
and
0.006824,
hand,
sq.
[lb.per
m.
sq.
19.273,
[
kg.
acid
carbonic
-0.000426,
of condition
sius^
Clau-
^^^
substitute, according
must
led
molecules,
the
of
the
accoimt
T{v+fi)^
kilogram [pound]
one
the
in
into
takes
form
the
to
of
v-a
represent
which
equation
BT
Considering
Waals
of
the
examination
further
der
van
the
Clausius..
equation (equation 2)
the
of
to
(10333
attention
temperature
of
emphasized
of his
term
On
bodies
all
215
VAPORS.
calls
pressure,
Equation
considerations
that
Waals
critical
the
DRY
critical temperature.
The
the
OF
der
van
critical volume^, and
the
CONDITION
Verhalten
Wiedemann's
der
Kohlensaure
Annalen
in
der
Bezug
Physik
auf
und
Druck,
Chemie"
216
TECHNICAL
In
isothermals
the
for
experiments
agree
and
with
volume,
with
the
In
of
help
order
given
the
derive
to
critical
point,
then
C,
48.1"
the
of
all these
the-
pressure
results
of
formula
to
Clausius
(5),
with
the
and
of
help
the
for
temperature
substitute
us
and
equation
get from
and
later
referred
regards
volume,
pressure,
v+fi=u
We
The
the
equation
from
let
100".
by
utilized
constants.
the
preceding constants,
the
derived
those
experiments
satisfactorily,as
very
13.1", 31.1",
and
6.5", 64",
older
the
temperatures
to
ones
C 1
constants,
Andrews;
by
recent
more
these
computing
experiments
THERMODYNAMICS.
a+/?=5
(5c)
(5)
BT\
C9
with
then, by comparison
and
obtain
we
the
relation
equations
the
BTk
C"
and
ûj?="Hrj
3w*"=*H
ui?
and
hence
3a
get, according
^jt=31"C.
pjb=77
be
=0.002266
r;fe
Andrews'
Clausius,
said
to
preceding
the
[87.8" F.];
and
which
[0.036299],
experiments;
experimental
fixing
results.
the
his
this of
formulas,
carbonic
74=304"
pressure
corresponding
completely
course
constants,
(5d)
""
for
(56)
corresponding
the
atmospheres
in
under
given
values
the
^^
P*^*=27(a+/?)2'
'P^'^^^WWr
Utilizing
4-2^
is due
doubtless
acid,
[547.2"]
being
found
we
or
to
specific volume
corresponds
to
the
fact
made
use
to
that
of
EQUATION
THE
right
should
member
of
equation
gave
for
simply
not
and
the
perature
tem-
into
as
the
divisor;
tal
experimen-
Hautefeuille,^
of
equation
condition
for
within
satisfactory agreement
very
the
form
other
utilizingAndrews'
bonic
car-
limits
the
Ce'^
BT
^
^^^
(i;+/?)2'
v-a
this
of
probability,
VAPORS.
experiments:
the
and
all
some
Cailletet
form
DRY
and
(5)
showed,
of
following
the
in
217
OF
in
that,
introduced
those
acid
of
be
his
and
results
stated
himself
thereupon
that
CONDITION
OF
value
the
omitted,
be
here
of
place
write
the
later
for,
of
remaining
the
will
we
on,
The
constant.
statement
with
proceed
will
constants
different
acid.
equation
general
and
constant
carbonic
for
assumptions
In
this
of
another
represents
exponent
(5),
we
according
may,
Clausius,
to
relation
BT
C(f"
^"^^
P""v-a""(i;-h/?)2'
"ft=F(T)
where
T
which
represents
the
possesses
Van
value
Waals
der
function
1
for
of
critical
the
for
proposed
absolute
the
temperature
point, i.e.,for
form
the
of
this
the
to
of
vapor
modifies
of
vapor
and
to
the
again substitute,
as
when
we
transformed
and
t;+^=w
Tendus,
'
u,
Vol.
''Sur
CI, 1885,
Comptes
rendus,
Volumina
Physik
und
P^quation
particular
tion
atten-
technically all-important
p.
des
Vol.
Chemie.
Dampfes
New
equation
(15),
a+)9=5,
caract^ristique
de
I'acide
carbonique."
GompLes
1145.
"tJber
'Olausius,
der
(7), paying
.3
water
If we
(7a)
equation
ether
Tk.
function
^=e'"^
but
XCII,
die
pp.
903
and
theoretische
und
Series,
der
Vol.
1087.
Bestimmung
Flussigkeit.^'
XIV.
1881,
des
Dampfdnickes
Wiedemann's
pp.
279
and
Annalen
692.
und
der
2i8
TECHNICAL
be written
equation (7) can
then
THERMODYNAMICS.
and
comparison with
then
givesfor
the
the critical
formula
which
point,for
-STju
"
""
The
formulas
gives
and
Sdpu^BTk,
Uk^Sd,
C9
-
"
-.
of these
combination
^"1,
27^p"-C;
or
If
substitute the value
we
BT
CI
iu
of C in
equation (7)we
/Tk
27(a+p)
_p
Here
C^^^^^^BTt.
and
vk^3a+2p
get
8(t?+^)2 VT^r
v-a
introduced
temperature
new
function
by
making
T
27(a+i9)2^'*'
^^^
hence, for the critical point,there follows
and
then
the
equationof
condition in the form
which
is the form
vapor.
in which
Therefore
11
(10)
C 1a
it is here
iu
has
only
given it for a particular

questionof stating
220
TECHNICAL
the
horizontal
the
curve
db
THERMODYNAMICS.
be
must
between
equal
points
the
to
the
b and
d;
is
which
area
shall
we
bounded
by
have
then
p{v2-vi)^fpdv,
where
found
value
the
substitute
must
we
for
from
the
of
one
quantity
the
under
the
integral
of
equations
above-given
condition.
Moreover
here
specific
steam
and
which
evaporation
in the
by
at
the
"j,
time,
the
If
this
and
same
to
both
let
saturated
will
we
magnitudes
in
saturation
at
t and
V2
and
designated
were
vapors
retain
instant
the
at
temperature
these
p;
represent
the
at
dry saturated
of
liquid
the
taken
pressure
notation
follows, and,
what
ing
correspond-
pressure
t.
temperature
utilize
we
steam
of
investigations for
above
and
specificvolume
volume
begins,
corresponding
the
Vi
the
Vi
signifiesthe
V2
equation
(10)
in
the
preceding equation,
we
get,
by integration,
Furthermore,
A) =8
and
get from
we
another
at
equation
(10), at
one
time
ing
substitut-
vâ,
'"
^--^
(12)
BT
BT
a-a
e(5+^)2'
-a
(13)
Supposing
B,
these
three
quantities
curve
from
Clausius
by
and
a,
making
function
the
are
equations
p,
s, and
point
to
has
a,
0(a+P)^'
O-^^Fif) is known,
given,
for
then
will
enable
and
thus
us
to
that
the
stants
con-
compute
determine
and
the
the
corresponding
of
course
the
limit
point.
very
ingeniously
continued
the
discus.?ion,
OF
EQUATION
THE
CONDITION
DRY
OF
log#
221
VAPORS.
A;
a"
he
then
expressed
auxiliary
the
valid
give,
but,
all
later
on,
If,
from
quantity
for
before
final
the
quantities
p,
set
auxiliary
and
for
vapors,
an
up
facilitating
results
of
s,
a,
and
in
terms
table,
which
calculations.
the
the
calculations
the
following
of
of
is
will
We
1
this,
will
make
above,
done
equation
substitute
we
"
remark
at
get
we
"7=w,
once,
(11),
Apu=ABT\og.'^-^^^^^:^y
.
which
from
external
the
possible
is also
It
evaporation
s
,
doing
was
as
several
the
latent
heat
establish
to
be
can
computed.
for
expression
an
(14)
the
heat
of
r.
According
second
the
to
of
equations
(Ilia), Vol.
I,
p.
62,
namely
dQÂ^Xdt+Tdvl
dp
there
if the
be
can
found
change
i.e.,for
curve,
of
the
state
the
dQ
quantity
heat
is to
take
place according
Value
constant
which
of
T,
and
we
be
must
to
then
the
imparted
isothermal
get
dQÂT^dv.
If
to
differentiate
we
t, there
the
equation
V"
from
r"="T
to
condition
(10) with
respect
follows
and
of
this, by
dt\0/{v+fi)^'
integration,
for
constant
v=",
*-"
j"Ti
_ÂBTv_d/T\
temperature
from
222
TECHNICAL
like
In
of
B
older
the
(the equation
derived
mentioned
of
heat
condition
of
equation
(5)
the
in
above),
evaporation
C 1
given by
r"
u-
which
assumed.
was
The
inner
latent
hence
P^r"Apu,
a
Planck^
manner
using
course
THERMODYNAMICS.
heat
follows
from
according
preceding
equations
for
quantities C, D,
for
the
equations,
after
"")
and
the
expression
the
CT-n-Z),
being
in
substitute
must
(17)
values
constant
which
be
must
considered.
vapor
derived
we
function
the
finally get, according
condition
Clausius,
to
We
relation
the
(fi+^)(a+/3)
known
from
preceding
the
AB'n
the
found
reduction,
simple
Now,
be
can
from
Clausius,
to
equation
of
equation
(10):
CT-^-D
the
(18)
BT
and
just
easily
as
equations (12)
for
employed
be
and
steam
contains
the
vapor
the
For
der
Physik
in the
form
the
the
of the
(15)
and
(16)
and
corresponding form, which

specific
saturated
six constants,
volumes
and
can
also
then
for
the
condition.
equation
of
him
given by
condition
for
the
by
vapor
sius
Clauof ether
of water.
of
vapor
k| ''Die
und
into
calculating
liquid
the
'
bring equations
can
(13)
second
This
and
and
we
(v+fi)^
v-a
water
Theorie
Chemie.
New
we
des
are
to
substitute
Sattigungszustandes/'
Series, Vol.
XIII,
1881,
Wiedemann's
p.
535.
Annalen
FOR
FORMS
OLDER
OF
EQUATION
C=45.17
-0.000754
i9=0.001815
kg.
for p
fi =47.05
m.
rsq.
^=0.029074
2733.6
D=
0.21519
any
one
two
are
i1 1
and
enable
then
[698"]
formula
the
of
temperature
0.005892
experimental
values.
"
be
The
running
acid
are
the
CONDITION
distinction
in
whether
its
temperature
and
to
whether,
as
in
from
the
the
THE
FOR
which
play
EQUATION
and
In
give rise
these
so
doing,
in
part
group
is the
the
case
vapors
with
far
of
distant
water
carbonic
from
and
acid,
in
engine
sulphurous
ammonia,
forms
the
to
preceding.
considered
vapor
are
say
VAPORS.
vapors
following.
which
newer
equation given
back
the
the
transformation,
coming
OF
acid,
the
critical
the
"ifc= 332.32^
we
its
changes
the
the
of
critical
ammonia
changes
special
to
make
can
practical application experiences changes
and
this
of
vapors
differs
FORMS
carbonic
investigations
of
given
technically important
and
during
below
of condition
OF
page
rjfc=3a+2^=
computes
fourth
ical
crit-
the
(see
for
to
Battelli.
APPROXIMATE
OLDER
29.
for
[0.08331]
that
is
steam
atmospheres
this
other
if, according
substitute
which
experience
the
assumes
from
the
when
example,
backward,
It follows
computing
of
whether
Clausius
opportunity
equations
the
this
0.005201
1;*=
suggested by
will
200.5
pjb=
atmosheres,
must
manner
There
of
and
while
134.1
Clausius
the
and
For
[0.09438] and, working

pjt=
in
v,
we
gives
water;
[630.2^] and
by
means
Colardeau,
point f*=365"
207),
the
do
to
us
tis
p,
superheated.
or
quantities
and
known,
furnish
then
three
the
satiu^ted
dry
C
of
n=1.24
will
equating
1.24
C=
5=85.758
The
=0.00737
=0.012078
223
CONDITION.
of
the
state
pressure
values
belong,
"
"
or
ordinarily
224
in
occur
of
forms
with
the
been
made,
kiôwn,
with
the
before
even
to
in
of
suggestions
direction
this
which
technical
It
for
the
state
steam
saturation,
is
It
2.
It
should
allow
of
were
equation
of
different
of
condition
fulfill
must
between
v,
from
of
the
T
of
state
and
and
steam
and
p,
the
previously given
of
the
steam
to
be
made
as
quantities
and
earlier
liquid
which
equation
tures
mix-
of
within
in
the
specific volume
the
be
condition
that,
ascertained
with
with
with
basis,
its
by
heat
tion
observa-
ing
correspond-
be
the
simple
change
supply
they
given.
as
the
should
help,
laborious
because
ordinarily regarded
as
temperature
mentioned
be
easily
sure
pres-
practice.
the
and
here
are
connected
vapor
of
results
possible, i.e., without
as
can
in order
perspicuous
question
equations, developed
heat
the
the
and
experimental
occurring
pressure
easily
therefore
can
Finally
the
in
vapor
limits
the
to
determination
the
from
of
the
the
temperature
computations;
4.
from
for
obtained
far
are
have
here.
estimated
correspond
least
at
and
3.
the
to
sufficiently known.
must
thus
order
efforts
nimiber
relation
the
behavior
the
for
mentioned
proper,
because,
presentations,
in
here,
furnish
only
must
be
equation
the
purposes
following requirements
1.
will
few
stances
circum-
propnDsitions
exist
there
The
inspection,
possible
as
fore,
there-
above-given
applied.
Waals'
forms
simple
as
secure
the
water;
for
der
van
of
one
be
of
vapor
and
temperature,
must
convenient
computations
condition, and
For
condition
of
different
are
critical
the
circumstances,
the
equation
the
make
of
Deighborhood
the
in accordance
the
THERM0DYNA3IICS.
TECHNICAL
of
be
may
and
state
easily
followed.
The
of
requirement
condition
the
solution
too
cumbrous
of
survey
cubic
for
the
of
in
equations
of
the
whole
The
equation,
frequently
of
by
determination
procedure
requirement
of
fulfilled
occurring
extremely
course
is not
" 28.
Still less is the
V.
encounters
a
adduced
No.
imder
under
equations
v
would
of
complicated
calculation
of
that
cases
the
the
be
which
impossible.
for
much
tion
determina-
fulfiUal;
form
calls
one
here
render
OLDER
When
that
FORMS
FOR
investigating
the
could
be
in
gases
I,
the
225
CONDITION.
it
141,
p.
all
of
into
brought
OF
Vol.
condition
of
equation
EQUATION
pointed
was
bodies,
without
ception,
ex-
form
pv^BT-R,
fi is
of
of
in
but
the
(65)
can
and
be
now
utilized
equation
more
which
and
we
from
From
for
for
determine
can
it the
heat
of
I,
(19)
there
heat
liquid q (see
p.
of
will
we
(see p. 22)
c
vidual
indi-
every
heat
from
the
with
equation
forms.
of
gases
equations
propositions
some
specificheat
the
now
simpler
derived,
were
and
equations
for
specific
the
basis,
the
the
other
first,however,
vapors;
of the
as
that
derived
find
to
is
It
For
be
is
now
total
the
function
could
variability
formula
(68), with
to
" 28, R
T.
or
v,
p,
contemplated
first mentioned.
Vol.
of
143
body
the
on
of the
problem
the
investigating
141
fonn
(19)
variables
the
requirements
adduced
condition
pp.
of
two
choosing
so
case,
on
of
fulfill the
When
depending
constant
function
question
will
is
where
out
which
derive
one
help
the
liquid for
of
vapors
22).
equation
the
dQÂdU+Apdv
because
follows,
there
pdv=d(pv)
"pv
"
AdU^dQ-Ad{pv)-\-Ap7^.
If
I,
p.
we
employ
dQ
the
third
of
equations
(III6),
Vol.
result
will
143, there
for
here
AT
dv
AdU=Cjdt-Ad{pv)-\-Apv"
"
^dp.
(20)
'dv
Now
is the
if J
(p, v),
of
steam
at
then
constant
heat, i.e.,the
steam
the
quantity X
heat
pressure
heat
necessary
is
J+i4p(v
"
"t).
for
content
for
the
the
dition
con-
generation
^26
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
Differentiating this equation
and
dJÂdU,
remembering
there
follows
dX=AdU+Ad(pv"pa),
and
hence, by combining
with
3^
dA
Cj4t
equation
AT
^dp
a)-^
Ap{v
(20),
"
-^dp.
dv
If, in
i2
as
the
this
with
and
of p and
function
of
equation
help
the
condition
will
there
last
(19),
follow
equation
but
consider
we
the
quantity
it
from
gives
one
ox=Cp(K4--4p(v-a)"
(21)
gp^P
'^
cv
In
above
a
developments
these
that
constant,
which
is
of
preceding
If
superheating.
then
latent
total
the
heat
(see
p.
specially
is
22), and
we
liquid
can
that,
at
of
composed
be
regarded
ordinarily
as
ring
occur-
temperature.
the
of
get from
made
assumption
is still valid
moreover
heat
the
to
critical
the
think
we
the
in vapors
below
equation
of
permissible
lie far
cling
we
course
specific volume
the
temperatures,
The
of
for
condition
the
of saturation,
liquid
relation
the
degree
every
and
A=5+r,
the
by
differentiation,
(22)
W'-dt'
in
here
case
we
specific
As
different
latent
the
find
can
heat
regards
the
heat
is known
with
in combination
c
of
function
initial assumptions
have
the
function
of
the
preceding formula
perature
tem-
the
liquid.
the
R
as
of
the
been
equation
made;
the
of
condition
simplest
(19),
formulas
228
TECHNICAL
as
function
of
Weyrauch^
THERMODYNAMICS.
in
as
p,
and
has
equation
the
(23),
also
has
been
given by
form
pv^BT-iBT'-ps);
here
T'
and
dry
the
saturated
steam
values
be
under
and
preceding formula,
for
Finally,
other
the
with
of vapors.
existing
in
sake
proposals
of
k i
same
be
gives
form
the
will
the
known.
as
mention
few
of
equation
dition
con-
following equation
the
the
using
when
regarded
of
the
last-mentioned
the
we
of
as
pressure
tables,
steam
completeness
to
specific volume
but
must
case
any
respect
a
the
consideration;
from
taken
and
temperature
possessing
steam,
superheated
must
the
represent
^BTC^
where
and
first term
right
member
of
place
in
v"a
the
get
we
v,
place
of v, and
equation
(equation (5), p. 215), provided
in
substitute
we
in the
of
here
we
the
second
condition
regard
of
and
constants.
fi as
Giildberg^
the
suggests
in which
shows
it
that
different
be
'
made
the
for
the
vapor
saturated
the
limits
for
of
Ritter's*
of
"Von
Weyrauch,
Trans,
ii 1 d
Vereins
for
r
g,
1854,
Annalen
of
and
experiment.
Finally
equation
the
for
and
water
condition
he
for
tion
men-
vapor
1876,
die
die
Pbysik
pp.
Zeitschrift
D"mpfen."
1
and
des
of
Vereins
71.
336.
Vol.
Xll,
1868,
Temperaturfl"che
und
der
Zustandsgleichungen
Ingenieure,
*'Uber
der
iiberhitzten
XX,
p.
"Uber
deutscher
^Ritter,
den
Vol.
Ingenieure,
Phil.
G
magnitudes, and
constant
are
namely,
deutscher
'
volume
within
pressures
may
and
-Dv^'',
satisfactorilyreproduces,
specific
the
ether,
water,
equation B, C,
formula
following
pv=BT''Cp~
des
if
quantities;
constant
are
of the
v-\-fi in
term
Chemie.
New
des
p.
K6rper.''
Zeitschrift
673.
Wasserdampfes."
Series,
Vol.
Ill, 1878,
mann's
Wiedep.
447
SUPERHEATED
229
STEAM.
pv^BT"
pv"'
in
this
in
kg.:sq.
formula
B,
and
[lb.:sq. in.] we
m.
S=
C=
The
has
engines
in
this
In
been
recent
the
calculation
in
course,
be
must
We
so
n"f].
of
use
by
superheated
it
that
so
of
doing,
to
Thermodynamics;
made
were
steam
who
n,
we
such
engines
must
start
with
be
certain
periments
ex-
ably
prob-
was
for
steam
should
first
theoretical
appropriate
seems
steam
run
the
practical investigations by
quite extensive,
the
for
his
years
and
superheated
in
known
direction
in
inspired
n=f
STEAM.
employing
been
long
is expressed
and
SUPERHEATED
of
advantage
1315.11
C=56657.4
[B=85.609,
30.
when
get
46.968,
"
and
constants,
are
siderations.
con-
engines
has
the
basis
established.
Of
that
hypotheses
which
justified.
from
start
the
form
general
of
the
equation
of
condition
pv=BT-R,
and
a
that
assume
function
Furthermore
let
requirements
pressure
supplementary
the
alone
of p
in
us
the
on
the
of
case
p.
the
224, that
within
magnitude
the
be
regarded
remembering
the
may
may
as
of water.
vapor
always
of water,
vapor
term
assume,
mentioned
for
(25)
specific heat
be
regarded
limits
present
as
of
the
four
Cp, at
stant
con-
stant
con-
technical
investigations.
This
experimental
the
vapor
is
assmnption
results;
as
says
a
mean
finds
he
from
four
Regnault's
experimental
series,
for
of water,
Cp-0.46881,
and
sufficientlyjustified by
that
of
only
the
the
rest
0.48111,
first of these
there
is found
0.48080,
values
0.47963,
is not
perfectly reliable;
230
TECHNICAL
Fig.
In
taken
will be
value
which
let
25
THERMODYNAMICS.
Cp=
0.4805,
the
basis
as
adiabatics
two
the
and
of
portion
let
and
T2
and
into
given by
and
pi
particular adiabatic
heat
weight
or
the
to
ciuê
let the
and
and
pressure
abatics
adifield.
volume
corresponding
to
be
point Ti
the
the
for
proved
formerly
transition
every
prescribed
the
to
Vi.
that
proposition
for steam,
superheated
let
from
Starting
the
and
right-
correspond
Ti,
the
through
the
on
curve
steam,
point T2,
the
from
be
i?2
saturated
of dry
limit
and
consideration.
passed
Ti
points
extend
p2
be
Ai
the
these
temperatures
Let
following
points T2 and
two
hand
of the
second
the
one
entropy,
=/:dQ
AT'
has
the
value,
same
p. 61, for
(68),
then
for
the
transition
the
present
the
on
case
limit
from
curve
equation
get from
we
T2
Ti,
to
ilPi-AP2=(Ti+^)-(r2+|^),(26)
.
because
on
make
may
the
from
T2T
to
the
the
y=l
limit
point T2
(and
point
all
for
on
therefore
of
the
curve
the
its
the
quality
steam
On
points.
first adiabatic
under
constant
second
adiabatic
the
in
pressure
Ai,
we
is constant,
and
if
hand
other
A2J
start
we
horizontal
p
find,
p2),
we
tion
direcand
because
pass
dQ
c^T,
ilPl -ilP2
Cp
-y"
loga jT.
(27)
Tt
Combination
with
equation (26)
then
gives
the
relation
Cplog"yr=(Ti+^j-U2+^j,.
.
(28)
SUPERHEATED
and
accordingly
batic
the
for
we
which
find,
can
the
pressure
corresponding superheated
that
and
for
according
Vol.
I,
only
the
to
143,
p.
is
is
with
(25)
third
given,
of
the
particular adia-
of
respect
of p,
there
to
the
this
equations (1116),
get
we
have
we
position
sup-
follows
generally valid
the
under
v,
dQ=Cj4t-ABT^
From
of
temperature
steam.
function
point
every
p=p2
Dififerentiatingequation
231
STEAM.
for
adiabatic
the
(29)
of state,
change
i.e.,for dO=0,
dTÂBdp
^
Assuming
as
Cp
and
constant
p'
cp
abbreviating, by making
(30)
=^,
"
Cp
we
adiabatic
get for the
(Fig. 25)
Ai
in
(31)
^
It
follows
from
this
that,
with
temperature
experiencing adiabatic
(61),
Vol.
I,
the
relation
and
from
constant
p.
this follows
m
the
the
change
139, there
constant
if
x
the
like
we
gas
assumptions
far
so
of
state.
for
substitute
made,
heated
super-
change
as
of
is concerned,
pressure
found
was
that
\Pl/
under
exactly
behaves
steam
According
adiabatic
for
steam
(equation 30), i.e.,make
to
change
in
when
equation
of
place
gases
of the
232
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
K-1
tn
"
(32)
get
we
1"
m
.
In
we
show
this
that
in steam
that
Let
from
with
in
p2,
is
c,
result
"
within
that
the
specificheats
the
that
in
limits
in
(Cpic^);
but
value
Fig.
after
of
rather
of the
T, resulting
the
25
pressure
whole
tion,
transforma-
simple
T24-^-CplOga"
magnitude.
follows,
there
constant
the
(28)
equation
then
of the
variable
the
whether
permissible,
not
jT-Cploge
Tl +
the
Cp
that
(31), remembering
equation
with
ratio
the
is identical
is
assumption
substitute
ua
remark
now
ratio
the
represents
Qven
may
arises
question
the
course
in gases,
as
vapors,
but
of
doing
80
development
the
expression
T
r
,
^+y-Cplo",^
have
must
If
and
one
the
designate
we
the
for every
value
same
constant
in
point
question by
limit
in the
have
must
we
curve.
T+^=Cplog."4-iir
The
values
the
question
of
results
m
and
agreement,
this
now
left
is whether,
member
given
with
in
are
correctly
chosen.
as
the
following
table
shows,
really
if
we
m=0.25=|and,
according
to
equation
(32),
of
the
reliable
are
We
0.4805
Cp=
C!ol. 7
preceding expression
of the
(33)
do
get
with
and
table
when
get
on
the
an
p.
the
63,
ties
quantiexcellent
SUPERHEATED
1.3333=^,
K-
while
substituting
'
g g
FOR
TABLE
Consequently
of 0.1
this
m=0.25
to
14
in
time
for
for
log
"
VAPOR
of
the
natural
OF
limits
atmospheres,
engineering,
steam
and
safe
(33a)
-1.0933
between
steam,
sufficiently
as
substitute
place
r*
r+jT=0.2766
at
in
logarithms
makes
logarithms
limits
233
STEAM.
WATER.
wide
the
which
pressure
rarely overstepped
are
regard
can
we
of
range
then, according
to
the
constant
equation
steam
and
ilfi=0.1201
B=50.933
(34)
[i4B=
The
reliability
following
consider
of
consideration.
the
(30),
relation
B=
0.1201
the
assumption
If
we
92.835].
made
differentiate
is apparent
equation
from
(33)
the
and
234
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
dq
fcdt
Y^J
(see
where
59),
p.
the
represents
of
heat
specific
there
water,
follows
dr
Tdp
dJt
or
designating
as
was
done
the
in
Cp
"
(56),
pdt'
function
temperature
equation
mCp
"
60,
p.
of
left member
the
by h,
have
we
Tdp
h
this
From
the
temperature,
of
and
used
was
on
equation
68, with
p.
from
of
values
the
different
Here
shows.
survey
computed
help
the
assumed
value
The
exist
there
Him
of
temperature
oil bath
to
the
formula
in
given
finds
values
Cp=
given
Col.
have
different
from
inner
for
in
of
0.4805
steam
Table
Comptes
the
la
had
lendus,
in
reliability of equation
and
fallen
1866.
over
more-
its determination.
allowed
they
pressures
orifice
here;
for
serve
experiments;
wide
pressure
^
proved
initial
a
confirmation
which
experiments
interesting
flow
till the
also
Cazin*
by
231,
p.
for
direct
and
steam
an
was
for
Appendix.
the
(31),
pdt'
computed
following
the
as
be
can
(35"
Cp-~incp
reservoir
to
the
heated
super-
observed
initial
immersed
external
atmos-
in
236
TECHNICAL
and
therefore
specific
the
will
we
heat
of
Cp
THERMODYNAMICS.
from
have
the
estimated
steam,
preceding
from
the
equation,
of
state
for
the
saturation,
expression:
following
Cp=0.3054-(i45r-ApM)-^.
(37)
.....
If
L
to
up
sufficient
with
in
was
followed
steam
take
assume
pu
==
and
0.305,
Cp=
Redtenbacher
different
entirely
and
could
we
consequently
by
out
Mariotte
of
saturation,
and
accuracy
from
of
point
pointed
fact
f f
the
law
the
BT
this
Kirch-
and
considerations.
Equation
for
heat
Cp,
the
value
gives
(37)
for
know
we
the
us
different
we
may
AB
take
0"
shows
specificheat
quantity
of
Cp
not
limits
therefore
we
tabulation
resulted
which
take
we
from
we
These
will
(34), p. 233,
0.4842
is
for
0.1
and
the
get Cp=
the
hold
0.4808,
variable
is doubtless
preparations
in
were
its
for
calculations
the
engineering
steam
[122" F.]
50"
C.
the
last
almost
what
of
four
and
and
values
exactly
the
Regnault,
the
200"
of
same
by
no
of
the
That
the
true;
but
variability by
atmospheres,
experiments
fast
vicinity
really
of
is
steam
temperature.
15
of
mean
of
growing
In
lie between
Cp
0.5055;
that, in the
rather
bases
the
heat
200"
with
fluctuating.
lie between
If
but
slowly
steam
tabulation,
limits
0.4685
justifiedin judging
be
themselves
150"
specific
the
that
it increases
curve,
equation
to
100"
50"
constant
according
0.4650
this
course
are
Appendix,
the
for
Cp=0.4258
would
of
la
specific
the
0.120L
gives
f=
we
Table
and
and
temperatures,
Calculation
limit
computing
of
for
means
from
steam,
Apu
of
of
means
the
ceding
pre-
instituted
the
pressure
temperature
C.
the
[392" F.].
preceding
value
a
which
value
to
follows.
intended
to
show
the
reliability of
the
SUPERHEATED
is
pressure
function
of
the
pressure
the
further
investigations
be
can
in
used
that
for
condition
of
equation
and
constant,
for steam
that
namely,
assumptions,
237
STEAM.
specific heat
the
the
supplementary
superheated
alone.
steam
We
hypothesis
add
that
constant
term
be
can
now
Cp at
of
regarded
form
the
(38)
condition
of
equation
the
in
appears
form
the
pv^BT-Cp^,
an
equation
In
which
to
attention
formula
preceding
the
quantities
is found
for
the
from
term
R^Cp^y
whereupon
as
following
the
to
correction
the
the
called
was
C,
(39)
and
The
(30) with
equation
and
constant
constant
0.4805
Cp=
227.
p.
well, represent
as
considered.
steam
on
for
j,
steam
and
then
be
given
follows
If
equation
from
we
(in kilograms
volume
then
sq.
(in cubic
the
per
#c=-.
specific
the
suppose
(32)
[in pounds
m.
meters
relatively
which
to
steam,
per
equation
has
thus
when
B=50.933,
of
far
we
the
steam
to
foot]),and
square
kilogram
per
above-established
everything
pressure
cubic
[in
of condition
feet
the
per
pound]),
reproduces
experimentally
been
specific
almost
established
substitute
C-192.50,
n-J-
and
[b-92.835,C-938.82,
On
the
atmosphere
other
taken
hand,
at
if the
10333
pressure
n=i].
and
is
kg. [2116.3
given in atmospheres
lb.
per
sq.
ft.]) we
make
B-0.0049287,
C=0.187815,
[b=0.043862,C=3.00859,
and
and
n=|-].
(one
must
238
TECHNICAL
Finally,
[pounds
per
THERMODYNAMICS.
if the
pressure
square
inch]
is
must
we
C=
5=3.74616,
in
given
millimeters
of
mercury
assume
and
27.1876,
[fi"0.644692,
C=22.581875,
The
fact
that
the
coincides
will
for
from
appear
exponent
with
steam
further
in
arising
the
n=^].
and
the
equation
magnitude
investigation,
is
of
the
of
value
dition
conas
m,
particularly favorable
circumstance.
2.
1.
3.
Specific
Volumes
Saturated
Pressure
[4]
4.
Value
of
Value
Steam.
kg.)
Table
11
According
Equation
to
of
Appendix.
it to
of
by
formula
the
the
the
state
for
the
Appendix;
(39)
with
corresponding
to
(n-=0.25).
the
of
of
reliability
values
the
values
contains
help
of
of
the
In
of
steam,
this
equation
of
saturation.
different
in lb. per
in.
sq.
per
in.
(n-0.25).
dry-saturated
Col.
lb.
sq.
(39).
recognize
specific volume
II
to
is inserted
there
the
order
apply
first
Pressure
According
Atmospheres
In
of
of
in
(10333
[1]
same
constants
the
the
as
(39),
preceding
us
table
(Col. 1)
pressure
adduced
quantity
let
in
Table
calculated
just given;
in Col.
SUPERHEATED
because
incorporated,
are
of
Comparison
excellent
low
of
by
of
if
get, for
we
in
used
frequently
are
second
with
very
be
and
low
variation
third
in
columns
do
pressures
of the
ferences
dif-
in the
constants
also
here
produced
satisfactory
very
steam
(39),
for
substitute
we
the
an
ment
agree-
respect, if there
every
doing.
so
for
example,
following
the
pressure
could
equation
to
temperature;
of
slight
there
superheated
the
values
only
very
be
for
According
values
would
need
any
the
pressure
which
were
^r-
these
agreement;
appear;
case
calculations.
practical
shows
239
STEAM.
we
also
can
and
7=273+^
superheated
tabulation
and
^=100,
steam
of
the
values
of
the
whatever,
pressure
any
calculate
for
any
110, 120, etc.,
volume
atmosphere
of
the
specific
values
of the
volumes:
pressure
how
our
and
has
observed
of the
excellently
his
the
specific volume
for
little survey
following
temperature;
the
experimental
results
few
with
agree
the
shows
results
of
formula.
Specific Volumes,
Pressure
in
Atmospheres
Temperature
Celsius.
t
Cubic
Temperature
Fahrenheit.
e
According
Hirn's
Experiments.
to
Meters.
to
According
Equation
(39).
240
TECHNICAL
If
the
specific
the
weight
of the
atmospheric
relatively
steam
and
pressure
the
as
superheating
values,
constant
means
law
of
Mariotte
Now
determinations
For
each
table
on
volume
and
of
below
and
inch]
square
observed
and
He
it to
used
On
the
of
other
hand
this
suited
such
may
along
taken
cases,
From
for
be
and
in
no
the
experimental
made
on
which
all;
49)
different
were
under
u
specific
1 i
ation.
consider'
cal
empiri-
[pounds
per
(40)
p].
-0.13459
the
compared
the
mercury
-0.008402
given
temperatures
recorded
of
equation,
our
[pi;=
is well
followed
was
temperature
(see p.
0.59111
pv=
few
by
results
obtained
with
given
on
p.
237,
takes
the
form:
following
have
that,
Battelli.
of
those
compute
of
pressures
pv"3.4348r
[pv-
and
mention
millimeters
follows
as
which
reported
in
is
shows
steam
C,
200"
this
extensive
series
at
are
the
the
pressure
contains
formula
if the
one
considered.
of
steam
observations
242
result
to
was
Battelli
satm^tion
the
diminish
of
steam
superheated
of
0.6250;
gives
: v
for
example,
100", 150", and
ratios
return
isothermals
the
48
p.
to
Battelli
saturated
49, where
pressure
v'
Gay-Lussac.
place
of
and
same
ratio
the
for
air;
of
0.6316,
would
as
and
is the
here
the
to
these
the
air, then
temperatures
grows,
and
temperature
same
get, respectively, 0.6401,
we
in
the
v' of
volume
atmosphere
p.
for
compute
we
THERMODYNAMICS.
higher
continued
other
lines
0.64459
7-22.5819
we
survey
for
random,
at
the
give
solution
be
existing
used
for
us
following
that
of
technical
as
occur
because
superheated
(41)
-y^p].
the
conclude
may
temperatures
to
-27.1876^
3.74616
results.
equation
problems,
with
it
steam
confirms
steam.
(41)
or
(39)
particularly
engines,
and
observations
SUPERHEATED
The
designated
pressures
it is
Nevertheless
T
(40) by
1 i
relate
of
note
by
worthy
within
241
STEAM.
the
to
that
wide
the
of saturation.
state
the
region
empirical
covered
formula
by
1 1 i
these
'
experiments,
experiments
shows
it
also
can
be
with
very
written
in the
form
pv=BT-Cp,
where
the
also
appears
to
[lb.:sq.ft.]
As
few
the
in
supplement
of
equation
the
to
the
[5
or
C,
(39);
(25), p. 239,.
disregarding
p)
pressure
and
(41)
form
general
the
constants
JS=46.700
take
we
function
of
of
it is
simply
for
in
sary
neces-
kg.:sq.
74.808].
preceding
investigations
we
will
saturated
within
connected
are
the
steam
wide
limits
by
pressure
the
and
the
add
volume
equation
pv^^D,
as
m.
remarks.
In
values
assume
correction
only
as
changed
the
of
term
(40a)
was
shown
Sitzungsberichte
Mathem.-natuiw.
equation
with
der
Klasse,
Kaiserl.
Vol.
CVII,
(33),
(42)
p.
Akademie
Section
37, where
der
II, October
the
Wissenschaften
1899.
constants
in
/t
Wien.
242
TECHNICAL
and
in
value
if
given;
were
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
determine
we
supplementary
this
from
of
R=^Cp^
term
and
substitute
equation
the
(39), there
follows
and
then
get
we
in the
(see
the
vicinity
the
same
it
in
of
results
we
limit
determine
equation
From
(39)
there
from
can
be
written
in
we
and
conclude
can
equation
will
equation
(42)
of
u
can
we
use
the
in
substitute
values
this
the
furnish
and
Prom
this
we
=2.5249094
nearly
substitute
above
(43)
for
the
n=
0.2500,
several
constants
0.0607,
II
logio a
in
szl
formula
form
given
^^=
x;
that
T-=-ap''+pp^.
If
dition
con-
follows
which
equation
(39).
value
the
this
this
curve
equation
as
given by
was
227).
p.
the
it
the
pv=^BT"R
equation
in which
form
Schmidt
If
from
and
get, for example
logioi9=
1.5809979.
we
244
TECHNICAL
B^
From
equation
THERMODYNAMICS.
and
v+nCp''-^
"
(30)
get
we
the
B:^^p.
auxiliary
(47)
constant
AB
m=
with
and
this
second
the
of
equations
(47) becomes
dt
(48)
^v
From
equation
rnr
(46) follows
9v
and
from
after
some
this,
the
with
help
of
equations
(47) and
(44),
we
transformations.
A
'bi
c.9^=^(l-wi)v+(n-m)Cp~-i].
If
now
we
three
the
use
equations (48)
identical
of
vapor
get,
and
equations
But
water.
(49) in equations
which
as
valid
are
must
we
for
(45)
the
we
(49)
shall
get
superheated
substitute
for
this
vapor
iC-1
we
get
for
this case,
in place of the
("2
fundamental
equations
^_j(vdp+/cpdv),
c,[dr+(.-i)r^],
dQ-
(45),
(50)
EQUATIONS
HEAT
THE
however,
These,
which
the
the
specific heat
c,
which
134)
p.
the
constant
with
does
not
in
volume
is
exactly
and
the
gases
fact
that
variable
that
ratio
the
represent
valid
only
connected
considerable
that,
is not
here
quantity
consequently
is the
as
Cpic^
does
the
case
technical
computations;
may
the
use
the
is
equation
of
taken
was
perfectly
is
this
and
formulas
preceding
which
less
reproduce
of
of
there
water,
form
exact
is
present
of
the
as
for
vapor
of condition
equation
latter
if the
for
we
which
here,
the
long
as
known,
approximate
even
for
advantage
great
condition
emphasized
fact
the
course
the
more
for
gases.
With
so
consists
constant
determined
be
must
for
equations
same
before
sole difference
246
VAPORS.
the
are
established
were
(Vol. I,
SUPERHEATED
OF
the
basis,
as
experimental
results.
In
with
derived
and
superheated
but
that
c^
'
of
regards
the
As
Cp
(44), after
and
The
of
Cp
led,
have
theory
of condition
and
the
c^
of
constant
are
that
in
the
and
same
are
to
way,
condition.^
variable
value
of
equation
(46)
with
the
specific
the
heat
of
help
Cp
we
equations
can
(47)
transformations:
simple
Cp"
that
assumption
would
by
equation
of the
other
equation
the
some
form
given
started
have
might
we
results
as
assumptions
the
is variable
it from
determine
problem
(50)
above
variable.
form
is
the
from
vapor
while
constant
whole
the
preceding equations
the
of gases
of
discussion
the
Cp=
(51)
l-(l-n)^^
The
formula
shows
superheat,
growing
the
constant
that
the
with
increasing temperature
difference
value
AB;
of
the
specific values
two
limit
the
T, i.e.,with
value
for
the
vapor
proaches
ap-
of
is
water
Cp-C|,=0.1201,
'
See
author's
Wasserd"mpfe.''
article, ''Uber
das
Zivilingenieur,
Vol.
Verbalten
Xill,
der
1867,
iiberhitzten
p.
347.
und
gemischten
246
TECHNICAL
and
from
THERMODYNAMICS.
because
this,
0.4805,
Cp-
limit
get the
we
value
of
c^:
As
for
get
substitute
must
we
the
the
water
pressiu-es
0.1289
0.1301
0.1335
0.1353
c^ =0.3538
0.3516
0.3504
0.3470
0.3452
1.3664
1.3713
1.3849
1.3920
1.3581
wa
(51), the
p:
atmospheres,
10
=0.1267
Cp-c^
=0.25
n=m
equation
from
assumed
the
to
0.5
p=0.1
of
vapor
saturation,
belonging
values
following
for
of
state
^=1.3333.
and
c,=0.3604
c
v
We
on
constant
hand
ratio
values
the
In
c"
not
for
any
contradict
for
nor
gases
just
found
beforehand
fixed
Let
us
now
magnitude
of
If
we
of
technical
on
p.
join
the
to
the
in
from
value
the
for
aforesaid
each
other
as-
the
foregoing
may
therefore
investigations
calculations
be
under
do
regarded
as
not
valid
limitations
the
224.
preceding
the
coefficient
substitute
condition
fact, and
use
investigations
determining
much
we
of water.
vapor
of
in
as
make
former
the
that
so
computations,
indeed
Cpic^;
slowly
experimental
no
differed
the
but
changes
directly, and
results
known
for
are
ratio
the
for
the
case
any
there
results
the
c^
approximate
value;
determined
acceptable
and
certain
mean
for
was
gases
specificheat
in
sometimes,
may
of
the
that
see
expansion
of
supplementary
equations
investigation
(67) and
of
term
(68),
one
on
superheated
R
Vol.
Cp*
I,
of
p.
the
vapors.
the
142,
tion
equathere
follows
B(a-ai,)
(l-n)Gp"
B(a-ap)=Cp'"
(52a)
(63a)
THE
Here
of
[491.4]
=273
of
expansion
called
EQUATIONS
HEAT
coefficient
of
change
itself
of
with
hence
is
superheated
the
and
a"
of
vapor
of
by
other
coeflBcient
value
of
at
latter
then
a^,
the
so-
with
hence
expansion
if the
volume;
the
of the
volume,
constant
coefficient
of
change
by
designated
at
the
Up
value
reciprocal
the
a^
gas,
247
VAPORS.
reciprocal
expansion
and
pressure,
pressure,
the
means
perfect
SUPERHEATED
OF
constant
coefficient
we
have
for
water
a,
^"
c-(l
(52)
"""...
-n)^p*
and
a"^p^
B
formulas
Both
for
give
L
a^
the
On
each
it is at
other;
coefficient
a^
for
kinds
ap
change
of
for
change
of
pressure;
of
for
from
finally
coefficients
two
different
and
gases
the
is
volume
of
the
formulas
two
than
greater
both
show
equations
expansion
the
greater
are
of
from
that
the
value
the
both
that
higher
the
considered.
These
all
are
experiments
which
evident
once
make
than
vapors
coefficients
the
pressure
his
for
greater
0,
[0.002035].
formulas
the
C"
0.003665
hand
other
expansion
ap
which
for
gases,
an
propositions
which
behavior
of
the
on
outline
was
in
given
I,
pp.
derived
1 1
bodies
gaseous
Vol.
and
97
and
from
concerning
98, of
this
treatise.
According
tabulation
for
on
to
p.
equations
238,
the
aforesaid
several
pressure
for
(52)
the
coefficients
values.
and
vapor
of
(53)
of
and
water
expansion
with
in
have
the
a
help
saturated
been
of
the
dition,
con-
computed
248
TECHNICAL
The
coeflScients, according
two
functions
only
therefore
but
Finally
total
as
(47), i.e.,if
of
for
when
225,
which
and
the
3^
increment
of
(44),
vapors.
help
of
equations
(30)
dp
BT^
^,
"-"dp-d(pv)+pv^,
eliminate
we
steam
as
dU:
energy
d(BT)
if
57,
with
the
help
of the
equation
of condition
get
we
dt7=^d(pt,)+^Cp"-idp
Here
be
of
the
for
but
the
alike,
m,
vapor
of
state
employ
we
^,,
dU
and
the
designated
saturated
get the
values
vapors,
were
with
AB
we
for
are
superheat.
considering
p.
(53),
numerical
only
not
and
superheated
quantities
heat
(52)
preceding
pressure
region
derive,
heat
the
given
the
equation (20),
From
and
for
also
equations
to
pressure;
the
at
of those
and
the
must
we
values
heat
of
valid
are
saturation,
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
of
vapor
and
if in
according
of
constants
two
water
addition
to
the
and
equation
are
these
water
we
substitute
(32), p.
still assumed
constants
the
232,
different;
as
found
were
constant
we
(54)
shall
get
in
to
place
for
the
equation
duJ^
(55)
THE
the
heat
and
Uo
in
then
for
work
also
can
132).
p.
likewise
the
written
be
imits
in
U, expressed
(55), and
equation
this equation
(Vol. I,
gases
249
VAPOR"
SUPERHEATED
inner
the
by
occurring
by Jo,
is valid
which
designate
we
OF
EQUATIONS
formula
same
If
HEAT
constant
as
J-Jo+j^l
If
we
compare
and
volume
this
steam
this
this
The
quantity
formula
preceding
in
of
weight
what
saturated
water
designated
was
on
vapor
(20)
p.
the
formulas
the
for
from
get
i.e.,the
volume
into
vapor
member
external
the
work;
of water,
we
as
can
the
same
latent
heat
last
the
water
value,
and
should
be
The
(56).
in
by adding
value
put
Apv
in
to
equation
Regnault
is also
found
the
valid
here
taken
heat
place
but
of
total
produce
superheated
constant
Apu
is here
little
Apu,
for
relation
dry
saturated
X,
heat
quantity
quantity
differs
substitute
we
under
[32^]
the
(56), which
the
so-called
order
0"
at
if
agreement
from
and
then
to
the
converted
for
the
get
^=-Jo+jÂpv,
which
two
Appendix.
water
equation
of
give
necessary
from
of
vapor
satisfactory
is found
p,
the
inner
the
equation
quantity
pressure
right
of
(56a)
must
q and
11
in
of
heat
thoroughly
heat
of
steam
liquid
[857]
476.11
saturation
steam
Table
Steam
We
Jo
the
of the
heat
of
state
27;
J-=q+p
For
p
that
i.e.,assume
by equation
there
pressure
contained
is
is therefore
considering
of
water
the
equal
J
quantity
expressed
was
then
heat
the
when
of
vapor
water,
more
in
(56)
[32"J temperature,
this
from
than
heat"
"steam
of 0"
water
much
[32**]."
0"
superheated
formed
was
steam
as
with
"how
states
the
of
(57)
steam
for
which
250
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
;i=606.5+
[A
or,
according
the
to
0.305
1091.7+
earlier
"
0.305(i-
32^)1
presentations, we
write
can
X^q+p+Apu
(57a)
4
As
also
can
the
for
ic=-r
be
of
vapor
water,
the
equations
two
and
(56)
(57)
written
J=476.11+3Apt;,
(566)
A=476.11+4Apv,
(576)
856.998+3^pv,"|
[A=856.998+4i4pi;.J
these
From
of
vapor
and
fifth
with
the
We
by
the
columns
see,
two
there
values
were
contained
following tabulation,
the
help
formulas
the
water
of
columns
two
of
from
methods
found
were
Table
11
of
comparison
of
in
while
from
the
determined
the
for
second
the
equations
values
and
in
(56a)
Appendix.
of
calculation,
the
that
fourth
the
and
third
(57a),
'
numerical
the
saturated
values
agreement,
obtained
within
the
252
TECHNICAL
ture
the
same
and
let
be
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
then
pressure,
of
tempsrature
total
the
heat
saturated
dry
of
X'
latter
the
of
steam
is
'-1
;'=Jo+Cp(r'--gp
).
"
If
subtract
we
this
[Fahrenheit], we
Celsius
to
equation
formula
utilizing Regnault's
or,
from
equation
and
the
(57c)
get
we
ing
accord-
temperature
get
;=(606.5+0.305O+Cpa-O
1091.7
[;i
=
an
equation
of
the
which
total
"
The
For
'
brought
been
of
for
out
on
there
ammonia
assumed
it
pp.
be
can
and
14
from
ammonia
the
vapor
beginning
should
mechanical
cold
of
and
ice,
machine
and
rest
so
of
Table
and
has
the
also
perature
tem-
already
saturated
of
termined,
de-
vapor
Appendix
those
of
at
aforesaid
the
that
on
for
also
and
this
that
1 1
pressure
formulas;
of
--AT%
and
design
between
from
values
the
vapor
17,
found,
pat
and
production
by empirical
temperatures,
study
in
important
relation
the
%
The
is
superheat
absorption
this
of
state
expressed
the
AMMONIA.
Carry's
experimentally,
and
calculation
the
machine.
compression
saturated
the
for
when
become
the
if)],
used
steam
in
use
of
medium
the
through
its
been
OF
has
of
because
often
VAPOR
ammonia
of
vapor
engineering
THE
32) +Cp(^
superheated
of
32.
and
long
has
heat
+0.305(/'
(57d)
a
as
machines
knowledge
certain
of
the
foundation
made
it apparent
behavior
as
of
possible.
THE
In
desired
was
of
heat
the
on
of
coeflBcient
the
liquid
the
with
and
within
on
of
the
lack
latent
the
information
existing
complete
of
observation
r, and
heat
superheated
sought
not
of
vapor
establish
to
of ammonia
vapor
of
help
started
basis
the
on
the
even
ammonia
assumption
the
subject
the
to
certain
theses
hypo-
physical values.
this
that
of
equation
fundamental
of
superficially known
some
from
bounds,
certain
the
known.
the
he
doing
so
was
and
therefore
the
for
equations
In
expansion
approximately
was
mentioned
there
scanty,
very
253
AMMONIA.
OF
first
engine
the
building
VAPOR
is,
vapor
condition
pv=BT-Cp^
determined
and
the
formula
Later
the
on
similar
in
equation
experiments
had
took
again
already
shown
the
up
the
from
the
this
that
Regnault.
investigations
of
constants
closely corresponding
There
C-
5=52.642,
to
for
in
preceding
the
certain
resulted
volume
different
for
v=s
specific volume
the
series
in
of
kg./sq.
The
the
of
constants
remark
that
expansion
*
"Cber
das
X,
des
Annales
'
r,
below
factor
of ammonia
"Th^rie
Mines,
Zur
Verha*ten
and
within
the
compute
different
is
the
gives
the
equation (58), and
the
ap
to
us
to
be
temperature
specific
temperatures;
taken
on
limits
the
ring
occur-
compressors.
quoted
article
n=0.3655].
ammonia
liquid
[0.0256]
ammonia
with
enabled
0.3655
n=
and
pressures
of
(7=0.0016
as
average
formula
preceding
the
that
and
29.783,
C=2571.44,
["=6663.27,
des
formula
water.
determined
way
by
of this
[Ib./sq. in.]:
cm.
so
for
author
,2 and
manner
hand;
on
permissible
was
and
B, C,
constants
material
experimental
(58)
des
de
Theorie
der
der
constant
k froid.''
of
the
connection
mainly
under
machines
livraison
in this
depends
vapor
course
on
the
calculation
need
we
only
coefficient
for
pressure,
Paris, Dunod.
of
of
which
Extrait
1878.
1878.
juillet-aoilt,
Kalt-Dampfmaschinen.
Ammoniakd"mp'e
'*
With
Zivilingenieur
1881,
supplement,
p.
449.
254
value
there
assumed
was
other
constants
experiments
which
ammonia
gas
at
formulas
empirical
experiments
no
and
derived
were
which
0.00390,
ap=
because
great uncertainty
of
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
from
had
constant
temperature.
found
for
the
given
the
for
involves
course
hand
; the
results
of
on
were
Regnault
were
of
some
compression
the
Then
following
the
saturated
two
of
vapor
monia
am-
the
latent
outer
heat:
i4pw-30.248+0.06938
[Ajm^
the
54.4464
^-0.000235
0.06938(i
latent
inner
32)
(59)
"2
("
0.000131
32^)2] ;
heat:
(60)
/"=284.617-0.71241i-0.004479"2
[p
The
512.3106
specific heat
of
0.71241
liquid
[c
of the
heat
the
help
saturated
below
temperatures
In
F.]).
"22"
continued
for
and
since
have
chines,
and
inclined
to
of
which
many
Although
the
without
the
an
0"
in
numerical
were
could
vapors
of
of
to
with
developed
under
have
the
table
C.
book
C.
were
relate
[from
the
[32"
for
+23"
table
104"
to
to
is
F.],
calculating refrigerating mia-
values
be
Appendix
this
40"
columns
the
-30"
to
although
success,
objection
ammonia
-5^
editions
used
much
of
8
half
upper
from
several
the
Table
[32"] (from
earlier
the
underlying formulas
the
("- 32"")],
+0.00233(^-32"")2].
in
in
0"
been
employ
(61)/
(62)
formulas
ammonia
temperatures
not
be
to
"
0.00468
^2^^].
+0.004189^2
these
values
the
calculated;
to
of
vapor
found
+0.008378
[g=1.01235("-32^)
the
0.00249(i
liquid
7=1.01235
With
was
1 .0135
32^)
ammonia
-1.0135
and
{t
raised
been
must
we
some
used
hesitation,
hypotheses
from
the
a
be
always
for
against
beginning.
great deal,
we
had
THE
wait
to
quite
t
and
to
second
The
furnished
of
part
by
and
C.
by
these
experiments
Appendix
contains
they naturally
inspire
the
finally,
C. [32" F.].
0"
of
conducted
Unfortunately
above
Table
concerning them;
were
public*
temperatures
253
AMMONIA.
experiments
made
were
OF
clarifying experiments
such
recently,
confined
are
for
longest
VAPOR
data
the
more
fidence
con-
In
other
hypotheses.
on
therefore
such
first
the
purpose
but
cases
the
at
to
fall
back
8
old
is adduced
go
is
there
the
on
must
we
time
present
Table
of
part
however,
regards
the
volume
values
here
by
of
0"
to
data
"
saturated
tables,
with
[0.0256]
Dietrici
mind,
gives
i=
think
the
utilizingthe
and
therefore
elsewhere
the
[266.9"],
for
the
according
omit
we
table
volume
values
the
for
connecting
calculation
the
only
have
substitute
can
we
ammonia
+104"]
to
of
specific
130.6"
of
5 represent
formula.
the
for
in column
vapor
[32"
+40"
empirical
machines
in
purpose
values
the
results;
an
only
we
refrigerating
0.0016
'
experimental
given
As
temperatures
the
to
specific
different
purely
on
the
of
liquid
and
critical
nical
tech-
average
to
up
(7=
ammonia.
the
perature
tem-
temperature
ammonia.
found
Dietrici
for
the
specific heat
of
liquid ammonia!
c=1.118+0.00208^
[c=1.118+0.001156("-32")],
and
hence
for
the
of
heat
the
liquid
q^fcdt^l.118
i+0.00104
fi
r?=/cd"-1.118a-32")
+0.000578"which
from
*
no
results.
As
of
in
resource
which
the
and
[32" F.],
0"
older
based
results
calculating refrigerating machines,
below
for
older
the
than
tlber
Zeitschrift
column
die
thermischen
fiir die
gesamte
is
320)2!
calculated.
und
kalorischen
K"lte-Industriei
Eigenscbaften
1904.
des
Ammoniaks.
of
256
TECHNICAL
latent
The
heat
and
r,
in columns
Dietrici
values
exact
more
THERMODYNAMICS.
according
the
to
and
Apu
7, 8, and
for
and
is
in
values
by
accuracy
and
10
latent
the
take
"
For
THE
33.
equations
the
liquid,
in
and
basis
Later
1
there
will
that
be
the
given
and
up
Vol.
CIV,
its
in
form
p.
T^tat
1563.
de
the
as
condition
liquide
et
so
edition
the
de
s,
vapor
vapors
of
vapeur
saturde.^'
sideration;
con-
as
of
liquid
i 1
phurous
sul-
these
following investigations;
the
present
it
was
sulphurous
of water
''Recherches
of
saturation;
of
the
of
up
under
results
doing, however,
of the
with
t h
3d
set
of
experiments
specific weight
of
to
heat
known.
were
experimental
the
in
In
the
that
establish
the
was
compression
the
the
for
and
heat,
vapor
starting-point
of condition
latent
data
vapor
equation
and
sufficient
to
attempt
equations
ammonia
when
table.
same
to
ACID.
the
the
outer
on
the
steam
'Cailletet
sulfureux
and
used
were
with
expressed
made
derive
to
known
of
the
that, according
say
SULPHUROUS
remaining
made
be
they
setting
Mathias^
acid
results
few
of
V^fe-^
Regnault's
became
and
the
only
be
can
OF
discussed
used
he
will
calculation
the
36.426Vi*-0
inner
form
about
[266.9"].
acid
the
said
27.65
condition
of
for
the
we
VAPOR
sulphurous
the
table
130.5"
"*=
"t,
"
formula
[r
we
11;
heat
when
be
empirical
the
at
to
nothing special
Dietrici,
purpose
his
of
assumption
this
by
formula
known
columns
calculated
are
the
for
using
There
under
a,
well,
as
sur
and
la
for
assumed
acid
could
of ammonia,
density
Comptes
book
de
rendus,
Tacide
1887,
THE
and
under
heat
the
of
this
of
SULPHUROUS
formulas
assumption
for
t,
existed.
for the
of
t h
experimental results mentioned,

can
is
calculated
be
only valid
for
saturated
interval
temperature
is sufficient
for the
engine running;
superheated
from
the
The
have
of
following tabulation
and
of
cu.
m.
in
omitted
i a s,
t h
kg. [1
in the
cu.
9 of
in
third
of
have
vapors
this
respect
experimental
gives
the
11.2
37.5
16.9
45.4
21.8
58.2
31.0
78.7
46.4
91.0
62.6
45.14
61.70
0.532
76.46
0.699
99.50
1.055
113.72
1.361
136.76
1.935
173.66
2.900
195.80
3.908
"
Comptes
rendus,
t=
t=
1894,
Vol.
dix
AppenTable
the
limited
this
found
in
of
departing
CXIX,
pp.
results
temperatures.
Acid.
Sulphurous
r=0.389
the
specificweight
8.58
24.7
the
edition.
the
and
by
special investigation
acid,
the
+104"], because
to
for
on
on
the
for
ft. in lb.])for different
r=6.24
7.3"
drawing
hypothesis.
these
includes
Vapor
16.5
"=+
[-22'
and
filled
been
is calculated
which
sulphurous
presentations given
Saturated
"=+
here
liquid q
by
to any
and
specific
the
experiments
Table
Steam
+40"
to
that
for
the
also
has
so
recourse
application
we
s,^
of
reliable
gap
the
vapor
-30"
vapor
Cailletet
(weight
without
derived
heat
no
this
Meanwhile
257
ACID.
were
this time
to
up
experiments
recent
OF
liquid sulphurous acid
entropy
value
VAPOR
404-407.
of
y
258
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
Liquid
Acid
Sulphurous
underthe
Corresponding
sure
SteamPres
Temperature:
the
to
critical
The
to
amoimts
and
steam
pressure
corresponding
for
abscissas
as
For
acid
the
use
p.
and
calculation
made
was
14
when
temperature
of
^Sajotschewsky,
zu
Wiedemann's
for
of
[122"]
gives perfectly
*'
Annalen,
1879,
was
formula,
Vol.
the
p. 209
on
off the
steam
draw
discussed
empirical
Dampfspannungen
the
can
we
pressure
reliable
saturated
the
t h
temperatures
ordinates.
Appendix
this
and
determine
and
as
saturation
the
they lay
y
[312.8"];
same
know
we
manner,
Regnault's
of
+60"
the
the
of
addition,
specificweights
the
volume
Cailletet
curve,
of
Table
tschewsky,^
bl"tter
the
in
is
tabulation
temperature
acid.
limit
the
the
acid
carbonic
in
166"
ft.].
cu.
preceding
specific
If,
to
sulphurous
of
picture
the
liquid.
the
considering
give
on
of
the
"a
liquid
lb. per
[32.46
be
to
and
vapor
in
given
reciprocals
curve
when
of
their
through
of
cbm.
kg.*per
values
The
limit
520
found
was
specific weight
the
here
temperature
set
of
formula
up;
according
values,
but
ges"ttigter
III| p. 741
sulphurous
at
given
to
up
to
higher
Dampte
ji
the
tem-
Bei-
260
TECHNICAL
From
THERMODYNAMICS.
formula
preceding
the
of
get
we
dp
J.
Apu
and
with
this,
from
calculate
the
is
values
22"
There
help
the
following
[Apu"=
14.814
values
Apu
68"
we
"-
14.9544J
empirical
formula
0.000460
(64"
("- 32") -0.000256
+0.0165
9,
86"
15.0768
the
+0.0165
4, Table
14.8140
with
Col.
of
32"
13.8888
ilptt=8.230
for
the
for
good agreement
Uptt=
of
-6"
13.239
pdV
("-32")2],
this gives for
2V
-6^
Li4pti=13.1778
The
combination
relation
r^^p+Apu
latent
furnish
volume
14.8140
the
(63)
and
formula
following
14.9598J
15.0768
equations
two
86"
and
(64)
for
the
inner
the
the
(-30"
a
82.970-0.2740^-0.002915^2
compute
can
of
149.346
to
of
the
(65)
....
the
saturation
t\ for
here
the
68"
heat:
\p
values
13.8888
of
We
32^
0.2740("
value
32")
from
pressure
and
0.00162
equation
for
the
closely lying temperature
4-40") [-22"
sulphurous
acid
to
as
104"]
we
constant,
{t
32")2].
(64)
for
different
corresponding
limits
can
treat
and
can
which
the
take
perature
tem-
arise
specific
it to
be
THE
"7=
0.0007
[0,00112];
of
specificweight
it the
then
we
get
from
and
follows:
as
vapor,
and
v=u+0
volume
specific
the
saturated
the
261
ACID.
SULPHUROUS
OF
VAPOR
/'=
u+a
The
been
from
computed
For
gives
values
corresponding
the
the
heat
specific
of
of
of
for
for
wide
the
the
of
according
narrow
table
our
-20"
to
+130"
temperature
limits
-30"
to
+40"
this
help
+0.000554
=0.3171
["4"
to
[-22"
to
calculate
accuracy,
+0.000308(i
the
get for
we
formula
0.3171
sufficient
with
can,
simple
the
to
limits
we
[c
with
(64a)
.
temperature
and
+0.00000209(^-32
rc=^=0.31712
+0.0001948(^-32")
+104"]
t h
(2
+0.000006762
266"];
formula
the
valid
acid
liquid sulphurous
c=^=:0.31712+0.0003507"
as
have
Appendix
the
formulas.
above
c
Table
heat
of
32")],
liquid
the
+0.000277
q^fcdt'Ô.Snit
(65a;
Iq fcdt
-
and
for
the
saturation,
0.1762(i
entropy
we
of
32") +0.0000855("
liquid sulphurous
acid,
32")2l
-
at
the
pressure
of
have
/cdt
-=0.00055
Y
" -0.93061
+0.3820
logioT
(66)
...
262
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
rT=/^^=0.000306("-32")
-0.83310+0.3820
Columns
and
6 and
(66);
we
from
see
nearly constant,
suggested by
"
34.
It
condition
set
the
was
of
vapors
assumption
the
be
used
for
the
and
earlier
had
tet
Cailleeditions
form
was
of
the
with
the
found
to
as
concerning
for
starting-
the
acid
equation
of
and
by
carbonic
calculations
of
Cailletet
by
approximate
with
these
equations
Later
the
This
technical
first subjected
studies
doing, however,
same
was
as
was
vapor
217).
in
are
ACID.
experiments
so
ammonia.
for
completely
In
that
could
and
water
and
(65)
quantity.
constant
and
utilized
question.
T=at,
theoretical
experiments
were
differences
examination,
the
still further
of condition
equation
answer
of the
treatment
point
t h
the
set
acid
for
211
recent
more
and
a
carbonic
basis
(pp.
formulas
CARBONIC
Clausius,
them
Hautefeuill.e,
and
OF
experimental
and
utilize
to
represents
that
the
that
11
from
approximately
VAPOR
to
by
up
in Col.
where
p. 209
on
calculated
were
may
r,
THE
Waals
der
the
furnished
experiments
occasion
we
Andrews
by
van
1 1 i
values
the
that
so
stated
was
of Table
11
^1.
logio
the
vapor
of water.
conditions
But
did
want
not
therefore
and
(cold-vapor),
showed
temperature
temperature,
and
and
^Cailletet
liqu^fi^s
et
de
leure
values
arise
often
exceed
will
vapeure
values
limit
t h
satur^s."
s.
of
been
question
C.
20"
to
I
be
[68" F.],
of
temperature
acid
engine
extensively employed,
based
were
although
carbonic
the
on
which
in
critical
the
tenable, for,
not
were
had
which
assumptions
of condition
equation
interval
in the
that
of
observations
still the
which
numerical
vicinity
the
acid;
carbonic
temperature
upper
in
not
[88.43" F.],
31.35"
soon
the
beyond
employed
and
formulas
the
with
different
are
with
the
close
are
the
on
simple
engines
to
the
tioned,
men-
critical
it.
''Recherches
Comptes
sur
rendus,
les
Vol.
density
CII,
1886,
des
p.
gaz
1202.
VAPOR
THE
In
results
1 1 i
table
steam
carbonic
A
for
vapor,
'
thus
is
of
basis
xxiii, and
this
and
table
gives,
if this
weight,
and
C.
from
[88.43" F.],
value
is
[32" F.]
up
relative
the
designated
by
obtained
were
the
the
Tk
19.32,
(7
171.936,
the
o
Vol.
rcndus,
Industrie.
technisch
II.
year,
values
11 i
4970.45,
of
to
specific
Column
in
Column
that
these
of
8
9
are
were
duced
repro-
1892,
die
wichtiger
pp.
p.
point
1093.
the
at
de
If p
s.
is estimated
la
and
.5=0.0007719
and
density
des
critique
See
also
de
Vol.
85.
Zeitschrift
point,
gaz
die
so
that
de
et
liquefi(!''es
I'acide
CXIII,
der
fiir
0.012365].
critical
Eigenschaften
Dftmpfe."
and
0.032631,
kalorischen
66
du
"
=0.002037,
=
(67)
"""""""
determination
CXIV.
1895.
perature
tem-
respect
is the
7 and
finds
temperature
fcl^ments
"C'ber
*Mollier,
saturated
Ce^~n
19.36,
la
satur^s.
vapeurs
anderer
the
from
of Column
substitute
absolute
"Sur
Âmagat,
Comptes
by
must
we
signifies the
leurs
of
of condition
equation
atmospheres,
[5
great
"
values
"t.
"
proposed
B=
10
critical
with
1000
P^li^'JUT^'
in
No.
with
for
the
weight
then
e,
furthermore,
f or
was
up
1-00161
BT
which
set
engines
and
to
is calculated
specific volume
the
10, and,
by
has
under
cold-vapor
plied
sup-
reliable
more
employed
acid,
0"
1000
determined
be
can
carbonic
_J_
Table
in
Appendix
the
judging
liquid
for
degree
every
water;
this
acid
experiments,
such
in
been
have
variety.
31.35"
From
experimental
bases
the
carbonic
of
reproduced
263
ACID.
comprehensive
and
the
on
calculating
acid
and
in
confidence
CARBONIC
behavior
the
which
xxii
pages
known/
presenting
fashion;
on
become
have
for
interval,
the
OF
carbonique."
1891.
Kohlensfiure
gesamte
und
Kalte-
264
THERMODYiNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
+31.35=304.35"
n=273
[32"],
C.
upon
observed
differ
somewhat
rapidly
finds
and
14
A
by
table
for
0"
beyond
temperatures
the
temperatures
and
experiments
according
but
nished
fur-
they
in columns
saturation
values
of Table
limits
temperature
from
pressures
Regnault,
of
and
Regnault
to
the
t; the
those
the
adduced
pressures
17,
from
between
were
in
10
the
question
increase
and
employed.
less
1 1 i
formula
the
that
to
older
the
on
calculated
pages
newly
drew
saturation
the
not
are
only
supplement
to
r,
relate
connection.
regards
4, these
[32" F.],
good
As
1 1 i
0"
below
data
data
Amagat's
As
[547.8"].
^-l)
100
0.221
(68)
1
-
[p=42.2066(jg^-l)J
gives
good
in
Columns
values
the
the
have
with
agreement
kg.
and
[lb.
cm.
sq.
per
calculated;
were
11, 12, and
of Columns
arises
the
to
may
fi,s
of
M
be
be
and
'
data
there
where
this
is
pressed
ex-
values
the
of
follow, furthermore,
13, because
is
i.e.,we
known,
dA
the
liquid
1 1 i
derived
regarded
heat
of
experimentally,
g and
the
quantities
these
o
encountered
specific
the
determined
determine
manner
will
difficulty
here;
heat
values
same
been
yet
in.]. With
sq.
The
obtains
somewhat
for
the
in
present
with
liquid
carbonic
we
entropy
an
here
more
above
cannot
t,
as
and
way.
has
In
follows,
reliable
not
directly
formula
what
thoroughly
now
therefore
must
fundamental
briefly in
acid
compute
approximate
a
ammonia
for
try
clever
which
and
this
technical
THE
to
the
Of
(III6)
here
for
purposes,
VAPOR
CARBONIC
OF
hypothetical assumptions
the
265
ACID.
reduced
been
have
minimum.
identical
three
the
of Vol.
I,
143,
p.
equations (45),
heat
utilize the
we
second
243,
p.
in the
form
equation
or
following
investigations,namelyi
AT
(69)
dQ--c^t+'^dv
dp
In
formula
this
variables,
For
book.
t and
works;
In
where,
t and
avoid
be
constant
v,
hence
be
treated
v)
as
dv=0,
the
present
simpler
did
pendent
inde-
as
to
in
treat
all
his
such.
obtain, respectively,
we
indicates
the
nitude
mag-
during differentiation.
constant
as
for
subscript affixed
the
treated
as
p^F{t,
or
confusion,
is to
also
can
it is
however,
purposes,
regarded
practice throughout
our
variables,
t=f(p, v)
case
which
For
been
independent
naturally
to
has
as
been
hitherto
have
following
the
as
the
and
the
two
formulas
preceding
give
and
hence, for
combination
of the
/*\
two,
1_
\dp),
/dp\'
\dt/.
Since
for
our
\-r)
is identical
further
purposes,
with
from
the
earlier
notation
equation (69), with
-î
t
there
and
follows
as
pendent
inde-
variables,
dQ=c^+AT(^)dv
(69a)
266
TECHNICAL
an
notation
former
our
function
as
is the
in
or
P,
entropy
from
134),
p.
be
integrated
t and
of
order
1 1 i
weight
heat
function
aim,
of
equation
the
always
can
entropy
for
(Vol. I,
which
expression
the
follows
there
Accordingly
THERMODYNAMICS.
r.
that
we
But
in
obtain
may
so
will
nish
fur-
determination
the
v]
which
and
doing
we
of
mental
funda-
the
remark
must
that
here
then
AP
We
and
be
must
is the
have,
conceived
from
units
in
entropy
equation
measured
as
in
units
of
and
work,
of heat.
(70), for
constant
temperature,
this
from
''-/(t).'*-^'""
where
f(t) represents
By
differentiation
constant
there
function
temperature
of
this
equation
with
to be
"")
determined.
respect
to
and
is found
m.-fmand
on
the
other
hand,
from
equation
(70),
dP\
(dtj,
hence
from
combination
of
the
^V
_
AT'
two
formulas
we
.x./(S)*...fl.
have
....
(.,
26S
TECHNICAL
and
this
is the
according
K
have
equation
Joly,
to
should
the
v^(T,
be
value
AP
In
different
of
entropy
like
saturated
the
should
we
substitute
we
for
Table
to
stant
con-
acid, i.e.,for
should,
we
integration
carbonic
when
according
10,
also
value
the
the
get
we
acid, i.e.,
of carbonic
vapor
this
In
r.
liquid
if
manner
and
therefore
temperatures,
the
for
that
and
t,
1 1 i
c"' =0.16577
chosen
==
given by
take
so
AP=T=0.
v=s
THERMODYNAMICS.
ilP=T+y.
In
this
for
way
different
1 1 i
with
r,
temperatures
of
help
the
values
of
series
equation
liquid
for
lated
calcu-
(76),
car-
bonic
and
acid
for
carbonic
and
laid
acid
off
law
mixture
and
the
let
and
vapor
entropy
be
the
ordi-
adjacent
shows
the
If
change.
we
mixture
quality,
steam
the
the
ABC
imagine
liquid
and
the
of
26)
entropies
temperatures
curve
result
the
nates;
vapor,
the
abscissas,
the
t+^
(Fig.
graphically
making
of
then
of
for
this
is
xr
AP
(see p.
values
become
through
the
we
64),
of
In
x.
almost
the
point
that
so
now
exactly
of
draw
can
it is
doing
so
point
we
that
seen
straight line
bisection
corresponding
D
to
the
the
of
for
BD
the
x=i
(Fig. 26),
distance
the
for
curves
critical
AC
two
which
and
temperature.
different
curves
passes
through
With
it
find
1
T=0.10155+0.000333"-2f
(77)
[
and
this
from
Table
are
Col.
of
values
the
calculated
15;
10.
1 1 i
Col.
10
the
mean
of
The
(f
from
[32"]
liquid carbonic
of
equation
(77)
interval
the
the
the
of
heat
liquid
of
values
and
by
acid
is calculated
Col.
simmiing
of
by
15
the
up
on.
specific heat
with
the
of
differences
the
temperature
of
values
the
calculated
multiplying
by
products
and
formula
simple
-| ^1,
(i-32^)
+0.000185
T=0.10155
269
ACID.
CARBONIC
OF
VAPOR
THE
from
it becomes
0.000333
ar-ir^(^)
0.000185
r-ir"i-
(78)
dt
1 1 i
tinds
that
sufficientlywell
be
can
by
reproduced
the
empirical formula
r=a7'"(rfc-r)",
when
we
substitute
with
[547.83],and
[0.6816], n=0.43,
o-l.lS
this
follows
there
=0.000185
For
example,
-10"
t^-QXf
c-
we
0.437
0.473
get from
0"
0.529
equation
(78)
+0.285^
+0.215y-^
C-0.000333T
[c
from
rt=304.35
and
(78a)
.
jtÎ
+0.215
+0.285^
this formula
+10"
0.621
for
+20"
+30"
+31"
0.833
2.505
5.269
+31.35"
w
270
TECHNICAL
Finally
calculate
can
we
From
and
equation
in
accordance
of
and
with
c/=
These
the
specific
heat
calculated
be
can
c"
equation (85)
of
help
for
different
values
c^=0.1791
0.1842
0.1908
0.2052
[f=
32"
50"
68"
values
of
of
of
member
which
and
of
for
of
second
the
condition
of
course
essentially
in
assumed
according
taken,
and
depend
they
equation
the
88.43].
vapor
function
here
was
86"
certain,
temperature
0.2118
saturated
dry
to
very
as
the
right
the
208)
relate
regarded
Tk,
+31.35"
+30"
Cv
and
a,
get for
we
0"
C,
constants
+20"
form
the
given
above
the
+10"
be
cannot
p.
with
0.16577,
i=
term
with
which
example,
with
on
the
vapor
V.
For
and
acid
is determined
there
(76a)
this follows
from
carbonic
for
volume.
constant
Cp at
TflERMODYNAMICa
(see " 28,
to
van
T
W
1 s,
in
considered
for
0.182
C=
"
acid
the
These
values
added
to
of the
steam
values
entrance
as
be
Ct,
was
is
constant
proposed
by
Col.
value
mean
of
volume,
constant
11 i
only
heated
super-
r.
noted.
Table
Mollier's
represent
at
region
region, which
the
use
superheated
the
this
to
calculations,
vapor,
is to
into
over
pass
specific heat
the
following
I have
we
the
at
technical
carbonic
The
If
^.
perhaps,
may
we
as
heat
the
(see
p.
magnitude
10
28) according
AU,
where
17, containing
formula
to
the
is the
inner
THE
work
or
values
In
of
energy
of
behavior
the
mind
he
gat
of
in
the
give,
of
in
for
vapor
the
to
lar
tabu-
closer
investigation
field, bearing
involved
calculating
in
widely
and
so
results
experimental
form,
in
in
variety;
cold-vapor
the
tabular
These
vapor.
superheated
comprehensive
the
superheated
the
of
subjected
machines
acid
vicinity of
requirements
use
which
acid
acid
made
doing
1 1 i
carbonic
judging carbonic
ma
theoretical
the
in the
271
ACID.
carbonic
saturated
dry
article
CARBONIC
OF
greatly only
vary
later
VAPOR
of
specific volumes
the
differing
and
pressures
temperatures.
engines
If
will
we
we
from
to
certain
by
t' +
of
cold-vapor
and
energy
limit
the
the
of
entropy.
sponding
corre-
curve,
designate its
energy
temperature
by t^
volume
the
the
will be
entropy
fp
ft
values
different
obtained
the
determine
When
for
the
halb
III.
v, and
volume
the
as
be
for
calculations
it is
now
functions
only
of
magnitudes
AU
and
AP,
volumes
greater
than
are
(81)
computed
Similar
temperatures.
values
the
therefore
can
other
every
the
(80)
ilP-T'+^,+Cl0g*7iv,
which
then
at
energy
AC7=g'V+c,("-0,
and
by
value
the
have
the
and
and
^,
constant
i will
for
volume,
steam
under
temperature
formulas
the
particular point
its entropy
heating
following consideration
the
give
now
start
"l -i-p',and
for
for
preparation
In
particular v
be
can
question
and
t in
order
0.00167
of
and
for
for
made
representing
directly
to
1 1 i
gives
energy
des
year,
1 1 i
'*
r,
Uber
die
kalorischen
S"ttigungsgebietes."
1896,
pp.
65
and
90.
Eigenschaften
Zeitschrift
fur
die
der
Kohlensaure
gesamte
ausser-
Kalte-Industrie,
272
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
ilt;-.56.6
-î^
"
[at7
(82a)
'
-^^^jg+0.182(t -32)],
101.88
+0.182
+0.001
0.00167
for v"
56.6-^^+0.182
il t7-
(826)
"
17=101.88-^
[il
+0.182"-32")],
for the
and
entropy
ilP-0.1281ogio("-0.00085)
logio (" -0.013616)
[AP=0.128
When
make
we
be
may
the
the
vq"
0.00085,
(83a)
last
the
equation
is constant
entropy
of
equation
0.562
.
.(836)
logio 7'("-jJo)'"-1.1844].
for
adiabatic
the
adiabatic
the
of
it follows
curve,
carbonic
superheated
Constant
r(v-Vo)'*=
also
we
will
logio 7-0.8234].
0.562
acid
vapor
If
+0.42
logio r(t)-"o)'"-
[AP=0.42
that
logio T-
written
ilP-0.42
Since
and
0.3048
m"
+0.42
AU
make
get, approximately,
If
we
is 7"
temperature
by 2/, we
from
start
get
from
in
constant
the
any
and
for
of the
which
of
the
if
we
the
and
(82a)
isodynamic
limit
curve
specificvolume
(826);
we
curve.
for
s
is
which
the
designated
equation (84a)
compress
(846)
^vo)
r~\v
Accordingly
equations
course
point
(84a)
dry
saturated
carbonic
acid
vapor
THE
VAPOR
adiabatically/
with
aliso
later
the
the
be
on
for
then
computed
help
found
to
the
return
the
of
equation
terminal
to
at
the
of
of
condition
p.
pressure
use
end
the
these
273
ACID.
value
any
temperature
of
CARBONIC
OF
formulas.
will
p.
263,
be
be
can
and
compression,
the
(67),
There
there
whatever
there
opportimity
can
APPLICATIONS.
and
Reversible
Non-reversible
Changes
Vapor
"35.
THE
form
Let
initial
at
let
then
the
for
give
once
thermals
mate
approxi-
an
isothermal
the
in
and
be
curve.
temperature
quantities
these
for
the
for
the
equations
two
and
Tiy
and
v,
p,
found
have
volume,
pv^BT-Cp''
at
of
ADIA-
STEAM.
we
course
pressure,
and
condition,
which
the
be
Ti
condition,
final
condition
gives
once
AND
SUPERHEATED
FOR
of
and
Vi,
pi,
ISODYNAMIC,
CURVE
equation
The
Superheated
Water.
of
ISOTHERMAL,
BATIC
of
by
piVi^BT'i-Cpi'^
subtraction,
of
equation
the
iso-
the
pv=PiVi+C(pi'"-p~),
where
be
must
in
accordance
with
on
p.
237,
and
we
n=
The
weight
from
of
the
equations
=-T
steam
while
pressure
(50),
it
pi
p.
which
quantity
heat
to
K-1
of
data
-the
substitute
must
Ti
(1)
is
and
must
passing
the
pressure
k=-^.
supplied
be
under
to
constant
is
found
unit
the
temperature
from
the
244:
274
third
of
276
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
the
in the
change
heat
steam
/ -J,
and
the
external
last two
values
If
then
in
external
work
state
of
is reached
saturation
intersects
curve
constant
The
steam,
i.e.,
further
the
point
the
ft-lb.].
pressure,
of
pression
com-
will
steam
of
tion
intersec-
belonging
pressure
the
inner
the
with
the
vapors
with
Accordingly,
of
[231245
with
saturation
curve
consequently
constant.
equation
curve
to
Ui "2884
"
superheated
condensation
the
isodynamic
is constant;
be
with
mkg.
certain
Ti.
temperature
the
at
be
to
interior
-31970
corresponding
identical
the
with
limit
the
pressure
pressure
course
With
the
consumed
the
place.
also
B.t.u.].
compression
the
[135.7236
of isothermal
is of
to
work
is found
heat,
think
under
take
for the
of
units
Cal.
give for the
B.t.u.],
[12.2436
we
isothermal
the
in
-75.402
[20860 ft-lb.],and
mkg.
Cal.
-6.802
measured
work,
ilL
The
is
J'^Ji,
work
or
energy
J
heat
steam
equation
(3)
will
becomes
isodynamics
(5)
pv^PiVi,
and
hence
the
heat
be
to
is
supplied
QÂL=ApiVi\oge^
Hence
does
the
is
rapidly during
isothermal.
condition,
panjring
the
equilateral hyperbola,
an
coincide
here
not
more
the
curve
with
expansion
Moreover,
because
the
along
the
change
the
gases;
pressures
from
of
change
in
as
isodynamic
the
follows,
there
pv^piVi,
isodynamic
isothermal,
(6)
the
than
but
sinking
along
expands
Dry,
isod3mamically,
saturated
temperature
accom-
it is
of state, and
for
example
steam
by
of
equation
(7)
Ti-T~(pin^pn)
Example.
it
of
Pi"
flowing
atmospheres
into
vacuum
pressure
chamber
till the
terminal
initial
the
final
and
the
end
the
initial
adiabatic
The
p.
231
have
to
substitute
/"
Here
in
1.333
is
of
from
it is evident
of
place
to
that
times
ing
accord-
computed,
be
to
be
[305.996**F.],
the
238, and
p.
The
is found
with
of
now
heated
super-
amounts
33.34"
that
is
steam
pressure
accordingly
to
more
[60.012"].
found
steam
was
gases,
only
on
must
we
1.410.
/c=
the
152.22^
/i"
superheated
agreeing
course
to
atmospheric
at
curve
on
[272.012**].
133.34"
superheating
[212?]; the
100"
is t
end
is five
expansion
can
according
Here,
[33.984** F].
amounts
its temperature
because
than
temperature
the
at
temperature
table
help of the
"" -^-18.88"
When
of the
277
CURVE.
atmosphere.
"
fall of temperature
the
(7), with
the
at
ADIABATIC
AND
to
volume
volume,
equation
to
amounts
pressure
the
(5),
equation
of
ISODYNAMIC,
ISOTHERMAL,
THE
first of
equations
(50),
p. 244,
that
whendQ=0
(8)
pv'^^PiVi'^,
:and
this
from
expansion,
find
we
the
work
produced
L,
during
adiabatic
be
to
L=^"^(piVi-pv)
Superheated
Example.
of the
of p
pressure
"
C.
^=300"
temperature
atmosphere.
from
Pi
"
atmospheres
to
the
(8) gives
equation
-3.344
and
pressiire
adiabatitially down
[572" F.] expands

Here
i;
and
of
steam
(9)
Vi,
equation
"-i
there
follows
r -384.2"
[r -691.56"
The
heat
is still
steam
amounts
is found
to
from
superheated
10.2"
C.
according
^[8.1488] and
V-
to
1.7008
(-110.2"
or
"
the
at
[18.36" F.].
The
C.
-230.36"
end
F.].
of the
work
expansion
produced
per
and
unit
the
of
super
weight
(9) to be
equation
L
because,
or
-26117
the
mkg.
equation
[27.2450].
of
[85687
ft-lb.],
condition,
it is foimd
that
Vi
"0.5087
278
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
If
we
limit
the
the
compare
it is
curve,
of
course
adiabatic
the
that, approximately,
seen
with
curve
both
of
that
obey
the
same
law.
For
limit
the
there
curve
found
was
with
great
the
accuracy
relation
pv'^-D,
where
in
(each
atmospheres
Now
because
adiabatic
ic
than
intersect
In
at
Fig.
27
coordinates
section
Vi
Tô
we
and
po
than
greater
limit
pressure
it follows
v,
both
axis
the
approaches
curve;
let
dd
and
then
pi,
have
given by
be
steam
the
was
that
abscissas
of
will
curves
the
therefore
for
the
point
adiabatic
the
let
and
curve
to
the
of
state
Ti
possessing
the
point
the-
of inter-
equation
poVo*,
coordinates
the
represent
vo
limit
the
represent
Piri*
where
the
particular point.
superheated
the
is
expansion
the
when
kg. [2116.3 lb.]).
1.333
"
[32.670]
1.7049
10333
during
curve
rapidly
more
Z"=
and
1.0646
(10)
of
the
point
of intersec-
tion.
On
the
for
hand,
other
limit
the
poV
from
and
po
and
vq
Let
E
the
us
two
equations
that
suppose
is determined
from
-D,
from
the
calculate
now
can
of intersection
point
of the
we
curve,
the
coordinates
Tq.
given
values
px
and
the
Vi
value
relation
the
PiVi'^Ê,
then
we
(11)
find
log
log
Vo=
po=
-0.8622906
H- 3.7216
+1.1496935-3.9620
log E,
log ";,
(12a"
(126)
and
log (povo)
+0.2874029
-0.2404
log E,
(12c)
THE
ISOTHERMAL,
where
and
in
given
also
adiabatic
initial
the
final
the
taken
foare
first place
li v"
in
279
CURVE.
and
logarithm
g g
ADIABATIC
both
the
sures
pres-
atmospheres
and
p "po,
then,
have
the
found
from
equation (9)
where
p and
On
the
sign
that
if
contrary,
within
TqT
is
be
to
in
limit
kg.
have
to
are
is to
the
pi;*=
expansion
we
adiabatic
the
final
the
estimated
be
to
are
vq.
for
of
work
in the
relation
the
and
pi
and
are
t'l, and
v, then
po
we
there
and
pi
calculate
or
Vq
values
PiVi'j
course
expansion
values
we
condition,
AND
kg. [2116.31 lb.]).
(at 10333
If
is the
logarithm
the
pi
ISODYNAMIC,
per
"i;o
will
curve
be
[lb. per
m.
p"
or
this
and
curve,
different
ft.].
sq.
then
po,
limit
the
through
cut
sq.
is
its
(Fig. 27)
for
,
from
the
of intersection
point
pv''
substitute
where
we
latter
equation
must
/"=
be
can
it is
on
subject
to
law
the
(13)
PoVo^
(see p.
1.135
from
computed
According
82).
the
given
value
from
the
to
the
vice
or
"
versa.
whole
The
work
of
L="
In
the
of steam
second
is found
If the
treated
will
from
steam
be
of
part
expansion
superheated
the
be
can
t(PiVi-PoVo)+"
place,
takes
expansion
and
the
the
steam
moreover,
quality
at
the
equation
(14)
.
"
condensation
end
of expansion
formula
in the
is
7T(poVo-pi').
expansion,
the
found
cylinder
regarded
ordinary
one.
as
of
steam
adiabatic,
engine working
then
the
case
with
just
280
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
and
the
of
the
In
help of the
the
place
first
given
follows
this
pressure
down
of
equation
to
p""l
condition
and
237:
p.
-Cpi"
-2.05043
[p,r, -Br,
-Cpi*
-32.8456],
volume
initial
the
on
adiabatically
the
from
atmospheres
Pi'^5
-Br,
PiVi
From
find
we
constants
of
steam
[392"] expand
200"
"i"
temperature
atmosphere.
with
superheated
Let
Example.
r, -0.41009
[t?,-6.5692],
and
then, according
equation
to
(11),
/?-
log ^-0.1828089,
[log
Accordingly
have
we
the
for
[Vo
(13)
equation
of
point
10.5356,
we
1.7889865,
-0.6577,
Vo
From
1.5233
-61.5158].
intersection, from
equations
po
=2.6632
atm.,
poô
-=1.7517
Po
=2.6632
atm.,
poi'o
=28.0585].
the
get
now
final
volume
for
(12),
atmosphere
one
pressure:
1.5589
i"-
[v -24.972],
and
of
because
[26.3912]
1.6494
u"
the
for
have
we
quality
steam
the
at
end
expansion
-0.9445,
and
for
the
ratio
expansion
-3.801.
the
Finally
of
work
expansion
unit
per
of
weight
is, according
to
equation
(14),
L
[L
if the
But
the
end
formulas,
exact
is
(66),
and
-0.9090
[5.82450]
V, -0.3636
p.
the
and
f t-lb.].
78793
saturated
dry
is
steam
mkg.
-24016
v-
the
at
(68),
75, and
and
initial
beginning, then, according
p.
[24.0332],
1.5003
76, the
final
quality
steam
volumes
and
the
are
at
to
the
respectively
expansion
ratio
is
V
"
-4.126,
and
the
of
work
expansion
L
-24210
[LFor
the
same
ratio
of
expansion
mkg.
79430].
as
before, namely
for
"
-3.801,
we
cal-
GENERATION
culate
final
the
from
tension
the
equation
the
to
281
8TEAM.
SUPERHEATED
according
and
atmospheres,
1.098
OF
and
pi""=p,iii"
find
it
be
to
equation
^-f?i['-(l)'""]
the
work
of
/"-
1.135.
this
From
ratio
work
during
"
adiabatic
with
that
OF
of
production
the
steam
and
on
the
steam
the
from
way
increment
rily by
are
of volume
the
pipe
in
without
one
change
ii^ apparatus
either
the
state,
B, where
the
pipes
and
aa
saturated,
is led
through
invariable
to
mixed
boiler
the
from
method
and
temperature
imparted
second,
the
dry
under
of
heat
first
it, ordinavapors
(Fig. 28)
bb, which
unite
the
to
into
one
cylinder.
branch
of
cylinder
increase
in
two
or
the
steam
the
where,
of
is led
In
wet
steam
further
gases;
steam
the
UNDER
superheated
ways.
is
to
account
through
of
front
Through
fire
The
cylinder
steam
boiler
on
waste
employed.
two
apparatus,
experiences
it
greater
STEAM
with
in
boiler
superheating
pressure,
worli
the
the
somewhat
the
PRESSURE.
occurs
in
generated
and
pressure
steam.
SUPERHEATED
which
engines
steam
develops
substitute
we
initial
same
saturated
CONSTANT
In
the
steam
than
expansion
fb-Ib.] when
[166014
superheated
the
expansion
GENERATION
36.
mkg.
"22952
conclude
must
we
of
same
is L
ezpannon
pipe
but
the
aa
the
steam
saturated
the
other
is
pipe
strongly
or
leads
wet
to
steam
the
superheated,
moves
superheatand
then
282
TECHNICAL
flows
of
mixture
the
between
the
and
distribution
of
By
entering
total
of
maintain
it at
particular prescribed height,
main
advantage
of
the
the
direct
generation
of
superheated
is led
mass
of
is difficult
firing, it
it will
that
further
of
closing
boiler
valve
the
The
steam.
engines
of
very
maintained
(and
steam
in
experiments
cases
with
in which
the
at
the
same
generated
even
question
in
manifest
was
vapors
the
generated by
was
mixed
pressure
superheated
that
has
time
and
fiulletin
de
decided
one
and
led
of
to
the
engine directly by
the
for
steam
same
of
result
lively discussions
la Soci^td
industrielle
de
Mulhouse,
was
American
superheated
favor
in
of the
the
as
was
among
1857.
to
the
mixed
of
even
cylinder
temperature
latter
it
according
engine
the
exist
experiments),
the
in
of
engine
an
later
on
when
ning
run-
There
the
mixture;
reached
the
number
by
based
same
ability
action
engineers.
^
high
the
advantage
The
steam.
the
by
effected
was
the
of
ance
disturb-
the
effected.
by
also
method
and
perature
tem-
so
in
because
been
were
steam
the
become
of
out
particularly
fuel
steam
intensity
equal performance
fuel
views
of
can
to
total
case
Hes
superheated
or
and
these
saving
further
the
early experiments
others,
by
Wethered
that
saving
and
complete
in
and
introduce
thus
entirely
of
like
of
constitutes
the
easily
advantageous,
with
that
this
the
on
method
given
running
then
been
has
considerable
very
the
apparatus
and
two
engine.
employment
show
experiments
a
and
latter
may
the
contradistinction
the
and
steam
of
superheating
the
put
to
of the
advantage
it
lubricants
the
running
in
and
of
temperature
in which
dependent
regulate,
to
decompose
the
into
is
superheating
the
in
steam
superheater;
the
through
steam
method
mixing
the
lies
weight
steam
cylinder,
the
the
the
i.e.,of
course
mixture
adjustment
mixture,
steam
is of
temperature
the
control
the
steam^
jets before
suitable
complete
have
whose
there
This
place.
steam/'
steam,
steam
pipes.
we
takes
two
and
pipes,
two
"mixed
as
of the
the
on
the
now
superheated
branch
two
valves
of
jets
steam
temperatures
dependent
is
union
the
two
simple
but
nothing
in
the
of
technically designated
is
which
and
place
the
to
THERMODYNAMICS.
those
engine
directly
surprising
English
284
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
We
to
of
and
under
boiler
the
supplied
steam
determine
now
can
constant
order
in
to
find
we
pressure,
which
Q'
quantity
the
here
evaporation
the
be
must
Gi kg. [lb.] mixture
generate
because
and,
water,
heat
the
takes
place
that
Q'^Gi{qi-qo+Xiri),
or
substituting
of
the
we
inserting
saturated
dry
value
the
of the
steam
in
place
pressure
pi,
Ui
obtain
because
Gi(9i+î+ApiVi-go-(l-Xi)ri),
which
for
steam
but
nothing
represents
51 +^01
saturated
we
t?i of
specific volume
Q'
or,
and
-ÂpiUx
Vi "^p\
insert
can
we
the
heat
steam
equation
(56),
of
p.
dry
249,
find
Q'=GiUoH-^PiVi-9o-(l-Xi)rij.(15)
.
is
and
brought
here
volume
jBupplied
in
can
p. 249,
steam
the
Q'
boiler,
with
which
in
part
the
help
the
^2 with
temperature
determined
be
through
goes
quantity
heat
the
to
part
to
the
V2\
superheater
(57),
total
part, G2, of the
other
The
heater
super-
the
be
must
the
to
of
equation
is
and
(2""(?2(jo+^PiV2-go).
total
the
the
with
the
i be
Let
boiler
the
admission
(Gi
specific volume
consequently
of
temperature
weight
steam
assuming
pressure
pi,
now
v;
the
superheat
G2) therefore
the
the
disregarding
in
pressure
steam
enters
will
the
after
the
the
steam
in
mixture;
cylinder
throttling
any
cylinder
perform
(16)
the
identical
steam
and
with
cylinder
the
work
L=(GiH-G2)piv
Of
responding
cor-
the
total
the
amount
heat
supply
there
finally remains
(17)
behind
in
the
and
this
the
heat
GENERATION
OF
is
else
value
nothing
already
quantity
than
285
STEAM.
SUPERHEATED
the
by
possessed
diminished
heat
steam
the
by
it
feed-water;
is
therefore
((?i +(?2)
If
simple
-AL.
(15), (16)',and
equations
here
use
we
-\-^-qo)
{jo
=0^
(17),
get, after
we
reduction,
(G^+G2)v=G^v^+G2V2''Gâ'-x^)!
(18)
.
and
this
it
investigation;
of
mixture
when
pressure
pi,
which
then
there
steam
the
is
as
Vi
of
the
of
is Gi^XiUi
Hence
+a),
the
total
the
of
saturated
volume
we
left
member
of
of
of
the
the
the
boiler
temperature
the
(2
for
apparatus;
of
superheated
the
and
that
of the
and
before
steam
steam
coming
steam
(18)
equation
mixed
the
neglect
may
the
steam.
mixture,
or
volume
when
of
Xi
the
of
V2
present
from
and
quality
volume
volume
before
results
given
given
the
specific
superheating
volume
the
is
is also
the
of
the
which
steam
the
total
the
GiXiVij
or
Gi:(?2
dry
(Gi +(j2)v
is G2V2
ratio
specific
the
occurrence;
superheater
cylinder
there
the
represents
moreover
the
leaves
steam
given
value
The
when
result
determine
to
î, and
temperatiu-e
well
as
in
mixture
and
first main
the
employed
steam
the
is known
with
end
be
can
superheated
the
steam
"
constitutes
equation
at
from
the
the
steam
wet
replace
Wi
by
is
mixture
Gîîî +G2V2,
and
therefore
pressure
the
J 7
of
the
mixture
under
stant
con-
is
JV
or,
of volume
change
utilizingequation
(jGi+Gs?) V
(GiXiVi +G2V2),
(18),
.r=(?.v.(i-x,)(i-'^^).(19)
.
286
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
This
for
expression
value
negative
i.e.,whenever
the
whenever
if
under
of
no
will
volume
under
constant
it
is
than
If
we
to
is
steam
different
of
is
wet
of
dry
if both
or
then
temperatures,
ing
mix-
the
during
occur
pressure.
important
more
determine
with
connected
steam
place.
saturated
but
superheated
are
of
volume
is wet,
diminution
take
if the
changes
But
steam
with
pressure
pressure,
hand
other
jets
steam
same
volume
the
superheated
constant
the
total
On
mixing
the
to
Xi"l.
mixed
the
of
leads
always
water
part
Consequently,
steam
of
vapor
to
the
determine
the
of
changes
total
of
changes
temperature
mixing.
the
in
substitute,
equation
the
of
condition
of
for
superheated
steam,
pv^BT-Cp'',
and
the
pressure
the
specific volume
substitute
leaves
pi
the
absolute
in
mixed
apparatus
and
steam,
shall
we
equation (18)
find
other
which
with
then
and
mixture,
the
on
T2
AB=
we
the
steam;
temperature
saturated
utilizingthese
temperature
of the
superheating
the
Ti of the
V2;
the
later
the
on
two
considering
obtain
we
hand
if
the
steam
the
ture
tempera-
values
the
we
Vi
and
relation
Cp,
get
+(?2r2-(?i(l-xi)^,
((?i+G2)T^GiTi
Cp
or,
if
replace
we
the
[Fahrenheit] reading
we
absolute
temperature
by
the
centigrade
obtain
(Gi+(?2)"=(?i"i+G2"2-(?i(l-xi)-.
.
"
(20)
Cp
With
the
temperature
help
t of
the
of
this
mixtm-e
equation
we
when
there
can
easily calculate
is known
the
the
weight Gi
OF
GENERATION
of
saturated
the
"J2 which
If
superheated
(20);
mixing
the
Physics
when
1,
also
place
the
the
of
dry saturated
weight
mixing.
likewise
or
equation
to
becomes
correctly
there
is to
obtain
formula
the
determined
be
of fluid
the
of the
mixture
the
provided
temperatures,
and
very
quantities
of two
mixture
Xi
and
Xi,
to
is
steam
temperature
therefore
We
in
have
we
superheater
conducted
287
STEAM.
quality
steam
the
through
directly
the
of the
steam
passes
SUPERHEATED
which
takes
of
temperature
kind
same
is used
but
of different
under
place
the
constant
pressure.
If
substitute
and
total
the
designate
we
generated
in
G2=(?-(ji
equation
weight
steam
(20)
Gi +G2
by
get
we
(21)
Accordingly
we
in
obtain
the
Example.
atmospheres
pressure
[305.996^];
let
superheated
to
the
Here
branch
two
steam
the
part
U "250^
[^2^],
of water,
from
let
us
and
equation
and
the
assume
that
finally that
(21) for
Ap,"i
the
steam
it contains
Table
-499.186
is
20
11
tributed
dis-
order
to
is therefore
the
^
of
the
mixed
180"
"
Pi-"5
152.22^
superheater
be
when
steam
it
[356"].
of the
Appendix,
[898.535].
dry, then
per
in
vapors
through
that
temperature
to
mixed
boiler
passing
suppose
be
must
(Fig. 28)
with
in the
steam
and, according
r, -/o,
First
the
"6
steam
mixture.
the
works
temperature
of
cylinder has
0.4805
Cp-"
; the
and
aa
of
engine
steam
total
the
pipes
prescribed temperature
enters
how
compute
can
cent
that
it contains
of water,
then
10
we
per
cent
calculate
288
TECHNICAL
We
see
mixed
total
steam
the
boiler
branches
of
and
the
"-180"
work
find
the
(19) would
due
the
to
mixing
Now
the
to
distribution
the
suppose
the
of the
steam
into
boiler
and
/ (Fig. 28)
from
Then
the
heat
the
to
of
be
distributed
in the
According
to
is led
to
the
evaporated
is
steam
the
of
change
volume
us.
which
quantities
heat
to
the
of
importance.
for
superheater
In
under
prescribed
the
first
of
the
perature
tem-
introduced
be
must
place
pressure
water
which
kg- Qb.];
weight
steam
the
from
heat
the
this
notation
the
constant
G2
be
must
^1 to
quantity
which
the
first
the
admixed
heat
the
be
kg. [lb.] of
G2
place,
constant
^2 and
the
Consequently
the
to
there
water
under
temperature
supplied
to
be
atmospheres
As
in the
and
preceding example,
the
temperature
of
be
must
62(1"
Xi)
then
the
pressure
this
requires
whole
superheater
heat
is
Q2=(?2[(l-xi)ri+cpa2-"i)]
Example.
may
steam
wet
(?2(1" a;i)ri;
quantity
superheated
weight
steam
pipe.
steam
in
CpG2{t2"t\)'
must
of the
used
here,
the
the
just
pressure
requires
(22)
however
same
branches
two
temperature
quantity Q2
be
must
constant
feed
kg. [lb.] of
quantity Qi
the
superheater;
at
sure
pres-
hence
ft-lb.].
easily find
generate
correct
ft.], and
cu.
two
compute
can
kg. [lb.]of
the
the
for
we
[6.2538
for
in
is
quantity is
this heat
the
different
very
Qi=(?(9i-9o+Xiri),
and
we
of
atmospheres
Pi"5
[145895
to
us
and
is
Gxi
boiler
the
be
practically
for
before
is also
weight
Iq.
distribution
of condition
cbm.
mkg.
of
steam
steam
water
and
mixing,
may
equation
cylinder
cases
boiler
steam
the
the
pipe
arrange
-0.3904
enable
three
determination
the
supplied
i?
steam
also
in the
of
the
steam
steam;
-20170.4
L-PjI?
"k]uation
the
mixed
we
in
of admission
easily
can
wc
the
[356"]
results
valves
proper
From
of
of the
the
of
steam.
specific volume
the
influence
an
qualities.
pipe
steam
of the
great
temperatures
branches
adjustment
the
how
on
prescribed
two
DYNAMICS.
values
exerts
different
of
steam
distribution
the
in the
suitable
By
steam
particular
mass
boiler
for
these
with
that
see
numerical
from
with
THERxMO
(23)
suppose
the
the
mixture
steam
to
pressure
be
""180^
[356^];
jigain
be
to
[482"] and
the
of
G,
0.6529
G3"
be
we
supplied
get
to
Q,
If
-63.27
be
"0.90,
the
of
heat
comparison
with
with
the
is identical
which
to
amounts
temperature
the
Appendix
and
"-"40"
may
we
r, -499.186
which
quantity
must
Cal.
B.t.u.],
[1013.391
from
[113^6
in
the
superheater:
B.t.u.].
equation
(20)
value
of
Q2;
be
must
obtain
we
+Cp{t-ti)].
(23) shows
equation
which
quantity
heat
the
for
in
of
[276.734],
the
(?2[(l-xi)ri +Cp("2-"i)]=G[(l-Xi)ri
Here
x^
superheater
superheater
water
Table
quantity
Gi +62=(?
substitute
we
quality
with
(22)
Cal.
heat
(23) the
equation
from
the
(7,-153.741
equation
Q, -562.99
and
from
boiler:
the
to
according
from
coming
through
fed
[72.092],
then
steam
is
boiler
28"
STEAM.
steam
the
passing
engine),
^^ "40.051
[898.535];
let
mass
if the
Now
[104"] (condensing
substitute
of the
temperature
^ -250"
weight
the
case
the
suppose
SUPERHEATED
OF
GENERATION
the
that
consequently
supplied
ber
mem-
follows
there
the
to
left
superheater
Q2-G[(l-Xi)ri+Cp(^-0],
in
which
the
of
^2 and
temparature
weight
the
the
time
is there
of
total
the
this
The
G2.
brought
From
the
follows
the
is
engine
t takes
weight
steam
be
must
is
quantity
mixture
that
whether
which
the
takes
supplied
passed
temperature
with
is
the
the
of
place
the
at
to
same
heater
superit
and
t.
the
to
heat
terial
imma-
perfectly
superheated
for
steam
directly
generated
place
through
respect
it
required
quantities
an
total
steam
the
to
temperature
expression, therefore, gives
quantity
heat
when
mixture
the
equation
(24)
or
by
mix-^
ure
.
These
results
mentioned
experiments
that,
mixed
But
steam
the
to contradict
appear
matter
to
was
can
respect
be
be
results
Wethered
above;
with
the
to
preferred
fuel
to
the
easily explained.
of
Wethered's
found
consumption,
in
the
directly generated
Our
all
periments
ex-
use
steam.
investigations
show
of
290
TECHNICAL
superheated
that
the
requires
directly
the
superheating
the
For
and
heating
same
evidently
the
surface,
depends
apparatus
and
achieved.
In
on
is
on
the
the
degree
of
apparatus,
cylinder
the
at
heat
tained
con-
different
in
from
fire
the
passing
two
whole
the
gases
the
through
superheating
the
the
i.e.,for
apparatus,
calcuated
just
the
the
very
the
coming
temperature.
of
weight
the
to
mass
the
transmission
steam
were
supplied
same
utilization
heat
example
the
the
to
contrary
through
entered
it would
that
steam
led
was
generated
Wethered's
was
superheating
same
in
whole
gases
the
heat
steam
the
to
fire
the
one
it
if the
that
the
the
as
heat
of
superheated
was
of
assume
of
part
cases
question
in
must
we
been
incidentally
principles
whether
both
and
pressure
remark
particular
pressure,
it has
whether
quantity
only
in
constant
heat
may
same
or
that
provided
"ases.
we
apparatus
boiler
the
of
quantity
Accordingly
experiments
But
under
mechanical
the
and
produced
same
maintained.
same
at
by mixture;
or
contradict
from
steam
when
pressure,
THERMODYNAMICS.
be
to
there
weight
steam
"?
directly generated
was
there
was
the
mixture
of
the
superheating
250"
[482"];
but
eases,
and
air
the
mixed
it is rather
vapors;
the
heating
in
results
of
surface
results
the
fact
of
favor
might
the
be
a
by
no
vapors.
results.
two
What
with
cases.
has
size
of
the
been
different
engines
that
superheated
that
in
the
furnished
heating
direct
said
fire
t h
proof
which
another
two
heating
matter
of
was
favor
of
experimented
With
in
the
to
consequently
furnish
means
Wethered
superheater
been
and
mass,
directly generated
mixture.
have
the
into
the
by
degree
accidental
which
in
same
experienced
in the
to
purely
experiments
different
for
different
preferred
the
the
led
was
superheated
was
therefore
grate
therefore
the
of
superheated
that
be
with
endues
steam
the
to
and
in
356"];
to
steam
were
temperature
the
to
fuel, would
are
vapors
quantities
different
experiments
red's
heat
it
there
and
superheater
[305.996"
kg. [lb.] of
and
of
changes
supplied
of
weight
the
required
180"
to
0.6529
the
through
152.22"
apparatus,
the
the
only
evidently
are
gases
from
superheated
case
by passing
surface
generation
also
gave
explains
such
the
prisingly
sur-
^^
TECHNICAL
For
the
the
boiler
same
temperature
these
to
is
Example.
and
[104"].
Utilizing
go
bo
we
of
be
fed
with
vahies
corresponding
with
the
of
Table
of
ratio
consideration.
under
water
water
this
smaller
work
to
feed
same
the
heat
engine
steam
to
-40.051,
^1
-72.092,
g,
given
if
superheated
-276.734,
of
steam
of
11
Pi'^S
ô*=4G**
temperature
and
16
fj
-p,
+i4p,ti|
of
wet
the
dix,
Appen-
-499.186
-898.535].
p.Uj
for
steam
the
give
steam
0.80,
200"
Steam.
0.80
0.90
14.077
13.795
"-
of
numerical
and
0.90,
and
1,
[392"]:
Steam.
Superheated
Saturated
calculation
the
following
Zi"
and
[356"]
180"
(25)
for
/-
-/Oi
and
(26)
insert
r,
condition
of
assume
steam
X-
153.741,
equations
successively
we
equation
preceding
results,
for
boiler
the
the
use
the
p,t"
utilization
the
get
we
If
the
for
different;
are
the
Suppose
atmospheres
and
pressure
values
favorable
more
THERMODYNAMICS.
180"
200"
13.165
12.724
77-14.424
AL
We
see
from
the
greater
this
dryer
superheated.
we
of
enters
get
If
course
which
conditions
the
and
gases
the
the
saving
heating
leave.
admission
same
into
take
we
consider
fuel,
account
the
superheating
plant
also
heat
apparatus;
it
and
would
the
saving
the
more
the'
work
of
the
of
be
particularly
it
necessary
the
is
is
expansion
ratio;
which
quantity
if
heat
steam
expansion
equal
an
of
work
and
vapor
with
expressly
actual
of
fire
addition
here
the
the
for
saturated
saving
boiler
determining
the
in
further
we
the
that
the
were
also
actually
question
to
temperature
of
consider
with
THE
"
THE
37.
FROM
FLOW
is
another
the
in
pressure
Let
height.
us
FROM
under
interest
of
each
the
THE
the
TO
STEAM.
vessel
one
into
special h3rpothesis
is
spaces
cylinder
the
suppose
two
VESSEL
from
steam
293
ANOTHER.
ONE
OF
of
flow
the
technical
of
only
TO
THROTTLING
THE
investigfttion of
The
VESSEL
ONE
STEAM
OF
AND
ANOTHER
that
STEAM
OF
FLOW
kept
at
(Fig. 29)
constant
be
to
con-
"
t.
Fio.
nected
valve
pressure
back
the
of
pressure
of
both
the
pistons
certain
its
unit
of
will
will
flow
and
velocity
in
pass
at
from
conceive
itself
in
the
pushed
and
pa
appropriate
an
difference
slow
motion
connecting
into
again
pi
desired
the
through
Ki
is
comparatively
to
height,
load
by
a
constant
cylinder
and
possess
piston
suitable
spread
then
the
kept
area)
can
we
assuming
steam
velocity,
lose
completely
is
By
p2-
the
valve
effected
be
to
to
flow
of
cylinders
pipe
steam
forward
both
B,
the
piston K2
the
to
and
the
cylinder
pressure
throttle
of the
let
pushing
manner
cylinder
pistons
valve);
steam
constant
second
moving
pistons (reduced
setting
with
of
similar
with
both
on
with
suitable
pi
in
while
with
(throttle
by
then
B;
pipe
provided
be
to
a
by
29.
the
pipe
cylinder
B,
condition
the
of
equilibrium.
If
from
follow
we
to
certain
piston
the
we
will
K2
at
first
p2.
the
unit
will
see
under
space
pressure
is V2
fi
the
of
that
the
end,
cylinder
ttie
constant
the
the
work
volume
unit
piVi
in
cylinder
of
weight
and
in
pi;
the
the
of
the
beginning
has
mass
other
has
transfer
traverses
like
jB, overcoming
at
its
during
steam
pressure
cylinder
specific
then
of
piston Ki
in
progress
If
weight
manner
constant
is Vi,
received
given
off
and
in
the
294
TECHNICAL
work
and
P2V2,
consequently
heat
the
generated
THERMODYNAMICS,
during
quantity
ApiVi
the
transfer
and
the
heat
at
there
heat
has
been
quantity
Ap2V2
disappeared.
has
if
Furthermore
unit
B,
of
in
weight)
steam
and
cylinder A,
have
evidently
we
is the
Ji
J2
that
the
beginning
the
at
end
in
(of
the
cylinder
relation
the
or
Ji+ApiVi'^J2+Ap2V2f
and
at
to,
withdrawn
nor
that
assimie
or
then
and
beginning
the
is valid
equation
this
end
the
the
in
steam
and
cylinder A,
is likewise
to
so
the
the
at
equation
start, is
end
(56),
Ji=Jo-\
By
substitution
in
of
supplied
Now
we
rated
satu-
the
transfer;
is
249,
p.
steam
A
and
rpi vi
"
"
the
transfer.
the
at
of
is neither
heat
during
mass
heat, according
steam
constitution
the
be, provided
may
from,
superheated
the
whatever
(27)
equation (27)
J2=Jo+
-3tP2V2-
therefore
we
get the
simple
result
(28)
P2V2^PlVu
specific
volume
from
follows
end,
if
the
end,
at
we
can
the
Ti
made
if it
even
is
the
were
in
that
dry
the
for
the
the
given
is
steam
at
equation
at
the
of
the
pressures
vessel.
receiving
saturated
temperature
get from
we
calculate
spreading
assumption
the
Furthermore,
that
after
V2
the
at
which
with
in accordance
always
the
It
heated
super-
beginning.
beginning
condition
and
of
T2
heated
super-
vapors
P2V2
With
the
help
57^2
of
Cp2'*
equation
for
preceding equations gives
71-^2
^1
and
(28)
the
piVi
the
*=
BTi
difference
corresponding
Cpl^
between
fall
of
the
two
ture
tempera-
-/2=^(P1'*-P2'*)
(29)
THE
FLOW
OF
STEAM
If
Example.
from
Pi
with
down
Fig. 29,
table
auxiliary
on
and
p.
the
to
extent
Moreover
of
during
its
passage
allowed
the
steam
the
orifice
of
that
of
of
flow
the
in
that
its
as
work,
the
that
coming
steam
boiler
and
order
into
the
of
and
the
free
situated
of
^2 of
the
doing
it
the
Hirn
was
centrically
con-
box.
wide
box
the
wall.
The
opening
and
then
in
The
wall,
upper
Now
steam
by
inner
the
than
greater
and
means
incidentally
was
appreciably
jet
atmosphere.
in
lower
the
so
wooden
the
steam
which
wooden
outer
out
avoid
to
issuing
box
experiments
equilibriimi,
larger
into
was
all
orifice,through
second
box
found
the
ternal
ex-
barometer.
saturated
steam
from
beside
equation
(29);
experiments
ones
Hirn
"2, and
temperature
reliable
the
on
wooden
the
only
by
spreading
In
in
was
then
steam
air
through
pressures
atmosphere.
temperature
those
more
the
principle
(in
which
the
found
these
in
so
Hirn
second
we
the
have
doing
has
edition
we
acterized
charof
his
179).
p.
in
computed
adduced
only
have
allowed
condition
the
with
for
values
the
placed
the
it is superheated
the
in
second
box
observed
values
following
inner
p2
experiments
In
confirm
p2
opening
directly,
pressure
of
[356.56^]
hence
pressure
flow
into
the
pressm-e
the
leaving
box
outer
observed
was
de
the
thermometer
after
wide
another
through
air, the
the
by
box
inner
the
of
out
help
180.3P
"
[303.17];
which
atmospheric
first
to
open
into
flowed,
then
conditions
the
is ti
temperative
different
the
surrounded
steam
under
to
influence
the
throttled
pressure;
cooling
under
is
[53.384^].
is ^"150.65^
(29)
into
amounted
therefore
its
experiments
atmospheric
under
then
exist
flow
to
orifice
efflux
small
295
ANOTHER.
(29), with
-29.658^
[91.17"].
there
boiler
superheated,
equation
of 50.65"
expressed by equation
from
or
atmosphere,
-38.106
final temperature
the
therefore
TO
238,
is initially saturated,
ste^m
from
get
we
VESSEL
saturated
to
ti-"8 -67.764
If the
ONE
dry
steam,
atmospheres
10
"-
discussed
FROM
n,
la chaleur.''
''Exposition
T.
I. p.
analytique
290,
3d
et
edition,
exp^rimentale
Paris, 1865.
de
la thôrie
m^canique
296
is
There
in
pressure
superheating
which
within
specially calls
attention
"2 observed
great,
too
distance
by
in
contact
steam
results
the
and
pressure
with
appear
due
him
of
paratively
com-
small
the
in
fact
the
the
hot
the
steam
surface
great
the
Umits
constants
but
perhaps
perfectly reliable;
(inner)
the
that
assumed
(ibid.,p. 392)
first
there
fact
with
passed;
or
not
are
the
and
reached
results
because
with
to
of condition
to
marked
particularly
are
nearly
experimental
'
been
have
vaUd
between
differences
greater
which
equation
our
high
at
imdoubtedly
are
boiler
boiler.
the
differences
The
are
superheat;
the
passed
superheating apparatus.
experiment
of
httle
steam
the
very
and
calculation
Him
experiments
of
efflux, through
before
steam,
series
second
the
In
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
of
that
wooden
was
the
the
box
for
for
he
ture
temperawas
ably
prob-
considerable
metallic
discharge
THE
FLOW
It
pipe.
is
in
in
to
t2=ti
and
the
in
the
the
under
the
and
wet
that
Here
the
the
then
get
it
possessed
have
experiments
with
in
steam
quality
steam
Xi
Fig.
the
will
we
there
quality
in
substitute
29
as
also
is
basis
and
vessel
is
that,
assume
with
present
the
is X2.
fundamental
the
discharging
receiving vessel, liquid
steam
must
we
which
Joule's
should
we
receiving vessel,
the
that
as
were
gas
should
we
in
spreading
problem
same
in the
spreading
and
steam
the
possesses
vapor.
discharged^
(29);
be
statement.
that
assumption
the
after
the
treat
now
us
its
should
another
or
then
equation
itself.
this
sufficientlyconfirmed
and
297
ANOTHER.
of
air
temperature
same
vessel
discharging
Let
in
air, after
the
kinds
other
described
TO
experiments
atmospheric
C=0
nearly
sinrlar
with
steam,
manner
hence
show
must
of
that
also
VESSEL
ONE
desirable
substitute
have
FROM
perhaps
place
throttled
STEAM
very
and
repeated,
If,
OF
equation
(27),
294,
p.
"'î=9i
+^1/^1
*^d
J2
and
V2
-\-X2p2f
"92
also
Vi
then
we
+a
'='XiUi
get
?2+Xiri+A(7(pi"
a:2^2-?i"
and
this
from
the
at
we
this
and
the
no
we
be
in
in
here
attended
reality
because
steam;
by
however
the
this
is
supplied
is
pressure
sort
a
of
the
to
pressure
which
work
with
always
smaller
than
and
therefore
it is known
that
exert
will
be
of
just
during
outside,
supposition
wet
steam;
is
not
since
pressure,
should
the
opposite
later
and
admission
accompanying
action
the
boiler
the
the
cooling
discussed
vided
pro-
the
latter
The
place.
i.e.,
X2"Xi,
that
from
steam
partial evaporation
circumstance
the
evaporation
realized, namely,
throttUng,
cylinder walls
and
inequality
the
involves
engines
steam
(30)
....
is known
Xi
obtain
takes
p2)i
given.
made
cooling
admission
have
is
heat
no
that
is
always
assumption
when
X2
always
the
fulfilled
end
we
throttling
transfer
compute
can
beginning
From
also
4-"t;
=X2U2
on
on.
takes
the
water;
place,
entering
298
TECHNICAL
If, when
using equation (30), xg

its
after
steam,
; from
of Pi"
the
^,-182.719,
and
besides
then
the
On
such
180.900,
is
gives
the
end
so
boiler
If the
in
(30),
must
but
the
and
r,-
861.797,
r,-
965.7],
[0.3942].
10%
i.e.,contains
have
x^-l,
vessel
of
water,
and
0.9568
Xj"
receiving
vessel
have
will
we
in
saturated
case
is
the
we
hence
be
to
just
corresponding
after
superheated
for
=3i
the
+xip
in the
and
that
its
preceding
the
present
1.
end
spreading
in
the
neither
judged
can
be
transformed
-ypi
steam,
the
for
this
(1 -xi)pi;
general
for
the
boiler
steam
Apiv
J\ ="/o
-^-i^
(1 -î)/"i"
heat
of
the
ing
receiv-
by equation
steam
=3i
when
case
the
be
steam
validity and
at
can
boiler
1, the
"
proof
indicated
as
x,
(30) loses
0.9484
is wet,
(27)
is
occurs
lies between
equation
that
so
and
equation
superheating
boiler
substitute
therefore,
the
impossible
this
occurrence
Ji
we
536.500
in
dry
is
steam
but
the
then
in
place;
boiler
steam
vessel,
but
r,-
receiving
the
that
which
end;
its
preceding example,
We
pressure
+0.8924x1.
steam
is
steam
1.046,
the
at
of the
quality
nor
only
atmos-
0.9484.
(29) takes
equation
(29)
show
10
"
478.776,
Xi"0.90,
in
quality
the
x,"
superheated
the
it will
p,
r,-
-Pa) -0.219
has
if
x,"
if the
Finally
formula
that
way
of
pressure
follows
hand
at
quality
steam
Appendix,
of the
11
steam
steam
other
saturated
dry
corresponding
moisture.
4A%
only
boiler
final
the
the
rated
satu-
receiving vessel.
g,-
(30) then
if the
for
have
steam
X, -0.1536
get
just dry
find
we
equation
Therefore
determine
is
the
that
sign
boiler.
in
Ao(p,
From
can
9,-100.500,
328.894,
is
receiving vessel,
boiler
Table
to
results, this
=1
the
steam
in the
according
b,-
we
throttled
let it be
atmosphere
Here,
the
Let
and
1
(30)
in
Xi
Example.
pheres,
in
spreading
equation
quality
steam
THERMODYNAMICS.
becomes
case.
300
TECHNICAL
Connected
technical
the
of steam)
the
work
steam
we
p2V2t
P2
in
the
the
is the
pif
in
if
and
place
which
there
kg. [lb.] of
of
heat
which
wei^t
the
tion
rela-
perform
must
for
pressure
this
equation
write
"2')
(Fig. 29)
generated
steam
feed-water
be
to
at
taken
go
(which
accuracy),
the
to
to and
ordinary
find
we
generate
one
(606.5 +0.305
^2' -go)
+Cp("2-fe')
(32)
....
[Q
let
the
enters
the
let
+0.305("2' -32)
=1091.7
cross-section
the
cylinder B,
specific volume
Vf and
corresponds
for
steam
Now
sure
pres-
by
in
sufficient
boiler
by
constant
temperature
liquid by
enters
the
+Cp("2 -"201.
-32)
cylinder
to with
cylinder
substitute
^2') +Cp("2
the
of
[32^
possessing
then
can
the
0^
(Fig. 29)
steam
can
we
unit
per
at
'^'~^^Pi^2'
the
is
designate
quantity
heat
the
of
the
heat
^J
and
the
we
is anoth^
there
cylinder
[lb.]of water
total
of
in
contents
to
+0.305(t2'
replaced by
be
can
cases
the
=1091.7
corresponding
the
get for
(606.5 +0.305
suppose
boiler
steam
admission
*=/2 +-AP2V2
spread
heat
kg.
condition,
[X
we
with
temperature
If
(or the
(57(1),p. 252,
equation
has
steam
during
saturated
investigations
considered.
heat
steam
If
be
to
compared
as
this
as
preceding
superheated
the
get for
and
the
question
After
we
with
THERMODYNAMIGS.
be
to
the
the
be
of
the
pipe
designated by F,
the
following
velocity
unit
of
-go
of
of
steam
flow;
weight
of
the
steam
^2(/'
+Cp(t2-"20].
D
(Fig. 29),
let the
at
temperature
this
quantity
must
where
place
of
then
be
heat
be
it
and
t and
which
THE
and
FLOW
it
is
OF
this
from
steam
heat
t to
itself in the
STEAM
FROM
ONE
which
quantity
^2 at
constant
receiving vessel
is
expended
pressure
B.
TO
VESSEL
while
p2
follows
There
ANOTHER.
301
in
the
heating
the
jet spreads
relation
the
(33)
^2^=Cp(e2-0,
if
and
substitute
we
equation
(32),
Q
If
t2, derived
from
this
(606.5+0.305"2'-3o)+Cp(e-"2')+^^-
in
equation,
get
we
\q =1091.7
+0.305("2'
-32)
kg. [lb.] of
water
evaporated
boiler
value
the
are
(32a)
"
+^^].
+Cp{t-t2')
-go
second
per
"
"
in
the
steam
have
we
Gv=Fw
or
Gp2V =-Fp2W,
equation
utilizing the
or,
condition
of
for
superheated
steam,
Fp2W=G{BT-Cp''),
which
from
value
The
the
weight
of
the
heat
equation
the
to
feed
generate
water
actually
quantity
calculated
whose
(32a).
the
experimental
the
method
quantity
heat
kg. [lb.]of steam,
one
second
per
be
can
determine
to
boiler
steam
explains
Lewicki^
by
by
in
velocity
development
preceding
employed
utilized
be
then
may
efflux
the
equation
(34)
observed,
was
introduced
as
or,
"
mine
deter-
to
into
second
per
sumed
con-
the
boiler.
L
and
[26.24 ft.] long

the
air.
open
In
atmospheric
was
so
schrift
des
Vereins
the
generated
it, allowed
120
from
^'Untersuchung
deutscher
was
care
at
pressure
it
the
the
orifice
Ingenieure,
in
taken
orifice
eines
steam
flow
to
[4.72 in.]
mm.
doing
perfectly transparent
^Lewicki,
let
not
throttling
after
but,
did
k i
for
Pauckschen
Vol.
31,
through
make
that
diameter
to
and
to
go
pipe
that
steam
long distance,
Flammrohrkessels.''
1887,
p.
974.
engine
8
directly
sure
the
the
into
there
jet
a
m.
was
proof
Zeit-
302
it
that
flows
dry saturated
either
was
the
into
the
t of
temperature
the
the
and
[212^];
t2' ^lOO""
air
open
(1 atmosphere)
the
pressure
in
jet
steam
Example.
in
In
hours
temperature
of
steam
of
orifice
the
second
per
of
"
second
discharge
pipe
131
was
was
[0.121742
sq.m.
[251.6"];
the
in
(?"
120
the
lb.]
is
and
the
discharge
boiler;
k boiler
lb.] of
therefore
kg. [1.6268
0.7379
ft.]. The
pipe
plied
sup-
water
the
weight
The
observed
at
of
diameter
was
in the
(34), the
equation
was
feed
its cross-section
temperature
from
consequently,
there
lb.].
[4.724 in.]; hence
mm.
sq.
kg. [46852.6
21252
[73.22"]
38.9"
"q
per
0.01
"
minutes
the
with
experiment
an
-480
discharged
the
wasY""122"
efflux
orifice
velocity
be
would
[376.512
t";-114.76m.
and
ft.],
accordingly
il^"
because
Furthermore,
kg. [lb.] of steam,
per
[70.38],
heat
the
or
get
we
[1168.47
649.15
"
[2.844
Gal.
1.58
70-39.10
Q
t.u.].
from
equation
(32a)
B.t.u.]
quantity
entering
the
boiler
second
per
be
must
GQ-479.01
After
U
the
on
further
steam;
which
steam
Fig. 29, and
the
steam
with
for
accuracy
to
necessary
the
at
the
the
steam
present
employ
considered
method
nearly
was
t of
temperature
is wet
end
closely agreeing
value
of
orifice.
the
dry
the
", at
temperature
that
becomes
has
air
in
to
of
the
that
spreading
will
be
We
dry
in the
experimental
jet
in
orifice
purpose
the
by
an
can
becomes
cooling
needs
no
t/
="
in
i,"
when
[285.278"]
the
conclude
measured
the
the
with
this
from
also
thermometer;
The
(29)
[258.998"],
126.11"
shown
way
equation
to
can
p, "3.66
was
140.71"
boiler, and
be
ordinary
useless
[257.522"],
question
boiler
steam
sufficientlylarge discharge pipe.

course
ture
tempera-
gradually
this
according
above.
found
125.29"
^"
atmosphere,
one
then
saturated,
be
orifice, the
discussed.
temperature
of
pressure
view
the
in
the
exerted
method
pressure
the
of
to
not
purpose
the
corresponds
to
found
experimental
experiment
is reduced
be
will
the
for
B.t.u.].
jet outside
steam
(33)
in the
in the
atmospheres,
if this
but
[1897
Cal.
atmospheric
consideration
Moreover
the
equation
to
external
the
provided
of
spreading
the
according
action
in
kg. [lb.]
steam
of saturation
temperature
water
the
kg. [2116.3
=10333
pi
corresponding
feed
Since
superheated.
or
observed.
were
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
that
the
sufficient
it is
only
experimental
discharging
steam
ATMOSPHERIC
C.
"
LINDE'S
38.
LIQUID
AS
AIR
MACHINE
THE
FOR
AND
VAPOR.
LIQUEFACTION
OF
AIR.
If
the
(Fig. 22,
curve
We
which
in
however,
the
the
the
but
in
graphically
lack
complete
to
the
know
value
the
i.e.,know
can
as
the
soon
critical
For
liquefaction
way,
as
to
we
as
have
for
the
been
11
'
these
to
is still almost
of the
on
limit
similar
course
but
least
at
and
we
vapors,
We
207).
p.
realm
values
temperature
and
the
all gases
into
get
by
represented
vapors,
(see table
we
vapor
with
according
Olszewski
to
atmospheric
air
is not
thought
bring
to
be
it below
compression.
pressure
ordinate
similar
have
be
is indubitable;
vapor
deal
will
pressure;
a
tables
there
gases,
they
temperature
with
has
of
lying
faction
lique-
below
temperature.
example,
of
any
critical
of
abscissa, but
of the
can
far
series
as
the
graphical presentation
that
maximum
of the
that
say
now
discussed
the
of
those
curve
limit
place.
represented
which
(so
other
for the
data
of
limit
take
being drawn,
curve
is
for
other
designated
consideration;
under
curve
the
the
by
curve
again
of
change
will
instead
and
the
the
for
formerly
those
is
ordinate
the
or
way
extend)
observations
belong
one
limit
all yapors
For
by
bounded
area
temperature
holds
Appendix
the
in
of
sort
maximum
calculated
the
specificvolume
the
here
indicated
vapor,
partial liquefaction
another
proposition
same
course;
then
saturation
is the
ordinate
here
of
within
occur
203),
p.
conceive
can
of
state
volume,
and
pressure
of
changes
is necessary
For
for
is -140"
said
of
C.
so
the
[-220"
long
critical
liquefaction
F.]
it is
temperature
than
pjfe=39
perature
tem-
therefore
impossible,
by cooling
temperature
the
as
critical
and
with
in
taneous
simul-
higher
no
atmospheres;
303
304
TECHNICAL
if Still lower
temperatures
saturation
atmospheric
The
cool
lead
of
and
temperatures,
and
other
of
The
led
by
pipe
in the
at
the
to
lower
help,
to
permanent,"
be
to
method
one
Cailletet,
employed
by
latter
the
cooling
cold
compressed
this
opposite direction,
by drawing
the
of
of
of
carbonic
carbonic
by
them.
acid
acid
be
can
pipe,
is
condensed
now
takes
second
can
oflF with
ethylene
being
vapor
it
cooling;
is surrounded
vapor
bonic
car-
again condensing
vapor
which
pump
then
liquid
and
presstu'e
and
great
corresponding
which
through
was
certain
must
by
by compression
developed
evaporation
the
and
'*
The
(cold-vapor) engines
evaporate
vapors
this
During
place
to
the
pump
acid
is obtained
made
their
piupose
was
it
reducing
called
developed
and
of
liquid body.
gradually
carbonic
the
acid
with
even
success.^
complete
be
place
then, with
then
boiling-point
quite recent;
formerly
gases,
form
was
and
Olszewski
In
corresponding
the
take
means
liquefaction.
in the
liquefaction
with
the
at
can
is
ways
toward
gas
conditions
finding
air and
them
finallyobtain
of
example
liquefaction
these
lowest
the
to
atmospheric
and
of
question
bodies
for
then
pressure.
knowledge
therefore
produced
lower,
[-311.8^,
-191"
be
can
is also
pressure
air, to
of
THERMODYNAMICS.
forced
lower
at
temperature.
as
is
The
liquid ethylene
the
carbonic
led
by
by
is
pipe
the
next
and
now
the
to
in
evaporated
the
far
corresponding
pipe, through
second
in
forced
acid,
is
which
opposite direction,
the
same
ethylene
colder
which
pump
compressed
the
latter
manner
vapor
is also
oxygen
closed
en-
vapor
being brought
to
liquefaction.
By
just
was
Here
different
^
ster
described
lowest
the
See
of
reevaporation
have
cold-vapor
useful
Temperaturen,
Gasgemischen/'
to
zur
Bayer,
do
engines
detailed
Linde's
liquid
carbonic
with
temperature
we
the
acid
and
the
ethylene
same
we
way
as
reach
now
here.
with
the
and
Gasverfliissigung
und
und
combination
their
by
presentation:
Industrie-
in
oxygen
"Maschine
zur
means
zur
we
Erzielung
mechanischen
Gewerbeblatt,
1896,
three
of
reach,
niedrig-
Trennung
p.
361.
von
LINDE'S
MACHINE
lowest
the
by stages,
FOR
results
it is
obtained.
were
at
in
the
continuous
the
condition
and
Such
method
which
action
to
the
(toward
circle
of
experimental laboratory
ice
machines
we
in
Munich.
have
an
technical
In
clever
very
the
only given
has
aheady
in
after
the
state
of
to
vessel
state, the
(Vol. I,
and
in
at
men
'
of
case
beginning,
resulting
offered
the
the
to
prominent
most
with
of
that
no
work
work
that
at
or
the
Mariotte
equation
vessel
first
(52), Vol.
p.
no
into
ovided
heat
this
of
167
that
energy
of
beginning (Ui)
and
Gay-Lussac
p.
had
the
but
Mention
of
earlier
an
air
when
is
we
end
gas
which
observed
into
from
this
the
for
of
out
passage
during
at
thus
temperature
imparted
air
an
compressed
vessel
after
been
the
book)
temperature
performed
was
of
second
and
has
which
highly
change
a
utiUzed
to-day,
investigations.
the
pressure
I,
of
physicists,
to
namely,
pumped,
outer
inner
of
theoretical
experiences
the
rest, and
no
few
equalization
As
time
Joule's,
been
has
some
made
from
expands
air
rise
of
enclosed
to
the
investigations,
manner
for
been
observation
the
technical
rarely occurring
from
machine
exhibited
producing
refrigerating industry
known
far
law
ment
employ-
of
observation,
identical
that
world.
promoter
the
in
1895)
and
company
out
purely scientific,physical
from
it
thought
available
un-
purely
the
exist
May
the
in
place
on
demand
Uquid air, and
does
of
of
example
completely
machine
of the
entirely
without
physicists, chemists,
the
Here
end
is,
vapors.
air
of
theless
never-
These
take
of work
of
effected
discussed
of
masses
kinds
Uquefaction
of
portant
im-
arrangement,
liquefaction
other
purposes.
performance
of
cooperation
costly character,
larger
of
305
AIR.
described
manner
method
industrial
that
the
by
way,
the
and
production
OF
although
that
and
observed
the
experimental
circumstantial
be
mechanical
the
technical
for
In
Now
evident
once
its
of
account
LIQUEFACTION
temperature.
simplification
some
THE
the
side.
out-
of
change
(C/2)
that
have,
was
obeys
ing
accord-
132,
U-Uo+î
(1"
306
TECHNICAL
for
therefore
of
account
also
the
the
follows
present
pressure
the
at
in
second
from
second
the
and
follows
constant
piVi
perfect
and
=p2V2,
it
pv^BT
gas
from
on
older
the
periments
ex-
in
which
to
work
is
mainis
piVi
is consumed
p%V2
pass
constant
pressure
the
work
is
there
the
Here
the
is allowed
gas
in which
p2-
and
duced
pro-
in
the
relation
the
obtains,
if
C7i+piVi-p2V2
utilize
now
we
assumed
the
preceding equation
T2'=Ti\
of
(1)
for
accordingly
conditions,
change
no
pressure,
(2)
the
that
so
p2V2==PiVi,
under
transfer
vessel
height
[72
also
of
when
vessel
vessel
first
vessel;
there
have
concluded
was
similar
are
constant
the
therefore
condition
as
valve
into
pi
tained
also
we
Joule.
throttle
of
Ti=T2,
circumstances
through
case
equation
that
of
The
THERMODYNAMICS.
throttling
under
will
temperature
occur.
This
the
that
is assumed
Vol.
in
permissible
be
also
flows
But
in
and
merely
constant
such
occurs;
it will
be
It is
so
be
may
presence
at
(1), for
as
the
been
from
this
of
of
the
exact
gases
is
assumption
the
to
when
not
can
gases,
superheated
fall
be
of
ceiving
re-
ture
temperawith
expected
steam
into
vessel
discharging
pressure,
in
behavior
the
cumstance
cir-
pv^BT,
form
sufficiently
as
energy
that
shown
fall is also
slight
the
the
to
approximation.
an
constant
a
regarded
was
investigations
pressure
vessel, also
in
investigating
certain
equation
regarded
under
this
due
entirely
condition,
of
when
" 37, p. 293, it has
In
here
equation
purposes,
I.
is, however,
permissible;
as
technical
for
result
analytical
ordinarily occurring
but
gases,
that
cases
its
neglected.
highly interesting
to
that
note
in his
machine,
utilized
the
obtain
L
d e,
in
of
London,
occurring
in
here,
order
to
temperatures.
his
reflections
and
1862,
p.
on
this
Thomson
byW.
Thomson
AY.
Society
lowest
obtained
results
fall
slight temperatm-e
the
Joule,
579.
Philos.
matter,
started
and
Joule,*
Transactions
from
of
the
whose
the
Royal
308
TECHNICAL
is
30
Fig.
one.
THERMODYNAMICS.
schematic
representation
of
Linde's
machine.^
The
under
compressor
the
pressure
draws
the
cooler
K,
brings
and
in
and
it to
the
in
air
Fia.
it
this
of
system
is
through
heat
ti, the
toward
pi
passes
BBB
pipe
pressure
doing
so
circuit; there
complete
the
to
temperature
The
being withdrawn.
describes
it
suction
the
through
compresses
p2,
high-pressure pipe AAA^
the
air
of
pipes
pression
com-
fore
there-
second
compressor
and
during
30.
"
at
for
starting
maintenance
the
of
quantities
machine
the
air
of
machine
to
65
The
^Linde,
Annalen
der
and
the
and
that
"Erzielung
und
pressures
into
the
circuit.
in
the
delivery
j"\
in
the
suction
pipe system
niedrigster
Chemie,
pi
j"2
during liquefaction,and
pressure
part of the
Physik
the
introduced
are
atmospheres,
of
1896,
Vol.
pipe
within
Temperaturen.
57,
p.
328.
the
thus
In
to
the
pipe
p2
==22
casing
the
suitable
mental
experiamounts
pheres.
atmos-
GG
con-
Gasverfliissigung/'
LINDE'S
Btitutes
MACHINE
counter-current
compressed
up
flows
to
down
to
air is led
in which
the
it reaches
t2;
which
is
While
these
the
of
now
and
latter
value
falls below
the
air
the
pipe
condition,
we
air
can
liquid
to
The
vessel
portion
in
protected against
imder
evaporates
still
cooled
In
ratio
of
evaporation
an
under
the
In
and
berichte
d
der
e,
"Uber
the
to
ti.
temperatures
the
tinually;
con-
former,
and
and
the
as
during
tz sink
beginning
before
till,
faction
lique-
continues
of
the
normal
"2 and
63
starting up.
through
within
the
consists
4
the
discharge
casting
of
the
G,
the
telescoped
two
[3.9937
cm.
spirally;
external
vessel,
the
formed
i
in
in
and
0.1575
is
whole
in.]
carefully
mixture
color
and
is
thus
and
pressure
has
richer
shown
how
first and
in
the
oxygen.
mixture
liquid air gradually varies,^ during
Verbrennung
der
1.
light blue
even
of
in
his
machine,
flOasiger Luft."
k6nigl. bayer.
by
moreover,
pressure;
arrangement
bei
nitrogen evaporates
atmospheric
Klasse
Book
the
has
atmospheric
doing,
so
Vorgftnge
XXIX,
and
10
outer
constant
mathem.-phys.
flchaften, 1809, Vol.
temperature
the
reaUty
in
oxygen
appropriate change
"
^5,
radiation.
gradually
nitrogen
temperature
the
vessel
conducted
woimd
observations
recent
which
and
inward
more.
is thus
to
piping lying
are
liquid air, led
The
there
the
of
which
diameter,
ti to
outside.
[328 ft.]long
m.
from
^2 and
than
be
pipe
critical temperature
collecting
be
the
initial
rapidly
the
in the
values
designated
then
the
the
to
given instant,
air, the
up
in
with
on
it enters
nearly unchanged
of the
the
apparatus,
coimter-current
pipes, 100
value
in
of
more
procedure
unchanged,
The
sinks
back
when
the
here
remain
of the
begins
The
on.
permanent
remain
values
sucked
at
air,
î and
from
delivery pipe
flow
that
as
circulation
the
finally,(3
same
temperature
continuous
from
the
nearly
the
the
it enters
rises upwards
air
the
of
part
and
there,
the
down
which
occurs
temperature
upper
point
pipe
prevails;
p2
309
AIR.
temperature
through
temperature
flowing
inner
the
pressure
the
OF
initial
r,
temperature
air
the
cools
of
let the
this initial
and
the
through
fall
collecting vessel;
in
the
possesses
pi,
The
^3 ; with
LIQUEFACTION
apparatus;
upward
compressor.
THE
regulating valve
collectingvessel
the
FOR
Akademie
he
has
Sitzungsder
Wisaeii-
310
directly
effected
gaseous
form
the
and
has
the
composition
same
article
air
with
At
this
result
the
and
industries.
been
the
led
ti to
fe-
The
from
the
unit
been
is
air
under
of
heat,
direction
liquid
will
scientific
chemical
to
have
already
law
in
his
machine
of
the
invariability
constant
in Vol.
I,
air
the
under
150.
p.
the
In
the
counter-
down
pressure
pi
the
from
is withdrawn
doing
so
which
flowing
constant
in
has
to
pressure
current
TF, which
quantity
heat
the
explosive.
and
application
in this
In
which
in chemical
the
has
of
consequences
occurrences
made
cooled
mixture
of
air
air.
effective
very
important
(Fig. 30)
apparatus
delivery pipe
of
Cp
the
the
to
already
has
current
in
liquefied
the
1.^
p
of
specific heat
reference
consideration
fuller
already
liquid air
of
particularly
W.
that
great
Interesting suggestions
given by
A
shows
the
the
in
method
atmospheric
produce
foresee
applications
investigations
also
will
cannot
we
from
coal
pulverized
time
just quoted
external
the
as
mechanical
itself
machine
the
constituents
two
developed
thus
in
oxygen;
the
of
separation
obtaining
of
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
is
TF=Cp("i-"2),
where
the
represents
Cp
entrance
into
the
to
fa, and
down
further
collecting
indeed
fe"
air
The
current
apparatus
initial
temperature
ts.
erfundene
Maschine
sur
Chemiflche
Industrie,
Year
"
Hempel,
'Walther
'
If,
d e,
''Uber
Sitzungsberichte
Wissenschaften,
der
die
in
1897, Vol.
XXVII,
air
is cooled
W.
to
the
During
still
Thomson
relation
(5)
"
j^
suction
pipe
pressure
doing,
so
Prozesse
we
bei
fluasiger Luft
of the coimterand
p2
suppose
die
welchen
Anwendung
with
the
the
unit
von
finden
of
kann."
1.
der
Verftnderlichkeit
mathem.-phys.
the
obtains
"
Uber
No.
specific heat.
constant
Eizeugung
1809,
vessel
in the
the
imder
the
according
upward
flows
now
fe
of
there
equation (3a)
Joule's
and
value
mean
(4)
Klasse
No.
3.
der
spezifischen
W"ime
kOnigl. bayer.
des
Akademie
Gases.'^
der
e*
UNDE'S
of
weight
be
MACHINE
air
heated
to
there
hence
Cp^;
and
receive
again
to
the
LIQUEFACTION
THE
FOR
the
heat
value
mean
OF
quantity
the
of
311
AIR.
air
the
will
will
specific heat
be
follows
TF-Cp,"4-t3)-Cp("i-"a)
the
Evidently
would
the
obtain
air had
if the
the
to
pressure
therefore
fallen
apparatus)
coimter-current
with
p2
be
"4 niust
temperature
that
as
which
passing through
from
the
temperature
pressure
pi
it follows
h;
that
Subtracting
this
("4
the
efflux
during
h"tA^
As
same
directly (without
efflux
the
the
(6)
tz)
expression
{h
the
on
fe) =a
(7)
"
"
"
equation (5) gives
from
equation
jT^
right
(Pl
hand
P2) [jTS
is
J.
yi
positive
there
follows
{U-h)"{ti-t2)
and
hencci
according
Cp
Since
that
Cp
the
corresponds
specificheat
Equation
(6)
we
designate,
the
be
in
pressure
pi
air grows
+fe-fe)
equation
("2" fe) during efflux, by S,
Cp^.
it follows
with
the
indubitably
pressure.
written
^Cp^(U-t2
as
"
higher
of the
Cp
also
can
If
to
(6),
equation
to
we
"Cp("i -fa).
(3a),
get,
on
the
fall
passing
to
of
the
temperature
differential,
CpJ(^dt-dS)^Cpdt,
or
^^""^(^-dr)'
^^"
312
TECHNICAL
and
by
to
is the
this
i
law
the
of
W.
of
variation
the
the
equation
whatever
with
respect
d.
further,
problem
Joule
and
established
as
as
and
of pressure
we
the
assume
basis
replacing
sion
expres-
get, for
we
an
by dT, according
(3a),
integration, if
follows, by
this
from
of
assumption
no
temperatmre
difference
equation
the
involves
it
form
Thomson
infinitesimal
and
general
if,in pursuing
Now
to
THERMODYNAMICS.
efflux
after
temperature
by
temporarily designate
we
To,
r8-ro""3ap;
the
hence
is
fall of pressure
5=r-ro"r-(r3-3ap)*,
this
with
and
get
we
dJt~^
thus
and
under
constant
equation
from
get
we
(Sa)
T^
'
the
(8) for
specific
heat
of
Cp
pressure
Cp"c^l-^j
For
the
the
value
that
Vol.
I,
factor
Cp^
150,
temperatture
the
^
this
p "1
the
At
the
has
according
assumes,
is valid
when
(9)
for
p=0;
is measured
been
already
specific heat
have
we
in
assumed
In
atmospheres.
calculated,
for
Cp
Witkowski,
to
series
the
from
of
ceding
preand
pressure
values.
atmosphere
[-311.8T
point
which
there
corresponding
-19P
[119771]
=20570
formula,
If at
Cp^, =0.237,
p.
air
the
air is
temperature
or
r"82^
just dry saturated,
is
shown
[147.6^
by
(see p.
because
then
experiments
205),
we
to
find
be
for
Cp =0.2431.
critical
point
Cp=oo
must
obtain;
because
here
the
of
the
FOR
atmospheres
pk =30
pressure
CONDITION
OF
EQUATION
find
we
ATMOSPHERIC
from
313
AIR.
equation (9), by
means
formula
r*=3apfc,
that
f*
gave
"
while
[-218.2^],
-139^
tk=
on
140"
205
p.
it
the
imder
OF
formulas,
as
in
in
variables;
independent
the
independent
place
the
on
first
other
and
and
hand
periments
ex-
FOR
the
case
143)
the
valid
are
volume
if, to
simplify
are
the
temperature
substitute
must
we
in the
for
the
CONDITION
(Vol. I, p.
pressure
pressure
variables,
fr-)
of
the
value
l-rr)
have
we
other
the
the
take
we
equations
the
that
supposition
that
AIR.
heat
perfectly general
stated
was
is
temperature
220"],
ATMOSPHERIC
The
critical
the
EQUATION
EXTENDED
39.
hence
and
[241.2^
Tk=lM^
case
^'-(^)f+(^)fp'
If
is
constant
expressed
the
dp=0,
will
comparison
there
(III6),
follows
Vol.
I,
p.
from
the
third
of
the
this
the
there
follows
for
three
identical
143,
dQ=Cj4t-AT(^)
dp
From
furnish
relation.
Accordingly
equations
that
so
the
entropy
^''-ff-j"'-$h-
(10)
314
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
and
this is
as
differential
complete
have
we
dt\dt)p'
dp\AT)t
dp
or
mMîof condition
equation
let the
Now
"""
in
written
be
the
form
pv^BT-R,
is valid
which
R
be
must
regarded
then
we
bodies
function
as
which
in
of p
"
and
equation
of
differentiation
the
From
constant
all
for
(12)
is
constant
(12)
with
factor
and
t.
taken
as
get
(i).4[-(f)J
"-"
also
(dt^/p
there
hence
and
follows
P\dt^/p'
(11)
equation
from
m.-fm,
R
Since
that
for
"0
this
be
therefore
we
for
(13) for
gas
a
in
reached
the
perfect
the
specific
function
Vol.
gas
heat
of the
I,
p.
Cp
conclude
is
temperature
145.
transformation
"")
must
we
of
'
from
independent
only,
if
Furthermore,
equation
of
equation
and
conclusion
we
there
(10)
this
use
must
which
equation
follows
"-'*-4^-Kf)J?'
and
if
we
here
substitute
BT
from
equation
(12)
we
get
or
AT^d
/R\
dQ=ej4t-Avdp+"j^y-jiJ
dp.
...
(16)
316
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
hence
and
by
where
is
regarded
infinitely
perfect
this
as
rarefied
that
so
gas
with
and
integration
signifies an
be
to
that
a
integration
we
function
air,
we
of
when
But
p.
now
approaches
i2
"0;
take
may
which,
constant
for
we
present,
assume
may
behaves
zero,
it follows
the
therefore
like
that
get
or
B=|j(r--^r3-3ap]
According
only
equation
for
expression
an
W.
to
We
can
p.
312,
fall
of
pressure
the
and
Thomson
(8a),
the
(18)
bracketed
in
the
experiments
from
write
therefore
this
of
Joule.
B=^*,
and
is
quantity
follows
for the
(18a)
of condition
equation
of
atmospheric
air
pv^BT^^d
If, for
of
the
present,
equation (18)
we
there
substitute
will
here
f oUow
the
(19)
for
8 the
equation
bracketed
of condition
quantity
for
air
(20)
an
equation which
Planck
has
also
developed.
for
Because
Vol.
I,
constant
and
tÔ
W.
(3a) of
For
saturated
[-311.8^]
probably
sufficient
cbm.
=0.222
On
Vjt,
that
proof
if
W.
by
(3a),
at
the
the
for
like
the
should
formula
be
available
small
pressures.
and
pressure
[147.6"], equation
for
(20) gives,
specific volume
the
of
with
air
as
critical
the
get
is
which
the
we
critical
[-220"]
found
volume
and
pjb=39
useless.
already
and
equations (18a)
Joule
and
for
for
tk="14(f
temperature
in
value
negative
point,
ior
(19)
the
d, according
value
to
given
equation
follows
there
when
and
atmosphere
p=l
the
at
Thomson
validity
comparatively
"-3^
and
find
to
ft.].
cu.
substitute
we
for
of
formula
the
atmospheres
But
and
accuracy,
we
according
[53.349], we
Joule,
r=82^
or
hand
3ap=T^,
limited
air
[3.5562
other
the
(p. 312)
course
and
e=-191"
have
we
[53.411].
-29.303
temperatures
dry
=29.269
pv
Thomson
low
for
only
of
has
equation
The
atmosphere,
317
AIR.
(20)
equation
of
ATMOSPHERIC
FOR
p=l
relation
the
103,
p.
CONDITION
OF
EQUATION
we
the
use
(21)
yT
notation
=0
'6A
get for the
we
of condition
equation
pv^BT-C^^,
where
be
must
expressed
in
5=29.303
[fi=53.411
This
equation
"
Clausius,
1
3d
Edition,
p.
236.
has
Die
already
mechankche
kg.
per
sq.
m.
(22)
[lb. per
and
and
C=3460.83J.
been
sq.
ft.]; then
=66.681
given by
W"rmetheorie."
Clausius*
Brunswick,
and
1887, Vol.
318
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
h h
also
by
that
Cp is constant,
for
changes
f f .^
volume
before.
air of
the
beforehand
assumee
only insignificant
assumes
191"
"
ft.],almost
cu.
critical
be
to
the
/*
regarded
the
same
as
140**
cbm.
rjb =0.0059
be
responding
cor-
gives
the
and
volume
is to
sure,
of
.8"]this equation
atmospheres
pjb =39-
the
gives
and
pressure
311
[3.5658
point,
ft.],which,
cu.
atmosphere
cbm.
critical
formula
the
[0.094511
i;""0.2226
For
["220"],
Cp.
temperature
specific
Kirchhoff
and
dry saturated
For
Here
as
first
is
still
approximation.
Assuming,
serviceable
Kirchhoff
as
for
did,
slight variations
of Cp,
/$")
add
can
(22)
further
remark
'^
\dp)\
and
according
hence
we
equation
gives
Differentiation
Now
that
to
(lib), Vol.
equation
I,
p.
143,
have
we
follows
Cp-c,-ilB(l-h-^^).
2C
If
substitute
we
-jg--^9,
get
we
Cp-Cc-ilB(l-h^,
where,
when
and
"29.303.
of
B
p
and
r,
is measured
we
As
^Kirchhoff,
W"nne."
Leipsig,
calculate
can
volume
constant
at
in
"
U94.
Vorlesungen
atmospheres,
has
from
for
iiber
given
we
Cp
this formula
every
must
for
take
j9""47027
different
the
individual
mathematische
(23)
values
specificheat
case.
Physik.
Theorie
der
example
For
here
of
t--.lOO"
latm.
p-
*'
technical
highest
In
this
Cp=0.2468
0.2415
0.2394
0.2379
=0.1713
0.1694
0.1687
0.1685
Cp=0.2579
0.2462
0.2419
0.2389
=0.1757
0.1711
0.1696
0.1687
=BT
pv
and
then
(22)
form
the
of
assume
"0
la
us
us
the
observations
derive,
equation
(see
steam
From
of
from
heat
c,,
remarkable
[32"]
(P
under
come
out-
the
to
up
volume
constant
constant.
determine
it
which
the
in
the
quantity
second
the
from
the
the
right
of
term
the
represents
supplementary
equation
member
R;
term
we
get
superheated
can
we
0.2372
results
and
specific
nearly
substitute
equation
of
there
pressures
the
as
case
+100^
0.1680
moderate
regarded
0"
0.1681
temperatures
be
can
0.1682
investigations
with
that
-50^
=0.1685
c,
For
include
and
0.2375
c^
'*
results
0.2379
*'
p-10
numerical
L
319
AIR.
Cp=0.2389
c,
p.
ATMOSPHERIC
by
adduced
as
Cp
FOR
following
the
get
we
values
the
CONDITION
OF
EQUATION
and
(p.
condition.
proposed
was
p.
228)
and
in
the
first
which
one
by
is
of
equation
also
obtained
condition
for
if
given
we
by
215).
preceding
of
for
j9 =0
which
the
atmospheric
equations
seems
machine
linde
air,
it
the
more
likely
it
exact
may
form
that
be
of
with
closer
possible
the
equation
to
D.
THE
ON
"
BEHAVIOR
AND
AIR
thermodynamic
The
of
of
vapor
do
in
from
of
The
water.
of
of
special
the
engine;
air,
has
for
instance
partially
removed
reduction
of
of
is
with
mixed
liquid
will
discuss
with
present
will
the
air;
condition,
first
the
well
as
but
be
we
will
assumed
as
ever,
how-
cold-air
atmospheric
in
air
is
expansion
has
sacrifices,
will
we
of
engines;
serious
been
only
the
namely,
case
steam,
in
say
as
and
on
will
exists
hand,
advance
inconsiderable
mixtures
distinguish
superheated
or
always
is
consider
only
water
saturated
as
first
is,
engine.
vapor
according
cases,
the
the
investigations
air
with
only
of
with
constructions,
by
open,
occurrences
during
snow
then
efficiency
following
two
the
water
the
the
practical
and
atmospheric
between
of
in
hitherto,
mixed
ordinarily
on
the
the
but
question
of
air
suggested
steam,
The
theory
of
with
been
pure
air.
cases
here
compressors,
by
run
the
influence
formation
the
which
in
water,
appreciable
an
the
of
in
and
high-pressure
frequently
compressed
importance
vapor
be
but
discussion
of
ture
mix-
air
meteorology,
fuller
also
has
not
and
steam
in
of
atmospheric
of
place
idea
OF
behavior
production
takes
should
engines
combination
In
The
mostly
the
of
justify
phenomena.
MIXTURE
STEAM.
importance
which
Steam.
THE
particularly
great
engineering
steam
evil
of
low-pressure
injection
that
is
of
sort
WET
and
and
OF
investigation
vapor,
water,
occur
this
and
gas
MIXTURES.
Air
Atmospheric
GENERAL
THE
40.
of
Mixtures
a)
OF
BEHAVIOR
that
when
and
the
steam
in
water
this
case
quantity
throughout,
320
we
of
in
BEHAVIOR
order
OF
that
of air
which
Let
and
we
us
is absorbed
is
then
total
the
the
T,
of the
contain
to
let
steam;
us
quantity
kg. [lb.] of air
Gi
p' and
air
the
that
suppose
of the
pressure
pressure
that
water.
space
and
water
321
STEAM.
WET
AND
calculations
the
of
the
the
AIR
OF
out
by
imagine
now
temperature
p",
leave
may
kg. [lb.]of
G2
MIXTURE
THE
that
mon
com-
of steam
is
mixture
(1)
TP^p'+p"
According
the
to
condition
of
equation
GiBiT^Vp',.
Bi
where
B
represents
or,
will
we
as
for
[53.349];
=29.269
for
say
in
and
now,
mixture
the
the
of
sake
air
of
have
we
(2)
.......
the
following,
the
of
and
steam
brevity,
for
constant
water
the
wet
present,
steam,
the
relation
G2{xu+a)^V
where
obtains,
that
space
contains
[lb.] of water;
or
to
the
For
an
the
represents
of
and
steam
corresponds
will
we
to
the
also
"2(1"
assume
x)
kg.
temperature
p'*.
pressiu-e
infinitesimal
change
into
converted
quality;
steam
kg. [lb.] of
G2X
value
the
(3)
work,
of
state
in
the
heat
the
of
case
quantity
the
air,
becomes
dV
(4)
AdUÂp'dV^^GiABiTY,
when
we
equations
consider
(2) and
(3), and
for
the
wet
steam
it becomes
AdU'
=G2Ap''d{xu),
or
AdU'
If
term
we
here
^GSd(Ap^'ux)
-Axu^^t].
substitute
Clapeyron's
Ap"u=^r"p
equation
and
(p. 29),
utilize
we
in
the
get, after
second
simple
transformation,
ildL"=G2[rd(^)-d(x^)]
(5)
^22
TECHNICAL
The
of
sum
mixture
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
equations
heat
and
(4)
converted
then
(5)
into
work
whole
the
for
gives
ildL=GiilBir^-hG2[Td(|^)-d(x
(6)
.
On
of
the
other
hand
heat, becomes,
the
for
tir
the
inner
of
change
(Vol. I,
in units
measured
work,
132),
p.
AdU'^cjGidT,
where
is
c^
the
(c^ =0.1685).
of
the
air
the
wet
steam
heat
specific
for
Furthermore,
(7)
at
volume
constant
(p. 54)
have
we
AdU''=GJi"lq-\-d{xp)]
By
adding equations
inner
work
whole
the
for
and
(7)
(8)
(8)
the
get
we
that
expression
if
Again,
make
quantity
for
this
which
of
state:
change
(6)
i4.fi=c,("
dQ,
the
(9)
....
integrated.
equations
relation
of the
use
heat
add
we
be
can
of
mixture:
AdU=Gic^T-\-G^dq+d{xp)l
an
dU
change
(9) and
at
1) (Vol. I,
"
be
must
and
supplied
time
same
123),
p.
the
to
the
get the
we
whole
mixture
(/c-l)7'^]+G2[dg-frd(y)
dO=c,Gi[d7'
(10)
+
The
first
demanded
the
forms,
here;
80
as
as
and
that
case
which
of
"
final
the
taken
the
that
the
condition
sign
the
during
that
steam
will
be
equation (10) by
the
the
has
passed
we
into
later
get
an
on.
the
we
expression
formulas
53d);
other
omitted
valid
this
has
can
by
only
calculations
if the
divide
be
are
then
that
into
will
superheated
If
heat
is absorbed
forms
x"l,
of
equation
converted
condition;
value
which
be
these
quantity
134,
p.
heat
preceding
of
the
originally present
water
discussed
il T
to
I,
can
but
changes
lead
of
terms
references,
repeat, however,
we
Both
59).
p.
in
shown
as
long
for
(see
(see Vol.
quantity
the
is
member
right
present
gives
term
steam
wet
the
air
the
by
second
the
of
term
must
be
disappeared
condition;
both
members
be
integrated
334
TECHNICAL
is
aBymptotes
Oi,
through
If
is
ii
the
axis
quality
the
at
x,
the
to
the
ordinates,
of
steam
value
spondiog
axis
parallel
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
volume
Vi
volume
V,
get
we
equation
from
(3),
the
corre-
or
(14)
from
^,'v,
or
of
line
straight
G3{xui+a)
or
is
abscissas.
of
at
other
finally,
the
as
we
in
neglect
can
most
the
cases
specific
volume
from
water,
expansion,
Isothermal
(14!')
Ylî
involves
therefore,
involves
compression
conversely,
"-)
evaporation
condensation
of
the
steam.
At
value
reach
to
curve
the
expansion
further
the
certain
point
equation
is
(14)
F=V'o
point
the
therefore
its
(Fig.
steam
isothermal
point
abscissa
at
31a),
into
passes
expansion
of
the
the
which
x=l,
superheated
limit
and
to
and
the
the
ordinate
sattiration
can
therefore
consists
pressure
be
with
condition
according
curve;
to
is
Vo-Gîui+a)
and
its
causes
of
two
pi"
taken
parts
of
the
directly
(15)
the
steam
from
lower
at
the
the
part
corresponds
temperature
steam
table;
1*1,
the
ISOTHERMAL
CHANGES
part,
upper
and
present
corresponds
cqc,
be
can
SPATE
OF
the
to
found
OF
325
MIXTURE.
po' belonging
pressure
equation
from
THE
the
to
air
(2) :
Gi B\ T\
Po'"-^.
Consequently
ordinate
the
G\
Therefore
of
the
pressure
accompanied
limit
the
(?i =0,
by
weight
There
number
preceding
statements.
the
within
the
are
Returning
state,
can
we
along
(6), because
T~T\
are
the
the
also
curve
ab
curve
constant,
the
and
and,
of
help
to
of
the
line in Fig. 31a)
heavy
take
must
developed
limit
place
tions
equa-
will
be
change
of
curve
contains.
isothermal
performed
during
to
from
the
reduction,
TîPiMoge:~+Pi"(F-7i),
was
infinite
an
the
it is determined
some
the
corresponding
corresponding
after
under
water.
mixture
the
is present,
which
curve
above
The
and,
of state
if the
work
cq
with
changes
of
(Fig. 31a)
quantities
drawn
the
air
mixtures,
with
air
more
no
limit
curve
validity.
determine
now
be
consideration
the
to
limit
limit
the
upward
the
(drawn
their
preserve
farther
pushed
the
of
vapor
assumed
all
point
the
the
then
If
the
the
easily
can
ratio,
course
to
and
represented
mixture
given
is
curve
for
'
curve.
with
investigating
ratio
mixture
If
is identical
curves,
particular
water
of air
through
passes
therefore,
limit
of
and
steam
limit
particular
when
are
of
weight
"2 =1,
discussed
fully
ratio,
curve
that
supposition
B\T\
mixture
particular
_G2
~^
for
point
is
curve
is
the
of
po
(16)
we
....
sion
expan-
equation
temperature
get
(18)
5*^t)
TECHNICAL
which
equation
hatched
two
member
right
The
of
of
the
found
be
the
derived
from
directly
the
figure represent
Fig.
two
The
31a.
the
of
terms
equation.
quantity
heat
outside, is
also
may
areas
THERMODYNABflCa
which
Q,
from
is
equation
(10)
herewith
from
supplied
the
Q"c,(?i(ic-l)rilog.y^+(?2ri(x-Xi),
.
(19)
or
Q-il7iPxMoge,^-h^(7-yi)
Finally
the
get
we
according
entropy,
(19a)
equation
to
from
(11),
il(P-Pi)=c,(/c-l)(?ilog,^+(?2^
(20)
.
after
or,
making
which
"t=0,
with
reduction,
simple
of
help
equation
permissible, particularly
is
in
obtaining
the
applications,
meteorological
the
for
and
(3),
low
peratures
tem-
get
we
.(20a)
P-Pi=jBGiloga^^+(?2j^(x-a:i).
.
If, in Fig. 316,

Ti
off
lay
of
the
the
isothermal
value
of
measured
OMq
the
of
the
course
we
will
reduce,
the
limit
with
curve
to
curve
the
according
to
value
the
The
the
earlier
i.e.,the
indicated
represent
formation
trans-
the
Q:A,
and
division
two
of
terms
(20).
j=l,
"
limit
for
the
help
the
unit
of
is intended
of
of
to
this
the
order
weight
the
to
ratios
and
of
316
the
"
curve.
represent
mixture
ratio
Fig.
intersection
limit
in
curve;
different
in
get
we
corresponding
the
corresponding
the
to
abscissa
as
represents
transformation
the
with
curve
the
of
Gi -f.Cr2=1,
of
a'6'
work.
make
we
passing through
curve
of
intended
(20a),
abscissa
as
units
equation
of
isothermal
The
is
area
=P-Pi
represents
area
in
OM
db, and
curve
hatched
the
equation
If, in
horizontal
of
member
right
the
ordinate,
hatched
the
value
the
supply
heat
off the
as
presentations
.
lay
we
the
formation
trans-
compare
tt
relation
mixture;
ISOTHERMAL
then
we
of
and
water
STATE
OF
get respectively for the
weight
the
CHANGES
THE
OF
7)%
and
Cr2=r";
then, representing
and
T,
coordinates
ratio
mixture
dry
on
the
the
of
other
limit
....
and
with
can
we
these
above,
unit
be
valid
for
the
on
the
other
hand
if
temperature
atmospheric
ti
pressure
="
pi
given
20"
is
the
experience
to
of
and
to
and
expended,
be
there
the
Assumption
that
get,
is, let
for
pressure
per
^1
[58], the
20
is
p/
Pi
[pi
air
[lb.
meter
square
Because
p,-pi"
Bj
10,333
"
29.269
21 16.3
air
sq.
G2
(F,
subject
of
"
1)
the
ing
possessaverage
The
mercury.
at
be
p/'=
tem-
constant
final
the
state,
work
withdrawn.
beginning
to
be
the
just saturated,
in.], or,
table,
steam
[0.685
17.39
in.],and
estimated
in
p/'"
236.4
lb.,
px"
48.4
we
kg.,
lb.,
from
get
p/
p/
equation
the
we
air
kilograms
kg.
10096.6
2067.9
lb.].
(2), for the
present,
G^B.T
=m.
to
to
ft.].
kg.,
[53.349]
them
according
[29.237
and
inches]
the
the
at
pressure
742.61
to
Here,
present.
steam
per
the
we
of
reduce
=1
If
weight
mixture
^=7"
determined
quantity
Let
be
water
no
heat
1.
be
to
are
later.
(20) developed
to
to
it is
steam
perature,
(15),
ing
correspond-
of
Gi
[29.922
compression
the
p5''=Z), then
this
to
(1)
that
by
curves
wish
meter
for
saturated
37
unit
mixture
dry
return
and
millimeters
760
cubic
[58" FJ
C.
the
(22"
limit
we
and
(17)
p.
substitute
must
we
Suppose
Example.
the
of air
weight
of
on
equations
the
curve
vq
"
the
will
will
mixture;
the
in
(21)
and
m,
perature
tem-
and
po
limit
for
given
graphically
ratios
relations
the
utilize
vo^ri
is drawn
approximately
by
equations
to
and
therefore,
mixture
the
the
saturation
representing
on
and
pressure
the
at
point
+p
represent
ease
other
to
is
equation
its
hand
the
steam
get, according
curve,
and
saturated
po=
If the
by
contemplated
we
m,
before
as
(21)
"
of
for
steam
specific volume
of air and
corresponding weight
(?i=rT-
and
327
MIXTURE.
F,p/,
G|
1 .1773
kg. [2.5955
lb.],
weight
(r, of
328
TECHNICAL
and
for
the
because,
weight
the
of
according
THERMODYNAMICS.
steam
Table
to
1"
present
of the
from
get,
we
Appendix,
^
(?,
G,
quantity
lb.],
kg. [0.03748
0.0170
the
58.720,
Uj-
(3), and
equation
and
therefore
the
ratio
mixture
m-^'- 0.01446.
Now
to
the
quality
steam
"and
the
The
(145).
equation
heat
be
to
water
and
the
weight
the
beginning
On
let
of the
us
other
the
the
assume
air is (xi
hand
(19a),
that
be
to
the
from
relation
and
hence"
according
(146), the
equation
to
before,
as
quality
and
pression);
com-
at
is
kg. [0.0319 lb.],
0.01446
the
then,
steam
G^^Gx^
x,u,
"!
before
in"l,
kg. [2.5955 lb.]; the
bînning
the
at
injected
^"
follows
is
B.t.u.].
suppose
ratio
(18) is
f t-lb.],
1 18903
being
(water
mixture
1.1773
"
0.2, according
x"
equation
to
[-185.89
Cal.
present
are
according
by equation
given
as
is
compression
mkg.
16438.8
+8.072-46.843
2.
and
steam,
of the
compression
withdrawn,
38.771
of
189.1
Assumption
air,
work
16249.7
end
the
at
corresponding
value
at
the
end
are
found
from
is found
from
is
w(H*k
The
both
equation
(13) and
p
For
to
1"
of the
limit
of
p,"
steam
of
the
and
assumption
for
for
the
withdrawn
preceding
end
the
of
case.
compression
the
mm.
",
temperature
for
the
atmospheres.
4.908
[58^,
20"
"
coordinates
of the
we
have, according
corresponding
point
curve,
[p
(22)
3730.44
Appendix,
Under
be
to
in the
the
at
pressure
p'
dry saturated
Table
as
heat
lb.].
is
5
exactly
(19a)
the
cases
the
and
compression
(18) and
equations
In
of
kg. [0.00637
-0.00289
a:
the
236.4
kg.
48.42
lb. per
(for the
of
10336.3
[po
21 17.2
of
weight
Pb"
ft.
mixture
coordinates
unit
sq.
kg.
lb.
the
and
Vo
and
r^
ratio
mixture
"
58.721
940.65].
0.01446)
corresponding
of
"
point
we
of
and
ro=
and
Vo
0.8370
-
13.408].
get
from
the
limit
tion
equacurve
ISOTHERMAL
assumption
Under
3.
admixture
any
the
atmospheres,
of
and
be
to
One
be
(expansion
of
[32"].
0"
temperature
the
all
ice
So
long
in
one
of
the
other
the
of
assume
the
then
state,
let
will
be
(72J/ice, and
the
air
have
we
at
The
same
heat
notation
quantity
is
employed
necessary
for
as
for
form
constant
air
of ice.
with
of
is
state
of
at
specific
the
till
place
tain
cer-
steam
mixture
-x-j/)
water.
heat
quantity
temperature
in S 41.
G2
changes
take
; then
the
be
may
Now,
62(1
OP
temperature
not
the
evaporation
G2'fdx,
the
water,
frozen.
x
of
there
constant
the
direction
expansion,
to
with
deserves
change
every
the
is
which
kg. [lb.] of
for
have
water
in
water
Gi
ICE.
temperature
here
specificice quantity
steam,
imparted
of state
OiABiTyr,
the
"
THE
FOR
dV
when
work
AND
water;
is present
all
weight, G2X
be
and
136)
p.
the
to
ft-lb.],
the
at
of
shall
change
by
must
dry, with-
according
STATE
solid
ice;
we
the
or
of
some
and
ice
or
contains
we
the
be
to
B.t.u.].
change
mixture
as
(quality) and
if
I,
WATER,
arises
water,
water,
quantity
which
considered
consider
is melted
instant
Now,
STEAM,
compression)
or
(Vol.
OF
freezing-point
kg. [lb.] of steam,
have,
we
[120288
mkg.
of isothermal
Uquid
therefore
us
AIR,
case
the
with
present,
470.33].
beginning
gases
CHANQE
the
at
the
cal. [155.645
"39.222
especially
more
[32"], i.e.,
Let
LA
OF
important
Vo
29.361
compression,
16630.3
ISOTHERMAL
42.
MIXTURE
to
"
and
Here
of
of the
vb-
air at
wa'er.
value
and
withdrawn,
Q"
"
the
isothermal
the
7,p, log.
heat
the
for
hand,
ft.
sq.
and
steam
terminal
L-
other
Suppose
concerning
propositions
the
on
lb. per
78.320
Assumption
out
1),
(m*-
329
STATE.
OF
382.4
Pb"
[po
CHANGE
330
where
and
magnitudes
The
and
heat
or
of
and
constant
are
with
is determined
volume
The
heat
fusion
of
ice, i.e.,
here
[491.4]
=273
[1091.7].
=606.5
is
formation
[142.2 B.t.u.].
cal.
=79
ice
latent
the
represents
r"
for
quantity
heat
the
and
re
THERMODYNAMICS
TECHNICAL
sufficient
from
accuracy
the
relation
F=Gaxu,
where
ti
[3374.55]
-210.66
heat
the
be
to
(Table
imparted
(23)
of
16
Appendix).
mixture
the
to
the
ingly
Accord-
is
At.
dQ'GiABiT"+G2(rdx-r4y),
and
by
therefore, by integration, when

the
subscript
1,
initial
the
(24)
....
values
indicated
are
find
we
Q=GiABiTlog,-^+GJir(x-xt)-reiy-yi)].(25)
.
members
both
Dividing
differential
the
of
of
equation
weight
heat
or
of
(24) by AT,
the
obtain
we
and,
entropy,
by
the
tion,
integra-
get
P-Px"Giil5ilog,^+(?2[^(x-Xi)-^(2
(26)
.
If,
in
is
beginning
if the
of
(25), for
The
any
y at
the
initial
or
or
the
case,
and,
known,
quantity
heat
function
weight
particular
Q
of
arbitrarily
specific
likewise,
which
p,
then
assumed
the
we
can
steam
supplied
calculate
weight
is
x,
the
j/i,
known
from
the
at
Xi
specific ice weight

be
must
weight
steam
and
a
as
equation
specific
ice
end.
volume
Vi
is determined
Vi ^G2XiU,
from
equation
(23)
(23a)
332
TECHNICAL
ordinate
to
THERMODYNAMICS.
and
constant
the
transformation
therefore
itself
reduces
point.
one
combination
The
in
of
place
the
of
equation
referred
equations
furnishes
to
over,
more-
(26a),
(?iilBiriog.^=(?2[r.(j/-j/i)(266)
.
With
of the
substitute
we
corresponding
to
steam
is
If
Xt
is the
quality
steam
(2),
and
the
for
7'-273"
[491. 4*" F.] and
and
substitute
also
there
water
the
then
saturation,
let
Now
X,
-0.100,
of
water,
water
us
so
and
the
of
present
us
Xi
that
have
we
the
at
"
The
0.
Vi"
the
air pressure
is converted
initial
volume,
ratio
ice.
corresponding
(Table
16
the
of
values
Appendix),
find
we
X,
the
but
only
mixture
present
case
the
steam
expansion
Then
G,(l-"-y)-0,
the
final
in
steam
ratio
the
G^ kg. [lb.] of
that
into
the
0.00369
beginning,
in the
assume
mixture
[3374.55]
1, and
0.1
then
[32^] the
0^
just given,
pressures
suppose
that
accordingly
lb.], and
of
water
kg. [2116.3
10333
pi"
and
and
xMPi-Pi'Y
210.66
t*-
have
we
let
find
BT
temperature
present
was
is
Gi
no
pressure
beginning,
follows
G,
If
also
and
Ve,
F,(pi-p/0-C?iBj7',
Gx
substitute
ice present.
T,
air, steam,
kg. [12.801
the
at
(3) and
therefore, by equating,
we
of
ice present,
no
G,
If
[32"], we
atmospheric
mean
7,-GaX.u
and
of
change
kg. [2103.5 lb.].
equations
to
=0"
the
in the
values
mixture
assume
there
10270.5
-p/'-
according
from
G2(y"3/i)
(26a)
is, therefore, p/'-"62.5
pressure
P/-P,
increment
equation
us
and
beginning
the
determine,
can
temperature
Let
[32^] temperature
at
we
=G2[(y-j/i)-7.677a:i(^log.|
(26c)
Example.
lb.];
in
the
0.2385(?i
0^
equation
air, the
of the
pressure
If
this
of
help
the
m-"
the
of
state
0.00369.
initial
steam
and
0.9
is continued
quantity
quality
is
G, kg. [lb.]
till all
of water
is
the
ADIABATIC
or
the
of m,
ice
the
î
0,
ratio
and
expansion
the
for
is
ratio
trial, from
get by
end, 2=0.129,
The
OF
AND
AIR
"x), and, according
mixture
we
STATE
G^^^G^d
quantity
assumed
the
because
OF
CHANGE
the
to
0.0369.
Under
equation
(26c),
specific ice weight
STEAM.
333
above-given
values
WET
these
the
for
and
suppositions,
quality
steam
at
0.871.
y"
foUows:
as
^---1.29;
the
air
end
the
at
pressure
is determined
p'
-^,
"
p'-7961.6kg.-585.6mm.
or
Pi
[j/
"
OF
The
adiabatic
investigating
subject
Let
The
of
dynamics,
instituted
was
zur
this
question
Bestimmung
Meteorologische
old,
Be
the
Royal
STATE
of moist
"Zur
Prussian
the
T
h.
air, for
with
sort,
Re
specially
der
mercury.
THE
OF
to
MIXTURE
STEAM.
WET
the
has
von
Thermodynamik
Academy
und
taken
adiabatischen
Zeitschrift
of
the
special
often
help
"fiber
ye,
fiir Mathematik
was
in.] of
of
purpose
been
made
the
" 39,
of
Zeitschrift
Atmosph"re."
Later
in
by
amounted
beginning
others.*
by
iDvestigation
the
[23.236
mm.
meteorological questions^
as
in.].
23.056
at
OF
expansion
assume,
first
590.2
AND
AIR
discussion
us
which
end
CHANGE
ADIABATIC
43,
the
lb.
1630.6
pressure,
in.], is at
[29.922
mm.
total
the
Accordingly
760
from
up
Physik,
by H
Zustand^
KOppen,
der
Sciences.
of
equations
vertikale
9th
t z,
1864,
"Graphische
year,
Atmosph"re.''
thenno-
Luftstionae
year,
"nderungen
1st
of
1884;
in
p.
Methode
feuchter
also
der
250.
Luft."
by
Transactions
vod
of
334
TECHNICAL
then
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
combination
neglecting
the
of
small
very
equations
value
"7,
G2
or
and
(2)
gives
the
(3),
mixing
and
321,
p.
ratio
Bill
also
"?2
and
after
equating
therefore
get
if
a
as
get
we
adiabatic
For
(30)
a:iWi"Fi"p'
T{
of
the
change
fundamental
state
in
P=Pi
substitute
we
BiTi
heat
is constant;
weight
equation
(11),
323,
p.
we
equation
(31)
) "+G,|^r-rx+y-2r-J.
0-c/?xlog.2r("
.
Here
relation
the
then
m;
log^y-+ilBi
With
the
initial
values
r,
can
we
of
for
and
the
(29)
and
the
quality
and
the
total
determine
the
/F
this
transcendental
any
arbitrarily
volume
equation
x
(30),
and
insert
course
the
+rw|^T-Ti
+XiUi\^î[r"ii^/
log,^^
help
find
equation
consider
we
have
we
0"=c.
if
convenient
more
utilize
c^{k-1)ÂB,
ratio
mixing
becomes
calculation
the
ratio
of
the
pressure
rest
of
the
Vi
and
equations
the
at
adiabatic
with
equation,
chosen
end.
final
this
and
curve
from
get,
just given,
In
known
temperature
then
can
J*^^^^^
the
way
steam
we
can
reproduce
graphically.
In
adiabatic
change
of state
we
substitute
equation
dQÂ{dU-hdL),
dQ
"0
in the
mental
funda-
it
CHANGE
ADIABATIC
and
then
STATE
with
AIR
OF
AND
work
corresponding
accordance
in
the
get
we
OF
of
equation
WET
expansion
(9),
of
or
pression
com-
find
and
322,
p.
335
STEAM.
that
it is
AL^GMTi-T)-\-G2[qi-q^-Xipi''Xpl.
which
is
equation
Of
the
If
we
then
constant,
the
following.
specific
equation
to
mental
funda-
preceding
two
the
only
average
according
the
of
emphasize
we
assume
may
transformations.
transformations
possible
equations
different
of
capable
(32)
heat
(54a),
of
59,
p.
the
water
we
as
take
may
T-Ti=clOg,jr.
If,
relation
the
easily
Cp"c^-^-ABi,
the
seen,
which
from
table
give
peratiu'e t,
of
get
the
for
by
we
In
therefore
the
final
(32)
the
imagine
equation (31a),
as
is
air;
p"
because
corresponding
the
help
then,
final
of
final
the
the
to
steam
tem-
p^p'+p'^
pressure
equation
ture
tempera-
(30)
we
can
next
condition.
the
of
transformation
produced
work
more
further-
we
or
consumed
final
pressure
p' of
the
air
"'^
"
determined
(316).
narrow
assume
consider
[^"^.-^-{:^-:fJ}.
meteorological
relatively
the
method
same
equation
must
equation
the
of
determine
With
L-Bi(?i
where
of
(29) and
arbiti-ary
any
pressure
also
the
from
j/
steam
can
and
Following
place
for
computed
mass.
calculate
in
get
we
pressiu-e
we
whole
the
be
final
will
(30) and
equations
equation
can
the
utilize
we
moreover,
investigations
limits
that
of
we
temperatm-e
saturated
steam
usually
and
behaves
have
and
pressure
like
do
to
gas;
with
may
desig-
336
TECHNICAL
the
Dating
constant
(generaUy
B2
THERMODYNAMICS.
of
of condition
equation
"2 =47.061
make
we
the
and
[85.778])
for
by
steam
the
using
above
notation,
and
pi''ui^B2Ti
preceding equations
the
follows
pû^Ba^;
and
(31a)
(32)
be
then
may
written
as
(cp +rnc) log.
log.
+ABi
^ +-t^\jp^
^ J
"
27
^^^'^^
and
(c.+mc)(ri-r)+^(ft^-^^)}
(326)
AL-Gi
(316) is
Equation
Example
also
Let
1.
atmospheric
pressure
/,"20"[58'']
pi
by
that, measured
and
the
steam
p/-
equation
the
Xi^
in
Substituting
risen
this
from
(31) the
final
From
when
-^
-
a:
The
mm.
sure
and
steam
[3.6213
of the
the
hand
on
in.], or
whole
at
\h
mixture
as
ratio
initial steam
then
mass
air
the
pose
sup-
steam
m"l.
pressure
according
to
the
at
/'-
is p
56075
[122**].
and
Appendix,
the
given
tities,
quan-
find
we
.22640,
ratio
corresponding
of
compression,.
4.926.
beginning
at
the
the
temperature
1250.5
till
F,-
1 cbm.
[1
ft.]of
cu.
mass,
[cu. ft.].
follows
pressure
"-50"
constants
the
of
1 .80664
cbm.
0.2030
(30)
equation
0.01429,
have
we
V-
volume
present
quality,
steam
to
known
and
la
y-
the
the
temperature
injected
adiabatically
[58^
easily get by trial the
we
Consequently
initial
/,-20"
of Tables
log.
and
air
kg. [48.42 lb.],the

The
compressed
from
equation
help
the
with
be
mass
has
temperature
much
as
been
the
of
water
the
0.01446.
whole
let the
Now
lb.].
kg. [2067.9
(29), is
just
of
has
water
consequently
236.4
p/'"
lb.], and
the
is
and
Gi
G,"
pressure
10096.6
there
weight,
i.e.,suppose
water,
Since
is
[527.4'']. After
and
air, steam,
kg. [2116.3
10333
"
(ibid.).
contain
cylinder
ri-293''
or
Hertz
given by
quality
steam
end,
50"
;/-
at
end, namely,
kg. [11218.7
54824.5
[122^] has
the
pressure
kg. [256.18 lb.]; accordingly the

kg. [11474.9
lb.] or
5.427
of
final
lb.].
91.98
pres-
atmospheres.
CHANGE
ADIABATIC
The
work
STATE
OF
is found
compression
of
AL
[AL
If,
relation
the
and
G,B,r,=-Fip"
AL
[ALWe
1
atmosphere
final
volume
Vol.
I,
terminal
the
[1800
mkg.
We
in
this
the
-
the
temperature
lb.], and
t^
given
[58"].
20"
according
let the
the
and
constants
la
16,
and
is /
0"
ft-lb.].
[cu. ft.] of
[58'"] to
ti^2(f
the
(60), (61), and
compression
air of
same
(62a),
[486.63"],
^-270.35"
temperature
the
of
mkg.
1 cbm.
and
the
injection of
water
(30) and
work
19315
"
ing
superheat-
prevents
the
(32) constitute
values
air and
pressure
Here
rî
"
of
pressure
[32"], so
bases
1, and
because
air
(29), the
is
out
with-
steam
kg. [2]116.3 lb.] and
10333
pi"
the
saturated
the
p/
pressure
kg. [2067.9
10096.6
becomes
ratio
mixing
steam
^'-0.01446.
adiabatically
that
of the
[491 .4"].
273"
till the
corresponding
ture
tempera-
Here, utUizing known

functions, Tables
temperature
obtain
we
this, by trial, the
from
1609
equation
to
log*
and
formulas
expand
mixture
end
the
atmospheric
at
cylinder contain
lb.], the
kg. [48.42
hence,
Now
or
final
weight
compressors.
Let
under
236.4
17320
temperature
give the
greatly
; the
2.
water
p/'
how
of such
theory
Example
of
atmospheres,
9.471
air-compressors
the
for
[cu. ft.]. Equations
cbm.
lb.] is the
the
is
or
compress
the
of
140, then
we
from
ft-lb.].
from
see
if
is found
Gi
kg. [0.0333
compression
of
337
STEAM.
(32) through
ft.], then
cu
1.1773
B.t.u.
and
pressure
(?J.
2.082
-.0.2030
and
139
pp.
62.456
Cal.
results
pressure
40.850
different
get very
G,
work
the
therefore
air present;
34.698
[1
WET
AND
equation
G,-
so
AIR
from
cbm.
beginning, Vi^l
the
at
OF
^+0.12972-^-0.61103,
expansion
ratio
^-1.514,
and
then, according
because
air
at
at
end
the
of the
amounts
to
is
p'
mixture
pi
to
"
760
456.88
is
mm.
(30), the
equation
beginning
the
p-
it
was
mm.
461
.48
[29.922
steam
quality
assumed
that
[17.988
in.], and
mm.
[18.169
in.] of
mercury.
Xi
at the
l.
end
The
accordingly
in.],while
the
is
"-
pressure
the
0.4220"
of
the
final pressure
initial
pressure
338
TECHNICAL
further
With
0"
adiabatic
[32*^] till all the
will
have
be
to
in
quantities
converted
is
the
in
as
the
on
the
(32)
ice, and
work
of
the
constant
further
at
calculation
332.
p.
the
introducing
after
example,
for
remains
temperature
into
example
present
equation
the
expansion
water
made
in
Moreover,
THERMODYNAMICS.
expansion,
corresponding
find
we
AL^4M97Gi
[AL
or
will
work
beginning
the
if at
[AL
the
the
from
be
air to
"
hand
on
G,
5.8273
0.297
or
or
THE
OF
as
with
mixed
well
of
condition
and
machines,
provided
on
require
possess
changes
is
only
of
If the
hold.
volume
kg. [lb.] of steam,
7,
as
and
to
AND
general
by
in
of
meteorology,
Vol.
engines, etc.,
I,
air
range
propositions
and
soon
of
as
steam;
their
Gi kg. [lb.]of
temperature,
they
steam,
as
of
water.
107, " 20,
p.
these
to
pheric
atmos-
liquid
condensation
the
the
saturated
ordinary
of
useless
are
determine
is the
of
Nevertheless
and
that
investigating engines
in
for, applied
the
equation
cold-air
derived
of
that
in the
the
presence
before, includes
if T
AIR
saturated,
to
contents
vapor
validity
particularly important
of
weight
assumption
compressors,
accompanied
are
the
pressure
therefore,
when
simultaneous
limited
state
is
permissible
examination,
further
and
is
the
will
Mixtures,"
Gas
OF
the
from
propositions
the
therefore,
find
we
when
assumption
consider
the
1,
state, subject
This
without
air
Vi"
slight, even
gas
i.e.,in blowers,
only
we
ft-lbj,
the
so
thoroughly
also
is
it
"
temperatures
unsaturated
the
gases.
but
Here,
mkg.
MIXTURE
proceed
Uke
behaves
in
as
is
air
the
unhesitatingly
present
4steam
2470.8
229.5
VAPOR.
atmospheric
ordinary
may
we
[cubic foot], this
lb.].
UNSATURATED
"steam
meter
ViPi't when
kg. [0.0333
1 .1773
Cal.
B.t.u.
GiBiT^
relation
BEHAVIOR
44.
At
cubic
one
become
ilL
because,
had
we
(? J,
8.9095
j/ the
air
the
it
bility.
applica-
and
pressure
G2
of
340
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
.
"
the
as
will
equation
is mixed
If
valid
be
only
with
in
superheated
pressure
the
and
the
should
or
unsaturated,
it
corresponding
and
j"o'
then
T,
temperature
by
saturated
just
were
pressure
unsaturated
presupposes
according
for
we
should
to
this
the
same
take
from
temperature
equation
to
or
(35)
p"
where
this
air
at
equation
the
If the
From
the
ratio
is not
mixture
ratio.
p=760
pressure
for
mo
0.00379
saturated
equation
mixture
for
0"
0.00172
air
mixture
of
[29.922
mm.
saturated
steam
(35)
with
+20"
+30"
0.00759
0.01457
0.02694
then
vapor,
find
we
+10"
for
m"
mo.
unsaturated
steam
ratio
p"fi
^-^TIT^
is
the
where
p"
m:mo,
designated
"
"
vapor
by
x,
pressure
can
now
be
(39")
of
found
meteorology;
from
^_mo_p^^(p-poÔ
w
which
can
For
following temperatures:
-10"
=0.00076
(39)
po
corresponding
gives,
the
mixture,
-20"
"=
mo
the
the
represents
mo
example,
and
we
get
mo=-^^"
in.] of
this
but
considered,
saturated
steam,
which
steam
same
the
designate
case,
the
steam,
table
steam
as
mixture
the
of
air.
present
and
long
so
the
the
condition
of
be
written
Po"(p-p")'
sufficientlyaccurately
r-tL
Po'"
the
ratio
MIXTURE
value
Tvhich
AIR
is called
the
the
of
moisture
OF
Equation
(38)
between
relation
is
by
given
belong
(point
of
condition,
by
sufficient
with
there
the
of
initial
limit
DD
curve
limit
will
The
be
the
ordinary
fixed
For
of
an
air)
imate
approxFig.
the
of
equation
condition
densation
con-
can
(p. 37)
only
change
admixture
earlier
found
was
it is
32.
curve
pV'^D,
where
higher
the
and
the
For
present
could
of
determining
could
this
done
be
and
in Tables
la
from
-20''
+30^
basis
enough
1
as
the
of
for
Here
path
taken
the
ratio
in
the
to
limits
and
Physics
the
in
temperature
of
[-4^
steam
weight
Gt
there
common
to
the
have
pressure
air
264
weight
263, which
to
and
p,
Gf.
curve;
and
of
are
also
the
to
in
mixture
on
reliable
values
oorrect
introduced
u"v,
ranging
Apu
conducted
study
thermodynamic
more
been
limit
hardly
i.e.,the
the
For
it is clearer
here
the
is, however,
I, pp.
purpose
calculation
temperatures,
in Vol.
of
the
temperatures
The
F.].
Meteorology.
text;
and
for
for
the
values
the
temperatures
D,
of
course
Appendix
of
and
results
atmosphere
the
atmospheric
of
+86''
calculations
the
in
above
of the
for
given
engines.
constants
the
been
elsewhere
steam
help
lb
given
examine
oocurrenoes
the
experimental
the
is customary
the
the
to
the
with
have
ordinary
accurately
more
given
the
of
case
specially determine
we
in
occurring
pressures
(40)
which
constants
are
of
curve
atmosphere.
(without
steam
pure
for
unit
the
present.
accuracy
temperatures
ratio
the
curve
of
the
place.
the
certain
involve
steam
limit
ratio
limit
would
the
relative
ratio
arbitrary
takes
steam
mixture
overstepped
this
of
then
is
state
mixture
Ti,
mixture
temperature
of
of
this
this
and
change
and
of
course
the
given
as
"
the
or
known
volume,
and
Fig. 32),
be
for
certain
pi,
the
not
must
of
vi,
to
gives
condensation
for
that
Suppose
"
moisture
of
341
VAPOR.
when
no
as
UNSATURATED
degree
pressure,
long
so
"
now
mixture;
of
weight
valid
air,"
AND
the
pursiue
the
of
tions
calcula-
ratio
m,
"
342
TECHNICAL
and
adduced
THERMODYNAMICS.
in
the
table
therefore
be
should
be
hardly
used
this
for
purpose.
It would
these
for
steam
of condition
If
in
according
the
then
we
pressure
r=ti
and
+14^
6968.0
for the
and
find
"2^,
for several
v,
under
the
[inches]
(f
+10*^
205.4
106.9
mercury,
those
below
regarded
Table
of
as
corresponding
pressures
the
of the
constants
58.3
50^
68^
933.9
the
16
reliable.
+20^
dififer
freezing-point
the
of
With
equation
the
help
of the
these
of
in Table
la,
limit
=1.0525
(40"
and
D=1254
and
(40a"
....
[1;= 1.0525
the
under
hypothesis
[inches] of
"
Lv
agree
this
of further
equation,
pressure
is
given
in
millimetera.
for
-10^
-20^
=944.1
r^=
the
=914.83],
mercury.
which
that
equation gives
This
we
curve,
be
to
'
but
Appendix,
given
pV'^D,
them
and
hjrpothesis
of
1712.0
32?
3290.0
temperatures
from
be
the
of
calculate
now
equation
volumes
"
specific
[1.21373],
435.0
-4^
nevertheless
can
the
to
that
results:
=15133.0
values
pv^'pu
millimeters
in
-10^
-20^
inconsiderably
values
hypothesis
the
to
subjected
equation
to
given
944.7
["=
may
is
J?2 =3.4641
is
r=ti=
The
fast
corresponding
following
the
get
"=
not
the
substitute
doing
so
that
values
temperature
values,
temperature
'
hold
to
of gases.
compute,
we
better
+10*^
+20*^
58.2
435.5
206.1
107.1
+14"
32"
50"
6976
3302
1716
932.5J
values
just given
-4"
=15124
suflBciently
under
0^
the
investigations.
well
with
assumptions
the
made,
68"1
can
be
made
so
the
that
basis
MIXTURE
In
order
ratio
this
of
change
any
DD
curve
is met
saturation,
of
let
then,
for
any
start
from
if To
is the
according
mixture
the
point
it till the
corresponding
equation
to
mixture
continue
and
TiTo
state
To]
at
us
for
curve
indeed
and
343
VAPOR.
limit
the
of
course
steam
with
(Fig. 32)
the
UNSATURATED
AND
AIR
whatsoever,
limit
fix
to
and
air
of
OF
(38),
ture
temperahave
we
for
point
On
the
other
hand
equation
PqVo
also
obtains
volume
of
The
when
saturated
division
is the
po
steam
of
steam
of
both
=-62^0
and
pressure,
the
vo
is the
specific,
Tq.
temperature
gives
equations
1 -hm
PqVo
~~
pv
because
and
-Hm'
(37) is
equation
the
from
get
we
volume
of
Vo
the
combination
at
steam
of
the
the
point
of
formulas
two
intersection
the
Tq
specific
(Fig. 32),
follows:
as
l+m
m
If
p
and
curve
we
now
in
substitute
equation
the
(40),
corresponding
we
values
two
get
to
pv"'
of
po
equation
an
the
(.""
mixture
1 D;
and
for
in
vo
the
place
of
limit
ratio
m:
(41)
344
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
when
here,
is
in
expressed
millimeters
[inches], we
must
the
use
constants
1^-1.0625,
=0.622,
[=914.83].
=1254
If
and
Dm,
by
i.e.,
if
prefer
we
of
the
introduce
to
member
right
the
of
equation (41)
reciprocal value
of
m"
follows
there
"="
value
the
designate
we
(41a)
"
py^^Dm
(42)
where
^"-=(It5^^
We
the
by
only
this
from
see
which
equation
from
general
the
regards
As
graphical representation
polytropic
(42)
equations
from
lowsi
Vol.
I, ""
mixture
ratio
0625
every
these
the
29
and
curves
propositions
31,
to
mÔ.Ol
for
the
151.
p.
for
or
their
there
100
""-
fol-
(426)
condition
of the
mixture
is found
from
be
(38) to
equation
for
449.27].
of
equation
of the
Bm
found
615.84
[pî .0515
constant
be
differ
curves
(42a),
pvi
The
of
apply
can
and
limit
of
easily
can
properties
in
the
For
Example.
number
(42a).
we
derived
curve,
infinite
an
D^
constant
ratio
mixture
that
(^)
B"_1"Z?B..2.1659[0.75887],
the
provided
initial
If the
the
pressure
pressure
is taken
initial temperature
equation
of
changes
pressure
Vi
1.
into
we
*-
t^
is pi"760
[58"]" then
20"
"
Bm7*i, the
we
specific volume
[13.3758].
0.8350
"
The
mixture
1 (Fig. 32) of the
passed
If
pxVi
mixture
We
will
at
constant
now
mercury.
[29.922
mm.
can
from
compute
of the
mixture
consider
in.] and
the
of
the
the
following
of state.
Case
point
condition
namely,
bînning,
the
of
[inches] of
in millimeters
is given
the
saturated
substitute
is p-
limit
744.54
is
is
curve
reached,
volume
i.e.,till the
steam
present
till
has
condition.
in equation
mm.
cooled
(426)
[29.313
V'-v,*-
in.], and
0.8350,
we
get,
then
from
the
corresponding
the
equation
of
MIXTURE
condition
i
AIR
the
pv^BmT,
[57.276"].
14.04"
OF
AND
UNSATURATED
r"
temperature
The
steam
[516.676"],
287.04"
the
at
pressure
345
VAPOR.
by
or
instant, according
Celsius
to
tion
equa-
(37), is
tn
j/^
excellent
in
between
îve
11.91
Case
If
of
point
condition
The
3.
r, up
Here
the
for
gives
the
and
pressure
steam
cooling
or
from
tabulation
the
is therefore
: nij
moisture
(29),
based
not
the
on
equation
As
for
334,
p.
a;
the
the
I,
p.
"p
of
14.33"
"=
or
is
pressure
ture
tempera-
that
air
the
assumed
is
mixture
all three
mixture
ratio
equal
exactly,
ratio
m^,
assumption
in.].
with
[68"],
and
the
0.01446,
"
that
the
for
ratio
relative
equation
is
steam
find
equation
to
this
760
we
The
have, according
we
p,
vapor,
0.01457.
pression
com-
steam.
0.686
to
[68"], the
further
(i,=20"
m^
sure
pres-
(According
20"
cases
of the
[9.2253]
steam
temperature
just saturated
mixture
(More
the
In
condition
initial
t?=-
[0.68623
condition,
0.5759
corresponding
mm.
to
of
equation
subject
is
to
gases.)
equations
heat
hold
propositions
mixtures
for
which
of
air
and
given
were
saturated
un-
in
Vol.
171, " 34.
Let
Cp
the
340
of
the
steam,
follows
equation
steam
volume
condensation
the
approximate
of condition
regards
in
mixture
l, the
17.43
in.].)
about
68.6%.
to
amounts
the
specific
corresponding
that
the
for
the
[0.68465
p.
on
with
(426)
(37) is p''
bring
[29.922 in.]) of the
mm.
the
constant
at
[43.347 in.]. The
mm.
hypothesis
the
corresponding
compressed
(Fig. 32)
mm.
will
from
[517.194"]
287.33"
the
(37)
(426), there
equation
[13.1163], and
?
equation
equation
17.39
in
pressure
is crossed.
curve
curve.
have,
pressure
Under
is
1102
Regnault,we
to
r"
p
to
limit
0.8188
experiments
constant
at
[29.922]
760
v=
of
intersection
according
the
these
steam;
relation
[57.2"].
14"
the
on
in.].
limit
of
mixture
the
to
saturated
temperature
combination
the
experiments
compressed
equation
to
[0.47323
mm.
Case
p"=pj
the
according
12.02
is
intersection
get
we
"57.794"];
p""
substitute
here
of
in.] for
(Fig. 32)
[0.46378],
mm
.
pressure
mixture
point
1 1 .78
Regnault's
[0.46890
The
till
we
the
for
and
mm.
2.
cooled
and
with
agreement
temperature
p""
us
Cv', for
and
and
designate
Cvy
developed
then
the
by
steam
according
in Vol.
I,
p.
values
two
172,
Cp'
to
we
and
of
the
c"", and
formulas
the
have
s^+pr^
^
1 H-m
specificheat
for
(13),
the
for
mixture
(14), and
air
by
by
(15),
346
the
and
where
ratio
and
of
the
above,
as
m,
Here
c"=Cp-ilB2
the
inner
values
two
ratio.
mixture
the
means
substitute
must
we
For
of
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
Cp' =0.2375,
c,' =0.1685,
Cp^'-0.4805,
=0.3695.
unit
of
weight
mixture
of
have
then
we
for
the
change
work
AdU^c^T,
for
and
the
heat
(see
imparted
dQ
="-;^
(46)
Vol.
I, p. 134)
(udp
Kpdv)
(47)
^Cj4T-ABmT^.
V
imsaturated
With
temperature,
the
mixture
we
obtain
(45)
equation
as
with
saturated
ratio
values
air, of ordinary atmospheric
is
of
small
so
which
that, according
hardly
differ
to
the
from
value
ic=
for
1.410
utilize
For
p. 135,
For
of
the
will
the
dry
air;
this
value
calculation
of
in
such
for
the
moist
entropy,
we
case
equations
work
Vol.
(55),
I,
serve.
important
case
will
give
equations (47)
the
hesitatingly
un-
air.
of
the
adiabatic
equation
change
of the
of
is determined
from
equation
AL=Cv{T-T{)
state
adiabatic
the
curve
first
:
(48)
pi;*=piri*,
and
therefore
can
(46) by
(49)
348
TECHNICAL
The
work
of
suppose
the
also
the
Umit
equations
and
the
limit
steam
is
reached
With
path
unit
of
volume
curve
DD
^2=273^
further
the
the
pi,
the
be
to
of
the
determined
by
sion,
expan-
condensation
till the
T0T2
temperature
course
and
point Tq,
path
steam;
adiabatic
prolonged
the
at
place.
freezing point
[491.4" F.].
prolongation
(Fig. 33),
TqT2
with
takes
steam
saturated
suppose
(Fig. 33)
is crossed
and
pressure
v\]
(42a), then,
of
of air
the
m,
condensation
weight
ratio
place along
at
a
(49)
ft-lb.].
[4094.3
mkg.
specific
curve
takes
of
the
(42)
by equation
further, the
mixture
corresponding
given
566.05
before,
as
is
continued
given
and
Ti,
expansion
Assume,
expansion
L
If the
THERMODYNAMICS,
the
adiabatic
the
of
remains
temperature
the
at
T2
point
there
va,
the
ordinates
co-
finally
are
and
only air, steam,
present
till,
constant,
possessing
and
Pa
along
expansion
ice
out
(with-
water).
The
the
of
further
335,
and
and
If
also
and
present
then
in
" 43;
to
ri
the
on
the
sion
expan-
shed
(32), pp.
by
334
formulas
these
ro
the
and
we
xi
subscripts
interchange
to
=1.
specific heat
average
=-4B,
only
follows
there
of the
water
as
(31) for
equation
from
constant,
the
case
According
x;
the
(^{k-1)
chosen
substitute
to
treat
we
light is
and
(31)
in
V2
pansion
ex-
33.
have
1
to
Vq
formulas
from
during
occurrences
from
Fio.
volume
investigated;
just
were
the
during
occurrences
to
equation
this
temperature
the
logejT+ABi
(c, +mc)
lying
corresponding
we
between
loge"
can
+^\f-jrj'
calculate
To
specific volume
and
for
T2
v=xw,
the
any
steam
and,
^ ^
'
arbitrarily
quality
according
MIXTURE
to
OF
(29a), the
equation
air pressure
the
at
349
VAPOR.
UNSATURATED
AND
AIR
is
instant
p'=^
The
total
corresponding
pressure
which
the
be
and
to
marked
point,
from
taken
volume
the
find
in the
pressure
indicated,
manner
to
Vq
results
V2
the
along
expansion
from
quality
steam
volume
is
there
because
here
is
of state,
0 =^Bi
where
the
is the
specific
steam
water
the
constant
change,
at
present
for
Therefore
change
volume
increase
is
and
(32), p. 335,
(54)
...
the
from
volume
temperature
V2
to
72=273"
(26), p. 330, is valid, and, because
equation
adiabatic
an
ice
freezing-
place
takes
occurrence
no
1/1 =0.
of the
formation
this
For
(52a)
the
for
T0T2
path
expansion
imder
(Fig. 33)
Vz
ice
TTT
corresponding
the
equation
from
adiabatic
continued
[491.4"]
table
steam
the
at
X2
AL=Gi[c9(To-T2)-\-m(qo+Po'-X2P2)l
the
values
p2.
of
work
With
33.
follow, according
will
there
then
the
loga ^7-^+w(-|-^-f
logiTfT+ABi
can
we
then,
the
The
of
(c" -{-mc)
and
and
be
the
Let
[491.4" F.].
^2=273"
subscript 2,
(p2, ^2), Fig.
point
the
to
up
temperature
the
steam
(52),
this
From
V2
by
equation
this
to
the
p" represents
temperature.
only
temperature
corresponding
when
+p",
the
to
(52) is valid
Equation
at
is p^j/
pressure
(53)
the
present
beginning,
case,
have
we
and
for
we
Pi;
must
any
point
moreover,
substitute
whatever
get
we
loge
quality,
weight.
--
+m\
the
"jr{x-X2)"f-y,
specific ice weight,
and
(1
"
"
y)
350
TECHNICAL
For
into
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
because
ice, and,
(1-x"
0 =ilBi
log.
this
From
^2=273,
If
be
precipitated
by
the
"
the
continue
we
r.
first
us
the
assume
steam
let
order
in
=0.5
and
Now,
in
order
into
of
heat
to
and
ABi
=0.0690
and
ABi
=0.0690].
then
which
the
will
be
will
steam
explained
imparted
of
be
weight
of
ice
pure
it
upon
the
heat
bring
STEAM,
AIR,
to
the
it to
which
melting
the
of
specific heat
melting
of
the
ice
be
must
ture;
temperaand
its
ae
imparted
is
temperature
ice, which
the
by
identical
pressure
temperature
quantity
surrounded
will
we
take
constant.
to
of
water
convert
the
ice
the
under
constant
there
temperature,
same
Cal.
r*=79
fusion
OF
corresponding
Ti
the
represents
c"
c"
be
to
(1 "Xa)
ICE,
exerts
the
then
specific volume,
ice
which
pressure,
furthermore
where
specific ice weight
MIXTURE
unit
envelope
elastic
the
the
occurrence
THE
OF
BEHAVIOR
Let
to
(55)
.
end.
still farther,
AND
with
gives
following investigations.
45.
an
the
at
142.2,
expansion
an
-rj,
r2X2
r,=79,
snow,
as
preceding equation
substitute
=1091.7,
fa
and
0^3
=606.5,
r2
[7^2 =4914.4,
quality
must
we
is converted
steam
doing
so
all water
+7r[(r2 +r,)x3
"
compute
can
we
in
end;
the
at
the
represents
xz
the
j/)=0,
X2
where
which
in
point (pa, Vs), Fig. 33,
[142.4 B.t.u.];
is necessary
total
the
pletely
com-
pressure
heat
the
to
be
is therefore
"U=c,(r-ri)+r*.
during
But
0
"
03
occurs,
the
conversion
where,
as
of
before,
ice
o
into
water
represents
the
change
of
volume
specific volume
of
BEHAVIOR
OF
heat
the
consequently
mixture;
the
MIXTURE
THE
OF
this
will
we
from
fusion;
which
designate
it is well
Now
than
greater
place during
the
the
Let
it is of
latent
inner
under
the
before
is r, and
is
We
unit
of
ice
of
At
obtain
weight
the
of
be
heat
the
in
in
unit
have
we
the
of steam
of
and
as
the
of
weight
of ice
we
can
or
the
that
in
of
the
heat
into
heat
r"
steam
quantity
is converted
is
assume
latent
the
is
water
into
as
work
p'^r"Apu.
heat
contained
in
kilogram [pound]
Ti,
evaporation
the
the
mixture
above
and
the
be
heat,
steam
of
converted
heat
pheric
atmos-
[0.017413]
heat
that
is
ice
takes
the
at
=0.001087
with
which
the
contraction
necessary
latent
inner
of
ob
external
completely
p;
over
of
"
of
fusion.
that
a*
identical
quantity
the
for
instant
x
be
temperature
certain
quality
heat
corresponding
now
pe
pressure
the
show
slight magnitude
produced
of
and, accordingly,
[32^]
of fusion
constant
the
Apu;
(P
such
heat
water
is
work
heat
specific volume
observations
The
of
heat
[0.016]; accordingly
but
negative,
the
water,
melting.
(7=0.001
into
latent
latent
that
the
of
melting-point
and
external
inner
known
that
converted
follows
this
call the
will
we
351
ICE
AND
a^),
"
the
as
STEAM,
quantity
ALÂpio
and
AIR,
ice,
specific ice weight,
ice
and
steam
over
let
then
the
the
the
heat
steam
of
excess
contained
is
A{U''Ui)=[c,{T'-Ti)+pe+p]x+Ce(T-'Ti){l-x),
or
A{U-Ui)=c.{T-Ti)i-(pe+p)x,
and
therefore
AdU=^CBdT+d[{pB+p)x]
This
equation
get, for
any
takes
reversible
the
place
change
(56)
of
equation
of
state
of
(41),
any
p.
64.
mixture
We
of
then
ice and
352
TECHNICAL
the
for
steam,
heat
THERMODYNAMICS.
imparted
dQ=CedT+(li{pe+p)x]+Apdi'
According
the
present
development
the
to
upon
it is evident
29,
p.
equation
Clapeyron's
case,
(57)
takes
for
that,
form
the
dp
r+re
"^^
dV
that, therefore, the
and
in the
given
way
preceding
and
p. 58
on
heat
equation,
transformed
when
60, becomes
p.
dQ=c.dr+rd[^^^y^^]
combination
The
with
of
this
integration
the
with
equation
the
of
(58)
(56), in
equation
junction
con-
expression
AdL=dQ-AdU,
the
gives
corresponding
of
state
mixture
illustrated
series
whole
We
can
of
above
L.
formulas
preceding
The
work
for
enable
and
the
of
examples.
now
examine
mixture
the
in
steam
of
follow
to
us
the
and
water
behavior
same
of
of
change
any
as
way
by
steam
mixture
was
of
air
"
Let
steam,
ice.
and
steam,
Gi
the
be
then
of
get, in the
we
equation
weight
(10),
p.
322,
the
same
and
air
G2
present,
way
taking
as
that
followed
that
of
account
the
of
the
in
ice and
ing
establish-
relation
G2XUJ
(*-l)7'^]+(?2[c^7'
dO=c.G,[d7'
7'd(^^^)],
(59)
+
or
we
get the
ratio
G2
of entropy
change
:
(?i by
A (P-
Pi)
if
we
designate
the
ture
mix-
MIXTURES
DIFFERENT
OF
Cri
LIQUIDS
OF
(c -hmce) log* jjT +ABi
r;
KINDS
log"
AND
36^
VAPORS.
-"
XiUi
^m[^-'-l^].
For
of
ordinary
the
this
becomes
equation
of
the
Gi(x"Xi),
snow
found
easily
By
the
the
all
of
extremely
possible
of
course
difficult;
but
the
the
to
approximate
for
ENT
of
to
KINDS
lack
the
questions
of
their
of
time
as
that
to
be
Kirchhoff
and
are
have
we
the
sidered
con-
transcendent
of
which
may
be
Kinds
of
formations,
trans-
many
however,
are,
replaced
by
simple
be
have
closely
suitable
vapors,
and
for
been
not
technical
investigations;
been
discussions
led
to
the
behavior
we
encounter
the
followed
and
of
older
others,
be
the
to
results
that
fact
chemical
are
of
works
by
inspired
were
and
and
special
there
sure
investigations
which
in part
the
on
classical
Horstmann
considerable
is due
applied
To
by
difficulties
to
part
so
use.
of mixtures
this
bearing
in
DIFFER-
VAPORS.
overcome;
answerec',
far
OF
THEIR
investigations
thus
Vapors.
MIXTURES
been
not
Duhem,
theoretical
these
have
has
have
Helmholtz,
the
initial
the
mixture
the
permit
AND
resulting
to
are
penetrating
some
DiflTerent
more
experimental
thermodynamics
actions
work,
ON
examine
to
this
to
up
and
xi
special investigations
purposes,
LIQUIDS
OF
liquids and
which
the
equations
REMARKS
attempting
In
of
Mixtures
GENERAL
46-
into
converted
articles
investigation;
renders
this
means
expressions.
b)
"
of
of
perature
tem-
above.
meteorological
purpose
quality
preceding
of
cases
equations
and
foreign
the
in
arbitrary
been
pressure
given
manner
presentations
all
form
the
in
and
member
therefore, by
has
initial
left
the
any
and
x,
which
the
volume
for
then,
quality
know
we
expansion
can
weight
The
Ti,
temperature
we
steam
steam
ice, provided
or
0;
the
T, compute
adiabatic
of
case
(60)
permit
i b b
us
by
s
to
354
TECHNICAL
just
which
will
we
which
possible
satisfactory
machine)
the
with
conclusions
bases
that
first
us
and
together
if
y;
an
overcoming
heat
of
the
of
mixture
finally
is
what
in
the
quality
of
consideration,
is
Another
series
If
proper.
separate,
or
of
both
of
changes
the
or
supplied
to
if
after
mixtures
the
the
of the
theoretical
the
as
and
condition
to
heat
mixing
brought
at
the
mixture
of
changes
of
of
several
the
under
not?
the
mixing
both
in
the
the
other
question
the
mixing;
prescribed
be
in order
to
restore
the
initial
indicated
have
been
thus
arises
the
as
thus
withdrawn
for
to
question
which
temperature
vapor,
condition
in the
the
first
at
of
state
under
investigation;
process
are
must
between
and
present,
which
experimental
liquid,
temperature
together
end
the
pressure
remaining
each
to
then
arise,
what
quantities
questions
relation
and
with
steam
is the
temperature
or
expressed
questions
what
the
or
same
volume,
bodies
two
the
condition
of
or
into
of
kg. [lb.]of
be
Gi 162
the
brought
are
G2
mixture
at
steam,
now
jB
and
the
steam
relates
are
the
indicating
and
one
steam
questions
liquid
they
arises
to
as
few
the
the
of
in
state
liquid
pressure
particularly
occur,
in
of the
state
Only
in the
and
vapor,
of
thus
temperature,
saturated
the
substances
two
of them
one
in
the
supplied,
instant
each
whether
stating
then
given
exists
mixtures,
is converted
be
particular
the
ratio
pressure,
ratio
is,
that
liquids,
at
reporting
the
mixture
mixture
the
of
and
liquids
herewith
must
machine,
particular problems.
two
external
the
this
at
of
their
the
mixture
steam
what
of
part
therefrom
kg. [lb.] of
let
and
quantity
obtains
ratio
let Gi
(absorption
's
question
ally
theoretic-
soda-lye.
liquid
on
that
suppose
be
only
drawn
machine
and
it is not
Honigmann
water
solution
the
given
by
now
be
mixed;
be
other
what
will
results
can
for
necessary
Let
the
it
following
of
in
ones
very
time
present
ice
also
mixture
experimental
existing
and
the
are
machines
Carry's
here,
circles, and
technical
the
at
of certain
cycle
manner.
belongs
works
In
the
in
that
solution;
approaching
are
particularly,
more
least,so
furthered
represent
to
here
important
are
specify
soon
been
have
which
that
problems
the
involved
problems
the
that
hope
THERMODYNAMICS.
or
temperature,
far
a
subjected
series
temperature
of
35G
TECHNICAL
such
ratios
of
ether
and
of
bisulphide
The
the
the
for
vapors
alcohol
of
saturation
the
pressures
and
and
carbon
Further
and
with
were
alcohol.
is here
ratio
dependent
and
is
p'
and
p"
upon
smeller
always
of
the
separate
ratio
the
temperature;
same
of
benzine.^
of ether
mixture
the
mixture
the
and
also
and
of
chloride
of
mixture
different
for
Wiillner^
by
and
the
of
alcohol
pressure
sum
carbon,
and
and
temperature
than
of
conducted
water
steam
experiments
bisulphide
were
of
instituted
carbon,
experiments
mixtures
1 1
THERMODYNAMICS.
p' -hp"
therefore
of
equal
is
found
as
appears
that
according
and
water
and
greater
smaller
or
value
the
is
/x
and
larger
mixture,
takes
place when,
in
element
ception
of
experimental
the
for
nishing
the
simple
'
Rel
into
Poggend.
liquid
724
11,
li 1 1
Ann.,
from
to
r,
Vol.
for
ratios
the
value
the
of
of
//
is
temperature;
liquid predominates
the
temperature;
is less
there
of
inadequate
the
exists
their
of
degree
opposite
volatile
is constant
per*
conclusions
insufficient
in
vapors
of
for
the
superheat..
fur-^
particular mixture
For
temperature.
cx)nstant
the
experiments
given by
when
for
further
kinds
these
be
pressure
=0.630,.
bisulphide
particularly
are
would
at
with
drawing
them
which
vapor
and
ju
"0.59"
other.
of
pressures
curve
vapor
the
''
and
deducing
pressure
is converted
results,
//
alcohol
ether
it
then
constant
average
and
however,
are,
and
conclusions
important
More
the
the
laws
partial
the
and
mixture
'
of
than
the
volatile
more
by weight,
underlying
the
determining
mixture
is
on
slowly
with
existing experiments
The
from
the
mixture
the
measured
ether
changes
when
with
other
also
with
it decreases
and
in the
ii 1 1
consists:
mixture
liquids, i.e., if j/=l,
temperatures,
while
With
the
If
two
Regnault
to
=0.590.
//
the
to
alcohol,
according
carbon
of
different
for
/",
fraction.
proper
(by weight)
parts
quantity;
with
as
long
as^
liquid
is.
728.
(Jber die Spannkraft

129,
1866,
p.
353.
der
Dfimpfe
von
FlusaigkeLtsgemischen."'
OF
BEHAVIOR
naixture
a
ratio
behind
remaining
of the
from
of two
and
mixture
"
into
liquid
and
"
y";
ratio
total
the
volume
total
the
be
is the
formation,
then
after
ratio
the
liquid
be
j/'; on
both
values
of
will
and
y,
If here
liquids.
mixture
the
of
the
other
will
be
of
hand
different
depend
unit
the
357'
STEAM."
steam
vapor
will
on
the
upon
of
weight
the
vapor.
RESEARCHES
RECENT
47.
mixture
t and
of
of
different, i.e.,will
dependent
temperature
mixtures
liquids before
is
steam
SUPERHEATED
AND
with
so
is converted
portion
that
it is not
but
hand,
on
SATURATED
"
SATURATED
THE
ON
STEAM."
SUPERHEATED
AND
OF
BEHAVIOR
"
The
exclusively
V.
1 1
1847
as
the
Vol.
Ill
in
other
le calcul
physical
For
of
there
them
behavior
of
the
in
these
those
were
obtained
"
saturated
did
differences
and
qui
in Paris
appeared
volumes
being
of
in
(Vol. II
devoted
intended
to
in
1862,
and
gases
determine
to
to
their
reliable
In
all the
influence,
data
did
not
cast
doubt
the
elapsed
few
ments
experi-
known,
and
from
have
but
become
slight differences,
they
that
years
have
for
concerning
works
others
by
experimental
the
deepest
Regnault's
shown
appear
the
first
steam.
direction
mostly
book
experiences,
num^riques
thermodynamics
the
of
same
the
by
"
vapeur.'
three
steam,
recorded
des
donnês
based
are
properties.
appearance
have
of
first volume
the
of
Relation
les
volumes
of
were
"
series
*'
et
in 1840;
development
the
lois
volume
experiments
work,
machines
latter
thermal
the
results
of
1870), the
and
began
than
wonderful
great
des
first
vapors
and
his
second
present
principales
experiments
The
since
in
les
dans
entrent
the
grand
the
on
determiner
pour
of
investigations
where
and
greater
Regnault's
on
statements.
Finally,
which
will
and
quite recently,
be
now
importance;
the
have
been
already
Of
to
the
the
discussed
experiments
communications
to
on
be
from
in
more
investigations
mentioned
several
have
detail
on
Battelli
of
pp.
discussed
the
works
48
and
we
laboratory
become
known
of
aQCOunt
and
their
1 i
50.
will
for
first
call
Technical
attention
Physics
368
TECHNICAL
belonging
Royal
the
to
thermischen
''Die
zwischen
The
the
d e,
and
second
theoretical
H.
of
author
volume
with
and
Knoblauch,
special
the
time, gives
same
the
investigations
older
the
to
of
work
Vapors.
"
with
first
the
was
in
steam,
basis
the
calculated
was
the
at
Volume
on
tains
con-
them.
''saturated
was
first part
title,embraces
same
reference
present
of
this
V, 1859;
Vol.
the
iiberhitzen
b e.^
with
comparison
specific
the
entitled
und
whose
Osk.
by
which,
Specific
The
of steam
C,"
180**
d e,
presentation
institutes
and
density
gesattigten
des
and
100*^
of Munich
School
High
part, possessing the
Rich.
of
work
on
report
Rich.
Technical
Eigenschaften
Wasserdampfes
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
of
calculate
Zivilingenieur,
the
ments
experi-
Regnault's
of
help
the
to
Clapeyron's
equation
where
volume
of the
water,
and
The
article
exact
relations
of
the
valid
values
in
saturated
"
determined
attempted
^
wesenB,
made
certain
In
vapors.
these
by calculation,
by
Mitteilungen
published
Battelli
iiber
by
in
forerunner
taken
been
and
to
the
formula
is,
the
minations.
deter-
the
more
of
of the
this
more
temperature
generally employed
very
preceding
of
editions
preceding
has
been
have
liquid
experimental
the
pressure
of the
belonging
evaporation
is the
specific
of
up
course,
only
decided
step
vapor.
within
for
forward,
[0.016]
(7=0.0010
account
the
The
experiments
The
of
question
time.
present
for
mentioned
the
between
Regnault's
to
between
s
of
heat
determinations
in which
to
the
according
book,
values
and
steam
determined
sharply
the
saturated
represents
temperature
difference
the
represents
u^sâ
the
in
limits
they
experiments
but
directly,
deutscher
aus
heated
"super-
to
specific volume
others, though
Forschungaarbeiten
extended
were
the
is found
and
Verein
constitute
Munich
dem
Ingenieure.
on
Gebiete
just
a
smaller
des
Berlin, 1905.
as
is not
was
scale.
Ingenieur
BEHAVIOR
"SATURATED
OF
The
experimental
constructed
said
of
Prof.
by
C.
diameter
steam
admitted
was
this
steam
way
the
flowed
steam
in
fashion,
suitable
also
and
and
till
pot of 320
of water;
boiler, and
it.
warmed
finally only
this
In
heated
super-
determined
was
of
temperature
mm.
inserted
was
steam
temperature
the
posal
dis-
the
at
quantity
gas-heated
whose
was
as
conceived
there
weighed
evaporated
present,
was
iron
an
glass globe
was
35"
placed
height
same
accurately
the
was
was
In
pot from
aroimd
introduced
water
and
d e,
of the
an
the
to
question
in Munich.
and
glass globe containing
v.
experimenters
[12.60 in.] inner
in
apparatus
STEAM."
SUPERHEATED
AND
heating
the
steam.
if the
Conversely,
by
reduce
the
of
series
and
had
remains
volume.
in the
supplied
and
[0.0331
g.
In
specificvolume
[25.598
and
of
volume
the
off
the
as
branch
has
been
been
found
the
strongly
the
inclined
pressure
183
to
a.
the
capacity
water
plied
sup-
is
there
easily
i.e.,its.
steam,
(balloons)
in.],and
cu.
varied
between
as
If
the
lay
we
ordinate,
as
considered,
the
point
an
axis
for
for
the
and
15
of
the
and
to
at
which
off the
the
abscissas
e,
cbm.
kg.
per
temperature
the
of
volume
higher
than
to
with
at
steam
the
the
lay
we
curve
which
pressures
of
heated
superv,
curve,
and
increasmg proportionally
the
as
specific
experiments,
pressure
the
corresponding point
saturation
o
of
will substitute
we
get, for
we
particular
values
32
0.1817
of these
basis
in the
s
and
1.598
lb.].
rectilinearly;
to
the
made
were
temperature
the
run
[104
of
the
glass globes
steam,
corresponding
designated
to
1.
of
experiments
If, on
curve.
off from
given,
are
obtain
pressure
of the
can,
steam,
thus
for
weight
lie between
steam
steam,
will
to
experiments
pressure
coordinates
and
weight
inserted
1.7
ft. per
saturated
saturation
of
saturated
cu.
and
we
lb.].
values
2.884
and
abscissa
sof
these
v;
of
the
globe
the
unit
different
0.0265
series
all, 32
As
of
of
capacities
heating
the
volume,
various
The
of
temperature
constant
of
steam,
pressure
the
capacity
superheated
globe by stages,
the
of
volume
the
the
unchanged.
cubic
the
moreover
water
at
steam
determined
specific
in
values
separate
globe
of the
of
temperature
superheated
12
diminution
gradual
is filled with
globe
curve
it has
it is
lower
temperature
more
sures,
pres-
T,
360
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
With
value
ideal
the
of
and
the
through
temperature
within
here
water;
isochore
the
p=0,
also
represented
pass
through
of
range
"273"
point,
[-459.4"]
with
so
their
constant
273"
^=
experiment
the
straight lines, but
same
at
it is not
but
for
have,
we
passing
curve,
the
by
the
pv^BT,
obeying
gas,
the
isochores
the
prolongation
("459.4"),
of
vapor
of the
are
does
not
temperature
curve.
of
result
Another
to
up
the
with
agrees
in
experiments
close
that
namely,
steam
the
law
satiu^tion
for
the
what
perfect
the
in
gas
by
portance,
im-
heated
super-
showing
and
stated
was
special
limit
pressure
confirming
thus
is of
the
between
proportionality
Munich
perature,
tem-
h i
that
to
to
from
deviation
marked
1 1
exist,
1 1 i
'
is
of
they
not
according
sure,
deviations
that
the
directly
not
specially
any
be
marked
assuming
are
cause
To
gases.
more
for
reason
that
insignificant
so
law
the
experiments,
there
but
does
condensation
of
vicinity
the
do
seem
differences
are
in
appreciable
the
experiments.
ina
Linde,
Rich.
series
here
clear
very
theoretical
of
discussed
experiments
the
From
and
in such
clever
has
manner,
which
consequences
general fashion,
will
we
drawn
briefly
now
examine.
of
Equation
and
temperatures
testing
of
first
the
specific volume
of
corrections
R
place
of steam
furnish
pressures
equations
suitable
introducing
In
different
various
the
of the
values
different
The
Condition.
condition
the
us
that
different
at
known
are
Linde
has
have
for
been
the
discusses
then
have
On
requirements
was
discussed,
and
purposes.
steam,
often
most
one
already
steam,
saturated
for
condition
p.
which
shown
on
used
p.
emphasized
224,
in
these
that
the
and
in them.
the
author's
equation
of
of
means
which
in
technical
208, various
those
forms
the
to
up
time
calculations.
equations
proposed
particular, emphasis
approximate
present
equations
was
must
of
We
condition
for
technical
laid
on
fill,and
the
it
equation
pv=BT^Cp^,
(1)
BEHAVIOR
with
OF
and
well.
very
C=
192.50
per
sq.
quantities^ satisfied
constant
as
In
doing
so
[22.581875],
when
is
[0.644592]
in
expressed
requirements
these
-8=50.933
made
we
361
STEAM."
SUPERHEATED
AND
SATURATED
**
kg.
m.
sq.
per
and
[lb.
in.] (p. 237).
The
form
general
of
the
is
equation
given
as
(2)
pv^BT-R,
/Z is
where
function
for
function,
the
of
present,
and
t;
be
can
T ; but
or
it is shown
this
supplementary
the
by
represented
that
term
R=Cp^;
R
now
finds
the
that
that
assumption
is
only
function
of
is
which
fully confirmed,
not
of
could
course
be
foreseen.
According
the
to
Munich
in
experiments
should
we
write
[c^^)'-Z)],
pv^BT^p{l+ap)
(3)
...
which
formula
well
very
with
using
In
in cbm.
per
it
must
take
kg. [cu.
ft. per
we
the
for
specific volume
which
agree
experiments.
the
5=47.10;
For
values
gives
in
kg.
lb.],and
per
sq.
the
for
a=0.
000002;
C=
a=0.
001406;
C=21.7955;
0.5962:
most
practical applications, however,
the
per
sq.
in.],
constants
D=0.0052
0.031;
[B=
[lb.
m.
Z)=3.6660].
form
pv=BT-Cp
will
suffice, with
of
form
this
[0.5962]
=47.10
equation
with
agrees
(4)
and
that
=0.016
[0.25633].
given
by
The
1 i
(see p. 241).
The
of the
results
following
experiments
according
numerical
in Munich
to
table
and
Clapeyron's
gives
a
an
insight
into
with
my
comparison
formula.
the
results
numerical
362
TECHNICAL
The
(3);
values
in
clearly
now
we
calculated
by
have
If
write
we
calculated,
was
calculated
are
the
see
similar
somewhat
values
the
formerly
formula.
but
smaller,
growing
with
course
the
from
preceding formula
Clapeyron's
to
The
otherwise
temperature.
from
formula,
Clapeyron's
in
the
from
differences
throughout
are
perfectly
according
me
values
latter
Col.
THERMODYNAMICS.
which
Col.
form
t)-rti
CT
+0.0010,
(5)
^î
we
of
see
the
that
the
heat
of
coefficient,and
1
book
The
and
values
were
value
t;
evaporation
values
these
of
of
Col.
determined
are
taken
above
depends
r
and
have
the
on
value
determined
been
from
all upon
Table
lb. Col.
from
v-u+"r
with
"r
-0.0010.
of
the
magnitude
the
differential
by
8, of the
Regnault
Appendix
of
this
364
TECHNICAL
suited
for
reliable
drawing
values
conclusions,
of
Heat
investigation
under
constant
fully
goes
into
the
with
variable
not
and
pressure
led
when
In
taken.
be
may
the
heat
the
the
fast
view,
also
grouped
the
the
coils
about
it is
found
ing
engineer-
by
of
greater
his
water.
ments,
experi-
than
ought
0.6
Cp=
in
superheated
by cooling
be
high
suggestion
existing in
of
number
that
to
be
investigations,inspired
become
have
first
washed
garded
re-
of
use
in
generation
of
been
whether
The
results
that
whose
known,
main
follows:
as
value
mean
and
must
large
has
to
as
value
the
to
value
gases.
steam
and
a
held
conditions
the
atmospheric
under
steam
R,
high temperature
spiral
of
(a) Regnault's
for
matter,
to
considerations,
propositions
steam
writers;
in
as
due
in two
meantime
theoretical
by
of
in
have
at
that, under
the
heat
especially keeping
being suspended
determine
Regnault,
given by
specific
and
in this
specific heat
the
of
we
steam
views
concluded
Bach
series
temperature
by condensation
steam
are
book
probably
to
the
to
as
Steam.
the
Regnault,
the
was
tried
he
of
we
whole
superheated
direction
this
which
judgment
changed
to
Superheated
value
present
constant,
as
of
the
given by
0.4805
indicated,
way
question.
the
Throughout
Cp=
of
pressure,
recently occupied
has
the
in
r.
Specific
The
THERMODYNAMICS.
is
Cp=0.4805
which
at
pressure,
valid
only
his
experiments
made.
were
(6)
The
(c)
The
specific heat
value
Cp
propositions
but
the
it is difficult
Most
Zeitschr.
to
the
h,
des
are
separate
choose
recently
on
is
Zur
Ver.
H.
specific
Frage
deutscher
function
the
differ
data
between
has
des
of
the
much
recent
more
tions,
investiga-
themselves
among
that
them.
Lorenz
heat
and
temperature.
by
so
ture.
tempera-
pressure
increasing
all confirmed
and
of pressure
with
grows
with
diminishes
These
Cp
steam,
W"imewertes
Ingenieure, 1902,
conducted
with
des
Vol.
special
help
the
iiberhitzen
46,
p.
729.
of
the
ments
experiVerein
Wasserdampfes.
BEHAVIOR
which
Ingenieure^
deutscher
Vol.
Vereins, 1904,
SUPERHEATED
AND
"SATURATED
OF
48,
The
700.
p.
in
reported
are
365
STEAM."
Zeitschrift
the
results
experimental
des
as
are
follows:
2.
1.
Steam
steam
to
313.8**
.
pressure
kg./aq.
Specific heat
Specific heat
8.98
cm.
observed.
Cp
0.570
.
calculated
cording
ac-
equation
(6).
0.590
.
8.
Steam
kg./aq.
ob^rved.
Cp
1.89
cm.
0.492
.
calculated
cording
ac-
equation
(6).
0.467
.
According
represented
to
the
empirical
the
by
values
Cp=0.43-f-
and
absolute
is evident
It
pressure
the
represents
starting from
the
the
is in
steam
with
of
region
be
can
satisfactorily
(6)
1476000
foregoing
increase
does
steam
absolute
from
Cp
+3600000^
[
the
of
equation
0.43
Cp=
where
11.
pressure
p
to
10.
294.0**
.
steam
Specific heat
Specific heat
9.
(**C.
temperature
Absolute
6.
5.
4.
t^C
temperature
Absolute
3.
the
kg.
per
sq.
[lb. per
cm.
sq.
in.]
temperature.
that
specific heat
the
pressure;
saturation,
the
on
it diminishes
of
other
with
heated
super-
hand,
increase
of temperature.
low
For
0.4805,
108"
they
found
[226.4^
by
and
217"
C.
satisfactorilyconfirm
decidedly
values
the
pressures
1 1
for
atmospheric
[422.6" F.], while

Bach's
for
the
approach
pressure
the
assumption
higher
of
value
between
pressures
0.60.
366
TECHNICAL
of
Heat
Liquid
the
On
THERMODYNAMICS.
Water
according
Dieterici's
to
Investigations.
Attention
found
of the
heat
the
had
by
in
in
of
and
tube
with
which
within
the
temperature
results
of
absorbed
was
ofif
quantity given
the
by
of
mass
had
any
into
fall
ofif
observed.
permits
vessel;
the
enclosed
water
correction
must
water
was
ceeded
suc-
to
fined
con-
ically
hermet-
was
After
t.
ice
the
of
up
heat
calorimeter,
parallel experiment
be
to
difiference
determined
gives
cooled
when
the
heated
thoroughly
for he
water
filled it
was
been
was
tube
it
limits
previously weighed
been
had
contents
the
by
liquid
high temperature
quartz
empty
of
heat
fied
justi-
well
attention,
to
quantity given
an
the
the
experiments
recent
of
worthy
are
to
after
suddenly
be
seem
the
doubts
that
reliability of
air, and
its
and
to
heat
the
heated
the
to
obtained
he
not
which
tube
and
allowed
the
how
mentioned
as
do
Regnault
and
was
carefully weighed
quartz
experimental
the
from
heat
f* to
[32"].
In
doing
so
of
space
the
of
volume
would
further
is
by
the
can
be
The
having
^C.
Dampfes
of
2.5
hohen
Physik,
Fourtb
Series
des
Vol.
the
so
liquid, and
liquid
to
Wassers
16,
1905.
than
liquid
great
there
and
is
pressure
total
the
observed
carried
heat
Dieterici
as
the
saturated
some
the
of
hollow
shows,^
small.
with
0.1526
kalorischen
Temperaturen.''
Eneigie-Isothermen
of
The
greater
the
so
conducted
[0.0610
''Die
Dietericil
bei
it is
were
ccm.
the
applied.
somewhat
part, however,
because
experiments
to
heat
the
latter
the
neglected
with
present
composed
be
tube;
experimental
the
steam;
must
be
liquid, otherwise
enclosed
constantly
heat
tube
quartz
the
biu'st
vapor
Die
it
persons
determining
accurately
sealed
was
time
this field
in
completely emptied
and
0"
[572*^F.].
C.
300"
of water
doubts
least,
at
in which
way
case
same
These
engineering;
steam
the
investigations occurring
for
the
to
by various
observations.
several
25
p.
the
at
expressed
been
on
liquid in
but
specific heat,
its
it
called
was
different
in.] capacity
cu.
Eigenscbaften
des
Wassers
Zeitschrift
d.
bei
Temperaturen.
boben
quartz
Ver.
deutscher
with
und
Ing.,
Annalen
tubes
the
seines
1905.
der
BEHAVIOR
OF
different
"SATURATED
fillingsand
wails.
Quartz
sudden
jumps
in
temperature
the
dissolves
quartz;
and
material
that
between
well
the
because
falling
the
which
glass,
is
quartz
the
such
endure
can
into
ice
the
high
water
at
perature
tem-
is not
possible with
homogeneous
most
300"
found
that
[104"
to
specific
the
is
572"]
heat
of
the
water
sufficiently
reproduced
formula
=0.9983
heat
of
+0.00000064(i-32"")2].
-0.0000576(^-32)
the
liquid
^+0.000002073
-0.0001037
[c =0.9983
The
when
occur
place
from
material
of
thicknesses
possess.
and
40"
by
this
as
because
finally
Now
second
alkali
we
because
chosen
different
with
367
STEAM."
SUPERHEATED
constructed
were
was
of
calorimeter;
AND
be
therefore
can
calculated
according
to
formida
the
g-.y"cd^-0.9983
^-0.00005185
(2+0.000000691
fi
r5-/cctt-0.9983(i-32)-0.0000288("-32")2+0.0
low
At
of
Uquid
the
the
of
Table
From
g
[365.76]
[392"]
as
for
the
heretofore.
lb
simple
of
give
the
is
formula,
an
of the
irregular
one
the
to
contrary
heat
of
and
resentation
rep-
of
this
Appendix
[272.952]
[392"];
i =200"
values
dependence
temperature
on
formulas
1 1,' =151.64
g
the
Regnault.
preceding
The
water
[104"]
40"
represented by
be
cannot
below
temperatures
for
table
for
we
" =150"
temperatures
may
have,
[302"]
according
and
extending
unhesitatingly
be
to
=203.20
to
200^
employed
APPLICATIONS.
TECHNICAL
PART.
Theory
"
In
steam
of
engines,
the
is
body
of
the
and
the
of
higher
the
to
the
it
work
is
another
during
of
the
is
heat
to
temperature,
the
heat
engines
heating
part
among
body
ucts
(prod-
given
off
the
heat
two
process)
by
cooling
quantities
produced.
pure
heat
part
counted
part
of
come
over-
processes*
steam
the
difference
to
work
be
(during
lower
of
body
tion
produc-
internal-combustion
by
another
call
will
utilized
of
must
described
body
describe
withdrawn
or
and
and
cycle
The
engines
solution
saline
in
heat
hot-air
hot-
we
the
be
to
sorts
temperature,
condenser.
to
is
movers
mediating
and
cold-vapor
of
part
(a
by
body
corresponds
The
the
is
purpose
different
the
prime
or
combustion),
in
Uke
which
former,
produced
widely
most
In
the
the
work
therefore,
mediating
body
the
engines.
In
between
distinguish
must
we
customary,
the
in
withdrawn
is
motors
are
heat
from
engines,
work;
engines,
REMARKS.
engines.
as
resistance
Steam
air
cold-vapor
engines,"
"steam
Engines.
PRELIMINARY
in
as
and
vapor
48.
Steam
of
from
is
given
off
of
to
to
be
body
in
cycle;
opposite
body
is
which
water
the
just
one
temperature
converted
(water)
into
of
ice),
higher
temperature.
The
work
difference
necessary
of
for
the
running
heat
the
quantities
here
corresponds
to
machine.
368
the
cold-vapor
The
bodies
The
the
that
into
its
sinks
the'
an
kinds
of
the
steam
of
place
the
takes
while
in
the
are
if
as
the
The
and
question,
the
with
and
question
engines.
a
liquid
the
is best
besides
free
of cost;
the
steam
new
charge
this
is
exists
by
the
the
motor,
the
at
cold-
circumstances
hydraulic
an
sents
repre-
drives
level
of
the
by
of the
of
the
when
sole
the
heat
of
purpose
machines
heat
manifest
themselves
constructing
hot-vapor
the
which
in
engines
by
advantage
the
mediating
body,
the
too
its steam,
that
every
not
are
with
construction
during
and
in
work
it
it
can
of open
cycle
water.
and
is
cold-vapor
body
high temperatures
as
water
when
mediating
which
pressures
permits
the
moreover,
only
between
existing
occurrences
engines
fulfilled
discharged
analogy
cycle.
former
inestimable
the
attainable,
engine
discharged
the
differences
its vapor,
accompanied
occur,
takes
temperature
speaking,
has,
into
practically
with
hot-vapor
the
to
reversible
other
In
both
In
temperature
temperature
atmospheric
being
analogy
the
of
machine
of temperature
atmospheric
of
driven
motors
insight
perfectly
Certain
were
reference
hydraulic
facilitating
water
entropy
or
of
motor.
repeated
engines
the
If
pump
the
one.
difference
external
comparatively
the
higher
verted
con-
reversal
operating
weight
the
limit
engine
plant
by
here
the
to
be
of level.
lower
then,
by
and
the
limit.
in
heat
difference
the
pump
of
tail-race
level
engine
upper
lifted
water
lower
weight,
cold-vapor
water
of the
engine,
vapor
level;
from
hot-vapor
the
lower
mentioned
theoretically
is
sure
water-prescan
work
same
ugal
centrif-
the
the
to
mentioned
motors
engines
the
place
the
In
lifted
is
water
to
upper
doing
the
engine
mentioned
for
hydraulic
the
In
from
machine
certain
from
wheel,
pump
movers
doing
of cold.
water
cylinder
for
heat
hot-vapor
the
to
prime
operating
an
cycle.
the
of
withdraw
the
to
the
machine
production
bears
turbine,
the
each
engine;
wheel
scoop
to
pump
bears
engine
cold-vapor
relation
is the
its purpose
in short,
"
driven
continuously
is to
its purpose
work;
is therefore
engine
369
REMARKS.
PRELIMINARY
as
high.
and
be
had
it
possible
This
quirement
re-
possesses
easily
engines
is
is
and
in which
replaced
by
a.
370
the
On
other
is
vapor
the
is of
the
I,
changes
not
back
cycle
the
fundamental
the
chemical
the
Non-reversible
state,
internal-combustion
the
of
which
exists
body
the
reversal
lose,
here
to
in
the
initial
volume
theless
never-
made
end
the
at
values,
which
propositions
could
when
fulfilled,
not
at
chemical
body
were
etc.)
described
the
initial
are
399,
gas)
al
When
p.
i.e.,
body.
and
the
to
cycle
the
pressure
back
I,
point,
derived
the
their
of
mixture
starting
were
accompanied
were
for
the
of
in
cycle
derived
were
their
consequence,
the
not
to
(Vol.
I);
of
in
process
solely
due
to
the
question
lack
of
investigation
it
present
with!
the
simultaneously
by
subjected
engines
thermodynamics
the
is
the
different
and
(Vol.
section
first
no
consequently
and
the
mediating
part
suppositions
cycles,
of
changes
this
the
of
that
the
one
ignitible
brought
beginning;
cycles
in
in
tuted,
insti-
just
vaUdity.
general
present
of
doing
formulas
concerning
ment
replace-
comparisons
developed
state
to
so
be
the
engines
(an
in
sense
at
of
again
may
rest
the
describe
and
without
mass
steam
ammonia,
closed
hypothesis
occurred,
Although
the
than
the
occur;
body
brought
of
that
did
(combustion)
condition.
end
under
change
cycles
mediating
be
that
note
internal-combustion
deviating
change
fluid
same
equations,
only
during
occur
the
to
fundamental
investigating
such
importance
valid
are
the
acid,
always
are
high
outside.
special
and
ofVol.
with
continuously
from
engines
these
carbonic
like
its
with
liquid
comparatively
carries
already
etc.;
engine
cold-vapor
the
temperature,
acid,
cycle
It
which
low
at
sulphurous
the
in
hand
used|
pressm*e
by
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
was
day
perfect
necessary
ring
occur-
when
pointed
is
not
treating
out
able
yet
clearness,
experimental
there
and
to
that
bases.
372
boiler
the
the
shell, prescribe
which
pressure
engine
following
this
must
at
however,
wUl
we
and
engine
steam
in
pressure
the
minimum,
the
lower
Accordingly
supply
heat
lowest
the
in
limit
for
limit
the
in
of
the
in
actual
the
order
piston
steam
condenser
the
As
possible
as
on
the
condenser
the
temperature.
pressure
formation
the
to
temperature
working
and
as
of
cycle
realized
in
the
advantageous
place
from
highest
the
fashion,
if
and
hurtful
theoretically perfect
in
is used
steam
different
the
will
that
assume
itself,and
cylinder
take
part
no
the
weight
cylinder
of
the
whole
for
the
whatever
to
pi
piston
the
the
only
condition
cycle
will
present
in the
walls
left of
and
to
engine
steam
as
If
steam.
circumstances
are
on.
of
conducted
question
in the
that
assume
the
the
there
steam
cylinder
is
heat
no
steam.
piston
corresponding
takes
adiabatic
wet
cycle, i.e.,that
temperatm-e
cross-section
with
the
be
maximum
expressly emphasized^
introduction
can
the
in
fully later
the
obtain
to
law, then, neglecting
same
be
constant
expansion
construct
occurs
for
the
to
more
and
case
the
It must
discussed
of
water
pressure
machine.
cylinder
between
exchange
Let
present
lowest,
densation,
con-
conditions
order
i.e.,obtain
the
possible
the
in
cycle
follows
superheated
be
of
two
and
at
occurs
requirements,
to
pressure
possibility
the
will
and
For
walls
this
that
other
to
it is
process,
compression
resistances,
however,
working
If, corresponding
work.
fulfilled
with
place
limit,
condenser,
are
the
takes
temperature
in the
thus
boiler
the
constant
upper
withdrawal
heat
be
must
most
assume
boiler;
the
temperature
low
as
regard
must
temperature,
which
steam
the
particular temperature,
constant
kept
back
steam
at
or
of
by
in
ruii
in
assume
exists
pressure
pressure
is
temperature
will
upper
consequently
we
we
to
proper
engine.
steam
we
constant
hurtful
the
it is
steam
engine.
condenser
the
reduce
to
nearly
the
as
the
by
is also
possible,
as
certain
as
but
accompanied
assume
cycle described
There
exceeded
pressure
is
boiler
particular
highest possible
the
pressure,
the
for
be
not
high
as
that
which
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
(Fig. 35a)
tiiTi)
to
this
be
equal
and
contain
subject
to
the
If
we
temperature.
to
the
unit
of
unit
area.
THE
the
then
volume
of
the
under
us
STEAM
378
ENGINE.
is identical
OA,
by
is supplied
water
constant
with
the
suppose
and
mixture
without
i.e.,at
quality
the
points
the
from
pressure,
of
steam
through
let
THE
specific
the
water.
have
we
Pass
and
the
Qi
quantity
OF
represented
suppose
till
CYCLE
volume,
Now
Ti,
CARNOT
the
constant
heat
b.
adiabatics
two
ad
and
be,
from
adiabatically
expand
to
the
temperature
point
the
at
xi
with
the
W
n
point
the
point
the
to
from
the
the
Suppose
the
pa
place;
the
quality
diminishes
Finally,
heat
in
till the
this
Along
then
the
The
that
is
initial
da
path
adiabatic
whole
the
Let
ri
and
of
ra
the
is
the
represent
inside
the
to
pi
pa,
quality
value
cycle,
there
whole
the
is
limit
latent
heats
on
takes
the
steam
is adiabatic
at
the
pression
com-
point
to
a.
and
zero,
condensation.
the
circumstance
shows
curve
of
course
13.
reduced
curve;
limit
stant
con-
point
and
reached
13
under
condensation
complete
the
cd
till the
T2
again
effects
represents
during
steam
path
the
quality
steam
lies
the
withdrawn,
to
xj
condition
diagram
superheating
no
be
value
part
the
the
doing
so
must
compression
DD
curve
along
In
Q2
fourth
from
and
T2,
temperature
the
sinks
12,
reached.
from
pressure
to
compressed
quantity
the
Ti
constant
is
adiabatic
to
Xi
is
and
the
from
value
mass
pressure
first
doing
so
diminishes
temperature
changes
in
c;
the
that
there
cycle.
corresponding
to
the
374
TECHNICAL
temperatures
which
Ti
be
must
and
THERMODYNAMCS.
respectively,
T2
supplied
along
the
the
then
ab,
path
heat
Qi,
quantity
is
Qi=rixi
The
quantity
heat
which
Q2,
(1)
withdrawn
be
must
along
the
path
is
cd,
Q2=r2(X2-X3),
and
therefore
work
the
which
Lm
is
(2)
is determined
performed
from
ilL^=Qi-"?2,
where
because
we
have,
indicates
point
any
according
to
that
with
dealing
are
for
Now
of
index
the
" 9,
of
whatever
maximum
cycle.
is
Lm
arbitrary
an
the
61, for
p.
work
the
the
(3)
of
entropy
we
curve
pressure
unit
of
weight
mixture,
''-/S4(-f)
with
and
the
dQ
=0;
adiabatic
curve
it follows
therefore
AF2
and
for
the
adiabatic
If
known,
x=0
with
the
(6), and
and
volume
the
at
then
point
X2
of
for
that
quantity
constant
adiabatic
the
be
we
cause
behave
(5"
Ti-r2+^
(6"
a.
and
to
equation
the
temperatures
Xz
can
equation
corresponding
Subtraction
Ti+^r-=T2+-jr,
given, limiting
values
have
ad
^Pi
because
we
""
be
each
of
the
(6) from
from
computed
+
v=xu
will
four
(5)
quality
steam
equations
determine
vertices
furnishes
the
of
the
the
is
X\
(5)
specific
diagram.
relation
THE
KNOT
C A
CYCLE
and
equations (1)
and^ considering
STEAM
THE
OF
375
ENGINE.
(2),
9i^Ti
then
and
(3)
equation
from
(7)
Lm=^-(ri-r2)
The
last
cycle.
and
Pi
In
Fig.
P2
of
ordinates
respectively
The
X
is
D'D'
curve
Before
point
practically realized
and
one
of
the
choose
the
a
cycle being
for
hot-air
values
just
Qi
from
of
to
like
which
that
be
heat
possible
has
as
closer
cannot
be
carried
on
to
conceive
already
engines,
engines
engine
steam
equation
T.
cannot
it is
DD;
ciu-ve
cycle indicated
; but
cold-air
area
quantities
obtained
portions
for
the
the
hatched
limit
the
by
form
and
heat
described
it
fundamental
the
as
considering
when
was
if
we
been
done
(see Fig. 57, Vol.
I,
377).
In
we
values
represents
calculated
be
the
(cylinder)
T2.
widely
of
different
that
abscissas;
as
also
-j-.
is to
its four
space
arrangement
an
presented
p.
and
C
two
Ti and
the
work,
-r-
to
out
because
same
the
equations
the
the
the
ofif
then
transformation
correspond
will
we
values
subject
we
discussion
of
latter,its abscissa
ordinates
the
and
units
the
laid
are
a'Vc'df
area
in
represent,
1 for the
and
in
whole
the
for
temperatures
rectangle
Q2, i.e.,represent
and
(6)
absolute
the
earlier
transformation;
the
(5) and
hatched
while
Lm
found
were
see
we
equations
closely
work
356
represent
The
as
equations
two
(8)
will
The
tubular
Fig.
36
the
figure just mentioned
discuss
it here
steam
boiler
boiler;
it
as
AA,
is filled
has
perfect hot-vapor
or
with
evaporator,
water
and
been
reproduced,
but
engine.
is
represented
steam,
and
its
by
tubes
376
surrounded
are
by
and
boiler
at
boiler
flows
leaves
and
EE
it also
The
tubes
it at
at
by
conduits
designated
D
in
occur
In
the
the
evident
the
may,
call
the
of
fire
the
the
from
for
actually
fur^
steam
temperature
boiler
may
Ti
to
say
steam
us
by
it enters
water,
casing
the
and
water
ing
cas-
in
steam
surface
suppose
prevail,
the
denser,
con-
pistons
boiler
steam
Ki
and
character
the
cylinder
expansion
to
reasons
let
paratus
ap-
and
steam
and
K2
condenser
of
the
nection
con-
can
also
36.
steam
or
constructed
which
gear,
Fig.
the
and
cooling
enclosed
the
as
the
valve
power
cylinder,
in
D,
from
represents
as
we
compression
will
36.
with
with
provided
Cylinder
cylinder
the
temperature.
and
in communication
being
be
also
are
treated
here
lower
constant
cylinders
two
are
move,
is
contains
maintains
and
the
cooling water;
of
current
which
condenser,
The
in
we
coming
high
water
it consists
engines
constitutes
Fio.
the
fluid of
the
to
fluid
combustion
of
products
temperature.
which
m
This
steam
condenser;
or
through
heat
steam.
is
there
delivers
ordinary
tubular
of lower
into
which
temp)erature.
second
in
the
high
at
nace
it
converts
i.e.,of
gases,
in
continually
fluid, and
heating
vessel
which
temperature
but
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
in
be
cylinder.
given
in
and
proper
later, call
advance
that
The
the
it
second
feed
does
or
not
engines.
the
the
constant
condenser
pressure
the
pi
pressure
and
p2
THE
and
the
The
working
left
end
aibi
space
boiler
the
"=
of
the
F,
the
enters
is xi,
the
At
the
boiler
the
is shut
in
T2;
limit
the
Vi
into
space
the
against
repetition
the
left of the
the
During
the
thus
have
and
vapor
At
noved
end
of
of
with
the
along
been
has
the
the
the
path C262
the
in
stroke
is shut
is
mass
till at
the
the
under
clearance
and
that
is
there
completely
cylinder.
of
the
Xz,
path
mixture
that
only
and
of
the
Uquid
steam
condenser.
the
off
the
over
condensation
G
so
will suppose
we
cylinder
in the
condensed
been
diagram,
no
cylinder
p2
quality
steam
condenser
piston K2
feed
has
only
possesses
condenser
the
piston
valid
piston Ki
pressiu'e
from
the
the
steam
in the
constant
possessing
the
of the
moved
have
is
the
shown
area,
indicator
the
Cidi
path
which
Li
the
the
in
stroke
stroke
hatched
course
that
of
out
the
place adiabatically,
takes
tion
communica-
into
pushed
work
cylinder
the
return
the
re
connection
stroke
to
G{x2"Xs)
weight
work,
consequently
the
under
to
indicated
X2.
piston iî begins
The
the
it possesses
value
the
to
over
temperature
along
whereupon
p2,
the
with
lower
is
forced
operations.
that
return
piston K2
d2C2=V2
i.e.,is
the
is therefore
which
of
is put
mass
of
expansion
during
emptied
the
cylinder;
steam
compression,
no
of
end
the
piston
(Fig. 36), represents
the
that
space,
and
pressure
assumption
express
condenser,
representing
here
the
to
of
adiabatically
quality changes
steam
quahty
connection
the
reaches
the
in the
performed
and
p2
ture
tempera-
kg. [lb.].
the
at
leaves
upper
stroke
per
the
traverses
steam
expands
now
piston stroke,
series
the
is at
steam
the
at
spaces.
piston Ki
and
liquid
these
piston
(1 "Xi)
stroke
steam
condenser
diagram
in
piston
in
that
great
so
The
pi and
is G
weight
doing
the
of
of
be
to
the
relatively
spaces
occur
admitted
weight
the
constant
two
not
cylinder;
steam
the
the
the
while
and,
377
ENGINE.
follows:
as
pressure
water
and
space
with
pressure
so
the
Now
the
of
is
engine
the
off
of
will
pressure
steam
lower
the
of
constant
of
portion 6iCi
capacity
STEAM
THE
kg. [lb.]mixture
the
end
the
cy Under
the
Ti
OF
cylinder is, however,
the
kg. [lb.],and
Gxi
is
of
under
limit
mixture
the
fluctuations
appreciable
the
of
contents
CYCLE
T^;
temperature
the
to
KNOT
C A
feed
and
during
compressed
point "2
cylinder
there
the
the
return
ally
adiabaticis reached
the
378
TECHNICAL
boiler
is
the
is forced
constant
feed
the
not
constructed
and
of
feed
the
mixture
and
permit
a
theoretically
in
fully
more
Reversing
it
at
cycle
shown
in
will
We
the
During
supply
in
the
to
it to
this
prescribed
mixture
boiler
should
to
not
be
solely
pressure
pi
alone
be
converted
in
existing
replaced
which
duty
the
arrangement
or
question
without
us
of
the
engine
Whether
before
liquefy
actually
water
steam
This
steam
with
in
case
and
Ti.
pump
is
for
Fig. 35a,
of
the
work
by
be
must
heat
and
will
into
steam
feed
the
considered
superimposing
L"=Li
of
quadrilateral
L2
"
the
and
o
into
steam
the
the
operations
steam
mentioned.
cylinder
we
must
quantity
Qi^GriXi
to
the
steam
boiler
and
hiCi
the
and
condenser.
"262 the
the
heat
quantity
Gr2(X2-X3)
Furthermore
two
(9)
withdraw
must
Q2
from
373.
analytically
the
(Fig. 36)
performed
curved
p.
follow
entrance
the
the
get
we
II
diagram
get
we
now
stroke
per
feed
indicator
the
time
sucks
is
note,
follows.
what
same
the
in
expressly
must
we
bring
to
one.
here
I,
water
consumed
L2
pump
condenser,
and
perfect
diagram
on
the
6202, overcoming
path
occurring
water
condensing
discussed
cylinder
and
pump
boiler;
take
the
ordinary
the
engines
the
work
D,
feed
temperature
ordinary
an
the
which
the
is to
from
boiler
gives
the
compression
the
to
with
it into
X3
is established
along
cylinder
feed
cylinder
adiabatic
by
II
engines,
forces
ratio
complete
stroke.
per
steam
steam
boiler
diagram
confused
be
to
that
so
pi,
pi.
assumed
here
pressure
boiler
the
the
pressure
cylinder
The
with
into
indicator
The
boiler
the
realized.
connection
Finally,
weight
and
Ti
temperature
liquefaction
THERMODYNABIICS.
equations
we
adduced
(10)
have
for
under
the
(5)
curves
pressure
and
(6)
380
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
and
volume
the
Vo
of
end
the
at
is
compression
the
Vo=Ga.
While
the
forced
of
work
The
the
into
is determined
work
the
produced
being
compression
also
the
get, for
we
in
the
from
feed
calculation
cylinder,
the
is
water
is consumed.
Gpia
along
the
sequently
con-
equation (15)
(Fig. 36)
C262
curve
is
and
=G{qi-q2-X3P2).
unite
properly
we
work
is
there
while
(j),and
the
L"
condenser
the
Gp2{xzU2
by integration
here
from
boiler
steam
AU'
If
in
is sucked
mass
of
the
equation
the
the
work
indicated
of
quantities
three
L2
of
the
work
steam
AL2=-G[qi-q2-X3r2+Aa(pi-p2)l
(17)
utilizingequation (12),
or,
AL2=G[qi-'q2-T2{Ti-T2)+A(j(pi'-p2)l
{17a)
.
difference
The
work
engine's
of
equations (16a)
and
"
(17a) finally gives
for
stroke
per
iiL"=(?^(ri-r2),
utilizingequation
or,
the
(18)
(9),
Lm-'^^{Ti^T2),
^
deserves
It
with
Compare
equation
equation
(8),
efflux
the
takes
equations
fiarmulas
be
to
identical
p.
the
efflux
(16a)
There
place
the
of
there
above.
that
the
two
fonnulas
with
160.
given
adduced
noted
the
for
equation
the
work
could,
kinetic
wet
were
and
vapors
(Id),
of
L,
and
necessary,
are
mass
Lt]
the
in
ively
respect-
heated
equation
the
be
(I7a)
highly
and
156,
p.
eneigy
quantities
if it
(16a) and
equations
a)
liquids.
with
(17a)
the
orifice
transformations
easily
transferred
of
of
to
the
INVESTIGATION
OF
combination
while
of
THE
PERFECT
equations (9)
STEAM
(12) gives the
to
381-
ENGINE.
relation
wrr.
engine
this
With
(7) and
"
(8),
OF
follows
what
In
that
describes
that
the
the
superheated
of
the
difference
in
in
temperatures
boiler
the
to
another
â
"
therefore,
the
for
investigations,
r
the
cycle
Therefore
with
Annales
134,
the
one
assume
but
not
consideration
the
work
of
felt
work
of
Lm
that
for
the
the
same
produced
Lm
which
is
formula
is
plied
sup-
contains
no
with
the
same
is obtained
from
the
same
carbonic
has
expected
from
been
what
acid, ether,
performance
of vapor
matter
cussion
dis-
vapor;
the
faras
the
place,
Qi
of water,
be
the
themselves
for
the
kind
work
kind
and
7^2,i.e.,for
the
but
already
not
made
first
quantity
vapor
to
has
it does
as
condition,
engines
Ti and
same
was
no
advantage
combination
p.
des
161;
mines,
is to
of two
Tremblay^
Du
in
special
So
of
foregoing,
heat
no
it
regarded
of
advantage
an
the
earlier
emphasized
that
the
of
nature
or
the
over
general
in
the
ting
media-
is.
body
Vol.
which
ENGINE
expressly
till later
condenser,
upon
result
cycle.
connection.
boiler;
concerned
is
the
shows,
the
to
other, is employed.
work
be
wet,
recently
this
in
and
whether
quantity,
will
shall
kinds
two
in
steam
quantity depending
temperatures,
leave
limits
directly proportional
any
or
have
temperature
heat
saturated,
these
engine
steam
(I), developed
perfect
same
we
practical standpoint
the
STEAM
engine
shall
which
views
tions
equa-
DIMENSIONS.
and
We
state.
reappear
the
to
ITS
cycle,
the
there
PERFECT
steam
between
the
Formula
is used
in
from
THE
OF
perfect
the
steam
of
correspond
CALCULATION
AND
the
375, which
p.
INVESTIQATION
50.
therefore,
arrangement,
be
expected
different
proposed
1853,
Polytechn.
Vol.
iV,
Centralblatt,
than
Dingle
203;
1854,
an
engine
ing
work-
vapors.
more
p.
from
p.
385.
fifty
r's
years
polytechn.
ago
to
Journal,
382
TECHNICAL
unite
way
that
from
it
it has
the
ordinary
engine,
steam
evident
applied particularly
in
combined
used
in
employed.
question
At
deviation
the
in
the
assumptions
of
machines
order
recognize
to
reduce
these
to
losses
engine,
kind
of
and
it is
the
leads
deviation,
in
then,
when
be
first
of
striving
directed
in
used
to
the
steam
corresponding
each
with
improve
to
to
losses
be
compared
are
theory
constructed
work
same
involves
of the
must
actually
losses
the
these
for
the
smaller
and
tasks
which
means
to
from
from
therefore,
of the
one
to
engine
quantity
perfection
from
and
will
attention
the
Every
departure
every
heat
different
the
numerically,
other
into
go
limits.
steam
developments,
minimum
deviations
various
the
and
same
them
the
to
constructed
analytical expressions
from
furthermore
engines;
the
work,
establish
to
above
the
of
Fig. 36,
Every
loss
corresponding
of
in
for
limits.
temperature
a
work
is
been
corresponding
given temperature
of
presented
underlying
performance
have
shall
we
of work
Qi and
arrangement
p)erfectform
articles
these
maximum
quantity
heat
of
also
to
acid
sulphurous
might
vapor
vogue.
fully.
more
(I) gives the
Equation
ammonia
conclusion
the
somewhat
particular
but
ether,
he
back
come
that
fore
there-
which
into
come
have
difference
the
the
of
it is
T2)
system,
not
engineers
years
Ti
here
atmospheric
limit
did
engines,
with
limit
engine
after
But
fashion.
external
temperature
marine
to
recent
of
the
Tremblay's
engines,
place
than
and
evaporates
usual
withdrawn
heat
temperature
upper
lower
the
ether
in the
lower
nor
Du
why
Nevertheless
the
is the
which
temperature,
such
than
by
the
doing
so
is condensed
work
higher
go
in
in such
ether-vapor engine
an
is condensed
water
by liquid ether;
cannot
one
of
vapor
performed
with
engine
water-vapor
THERMODYNAMICS.
greatest
the
steam
of
losses
work.
The
indicated,
certain
that
work
but
in
remarks
for
work
and
the
this
general
depends
is greater
lower
we
can
the
take
specially
equation
particular quantity
Lfn produced
this
fundamental
the
will
of
upon
higher
the
the
we
one
This
equation
Q\ supplied
temperature
can
temperature
questions
(I) enables
direction.
heat
the
treat
take
the
T2*
to
the
make
to
shows
boiler
limits, and
temperature
the
that
Ti
INVESTIGATION
the
Since
T2
decades
last
in the
will be
Qi
in
Ti
admission
astonishing
tageously
advan-
more
boiler,
the
pressure
boiler
the
in
progress
ascribed
be
is to
to-day
of
and
in saturated
temperature
temperature
383
ENGINE.
the
pi,
the
same
assumed.
being
the
of
part
the
quantity
the
boiler
STEAM
with
heat
higher
the
therefore
temperature
A
the
PERFECT
grows
the
that
say
utilized
higher
only
pressure
can
we
vapors,
THE
OF
the
observing
to
has
pressure
steam-engine
in
fact
structions
con-
this
proposition;
been
continually
raised.
boiler
the
done
assumed
the
be
if
the
also,
engine
steam
for
Vol.
it
and
too,
the
in
the
The
I,
been
has
Qi
addition
other
during
the
boiler
of
action
heating
has
already
reference
that
which
Ti
been
the
to
is
is
is released
proved
temperature
it
has
on
with
thus
which
question
448,
p.
and
question
process
port
sup-
which
to
the
which
therefore,
change.
in
extent
boiler;
of heat
to
pressure,
quantity
the
consider
proper,
discussed
value
maximum
heat
the
quantity
circumstances
quite fully
been
of
fuel, and,
engine
the
then
that
the
foregoing
into
of the
steam
the
In
standpoint,
boiler
the
beyond
utilization
consider
we
combustion
the
far
introduced
really
theoretical
the
increase
to
time.
present
to
hand,
efforts
temperature,
the
at
from
incorrect,
occasional
the
of
be
would
It
the
to
there
is
should
be
not
transcended.
it has
Moreover
limit
of
heat
engine.
and
is
usually
F.]
the
condenser.
is
possesses
constructed
steam)
steam
be
to
to
limit
Hmit
higher
engines,
one-tenth
temperature
would
perfectly
is
value.
we
an
of
^2 =46.21"
be
well
fixed
body,
the
by
the
atmosphere,
[115.18"];
T2 =319.21"
in
the
would
lower
[574.58"].
in
vailing,
pre-
T2,
actually
pressure
this
to
water
temperature
condenser
then
[59"
temperature
is customary
1 1
ture
tempera-
cooling
the
cycle
in
20*^ C.
to
perature
tem-
the
atmospheric
15"
as
lower
in
from
meant
the
possible
itself,the
If,
assume
as
mean
condenser
of
therefore
is
cooling
what
exactly
a
the
the
low
varying
as
to
as
is the
value
Within
which
always
This
assumed
is ascribed
and
68"
taken
its extreme
engines;
that
emphasized
be
should
T2
perfect
the
been
already
(for
spond
corre-
ature
temper-
384
TECHNICAL
(I)
Equation
THERMODYNAMICS.
also
can
be
written
in
the
form
^"^
qI'^^tT'
and
here
kilograms
too,
it
is
of
heat,
this
judging
Lm
in
of
(la)
of
work
in
hour
the*
the
and
hour,
per
in
for
scale
heat
r
would
give
mechanical
of view
point
unit
the
the
the
(la)
we
just given,
of
comparison
engine.
an
equation
work
of
ft-lb.], the
furnish
can
which
at
boiler;
equation
the
meter-
heat; here,
convert
impossible,
From
of
equivalent
kg. [772.83
(la)
each
the
is
of heat.
in
the
mechanical
7'2=0),
equation
in
boiler
represents
the
have
424
the
by
in
Ti
completely
(which
unit
the
to
temperature
engine
could
excellence
the
at
engine's
we
unit
of
the
represents
obtain
if
substitute
we
the
if Nm
the
value
Lm'Qi
for
heat
measured
work,
corresponds
the
work,
of the
value
the
then
the
the
enters
into
must
we
equivalent
If
is,
Qi
Lm'"Qi
for
which
to
ratio
that
quantity
cycle
of
supplied
call
may
think
the
represents
[foot-pounds],
must
we
LmiQi
valê
the
heat
quantity
designate
meter-kDograms
engine
in
it
by
which
Qi
Qh, then
[foot-pounds];
horse-powers,
there
will
relation
L,"-75X3600JV".
[L,n=
The
of Qh and
substitution
550
in
Lm
3600
i\r^].
equation
(I) then
gives
75x3600jrz:^
(19)
[^=550x3600y;^J
from
which
quantity
other
hand
we
calculate,
perhour
if Dk
is
for
this
per
the
steam
engine,
the
necessary
horse-power.
quantity
in
kilograms
heat
On
the
[pounds]
INVESTIGATION
which
is
generated
THE
equation
Dh
PERFECT
in the
hour
per
from
follows,
there
OF
STEAM
386
ENGINE.
boiler, because
steam
Qk=TiDh,
(19),
ATi
75x3600
(20)
ATi
550X3600
[Dh
iNm'
Ti-'T2\'
or
according
which
to
hour
per
[pounds]
if
Nm
r,Nm'
(20a)
is found
there
and
(I) Oi=n-D,
quantity,
steam
which
the
represents
engine stroke,
per
the
horse-power,
per
Finally,
0;
Dk
then
quantity
steam
substitute
must
we
must
be
generated.
in
kilograms
in
equation
follows
there
"^=]j2r(7'i ^2),
(21)
"
or,
utilizing equation
f20),
Lm
75X3600
(21a)
U'V
550X36Q0--1
CLfn
this
From
a
found
be
can
what
of
[pound]
kilogram
corresponds
in
steam
the
to
work
of
grams
meter-kilo-
[foot-pounds].
In
Example.
then,
atmospheres,
[318.60], hence
Let
the
r,
pressure
perfect
according
432.22"
in
the
engine
steam
to
Table
[778.00"], and
condenser
11
n-^"
amount
let
of
+
to
the
the
boiler
Appendix,
^p,w,"
Pa
pressure
0.1
494.124
^,
Pi
=
159.22
[889.423].
atmospheres,
and
386
TECHNICAL
therefore
",-46Î''
equatioDB
then
THERMODYNAMICS.
[115.178''], and
[574.572^];
7,-319.21''
the
foregoiDg
respectiveiy give
110.86,
Cal.,
2436.6
kg., and
4.029
^-54779
mkg
Oh
Tmi'
202.065,
Dk
B.t.u.,
9798.8
jT
Nm
0,
lb.,and
11.016
Nm
^-179733
ft-lb.
of
quantity
is the
If Qh'
then, according
condenser,
which
heat
9f^Tl9L^
Nm
With
with
for
fixing
be
directed.
in
the
the
present
pressure
at
an
goal
making
of
the
approached
indicated
per
and
table
likewise
suitable
are
following
in
for
condensing
all
further
we
use
In
columns.
consumption
and
even
to
10.16] respectively.
the
113.78
lb.
per
hour
less, and
limit
judging
betterments
the
the
per
per
should
values
best
occurring
engines
sq.
horse
4.933
boiler
power
we
and
of
have
we
in.] of
consequently
values
boiler
engmes,
multiple-cylinder engines)
to
absolute
using high
the
to
in absolute
expressed
of
to
been
12.
advantage
constructed
kg. [85.34
closely
and
has
kilograms
English
the
inch,
Cols.
which
in
it is
and
[In
comparisons
(compound
pretty
in
vertical
kg. [15.6 lb.] of steam,
[10.73
hour
per
survey
Table
by
expressed
the
see
to
day
to
is
square
actually
the
In
middle
obtained
of
excellence
of the
per
given
values
the
pressure;
furnished
pressure.
clearly
we
following
the
atmospheres,
new
in gauge
Now
data
pressure
pounds
is
measure.]
and
in
not
pressure
of the
the
survey
measure,
the
the
[7236.8].
1798.7
basis,
as
help
the
centimeter
square
quantity
by
Ti Nm
foregoing
the
this
In
heat
hour
per
is
horse-power
prepared
withdrawn
(II), the
equation
to
be
is to
of
have
4.673
388
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
theoretical
The
is,according
of these
ratio
The
the
to
table
condensation
quantity
carried
condenser
is
The
clearly
limit.
of
pressure
steam
utiUzation
perfect
as
376)
we
low
the
regards
engine,
V2
may
of
and
neglect
very
fluence
in-
the
shows
lower
temperature
in
practice, that
with
work
high
as
when
the
in
they approach
do
only
of
latter
are
is found
and
dimensions
C
(14), p.
formulas,
of both
(Fig. 36,
379,
and
equation
from
the
for
chosen
cylinder
steam
in both
Vi =Gx2U2
the
equation
to
be
to
are
consider
the
cylinder
value
which
here
must
Vi
the
the
perfect
shows
one
and
vailing
pre-
389.
page
on
engines
steam
such
preceding
then
the
pressure.
we
feed
For
in
temperature
[212*^].
should
be
institute
pressure
the
of
necessary
it cannot
must
discovered
ago
that
according
the
and
the
dimensions
volume
The
densing
con-
engine^
the
the
condensation,
condensing
boiler
is determined
volume
As
the
steam
cyUnders.
with
long
was
possible
as
with
one.
to
steam
we
tabulated
engines
boiler
then
reduction
non-condensing
Now,
table
employing
what
see,
refer
because
which
"2 =100"
results
the
accompanies
We
worked
be
to
of this
value
which
favorable
very
because
or
atmosphere,
obtain
we
in
engine
one
as
either
engines,
perfect
comparison
the
constructed
available
is not
is assumed
engine
remarks
ft-lb.]; the
[176142
added
actually
an
locomotive
in
as
taken
there
already
employed,
water
with
comparison
steam
if,in
be
coohng
along,
and
the
mkg.
54728
kg. [85.34 lb.]
of 6
pressure
engines.
cannot
of
and
hand,
other
boiler
is 0.705,
values
two
steam
the
at
preceding table,
preceding
On
value
work
there
p.
the
(14a).
follows
V2 =(7X3^2,
(22)
....
where
where
it is assumed
many
two
represents
periods
values
as
the
weight
of steam
the
piston
that
the
is found
in
one
to
the
steam
and
in
the
Hquid
feed
cylinder.
per
stroke,
cylinder
The
ratio
has
of
and
as
the
be
^'=^
V\
X2
{23)
OF
INVESTIGATION
and, utilizing equation
(11)
and
V2
and
volume
we
determine
substitute
of
the
it
steam
the
in
(12),
STEAM
there
is found
(23a)
Xiri+ri(Ti-T2y
value
the
of
first
of
from
the
equations
cylinder
ATyX2U2
V
389
ENGINE.
Ti(ri-T2)
Vi
If
PERFECT
THE
equation
(22),
we
of
work
get
for
(18)
the
390
TECHNICAL
If
the
minute,
Nm"
double-acting
if the
then,
makes
and
in horse
performance
revolutions
is
powers
per
designated by
relation
get the
we
is
engine
THERMODYNAMICS.
Nm
Lm=
(24)
30x550,,
r.
Lând, designating
and
by Fi
find
the
from
and
last
^^î^
75
quality
determine
here
according
82
the
to
stroke
the
at
Xi
the
the
equation
but
one
steam
cylinder
^rr^^.iV.
(25)
1
550-^
the
end
of
quality
steam
equation
of
of
AT,X2U2
F'''''
steam
stroke
'^^Xiri{Ti-T2)
30
If the
h"
crosBHsection
the
we
î,
"
If
(12).
piston
in
is
from
equation
X2
is the
F2
the
admission
feed
of
area
cylinder,
known,
and
(11)
the
then
must
we
xz
and
piston
we
have,
by
(23),
equation
F2S2
Xs
F181
X2
(26)
The
the
represents
the
of
piston
to
Table
equation (25) evidently
through
swept
space
perfect engine
condensation
12
",-164.03,
I,-
of
per
second
by
the
cylinder.
lb.], and
according
left member
the
average
Example.
[99.562
in
expression
45.58,
of the
works
with
of
pressure
boiler
p,*0.1
pressure
kg. [1.422
of pi
t,-0.47531,
7,-318.58,
t,-
u,-0.2725
and
0.15463,
Ua"15.0121.
kg.
lb.]; here,
Appendix,
r,-437.03,
"
^-1.1227,
^-1.8041,
INVESTIGATION
PERFECT
STEAM
391
ENGINE.
327.254,
r,-
786.654,
t,-
0.47531,
p--1.1227,T
114.044,
r,-
573.464,
t,-
0.15463,
I
^-1.8041,
[",/,-
THE
OF
There
follows, from
the
(12),
",-0.1777+0.6223a?i,
Tj-T,
or
xs-
quality
steam
with
the
the
at
end
of
admission
0.1777.
admission
steam,
is Xi-'O.OO,
shall
we
^^-0.016369[-0.58616
0.7378,
:c,"
and"
iVml
ATw
and
have
i.e.,if 10%
(25),
equation
from
(11) and
equations
or
is mixed
water
240.478.
w,-
V^-î-^.+^
17
If
and
4.3651
Ui-
from
furthermore,
equation
(26),
Fa
0.241.
F,8,
to
is to
engine
If the
of the
capacity
[F,"i
the
mixture
and
of steam
water,
feed
cylinder
stroke, the
(1 -xj)
in
compound
cylinder,
here
Gxi
seems
would
to
be
Fj",-
and
F^
we
find
is
the
preceding,
it to
The
the
compute
in from
volmne
great,
to
weight
of
the
be
kg. [0.3759
correspond
ft.].
cu.
lb.].
the
condenser,
kg. [0.06681b.] and
^0.0303
very
the
to
and
powers
cbm.
0.455
16.300
can
draw
to
kg. [0.3091 lb.].

engine
horse
then, according
0.1705
therefore
weight
steam
=0.1402
has
and
Arm-250
and
(22)
equations
G-"*-
The
ft.
cu.
of
is
cbm.
67.634
first of
minute,
per
1.889
performance
cylinders
two
Fi"i-
From
revolutions
n"65
make
cubic
develop
of
the
because
the
volume
very
the
steam
of
water
weight
cylmder,
the
great
each
during
which
low-pressure
expansion
is
392
TECHNICAL
the
assumed;
V
{x{Ux
admission
volume
utilizing the
a), or,
THERMODYNAMICS.
given
7-0.0420
have
therefore
we
(13), and
equation
from
is
it is
values,
[1.4833
cbm.
expansion
an
is determined
ft.];
cu.
of
-^-'-44.97.
Such
if it could
will, of
expansion
an
be, according
would
the
reached,
be
hourly
the
at
conditions,
pressure
horse
indicated
simplicity, for
combined
The
of
taken
that
only
they
of
and
with
per
ether;
the
needs
no
his
of
of
be
might
feed
or
for
their
of
The
des
dem
Book
the
in
former
is
the
of
this.
has
that
the
took
numerical
theoretical
thermischen
place
and
of
trials
data
the
are
treatment
Wirkungsgrades
Leipsic,
of
the
up
Maschinen-Laboratorium
II, Munich
bination
com-
vapors
After
following
;
engine
acid
employed.
report
this
otherwise
of
example
an
the
at
Zimmermann,
difficulties
Erhdhung
aus
is
sulphurous
lubrication,
Berlin.
tice,
prac-
formulas
consists
and
vapor
preliminary
zu
the
mentioned
underlying
advantage
Mitteilungen
Hochschule
engine,
idea
practical
zur
the
structure
account
on
which
Behrend
fluids
by
-suited,
the
for
in
contain
with
and
ether
an
the
differs
not
of
value
Tremblay,
fundamental
"Versuche
Dampfmaschine."
Technischen
Du
investigations.
from
Jesse,
steam
engine arrangements.
new
(p. 381),
other
experimental
obtained
assumed
calculation
subordinate
engine
well
are
article
employ
wrecked
been
had
of
again by
power-cylinder
ammonia
give, for the
the
for
otherwise
is
of
the
up
vapor
power
kg. [12.3 lb.] of
it does
engine
steam
recently
been
the
this
of
beginning
Quite
these
judging
of
are
as
it
but
performance;
or
say,
preceding,
inasmuch
one
cylinder;
compression
work
per
engines
5.5
constructed
actually
the
perfect
the
the
perfect engine,
because
from
of,
in
given
of
dimensions
practice;
horse
[10.705 lb.],
compound
minimum
in
power.
formulas
The
best
the
time
present
attained
nor
(20),
^"4.789kg.
while
sought
consumption
steam
equation
to
be
not
course,
der
1899.
der
K
of
show
C
given
Suppose
engine
work
the
and
T^
temperatures
delivering
by
STEAM
but
393
ENGINE.
his
do
experiments
results.
steam
PERFECT
favorable
very
the
is not
question
the
THE
OF
INVESTIGATION
Li
describe
to
according
72, receiving the

then
heat
quantity
equation
to
between
cycle
(I),
and
Qi
p.
380,
L,^^^{T,-T2),
and
heat
the
bears
Qi, according
to
is withdrawn
which
Q2
quantity
equation
to
Q2
(II),
p.
(27)
from
the
condenser
381,
the
relation
_Qi
^^^^
r^Ti
The
to
heat
evaporate
vapor
developed
engine
between
describes
the
additional
the
during condensation
for
liquid,
second
released
Q2
quantity
example
C
L2;
limits
temperature
work
sulphurous
t
cycle
T2
and
therefore
we
now
serves
acid,
in
Ts,
and
the
second
and
this
duces
pro-
have
2=^|2r(7^2"^3),
or,
with
the
help of equation
(28),
L2-'^{T2-T^)
If
to
this
we
engines (the
add
steam
equation
engine
may
(27),
be
the
get
we
designated
as
work
the
(29)
L
f i
of
s
the
engine)
L=Li-fL2=-^(ri-r3)
Division
of the
two
equations
(29)
and
(27) furnishes
L2
2^2"^3
"2"
Li
Ti^T2
h'-t2
two
:
(30)
the
ratio
^3
(31)
394
TECHNICAL
From
these
THFRMODYNAMICS.
equations
in
get,
we
the
first
place,
the
condenser
lowing
fol-
the
If
be
the
in
reached
that
be
^2=^3,
no
should
in
the
be
to
may,
expect
the
If
the
engines
first
work
the
same
the
latter
the
is to
work
Qi' instead
of
the
be
Qi,
engine,
would
so
then
the
condenser
first,so
that
perature
tem-
ts " t2,
we
circumstances,
less
consequence,
equation
as
difference
(^2" ^3), and,
ti, i.e.,the
temperature
higher
boiler.
alone
equation
the
to
(water)
that
so
is valid
if in
I/=Li,
that
so
if both
(27) holds;
equation
(30)
produced
supply
case,
the
temperature
works
together
o.n
there
with
in
than
is of
higher
steam
engine
L2=0;
lower
go
this
but
the
and
certain
smaller
in the
pressure
can
under
is noteworthy,
what
the
could
engine.^
engine
advantage;
an
we
second
sure,
(31) shows,
the
if
tz in
in
as
L=Li
second
the
hand
tz in the
engine
have
adding
other
limit
temperature
first
the
we
sense
On
lower
same
then
boiler
steam
latter
the
in
must,
we
the
case
heat
tity
quan-
relation
the
"
From
obtains.
The
seoond
designation
by
meant
this
operating
for
engine
term
we
arrangements
in technical
T\'-T2
Qi
T1"T3
^\
of
also
cases
is called
by
which
steam
hourly
not
me
know
is referred
of
an
circles.
equation
Qi
b3'
t2
"
(32)
tz
"
be
must
bear
Josse
the
the
to.
entirely
if
machine;
the
Such
future
a
different
we
utilization
sort
ratio
same
Vol.
follow
a
of
power
prime
terms
unfortunately
but
449),
p.
'
The
engine."
27.
J
the
each
to
horse
per
whether
in
generated
"oold-vapor
(Zivilingenieur, 1881,
in
follows
then
(27)
consumption
steam
oold-producing
shall
machine
with
two
suggested
was
the
matter
these
Dj^ is the
If
^The
exist
in
boiler
other.
in
quantities
two
steam
combination
se
mover
practice
or
an
which
already
occurs
too
quently
fre-
396
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
cycle
nary
the
as
basis
for
Appendix
The
for
formulas
desired
engine,
CYCLE
51.
LOSS
DUE
equal
for
therefore
smaller
with
than
determination
actual
the
of
it may
analytical
the
indicate
the
first
place, ignore
therefore
shall
(a) That
the
that
equal
exhaust
case
of
no
within
ically and,
OF
the
work
the
of
the
cycle
produced
it
will
be
to
in advance
close
by
for
of
that
the
order
in
if this
loss
of
perfect
discussion
effect
shall,
in
engines.
steam
of
cycle
the
to
we
the
cycle
the
that
discussion
occurring
the
investigation,
in
pursued
work;
of
change
to
nearer
following
losses
of
problem,
us
derived
be
loss
imperfection
behooves
expected
all other
clearance
the
engines,
no
walls
cylinder
(e)
that
that
the
will
the
the
We
completely,
the
with
i.e., that
pressure
is
pressure
the
occurs
cycle
expansion
(6)
pressure,
exchange
while
cylinder;
steam
steam
condenser
heat
the
during
the
identical
the
in
present
cylinder
(c)
with
(d) that
moreover,
the
pressure;
cylinder;
is
space
in
non-condensing
the
AND
construction
the
important
an
bring
the
is identical
side
and
of
from
the
to
must
pressure
pressure;
steam
be
In
boiler
the
effected.
assume:
steam
to
is
and
that
path
easily be
ENGINE
involves
work
expression,
betterment.
desired
differs
due
it
engine
Moreover
one.
loss,
engines,
steam
we
sions
dimen-
IMPERFECTION
engine
of
considerable
be
to
provas
if
perfect engine.
this
steam
of the
could
vapor
extended
STEAM
consumption
amount
of
existing
the
tended
ex-
CYCLE.
steam
heat
be
to
of
sort
every
calculation
the
TO
describes
the
smaller
This
the
actually
day
have
ACTUAL
WORK
cycle which
present
easily
higher temperatures
to
extension
an
THE
OF
OF
for
such
but
would
table
the
THE
The
given in
be
can
for
applicable
are
formulas
the
employ
to
ammonia
and
computed
be
can
engine;
of the
"
and
tables
The
purpose.
acid
just given
second
the
same
assumed.
there
are
the
sulphurous
if necessary,
than
for
is
takes
the
on
or,
external
in
the
the
pheric
atmos-
between
the
being described
place
pressure
adiabatof
the
CYCLE
condenser
the
the
admission
exhaust
or
^ks
open
the
air
by
will
be
the
For
completely
space
is connected
what
of
purpose
few
it
p. 376;
the
gives
Fig.
an
perfect engine;
works
consideration
and
the
is the
the
schematic
in
pump,
perfect engine,
the
and
the
and
feed
steam,
but
sucks
suited
is the
the
of these
feed
we
representation
^_J|^
schematically
to
AA
accordance
move
of
is
which
with
the
here
practice,
only
engine,
steam
completely
may
mixture
under
steam
the
is that
difference
prescribed
water
engine
cylinder
cylinder,
represent
represents
condenser
in
the
provided
steam
sole
the
to
in
involves
37.
condensation.
cylinder;
cylinder
condensed,
the
with
the
condenser
question just proposed
engine,
steam
condenser,
feed
from
coming
it is also
constructed
actually
boiler, EE
but
the
important
during
here
most
of
steam
follows.
discussing
from
and
conduit.
made
of the
during
and
with
assumptions
a
that
to
be;
may
open
discharge
open
work;
discussed
Fig. 37
reproduce
is
the
case
constituted
so
down
pressure
the
as
port
from
of
boiler
is
completely
special loss
the
pressure,
397
ENGINE.
gear
exhaust
departure
and
losses
entrance
stroke
Every
new
valve
STEAM
from
atmospheric
or
finally (/) that
ACTUAL
THE
during expansion
steam
the
OF
be
does
ratio
called
not,
of
water
it into
and
forces
will
therefore
as
the
boiler.
The
the
form
two
indicator
given
exactly
in
to
diagrams
Fig. 38;
the
similar
of
diagram
diagram
Fig.
37
I for
in
steam
Fig.
37.
cylinder C
possess
sponds
corre-
398
TECHNICAL
work
The
here,
in
as
produced
in
perfect
engine,
the
and
379,
p.
THERMODYMAMICS.
is
therefore
cylinder
the
according
is determined
stroke
per
equation
to
(16)
(16a),
or
from
found
4Li-G[^(ri-r2)+?i-92-r8Cr.-ti)+^"(p,-p,)
(34)
.
when
the
is
It
different
II
diagram
notation
same
with
Fig.
here
is used
feed
the
there.
as
the
is
drawn
thus
volume
into
pressure
G"t
of
return
which
The
work
of
heat,
responds
cor-
which
L^
given
the
work
is, when
requires
pump
equation
(17)
and
expressed
by
place,
the
takes
{17a),
of
consumption
AL3-AGff(pi-pa),
this
the
jpj_
to
and
is
water
against
pi,
is
G"rp2
the
boiler
the
the
constant
work
during
this
constant
the
the
of
volume
water
and
produced;
forced
stroke
under
pa,
stroke
units
the
pressure
in
indicator
the
suction
piston
pump
G"rpi.
which
is valid.
38
During
j.jg
for
cylinder,
p.
380,
the
two
(35)
in
which
the
actual
derived
vere
of
engine,
for
the
tions
equa-
perfect
engine.
difference
The
the
this
work
work
of
produced
by
per
equations
in
stroke
the
(34)
actual
and
(35)
if
engme;
we
gives
now
designate
follows
there
AL-(?[^(r,-r2)+Si-Sa-r2(fi-ta)],.
(36)
.
while
the
for
the
correspondmg
perfect
work
engine,
Lm
according
is calculated
to
equation
from
AL"-G^(r,-ra).
the
(18),
formula
p.
380,
indicator
of
limits
and
and
steam
in the
than
varieties
besides
in the
but
feed
has
the
boiler
the
The
of the
Qi
the
heat
necessary
in
the
boiler
be
sidered
con-
gives Qi=Gxiri,
manner.
be
ijtmust
this
then
heated
evaporation
we
is therefore
quantity
is led
which
water
given
with
has
engine
be
must
(37)
non-condensing
the
to
which
quantity
heat
is
dealing
are
to
begin.
0i=(?(xiri+gx-g2)
If
per
engines.
two
condenser,
does
then
of the
boiler
the
following
from
the
to
378,
p.
greater
should
the
in
the
is
mass
comparison
supplied
in
only
and
there
(9),
water
^2;
temperature
temperature
for
is different
is found
engine Qi
takes
of
same
working
engine
kind
permissible,
quantity
of the
the
for
that
actual
this
But
quantity
pump
shows
the
of
comparison
weight
same
work
heat
heat
actual
If the
water
the
399
ENGINE.
and
38
perfect engine equation
the
For
for
and
37
is not
the
this
and
stroke,
Figs.
the
water
formulas
two
perfect engine.
engine
two
last
diagrams
temperature
of
the
of
comparison
STEAM
ACTUAL
THE
OF
CYCLE
and
engine
temperature
supplied
feed
to, then
the
boiler
the
to
the
per
stroke
by
Qi^Giziri+qi-qo),
this
and
a
condensing
substitute
engine,
If
we
engine
L",
the
if
one;
take
simply
must
we
therefore
engine
by the
produced
is determined
by
in
the
that
assume
(37) is employed
by
general
more
we
considering
are
^0=^2,
therefore
and
go=?2"
work
The
is the
equation
the
general
the
heat
perfect engine,
is determined
from
the
cycle
of
the
perfect
equation
quantity
given by equation
then
work
the
following
formula
L", delivered
:
^L"."?[^(2'.-r,)+(2i=5^:iz:^
(38)
.
400
TECHNICAL
It
deservee
engine
in
before
the
as
Fig. 35,
weight
of
the
the
perature
the
a'^f/
curve
of
lay off
we
ab
(Fig. 39a).
we
have
the
(4),
the
hatched
If
we
make,
area
51
"
50,
in the
unit
p.
the
diagram
(aa
Lei
38.
Fig.
and
water
boiler
from
at
constant
of
weight
us
to
done
Fig.
39a
the
assume
steam;
to
fect,
per-
was
in
unit
or
p.
of
then
ti, and
pressure
374)
of
con-
and
water
the
at
is
and
6jial
ordinate,
as
transformation
initial
the
corresponding
quantity
heat
Xi
in the
as
being represented
of
the
abscissa
as
{Fig, 39i))
For
of
the
we
get
curve
pressure
temperatures
in
To
and
7*1
abscissas
OiPo-i
and
in
actual,
U.
(see equation
if
of
wei^t
quality
entropy
Therefore
diagram
raised
stesan
temperature
Now
of
unit
in the
hkdicator
diagrams
is first
water
generated
staot
be
the
that
the
this
373),
p.
of
to
mass
here
traasform
can
difference
working
is
we
inserted
be
to
THERMODYNAMICS.
lying
measured
a"d
under
in
OiP,-^,
a'b'
curve
units
figure,
0,P,-|(r.
of
work.
therefore
^ves
the
CYCLE
OF
then, according
hatched
the
6V,
the
Accordingly
QiiA
which
must
piston
stroke.
In
the
from
in
us
to
the
the
actual
the
that
see
the
to
during
condensation
value
quantity
heat
tity
quan-
in
Fig.
that
cooled
subsequently
from
per
lying
area
temperature
then
the
cycle provided
directly
water
work.
engine
the
work,
line
of
heat
hatched
is
the
^2 to
engines,
to.
the
condenser,
the
38b
a^
point
^.
e^h'dd!
area
area
boiler
the
point
represents
the
withdrawn
the
units
Qi represents
of
during
in
396
in units
condensing
of the
return
with
indicated
the
represents
identical
are
the
the
other
equal
an
corresponds
those
the
actual
and
its ratio
of the
work;
hatched
area
the
called
of
(36)
Ll
for
^'
and
if
work
of
for
the
by
effect
we
loss
L^
then
due
loss
of
will
of
actual
be
the
the
this
loss
duced
pro-
ence
differwhich
work
of
of
cycle
of work
the
(î, then
to
(38).
the
employed;
get, with
latter
the
the
by Li
term
fection
imperhelp
of
tions
equa-
of work
=^[(?l-go)(ri~
^2)- ^(31-52)
the
which
loss
designate
we
cycle;
(38),
is
imperfection
loss
the
Qi
in
stroke
work
the
represents
disposable
the
of heat
and
equations (36)
per
the
represents
engine;
to
of
produced
quantity
the
to
consideration
work
accordingly
Ltn"L
be
the
to
gives
while
when
and
the
Fig.
that
horizontal
the
under
represents,
takes
cases
former
engine,
may
from
it follows
earlier,
39a.
Let
The
in
contents
where
401
ENGINK
measured
of
area
temperature
with
both
Fig.
be
pump
case
coincide
In
the
feed
is the
will
is to
condenser
the
If the
as
a'e^df
produced
water
Xin,
it is easy
portion
which
Q2
quantity
supplied
manner
the
under
lying
[772.83 Qi],
be
like
Pi6'c'P2,
hatched
whole
Qi
424
or
heat
the
STEAM
developed
propositions
to
rectangle
measures
ACTUAL
THE
+7ir2(Ti-
T2)],
(39)
effect
(xiri-fgi-(Zo)(ri-r2)
IW)
402
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
If
we
value,
mean
with
the
for
assume
is
as
specific heat
always
differences
moderate
and
there
Li the
follows,
from
the
water
we
constant
calculations
steam-engine
of temperature,
3i-3o=c(ri-ro)
consequently
in
permissible
of
write
can
qi-q2-^c(Ti-T2)\
equation (39), for
the
loss of work
value
approximate
Li=^?'ir2(ri-T2)-ro(?i-?2)],
(39a)
....
in like
and
manner
from
get
we
TiT
difference
the
from
obtain
the
further
making
or
with
sufficient
loge
y-
the
following
limits
"
"
is not
approximate
T^^T2\
/.
loge( H~y
1
c{Ti-T2)
accordingly
of
use
"
siderable
con-
tion,
calcula-
accuracy
Tl"
and
loss of effect
p. 59,
^1
1
T2
"
temperature
equation (54a),
Tl-
the
r2)-ro(gi-g2)
(xiri-f3i-5o)(ri-r2)
between
by
can,
we
2{ri
for
.^^^
^'""
If
equation (40)
T2
T,
have
shall
we
formulas
qi-q2
place
of
equations (39) and
(40)
"
For
the
loss
of work
Li='^^{qi-q2){Ti-To),(396)
for
and
the
loss of effect
Ci
These
the
The
the
formulas
approximate
most
influence
preceding
feeding
of the
-^^F^^
on
the
formulas
boiler
is
at
loss
are
least
(406)
what
show
quantities
have
of effect.
derived
accomplished
under
the
by
ordinary
an
supposition
feed
that
pump,
404
TECHNICAL
thought
THERMODYNAMICS.
its diminution.
of
The
by special
settled
is best
question
examples.
Example
an
of
the
and
Let
1.
admission
at
pressure
Appendix,
The
lower
lb.
per
T,-
0.31356.
now
us
and
that
the
actual
limit
temperature
in.], and
sq.
Let
that
assume
the
for
work
of
to
Table
[883.15],
490.64
r,-
12
ilLmthe
loss
AL,
the
[180.9]
100.50
"
with
dry steam,
^q= 15"
[59"],
that
so
then
and
a;,"l,
have
we
for
(36),
[138.49
Cal.
B.t.u.],
under
engine
perfect
corresponding
[169.17
Cal.
of
consequence
(Z:^-L)
.4
93.984
in
work,
of
9^
kg. [14.697
1.0333
p,-
conditions
like
have,
we
(38),
equation
to
water
equation
to
works
feed
76.939
Lm
correspond
engine
the
of
engine, according
according
and
[298.6],
[212"], also
100"
values
the
temperature
the
is ^-
these
to
AL-
hence
[327.254], 5,-165.89
164.03
/i-
kg. [99.56 lb.]; then, according
0.47531.
T,"
and
p,
condensation
without
work
engine
steam
of
loss of
effect
cycle, is
the
B.t.u.],
[30.68 G
of
imperfection
the
17.045
B.t.u.];
is
C,-^ -0.181.
On
that
the
same
hand
other
the
we
that
assume
in
quality
steam
two
and
that
see
this,
(406);
that
we
the
works
engine
with
and
is Xi-=0.90
cases
and
Ci -0.196
We
the
X|
wet
0.80,
"
and
steam
in
then
the
find
we
way
if
the
loss of effect
furthermore
cycle
of
increases
is revealed
moreover,
the
that
see
actual
Ci =0.214.
engine
by
with
glance
the
the
be
must
is
effect
considerable
very
characterized
driving steam,
(40), (40a),
equations
at
of
loss
the
of
wetness
as
very
and
and
imperfect
one.
If
/^ of
we
the
If
we
closely examine
feed
in the
assume
preheat
according
accuracy
to
by
has
water
the
quoted,
equations
marked
influence
preceding
example
feed
equation
this
the
water
to
^)
on
we
the
that
0.089
the
purposes
tabulation:
Ci-
loss
0.90
0.80
0.097
0.107.
the
that
temperature
of effect.
waste
[176"], then
80"
(40a), is for practical
forxj-l
see
of
products
the
given
loss
with
of
bustion
com-
effect,
sufficient
CYCLE
with
Comparison
the
"effect is reduced
have
condensation
dry
live
values
Table
from
(36) and
equations
[AL
follows
for the
pi
the
shows
feed
water,
that
decided
for
the
loss
work
kg. [99.56 lb.], and
="
and
condensation
with
let the
kg. [1.422 lb.]; furthermore

with
a;,""l, then,
of the
12
Appendix,
^271.
9QSG
loss
of work
the
for
and
i4Lm"
and
ilLm
151.06
i4Liand
therefore
of
us
help
of
assume
the
of
get, because
we
it
pressure
let
the
let
sponding
corre-
from
qo^9tt
(38),
ilL-
There
of
is, presuppose
that
405
ENGINE.
preheating.
paÔ.l
to
above
engine
an
STEAM
preheating
the
pressure
amount
steam,
by
Let
2.
admission
an
found
by simply
one-half
Example
ACTUAL
results
is secured
advantage
THE
OF
[ilL,-
14.51
165.57
G].
298.026
G],
26.118
of effect
loss
Ci=-^=0.087.
Under
the
is x,
steam
and
0.90
"
that
in
0.80,
the
supposition
Xi
"
closer
loss
of
the
preceding
consideration
of
the
underlying
effect
in the
work
and
preheating
(by
the
been
it
large
second
example,
glance
the
properly
.acquires
more
equations
As
on
one
raised
pressure,
more
it
the
and
in
more,
the
is
of
by
shows
useful
loss
of
but
the
disposable
shows
been
effect
examples
the
than
long
engine;
(406)
steam
greater significance; accordingly
cycle
diminished
it has
admission
the
the
actual
more
is, the
and
recent
that
investigation
condensing
higher
the
one.
preceding
(40), (40a),
at
of
gases)
nearly 10%
to
considerable
admission
being
the
show
although
first of the
amounts
cases
at
in the
formulas
theoretical
assumed,
and
results
considerably
fire
advantageous.
only
not
and
waste
generally
is
0.104.
calculated
is
live
gives
imperfection
this
engines
the
of
quality
steam
unimportant
an
water,
still
As
is not
feed
in both
a
the
to
of the
that
too
is due
engines
hitherto
known
is
that
non-condensing
this
has
the
preheating
that
Ci
of
steam
In
and
examination
of
our
the
cases
calculation
0.095
Ci-
The
two
that
(î
also
loss
of
work,
it becomes
pressures.
engineering,
question
it is to be
here
is very
considered
expected
that,
406
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
in
time,
engines
day
the
by
feed
will
effort
an
it will
that
so
In
and
"" 49
(pp.
50
treated
completely
cylinder
compression
that
we
will
may
of
cycle
n
Fig. 37,
the
now
refer
been
reader
the
397.^
p.
has
question
381)
the
utiUzing
by
by
present*
our
cycle described
done
be
represented
and
371
the
this
that
the
change
to
approach
and
perfect engine,
or
made
be
so
those
to
presentations.
"
LOSS
52.
INCOMPLETE
TO
DUE
WORK
OF
EXPANSION.
of
expansion
the
it has
investigations
preceding
the
In
the
steam
the
lower
in
steam
does
and
takes
40.
the
V2y
then
by
the
an
vertically
corresponding
The
already
pointed
change
in
the
half
is
as
being
of
wet
already
been
Nos.
and
19.
yearly
my
in
the
book
the
boiler, and
is
Vol.
1886,
in
untenable
that
these
a
lack
Suitable
of
be
engine
Since
the
was
time
that
ta
discussion
of
this
mentioned.
the
and, in
way,
so
In
M
i"
rejoinders,
periodical "Industries,"
based
are
knowledge
doing,
Marchant's,
discussions
of
the
7:x^)
Let
Engineer,"
discouraging
on
represented
steam
incidentally
"The
of
from
but
and
compression.
62
ta
from
Marchant
M.
in
only
V\
(1866).
R.
is
work
of
is
the
of
is
ta
calculated.
be
the
Vi
triangle
action
proposition
essentially
English
the
this
of
presentation,
during
curved
Englishman
discussed
theoretically
of
the
my
series
differs
principle
feeding
of
the
easily
can
edition
by
repeatedly
vapors
made
in
second
made
which
misunderstanding
12
L2
periodicals
of the
engine
presented
a
work
the
of
area
method
English
proposition,
my
of
been
customary
the
second
chant
in
out
has
the
engine
loss
hatched
general
volume
which
unutilized
reality
expansion
instead
volume
in
whole
the
from
place
remains
possibility of improving
attempt
one
of work
amount
the
If
sponding
corre-
expansion
the
the
hence
utilized.
not
of
pressure
grefiter
in
to
fore
there-
p2
But
happen;
not
terminal
pressure
limit.
this
to
FiQ.
the
the
down
limit, and
temperature
to
that
continues
cyUnder
down
this
assumed
been
of
however,
etc., Vol.
the
on
havior
behave
1, 1886,
LOSS
OF
actual
the
quality
WORK
DUE
terminal
adiabatici
an
as
INCOMPLETE
of
pressure
end, then,
its
at
TO
because
the
for
have
we
expansion,
the
and
for
whole
the
course
which
the
computed,
of the
For
values
two
provided
the
portion
379, for
the
in units
of
of
heat,
the
the
XiX
be
can
garded
re-
relation
Xifi
(41)
and
the
of
X2
(Fig. 40)
pressures
is
at
xi
pi, p,
from
get,
we
quality
steam
quality
which
expansion
the
steam
the
(42)
+-^r-|
ri
-"7i
regard
can
xxz
work
curve
steam
jT^TiH"j;-,
know
we
and
expansion,
course
the
X1X2,
t2
from
and
expansion
the
XT
407
EXPANSION.
the
and
beginning
p2
equation
given.
as
(15a),
when
produced,
be
can
p.
measured
expression
G{q-q2-^xp-X2P2),
where
and
is understood
liquid
the
V2
path
in
confined
for
the
loss
of
AL2
=G[g
"
work
of
weight
if
cylinder;
in
expressed
A(F2
and
the
corresponds
also
V,
"
the
which
that
work
be
to
to
units
the
mixture
subtract
we
the
of
back
of
this
from
pressure
heat,
we
steam
p2
ceding
pre-
along
get
y)V2 =AG(X2U2"XU)j"2}
L2,
due
to
the
incomplete
expansion,
the
expression
"
32 +X/0
"
X2/t)2
"Ap2{x2U2
"
xu)'\,
or
ilL2 =6^3-32
+aT-X2r2"-4xw(p"p2)],
.
where
The
and
work
X2
Lm
are
determined
of the
by equations
perfect engine
(41) and
is determined
(43)
(42).
from
equation
408
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
(38),
loss
if
399;
p.
^2"
which
the
equation
effect
of
divide
we
equation
due
is
by
(43)
ALa,
incomplete
to
"'
In
condensing
To
the
others,
The
preceding
loss
of
above
we
work
loss
of
are
valid
the
that
the
the
boiler
the
is
exhaust
condenser
the
let
which
is due
is
the
to
with
of
sufficient
work.
But
boiler
the
external
loss
of
work
and
pressure
Lt,
back
which
is
is
the
due
in
Fig.
loss
and
41
sent
repre-
work
of
admission
the
losses
the
divide
of
work
effect
two
of
Ca and
equations
the
perfect
by
to
the
given
by
sure,
pres-
(45)
.
difference
the
between
equation
(46)
expression
engme,
L3
from
we
real
distinguished
ALi=AVip2'-p2)'=AGxu{p2'-p2).
If
not
back
AGxiu,ip,-pi'),
is
pressure,
actual
the
and
or
in
pa'
areas
The
accuracy
AL3-AVi(pi-p,')
during
external
and
the
and,
pi,
represent
hatchings
between
difference
determined
vertical
losses
two
that
assumption
pi'
then
the
p2-
pressure,
pressure,
corresponding
two
of
pressure
to
this
admission
by
""92-
pressure
preseure
realized;
^j
(^)
"
assumption
back
equal
construction
Pj^
qo
"
determination
under
with
also,
"
effect.
is identical
preasure
substitute
add
now
may
and
here
must
we
calciJations
admission
the
en^nes
pansion,
ex-
"
ixirx+qi-qoKl'i-T,)
the
for
get
"e
we
(38),
get
the
p.
399,
senting
repre-
corresponding
C*. i-e., get
AxiUi{pi~px')Ti
(45a)
(xir,+gt-3u)(ri-7'2)
LOSS
OF
WORK
TO
DUE
409
EXPANSION.
INCOMPLETE
and
Axuip2'-'P2)Tr
^^^
^*"(xin+gi-go)(ri-r2)
To
be
they
but
formulas
both
sure
be
can
regarded
sufficiently
as
expressions,
approximate
only
are
for
exact
the
present
investigations.
In
and
non-condensing
in
to
and
0.90
boiler
when
pi
Let
[99.56 lb.], let the

lb.], and
If
to
let the
take
we
Xi"-1,
Xi
equation
of
terminal
quality
(38),
p.
corresponding
substitute
values
Table
ALm,
[ilLm
according
incomplete
G,
beginning
of
of
=0.80
pi
p"0.6
kg.
kg. J8.534
expansion
Lm
as
equal
according
the
to
help
respectively,
0.80,
(?,
152.27
0,
274.086
138.97
GQ.
250.146
give
0.7948,
0.7212,
0.7375,
0.6752.
(43),
be
Pi
follow, with
Appendix,
the
pressure
work
will
there
the
the
calculate
0.7997,
G,
27.138
[i4L,-48.848G,
for
pi
have
we
for
the
loss
L, due
of work
to
expansion:
AL,
and
between
kg. [1.422 lb.].
0.1
p,"
0.8684,
equation
to
to
ô'^âi
12
G,
298.026
X,-
from
with
0.90,
165.57
X-
Hence,
expansion
the
we
(42) respectively
(41) and
of
1,
X,-
Equations
if
399, and
of
work
the
at
0.8, and
Xi"
engine
amount
pressure
steam
0.9, and
"
pressure
condenser
the
relation
the
varying
as
p2'-=l.lp2,
assume
is excluded.
condensing
while
p2,
is taken
pressure
throttling
Example.
ordinarily
we
engines p2'=2
condensing
admission
engines
the
loss
of
effect
25.037
G,
22.893
45.067
G,
41.207
G];
from
resulting
Cs
the
incomplete
expansion:
C"Let
us
pressure
is
Ls and
for the
between
"45)
and
boiler
that, with
assume
p/
"
loss of effect
(45a)
pressure
and
pi
"
kg. [99.56 lb]., the
lb.]; then
which
Cs"
0.165.
0.164,
kg. [89.606
0.9, pi"6.3
boiler
0.164,
is
admission
get
we
due
for
the
to
the
loss
of work
difference
from
pressure,
admission
equations
respectively:
AL,
4.499
C.-
[ilL.
G,
0.027,
8.098
4.049
G,
7.288
G,
0.026
0.027,
G,
3.599
G,
6.478
G].
.:
410
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
"
if
Finally,
p/-*2
the
of
effect
"iue
C4
and
pressure
(46) and
pressure
the
on
kg. [2.845 lb.], then
p,-0.2
loss
back
the
the
G,
5.194
the
of
imperfections
these
terminal
in
view.
to
In
taken
S3.
LOSS
When
the
in
OF
of
and
the
under
preceding
numerical
as
the
live
arises
uncertainty
by
careful
On
the
action
to
Let
of
the
of
of
the
supplement
us
assume
actual
and
more
in
greatest;
the
more
would
ably
consider-
ACTION
the
steam
and
steam
will
of
of
the
formulas
thermodynamics
make
in
boiler.
but
problem,
concerning
to
in
given
probably
will
the
below
be
in
arbitary
clearance
Even
the
which,
an
the
engine
the
on
just
ealori-
the
same
removed
only
engines.
be
the
following
carried
only
so
consideration
far
as
is
of
sary
neces-
investigations.
above
the
clearance
laws
quantity
uncertainty
and
the
quality existing
clearance
engine,
were
become
complicated
very
compelled
are
on
that
pressure
would
the
of
we
the
the
engine
CLEARANCE.
general,
this
terminal
following
it from
of
expeariments
account
is the
compound
effect
C(jntain
steam
investigation
metric
the
of
influence
exact
enters
steam
to
values
expansion
in
TO
hypotheses;
an
it is the
loss
encounter
we
calculations,
assumption;
Ci due
case.
the
formulas
corresponding
effect
of
COMPRESSION.
simplest
of
engine
DUE
steam,
permit
sure
incomplete
the
hence
WORK
the
loss
0.104.
conditions
the
single-cylinder
the
for
respective
0.095,
to
G].
8.449
fully justified reducing
investigating
utilization
be
equations
to
0,
4.694
G,
the
due
one
OF
to
back
0.034
8.622
process
example
greater,
than
greater
even
for
expansion.
the
preceding
be
G,
therefore
of
pressure
the
have
"
has
G,
4.790
0.087,
values, the
four
practice
kept
and
L4
according
2, p. 405, gave
cycle
C-
In
work
of
loss
is
side
between
0,032,
9.349
engine, example
same
reccDt
exhaust
(46a) respectively:
[AL4-
Of
the
for
pressure,
'C4-0.031,
the
the
on
difference
condenser
AL^^
For
find
we
the
to
piston
engine
that
describes
therefore
the
completely
admission
the
pressure
cycle
is
412
TECHNICAL
this
for
under
G
the
purpose,
constant
it to
which
Q"
in
doing
so
the
which
work
back
into
the
boiler;
withdrawn
be
but
water,
be
the
remains
behind;
be
this
the
^2 of
temperature
must
Go
cylinder
amounts
to
(49)
is
expended
heat
necessary
in
must,
clearance
into
converted
[lb.] of
kg.
Q'"
then
amounts
cooled
î
the
to
kg. [lb.]of
GqXq
constant
temperature
be
place,
and
under
steam
quantity
first
space,
the
of
(50)
"
water
the
pressure
the
work
U"
produced
to
(51)
amounts
to
(52)
AU''=AGoXop2U2
If
in
collect
we
the
heat
the
quantities
foregoing, according
the
to
it
the
P2;
Q"'--Go(9i-92)+G(,a:or2,
and
of
quantity
the
AU'^-A{G+Go)xipiUi-AG(7pi.
In
xi
suppose
-(G+Go)xiri
must
into
point
the
from
compressed
converted
must
Q"
and
and
pi,
forced
be
be
to
mass
pressure
kg, [lb.] of
heat
THERMODYNAMICS.
and
quantities
work
adduced
there
I{Q)=Î{AL),
equation
follows
Q' +Q"
and
utilizing
the
==AU
+0"'
preceding
ÂV
+ilL"',
formulas,
we
get
after
simple
(53)
Gri(xjb-Xi)=Go[xiri-a:or2+gi~32-â;oW2(pi-p2)]
as
first result
When
of
mixture
the
the
determining
neglect
in
of
the
case
from
before
as
very
considerations.
specific
the
formula
the
quantity
preceding
duction
re-
volume
v=xu+a,
small;
of
we
hence
we
the
can
unit
of
weight
unhesitatingly
obtain
v=xw,
and,
us,
Vi +
Vo-(G+Go)xiUi
(54)
70=^0X0^2
(55)
and
L033
If
utilize
we
these
reductions
some
WORK
OF
DUE
the
in
formulas
two
413
CLEARANCE.
TO
(53)
equation
equation
ar^,
Ki-^+p.j"L_^+2lZ52].
is
It
evident
from
place
such
then
to
Xk
Xi
the
if the
the
the
the
second
With
42
basis,
in
the
of
units
the
the
tive.
posi-
is known
then
the
likewise
and
termines
de-
(54)
is
now
of
the
work
added
engine.
mission,
ad-
during
expression already
heat, the
the
admission.^
there
given
namely,
AU=A[(G-hGo)(xiUi-ha)-Go(xoU2
of
work
The
always
known,
work
for
always
equation
foregoing
find
we
is
(53a),
of
end
indicated
the
on
as
measured
above,
in
treated
is also
equation
the
at
0,
here
space
(55), whereupon
xi
Oo
is
because
clearance
steam
takes
Xk*
Gxk
equation
the
the
(53a) that, in engines
space,
the
from
quality
bearing
in
boiler
equation
problem
Fig.
of
the
of
Xk
from
steam
one
member
computed
be
Go
such
xo
xi
consumption
steam
quality
then
equation
without
right
steam
can
weight
To
the
quality
weight
engines
of
term
If
and
in
from
of
that
so
space,
because
quality
steam
clearance
no
occur,
the
space,
than
second
not
it is evident
clearance
greater
does
is
(53o)
account
on
of
change
if there
change
Furthermore
with
admission
that
(63)
equation
from
the
during
mixing
after
get
we
expansion
L",
according
the
to
o)}pi.
propositions given
earlier, is
AU'
"
die
Uber
die
p.
the
results
cylinder
above.
Drosselns
to
treated
between
problem
be
walls
sure
was
are
und
is left out
the
also
of
in
den
of
general
more
des
Einfluss
and
so
as
admission
extended
to
theoretical
account,
as
it is
case
of
also,
the
auf
Vol.
influence
to
as
superheated
interest, because
for
Raumes
i.e.,so
pressure,
the
the
article
an
Zivilingenieur,
include
to
in
way
schftdliohen
in
Dampfmenge'^
problem
boiler
only
-hXipi-X2p2l
discussed
have
verbrauchte
there
difference
throttling;
the
1875;
artificial
The
des
Wirkung
Dampfmaschinen
bei
1,
problem
above
The
(G+Go)[qi-q2
the
present,
an
include
vapors.
influence
in
21,
of
the
of
text
414
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
The
work
L'"
AV"
the
Finally
done
in
[il(G +(?o) (X2W2
work
V^
the
overcoming
which
back
ilGo(Xol*2
"y)p2
is necessary
feed
to
is
pressure
"t)P21.
the
boiler
follows
from
ilL*^
After
reductions
some
here,
used
ilL
(6
the
of
Go) (31
92 + xiri
X2r2
is
there
(56)
boiler
which
hurtful
no
X2r2)
is fed
with
be
must
the
"
^1
tions
assump-
P2),
(56)
that
so
(36),
known
boiler
Go=0,
tion
equa-
^,
then
398;
p.
temperature
the
to
the
from
(56a)
jT"-
equation
a
X2),
"
hand,
on
of
supplied
determined
7r~=
into
water
-AGoXoU2(pi
X2r2]+Gor2(xo"
be
space
over
passes
under
engine
of
it is
can
'r2H
If
the
preceding quantities
is
and
product
the
of
sum
AL=G[gi-g2+a:jbri"
where
P2).
work
utilizingequation (53),
or,
ilG(7(pi
the
indicated
the
gives
work
the
tion
equaif
now
heat
the
quantity
is
Oi=G(xjbri4-gi-go),
the
therefore
and
work
Lm
the
of
perfect engine is
J,J^^^ciMl"3^Z^^:^zIA,(57)
....
Then,
qualities xjb
the
steam
loss
of work
(56), (57),
utilizing equations
"i^d
known,
as
xo
(53),
and
there
and
assuming
follows
for
the
ALm"AL^
for
and
the
loss
of efifect
which
of
the
quantities correspond
actual
engine
when
"
"
7
to
the
the
imperfection
influence
of
the
of
the
clearance
cycle
space
LOSS
WORK
special case
cycle
and
the
part
loss
is
the
whole,
in
tinguish
dis-
can
of
presence
from
results
we
Z'm
imperfection
the
extended
be
extended
be
can
that
so
to
the
to
then
can
parts,
is due
due
which
of effect
two
effect
of
loss
The
into
which
415
CLEARANCE.
TO
which
Investigation
of the
on
divided
that
space.
and,
be
can
between
the
DUE
considered.
simultaneously
is
a
OF
the
the
to
of
ance
clear-
nation
determi-
incomplete expansion,
the
followed
manner
in
"51.
If
the
in the
we
is
mass
in
for
exists
means
the
clearance
formulas
developed
lend
it
influence
is
of
preceding,
up
under
the
compression
the
pi
of the
the
practical importance
to
for
this
the
the
and
no
quality
the
clearance
l, the
xo
above-
solution
of
ticular
par-
is identical
entering
the
with
the
Fig.
account
in
it
that
of
end
pressure
shows
43
the
for
diagram
of
out
pressure
at
steam.
investigate the
one
steam
space
left
was
take
now
complete
that
indicator
the
xo
411,
with
one,
in
take
may
p.
supposed
pre-
exhaust
but
steam
to
will
we
isa
clearance
compression
the
steam
easily
special assumption
the
therefore
in
we
themselves
great
and
the
and
that
the
stormy
the
suppose
so
compression,
of
cylinders;
is
as
Fig. 42,
during
analsrtically
we
one,
examples.
numerical
But
If
dry saturated,
be
to
space
the
discharge
determining
space.
with
because
of
out
the
complete
accordance
X2,
pushed
quietly
expansion
incomplete
in
with
xo
be
to
and
foregoing
interchange
may
the
is assumed
expansion
in
case
hand.
Let
of
and
Xo
the
be
let
compression;
Xk
that
quality
steam
xi
boiler
of the
be
the
in
the
quality
Then
steam.
clearance
the
at
we
space
end
of
at
the
admission,
get directly
((?+(?o)xi=Gxfc+GoXo,
because
during
and
pressure,
been
derived
admission
by
the
this
method
have
we
is
an
given
(58)
simply
equation
on
p.
end
which
411.
mixing
might
under
also
stant
con-
have
416
TECHNICAL
determination
The
is
heat
utilize
The
notation
work
work
follows
L"'
the
=i4[((?
of
work
Hence
for
the
the
=G(5i
AL
complete
92 -^xxPx
back
Go) (X2U2
Gdqi
preceding
-92
D^
given
in
Fig. 43.
a)]pi.
-f
expansion
X2P2I
along
pressure
is
the
path
X2a:8
"7)
(?o(x8tt2+ (y)]p2,
from
92
indicated
xopi
work
from
formulas
the
X3P2I
obtain,
we
-X2r2) +GJi(xi
+a:iri
first deducted
have
we
compression
get the
we
utilizing
after
+(;) -(?o(xoMi
Go)[gi
against
AL^=-
and
(G
also that
will
we
from
AW
and
expansion
doing
so
of
units
is
=i4[(G+Go)(a;iWi
of
work
in
and
and
employed
in
measured
work
follows;
as
admission
AW
The
indicated
the
hitherto
of
Alf
The
of
easily obtained
now
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
of
work
-xo)ri
after
some
(0:2-X3)r2],
duction,
re-
(59)
feeding,
AGa(pi-p2).
As
have
the
two
the
curves
known
X1X2
and
can
xoXs
be
regarded
relations
X2T2
XiTi
Xjjr2
^2
"t-
-jT"
Xpri
=
Ti
"m",
as
adiabatics,
we
OF
LOSS
and
DUE
WORK
these, by Bubtraction,
from
(x2
417
CLEARANCE.
get
we
X2)r2
"
TO
(x\
Xo)ri
"
(60)
that
SO
(59) passes
equation
into
over
the
following
one:
(59a)
ilL=G[^(ri-r2)+9,-92-7'2(Ti-T2
.
This
relate
and
the
work
quality
to
compression
the
pressure
but
Fig.
of
investigation
42,
hurtful
As
space,
a
Fig. 43,
If
because
the
two
pv"=constant,
is
of
the
cycle
the
is
same
of
essentially
has
shown
have
for
we
the
the
then
shall make
X\X2
from
that
plete.
com-
up
recommended,
space
is thus
engines, i.e.,
perfect engine
two
for
valid
diagram
side
compression
but
cases;
Fig.
diagrams
being
43
engine
an
the
Fig.
and
without
work.
in
of them
the
are
Fig.
43
two
mate
approxi-
represented
case
farther
XoXs
in
will derive
we
work
notation
of
the
the
two
and
may
(58)
indicator
the
on
process
use
we
cylinder
actual
our
diagram
investigations
indicated
if the
the
the
be
hurtful
externally
indicated
same
adiabatics
of
steam
perfect engine, is, however,
different
latter
of the
the
as
that
the
411,
cycle
this
is therefore
to
the
In
find
equation
steam-engine
by
the
as
also
we
therefore
The
373).
p.
But,
to
gave
the
cases
equations
the
occasioned
form
conclusion
formulas
in
the
and
415
pp.
steam
although
piston
the
the
quoted
achieved,
Fig. 35a,
(compare
of
to
shows
43
two
improvement
thereby
not
the
work
of
approach
close
of
both
same.
according
admission
of
-loss
the
avoided
in
identity
The
because
of
the
and
formula,
space.
expansion,
complete
Xq=X\
in
is the
the
from
clearance
that
admission
of
that
(60)
without
which
quantities
(36), which
equation
assumed
sure,
after
=X2
xz
equation
be
; the
disappeared
with
engine
an
end
the
at
Xi
substitute
=xi
of
it is, to
comparison
have
space
is identical
equation
result
interesting
an
clearance
the
to
indicated
x*
furnishes
equation
by
on.
subject
is
to
the
employed
we
law
get
418
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
the
from
propoeitions
on
(V
and
for
of
work
the
140, Vol.
p.
I,
the
for
work
of
expansion
'iH^-i^f]
compressioD
H}-m
Vop
The
back
of admission
work
the
along
pressure
is
path
Vipi,
the
and
work
of
the
overcoming
is
2:20:3
{V2'Vs)p2.
If
the
combine
we
(Vi
we
make
time
same
find
these
after
of
use
yo)'Pi=(T^2
work
quantities
reductions
some
fashion,
proper
and
and
Vo'Pi-(Vo+F8)'p2,
indicated
the
work
[-(ri I
L-j^lV,p,\l-[^)'
On
assumed
hand,
other
the
that
the
we
should
curves
and
hyperbolas,
for
work
of
we
for
the
should
work
get
the
0:0X3
(61)
(see p. 114),
were
to
the
we
had
equilateral
law
pv
^constant;
expansion
7o)pilog*g.
would
furthermore
against
of
work
Fop Jog.
and
subject
the
compression
and
X1X2
(Fi
The
therefore
obtained
have
if,with
two
at
relations
the
Vo)"p2
in
back
for
have
been
21,
the
pressure
admission
(y2-Vz)p2'
work
Vipi
If
we
and
com-
420
in
ignoring
in
radiation
by
The
afore-mentioned
the
indicator
of
course
during
its
through
runs
but
this
is
it is
losses
of
The
will
effect
thorough
distinction
working
for
to
1855
on,
which
of
is not
the
problem
and
to
connections
between
discussion;
for
introduced
this
suitable
the
'
walls
the
the
on
engine,
experiments
experiments
In
such
on
which
and
''Bulletin
from
the
year
experiments,
results
of vapor
and
liquid, and
my
advantage.
analytically
the
it is necessary
to
rences
occurreverse
clearly, by analytical expressions,

results
investigation
all
the
pursue
therefore
the
on
up
working
with
for
the
Gustav
the
of
purpose
Schmidt
''calorimetric
designation
laws
H
directly
to
this
first done
was
^Ledoux,
machines.''
touched
first
corresponding
of
'
"
investigation
with
question
presentations
without
and
the
condensatioQ
Annales
des
miDes,
de
of
experimental
vapeur
I'int^rieur
the
himself
results;
in
"
of
des
more
cylindres-
1877.
**
Revue
la
help
attaching
Dwelshauvers-Dery^
by
'*Dela
vapeurs."
the
thermodynamics
'Dwelshauvers-Dery,
moteurs
in
experimental
of
more
engines."
steam
de"
reports
to
and
present
sort
and
work
steam
find,
we
of mixtures
beforehand
the
of
the
of
Leloutre,
''
employed
consideration,
work
the
the
cooperation.
and
contents
cylinder;
require
first
Hallauer,
aim;
were
the
Mulhouse
same
heat
possible
under
the
articles
of
tables,
steam
my
It
the
for
of
series of other
and
de
steam
emphatically
out
influence
conducted
by
guidance
pursued
formulas
also
series
inspired
industrielle
Soci6t^
la
de
will
pointed
the
also
Alsace
his
under
others,
he
in
conducted
of
he
the
losses
specially investigating
and
in
the
indicated
the
certain
that
first
having
account
n,
and
large engine,
of
particularly
which
confined
changed
involved.
problems
when
in
determination
whose
the
is manifested
periods
change
expected
of
taking
steam,
belongs
were
the
the
is manifested
by
extent,
while
state
by
occur
of
study
necessity
of
be
to
certain
compression
changes
in
lost
been
walls
cylinder
its influence
and
accompanied
engine, and
the
of
to
of its curves;
has
outside.
action
expansion
which
quantity
the
to
diagram,
some
the
heat
the
doing
so
meanwhile
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
universelle
Expose
des
succinct
mines,
de
1880.
la th^rie
pratique
dea.
LOSS
DUE
fashion
complete
The
WORK
OF
certain
question, however,
421
WALLS.
analyticalexpressions.
of
account
on
their
general
numerical
utilizingin
for
suited
CYLINDER
OF
by settingup
and
in
equations
ACTION
TO
a
are
existmg
way
experimentalresults for the purpose of elucidatingthe problems
arisinghere; in generalthey only furnish a basis for the following
For the purpose
of direct practical
of the complicatedoccurrences.
form,
not
I have
utilization
form
have
and
thought;
the
at
of other
taken
the Alsatian
will
will
into
out
that
were
not
considered
particular
of
course
pointed
questions which
ir
'
be
ought to
working
account
in
up
experiments.
equations
generaluse, but
into
we
time
same
equations
fullyelucidated the
more
fundamental
The
the fundamental
cast
thus
by
up
still different
are
be attained
since then
have
me
concerningthe extensions
speak later,there
probably only
set
mentioned,
opinions,and
after further
come
of which
unanimity
experiments
actual
on
engines.
For
before
engine, and
the
the
'
of
the heat
boiler
steam
and
of steam
let
discussing the
will determine
we
be the
which
quality of
p and
stroke
single-cylinder
must
the
weight
be
imparted
of the
is formed
us
the boiler
that
assume
[32"];then
the
heat
stroke;
in the boiler under
is fed with
the
sake
not
ited
lim-
of the
water
quantity Q supplied
to
the
assumed
in the
condenses
heat, then,
it must
back
purpose
"Kalorimetrische
27, 1881,
p.
385, and
pipe
to
be
(63a)
experiments,
steam
in order
for the
the
is
0=G(g+xr)
If,in
to
mixture
cylinder during every
which
itself
cylinder
correspondingtemperature t. For
because
the followinginvestigations
are
of (f
temperature
which
be
the
in the
the
simplicityand
thereby, let
Let
enters
the steam
assume
occurrences
quantity Q
stroke.
per
water
pressure
boiler per
will
we
followinginvestigations
the
avoid
to the
feeding
Untersuchung
of the
radiation
speciallyintroducingit
discharged
of
account
on
of
G'kg. [lb.]
der
the
outside
boiler
as
and
is
Dampfmaschinen.''
Vol. 28, 1882, p. 353.
into
must
usually
not
steam
of
the
the
culation,
cal-
be led
done.
In
ZivilingenieufrVoL
422
TECHNICAL
actually
the
enters
the
On
other
expressly
if the
the
of
mixture
steam
the
then
works
engine
steam
its temperature
and
designated by tx,
generation
the
to
which
cylinder.
hand,
vapor,
is
refers
(63a) Q
equation
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
at
heat
with
entrance
quantity
heated
superthe
to
der
cylinfor
necessary
is
steam
Q=G[9+r+Cp(f,-0],
where
for
Cp =0.4805
the
represents
in
Hereafter,
the
to
(636)
specificheat
the
constant
at
pressure
of water.
vapor
supplied
the
the
boiler
will
be
in
as
case
one
the
the
other,
represented simply
heat
quantity
by
Q^XG,
the
where
(63a) and
After
of the
significanceof
"l follows
(63)
comparison
from
with
equations
(636).
this
preparation
within
occurrences
we
proceed
can
to
cylinder
the steam
Fig.
closer
of
condensing engine.
is
44
consideration
sketch
of
taken
diagram
dicator
in-
an
with
the
indicator.
The
point
the
at
that
the
FiQ.
by
volume
The
Vi.
stroke
here
the
is
swept
volume
here
at
the
of
have
we
end
therefore
the
of
of
the
exhaust
At
this
instant
to
have
cylinder
the
the
through during
by
traversed
designated by F, and
preexhaust.
is
is
ginning
bethe
suppose
traversed
in
44.
the
while
it
and
a,
and
piston
the
admission
begins;
expansion
steam.
the
expansion
point
the
of
end
as
the
the
admission
piston
volume
is
designated
during
figure gives F2
"
V2
the
whole
we
have
LOSS
WORK
OF
ACTION
TO
DUE
CYLINDER
OF
423
WALLS.
At
the
point
Along
the
path
in
point
d.
shut-off
let
74 be
by
the
further
shown
in
it is
that
between
Fig.
now
is
44
points 71
the
cylinder
points
and
PS)
of
Vz,
and
preadmission
characterized
be
mixture
compression
for
and
p4,
7o, 72
first
place
the
whole
the
7o, 73
let
the
us
of
and
steam
takes
following
place alojig
proposition
we
let
and
indicator
X2,
relations
7o=((?
73
7o
74
7o=Go(a;4i44
fluid
with
its
of
the
gram
dia-
the
experiments^
and
help
heat
respectively
priate
appro-
exchange
at
the
each
of
pressure
the
four
7o.
the
the
Xi,
72
and
that
iswetinall
steam
quality
steam
and
xz,
x^;
the
at
then
we
four
diately
imme-
(G+(?o)(xiWi+a),
74
that
assume
designate by Ji,
of steam
assumed
of steam
and
7o,
cycle,
7i-f7o
be
find
we
volume
points be, respectively,

obtain
it will
and
b, c,
a,
cardinal
mixture
the
from
walls.
of
we
of
conception
parts
If
of
the
as
piston
steam
clearance
obtaining,
clear
and
four
the
In
designated by
given by particular
question
steam
P2,
be
weight
investigations
measurements,
Pi,
the
while
cylinder
the
beginning
let
the
represent
in the
the
At
the
from
early
as
by
stroke
takes
cd.
path
In
travel
the
piston stroke;
let Go
confined
of
end
compression
occurring
through
begins.
is constantly
cylinder
while
condenser,
swept
compression
and
steam
cd, preadmission
the
to
the
of
the
space
piston
of
and
Vq
water
and
at
end
the
the
the
interior
the
path
the
port is closed
exhaust
with
Let
the
the
be
communication
place along
to
the
Go)feW2
(64)
GoixzUz
2,
at
o),
'
"T).
and
Jz,
the
(T),
four
J4
the
heat
points, then
contents
by
of
the
much-used
have
Ji
J2
((?+(?o)(3i+Xiî),
(6+6o)(32+X2/02),
Jz'^Goiqz+Xzpz),
J4^Go{q4+X4pA).
(65)
424
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
By
and
the
combining
of
equations
discussed
transformation
the
considering
corresponding
two
on
(64) and
77,
p.
(65)
tain
ob-
we
Pi
Ui
where
of
Vo)^,
J4^Go"ot4-\-(V4
Vo)
neglect
dry saturated
of
(65a)
w^\.
water
in
written
and
El
vapor
be
can
small
very
as
the
for
(64)
equation
Finally
we
substitute
may
we
Jz'GooOzHVi
simpler fashion
introduce
the
when
specific weight
vapor
(G+Go)xi=(7i
7o)ri,
(G+Go)x2"(72
T'o)r2,
ô)r3,
Fo)r4.
(64a)
(?oa;3-(78
(F4
(?oa:4
On
the
if the
hand
other
which
condition,
of
the
value
cardinal
According
weight
of
where,
when
the
points
the
then
x"l,
to
p.
in the
steam
preceding equations
T
the
the
takes
give
the
place
of
condition
of
equation
in
when
happens
temperature
237
cylinder is in
for
heated
superone
or
all
impossible
x.
unit
of
is
steam
is
in
given
kg.
per
m.
sq.
[lb. per
sq.
in.],we
must
substitute
5=50.933
[5=0.64459
The
on
the
heat
other
content
hand,
of
and
=192.50
and
=22.5819].
unit
is calculated
of
weight
from
K-l
superheated
equation (56),
Aj)v
J-=-Jo
of
p.
249,
steam,
and
is
LOSS
OF
If
for
WORK
this
we
Jo
and
DUE
TO
write
J"
ACTION
OF
in
where,
+^pv,
CYLINDER
426
WALLS.
accordance
with
the
of
values
and
[857.00]
0-478.U
(64)
equations
earher
given
on
249,
p.
/J -0.007075
we
[0.003B82],
substitute
muet
then
in
place
^juations
(65)
of
have
we
V,)p,-(C+Go)[M'i-C-}'fl,
(I', +
lV,+V,)p,-{a+G")lBT2-C"^l
c-y^l,
(r,+v,)p,-oiBT3-
t(Xt the
aad
conteDts
following
the
(65a)
heat
in
get
we
place
of
or
equations:
Ji-a(G+Go)+^(7i
Vo)pi,
Ja=a(G+Go)+j9(V3
V"o)p3,
(67)
Fig.
In
there
here
in
of
order
if
can
the
dia^
will
the
divide
we
[772.83]
in
units
in
following,
the
units
H
that
assume
of
work
formulas,
heat.
cyhnder,
now
i.e., when
with
the
occurring
of
During
occurs.
be
"-
^^^
we
but
is
and
424
eimpUfy
to
repeated,
ao
and
expression
In
that
is
meter-kilograms
by
the
heat.
ao
or
vahie
44
total
planimeter
the
Fig.
exchange
heat
which
from
[foot-pounds],
get
the
the
under
of
diagram
path
produced
found
expressed
we
indicator
by
by
this
Vo)p*.
the
be
gram
along
lying
easily
Ji=aGo+liiVt
indicated
determined
area
Vo)p3,
is also
is
Lg
the
45
admissioD
work
J"'-aGo+^{V3
the
in
concludes
the
^^
ties
quantithe
that
interior
condeDser,
the
diagram
during
of
the
steam
are
always
the
discharge
cylinder
along
expressed
is
the
in
from
in
the
cation
communi-
path
be,
by
426
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
"
virtue
and
its
of
lower
boiler
the
quantity
which
direction
of
the
heat
the
the
heat
quantity
of
the
the
the
lying
under
imparted
by
Qay Qbj Qc,
heat
it is
given
is
steam,
by
the
that
the
the
work
total
in
Lb
hatched
the
doing
so
expanding
reversed
steam
direction
the
in
steam
the
hatched
the
it is Qe
Qa\
in
particular
the
by
the
cylinder
steam
there
hatched
of heat
heat
four
whose
Qa
quantities
determination
properly
very
for
closely
quantity
the
lost
cd
6c.
walls.
cylinder
Him
as
under
path
the
by
determine
to
the
of
amounts
lying
area
certain
quantity
consumed
work
along
doing
to
is
here
the
to
and
is measured
so
the
steam
closely
La which
completely
determination
running
walls,
(compare
and
the
Q"Qa"La
of
end
the
of
beginning
therefore
we
heat
must
the
the
the
steam
of
walls
Ji
get for
the
"
heat
setting
the
is
points
out;
engine, because
just
it is
as
in
the
the
La
been
boiler
heat
expended
Now
leaving
increase
of
the
of
fundamental
La-^Qa-^^^G+J4-Ju
the
requires
receives
into
to
the
heat
enters
fore
there-
the
heat
the
no
heat
work;
Ji is the
steam
Qa
increase
four
occasions
now
quantity
a), .and
point
preadmission
first
which
is converted
cylinder.
(at the
J4 is the
of
up
(63)), the
quantity
have
quantities
the
equation
admission
of
four
admission
During
quantity
contents
of
equations,
difficulty.
and
the
importance,
fundamental
the
the
condenser.
the
The
at
by
the
the
curve;
to
the
of
cd, and
and
practical
this
the
ab
path
the
of
compression
work
problem
The
to
during
is consumed
for
indicating
45
figure by
ba
heat
cylinder walls,
Fig.
the
indicated
is
exhaust
is measured
Finally
of
flow
which
Qc is imparted
area
the
portion
the
the
arrow.
Le and
to
along
in
coming
steam
cylinder walls.
the
to
cylinder
the
designate
the
in
Qa
of
live
Qa
let
is, in general, imparted
Qh
walls,
During
heat
steam
designated
underneath
lying
the
the
the
to
to
expansion
it is
area
by
attached
arrow
walls
cool
turn
transferred
thus
from
produced;
is
is
is
in
the
admission;
the
during
passes
During
walls
these
consequently
from
cools
temperature,
heat
content
content
at
(at the
point 6)^
contents;
ingly
accord-
equation
a)
428
TECHNICAL
If
jet condenser
substitute
must
we
Finally
at
is
employed
in this
95 ^90
find
we
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
for
instead
of
surface
condenser,
equation.
of
period
compression,
is
as
evident,
once
La-Qa^J^-Jz
fundamental
fourth
for the
the
To
fundamental
(IV)
equation.
equations just derived
others
two
will
now
be added.
of
units
place
first
the
In
get for
we
indicated
the
work
Li,
measured
in
heat,
Lt=La+Li"-Lc-Ld,
exists, besides,
there
and
the
from
Qm
the
represent
jacket ;
is
which
the
heat
for
then
the
normal
introduced
lost
quantity
generated
of
presence
by
tion
radia-
by
condition
the
cylinder
we
the
be
piston
jacket,
steam
the
enters
running
the
piston stroke, let Qr
one
which
quantity
between
heat
simultaneously
presupposing
friction, and,
the
cylinder during
steam
quantity
heat
simple relation
Qv represent
Let
quantities.
heat
(V)
shall
let
from
the
have
the
relation
Qa-Q6-Qe+Qd
Qm-"?r-0.
(VI)
...
If
unite
we
the
first four
then
(I+II-ni-IV),
fundamental
get, with
we
in the
equations
the
help
of
(V)
and
fashion
(VI),
L"=(?(^-go)-(?t(g6-?6)+(Qm+(2r-0.-Q"),
(Va)
.
an
"
equation
which
DISCUSSION
55.
engine,
steam
From
the
taken, let
us
the
been
THE
written
directly.
EQUATIONS
STEAM
FOR
AND
in
the
employed
to
determine,
heat
exchange
dimensions
suppose
of
the
the
preceding
between
engine
THE
from
steam
and
the
may,
HEAT
WALLS.
CYLINDER
developed
be
circumstances,
be
OF
formulas
The
have
BETWEEN
EXCHANGE
to
might
under
certain
experiments
and
cylinder
indicator
r, Fo, Fi, F2, Fs, F4.
walls.
diagrams
following quantities (see Figs. 44
deternuned:
on
and
45)
EXCHANGE
HEAT
BETWEEN
the
Furthermore
gives, for
diagram
STEAM
boiler
the
pressure
four
determine,
the
planimeter
P8"
P2f
from
moreover,
for
the
indicator
weight
steam
let
Gk
in the
Gm
the
represent
and
of
weight
in
designated by
and
the
water
needed
with
the
with
reduce
the
to
piston
is
one
condenses
it
the
to
in
periodically;
the
measure
piston stroke;
then
water;
formulas
above
steam
jacket,
both
feed
for the
which
needed
water
reduced
collecting
provided
jacket
cooling
weight
steam
is
the
both
and
discharging
cylinder
if the
similarly,
kg. pb.]
the
by
pipe,
of feed
weight
in
measure
steam
diagram
Li.
of
Gi
weight
the
and
measured
Now
stroke.
the
the
is observed
boiler, both
pressures
magnitudes
condenser
the
the
indicator
Pi-
Lof Lbf Let Ldf and
There
the
and
known,
principal points,
PU
We
is
429
WALLS.
CYLINDER
AND
the
determined
value
from
the
relation
G^Gk-G'-Gm
But
the
that
the
Let
the
can
the
be
of
quantity G'q
also
compute
the
the
jacket,
the
the
then
heat
from
only
under
led
not
are
the
position
sup-
back
liquid corresponding
lost
by
heat
from
radiation
being
found
from
ture
tempera-
sufficient
the
which
Qm
quantity
latter
with
calculate
can
we
the
to
pipe,
steam
the
enters
the
accuracy
the
of
the
the
in
it stagnates
whether
If
flows
steam
temporarily
we
mixture
closure
of
of
the
through
the
relation
exhaust,
(69)
the
jacket
to
the
cylinder
or
weight
Go
cylinder
at
jacket.
that
assume
steam
and
cylinder
Qm^Gmq,
whether
to
experiments.
heat
;
valid
are
condensation
of
waters
the
boiler
the
of
said
during
boiler
established
formulas
the
here
(68)
and
and
water
hence
there
is known
contained
at
the
in
the
the
beginning
of
the
com*
430
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
pressioD (at point d, Fig. 45),

(64) and
within
the
those
pi,
oi pi,
On
the
points
in
or
contents
(65)
and
one
superheated
in
proceed
and
this
the
second
utiUze
first
be
can
indeed
constitutes
doing
this
be
the
case
four
the
the
m,
calculated
main
from
of the
according
heat
principal
temperature
to
four
equations
equation
to
fundamental
the
for
ti2, Us,
values
according
four
determine
help
Ui,
the
at
can
found
case
the
of
corresponding
steam
in the
and
to
their
the
process
find
Ta-
superheated
them,
therefore
and
with
equations
whole
we
values
ra,
72,
the
tables
steam
ru
is
of
J\,J2, Js,
now
of
steam
more
or
(65a),
Qd,
if the
during
corresponding
also
and
Pa,
the
from
the
Pa
T4 of the
or
(IV) and
and
p3,
(66), and
heat
can
Pa,
contrary
equations
to
p2,
p2,
Ti, T21 Tz,
We
then
cylinder;
pressures
from
Xif
in all its stages
is wet
steam
XZf
X2,
Xi,
provided the
determine
can
values
the
(64a)
we
(67).
equations
(I)
quantities Qa, Qo, Qe,

of
purpose
the
whole
investigation.
in
However,
with
wet
determination
(I), which
the
certain
is at
means
dififers but
the
if we
regard
this
the
the
(69), Qr
equation
In
main
this
agrees
des
of
the
heat
article
with
heat
already
the
my
deutacher
r
views
we
can
working
X in
equation
by equation
(63a);
observation
whose
only
rapidly
when
this,
assert
the
no
that
quality
steam
quantities
determined.
piston
Qm, Qr,
friction,
Vol.
also
bases
my
paper
his
and
of
we
(Va)
Qv, occurring
found
from
Q9, according
be
determined
der
27,
probably
be
and
(III)
equation
can
may
UntereuchuDg
discusses
from
Qm
engines,
but
Q*;
enough
Ingenieure,
and
using equation
quantity
accurately
steam-jacket
Vereins
for
too
not
^'Kalorimetrische
^Grashof,
Zeitschrifi
and
encountered
from
in
Grashof,^
engine
value
accomplished
known;
latter
as
be
is
remaining
equation,
determining
the
an
unity.
determination
determine
can
in
little from
in
quantity
quietly
difficulty
Another
for
the
present
running
engines
in
is to
contains
equation
in
difficulty
vapor,
encounter,
we
1883,
the
considerations
to
by
DampfmaschiDen."
161.
p.
title and
same
on
my
four
in
the
funda-
BETWEEN
EXCHANGE
HEAT
filling the
and
rest
the
jacket
after
Of
the
be
can
the
boiler
walls
cylinder
but
overcome;
CYLINDER
steam
when
in the
with
the
is at
engine
heated
determining
the
disappears
former
superheated
both
and
steam,
are
different
with
respect
adduced
contain
the
quantity
matters
431
WALLS.
jacket.
specified here,
dealing
are
we
AND
thoroughly
are
condensation
diflBculties
two
when
entirely
with
space
of steam
amount
STEAM
another
to
question.
Almost
in
all the
preceding
the
which
The
quality
steam
and
arises
45, pp.
and
422
value
If the
(64)
(64a)
all
above
equations
show.
and
myself
Since
Go in
had
to
cylinder
yet
the
according
Figs.
important
quantities
well
of
known
44
directly
of
calculated,
views
Go
the
as
between
Him
engineers.
the
determining
quantity
indirectly,recourse
or
tions
equa-
quantity
mechanical
to
in
be
to
interchange
fourth
the
to
the
succeeded
way,
end
of
heat
has
been
fundamental
cases
Revue
Series, Vol.
and
then
moreover
said
p.
because
above,
term
will
(III),
value
des
1.
(I) and
and
may
mines,
this
be
disappear
that
has
neglected
1882, 2d
term
done
as
it, and
better
have
to
the
Qi
in
the
be
text
of
it takes
not
base
analytical
should
the
suggestion
because
I
mass.
is
in
the
(II) (this is pointed

fiom
the
been
to
the
probably
it is
equations
two
of
this
to
tion
equa-
which
contained
mass
objection
attention
motion
stormy
emphasizes
universelle
XIII,
the
the
equation
the
the
less
first called
the
of
sign
negative
of
eneigy
have
right member
the
to
(II) with
kinetic
I
myself
text
of
sum
the
of
adds
he
equation
admission.
1
in the
the
in
arises
influence
term
text),
a
which
in
but
notation,
my
measure
the
on
with
because
of
in most
th^
to
not
the
at
account
led
have
Grashof's,
other
the
pretty
term
intended
the
the
to
as
diagram.
pression.
com-
i.e.,as
steam,
words,
indicator
determine
is
equations,
(I)
in
of
of
hypothesis.
to
mental
other
in
the
of
then
can
experimental
an
point
which
we
it
end
the
at
of this
and
known
beginning
"
we
influences
question
the
at
constitution
with
is known,
X4
or
cylinder
which
Go,
425.
which
This
mixed
the
at
X4
the
to
the
weight
already
as
in
steam
the
as
of water
amount
the
therefore
question
the
to
of
weight
and
exhaust
assumed
temporarily
was
the
states
the
formulas
out
duced
introtigations
inveslater
expressions.
added
above,
in
the
although
insignificant.
Series, Vol.
XI,
p.
15, and
1883,
2d
432
Him
and
his coworkers,
could
assximption
the
is
steam
of
during
walls
cylinder
It
denied
particularly
when
the
On
(we
water,
that
so
Under
(64)
value
different
it is
quality
xz
may
wetness
of
the
As
each
the
we
quantity
is
expansion
pletely
com-
exit
stormy
Qc from
supply
this
the
of
sort
heat
engine;
on.
be
not
contradicted
that,
be
may
the
at
mixed
with
wet
value
equations
in
certain
smaller
Go,
(I)
unity,
of
and
Qa
(IV);
to
steam
that
so
and
the
engines,
than
questions
of
infer
can
to
the
be
can
the
the
in
of
by
general
the
of the
compression
admixture
only
of
course
of wetness
degree
the
decided
engines;
steam
from
moisture
less
for
quantities Qa, Q", Qe,
investigations
as
third
the
steam
considerable.
these
siderably
con-
during
'
later
steam
is
cylinder
on
must
conceivable,
expansion
the
greater
be
may
with
in
mention
sometimes,
of
the
of
fundamental
the
we
and
possible
experiments
considerably
87)
is
case
pressure
the
of
amount
than
rapidly
considerable
the
that
so
X3"1.
of
something
large
the
heat
confined
gives
before,
p.
that
single-cylinder engine)
the
that
steam
of
assumption
of
from
be
on
curve
a
for
careful
and
(see remark
with
(64a)
said
was
further
or
possible
end
flu-ther
have
may
found
therefore
certainty
considering
steam
the
assumption
the
equations
indeed
we
the
pressure
in the
case
compression,
of
beginning
the
thinking
always
are
terminal
hand
other
the
this
that
will receive
experiments
these
less
the
was
as
that
preliminary evaporation.
than
greater
said
compression,
simultaneous
the
some
be
the
of
that
condenser
and
after
cannot
exhaust,
the
exhaust
the
conclude
at
engineers,
sufficient
beginning
present
into
swept
other
as
with
the
They
ordinarily
well
as
made
at
="1.
xa
water
be
saturated
dry
assume
may
is
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
pression
com-
steam;
rises
curve
(see example
water
on
p. 86).
Finally
touched
been
steam
of the
be
is
will
we
in
p.
attention
107.
Because
cylinder during
the
expansion,
regarded
an
on
direct
as
an
uncertainty
the
pressure
to
of
measuring
the
admission
curve
the
by
pi
the
has
already
motion
during
curve;
pressure
which
stormy
and
drawn
in
question
the
of
first
indicator
consequently
at
the
end
the
part
cannot
there
of admis-
HEAT
BETWEEN
EXCHANGE
sion,
the
at
point
which
first of
the
(65),
and
(I) and
their
of
(II)
because
assumed
that
suit
the
pressure
the
which
the
cylinder
we
walls
during
the
the
0.605
as
steam
the
to
is
engine
slide
be
can
[23.82 in.]
the
and
normally
led
diameter
the
piston
on
for
two
cylinder
the
stroke
makes
engine
it possesses
the
of
without
and
to
of
because
gear;
The
the
others
admission
to
sion.
expan-
engine
directly
off
permit
by
valve
for
two
this
given
and
all
of
beam
Qb
"
those
in advance
equations
because
which
developments,
would
It
get
Qa
experiments
are
is affected
separate
admission
the
be
can
(VI).
therefore
quantity
are;
measurement
calculation
we
of
superheater.
running
not
really
expansion
and
equations
nothing
(V),
small
equations
they
of
pi
or
cylinder
1.702
as
is
m.
revolutions
30
minute.
per
experiments
Altogether eight
of
end
of
from
uncertain
Ukewise
Ji
course
with
valves,
m.
[67.01 in.]; when
the
The
boiler
the
indirectly through
given
the
the
heat
the
engine
and
sUde
four
exhaust;
than
in
sum
preceding
jacket
steam
greater
whole,
known
now
completeness.
their
the
quantity
obtain
Logelbach-Colmar
his
found
(III), (IV),
their
use
can
of
utilization
Qb
by
at
p2
on
uncertain
regards
As
affected
from
purpose,
(II),.but
and
be
is too
first
in
is,
of
that
xi
the
to
and
equilibrium-
measurement
for
Ji, according
equilibrium-pressure;
our
from
the
not
derived
be
can
ehminates
of
will
the
value
the
ti, etc., belong
xi,
use
we
438
WALLS.
because
i/i,
somewhat
appear
the
as
better
(I)
will
difference
pi
values
quantities Qa
heat
CYLINDER
422),
p.
if
for
follows
the
so
AND
(64a) will give
equations
thing
same
the
Therefore
reality, higher.
the
(Fig. 44,
to
curve
pressure
STEAM
them
in
others
29th,
and
Seven
made
were
1875,
August
October
of
and
on
these
18th
November
26th
and
made
were
and
27th,
the
on
28th,
September
engine;
1873,
and
7th, 8th,
two
the
and
28th.
eight experiments
different
ratios
of
were
expansion;
accompanied
five
of
the
by
seven
densation
con-
were
434
TECHNICAL
with
experiments
first
Hallauer^
and
later
was
made
experiments
others
by
sufficiently complete
cooling
could
y,2
this
boiler
the
[302"].
"x
all
Hirn's
Example.
in
is p
worked
treated
was
kg. [68.38
is
steam
experiments
and
superheated
sider
con-
1875;
and
421)
p.
as
us
example;
an
investigation.
to
jacket;
in.],the
sq.
27th,
note,
steam
let
Dwelshauvers-
by
without
lb. per
of
investigations.
it out
eight experiments
engine
48,075
working
The
then
p. 430)
sion,
expan-
quantity
his
August
(see
of
ducted
con-
unfortunately
above
of
experiment
experiment
subjected
who
the
on
were
preceding investigations
the
(see remark,
recently
more
of
and
the
that
so
technical
made
ratios
observe
to
only
Corliss
were
jacket;
not
the
they
data
are
great
different
experiment
analyzed
with
condensers,
the
Hirn's
fully
already
of
direction
the
elucidation
more
the
on
steam
position
to
in
utilized
the
For
in
not
England)
experiments,
with
without
supplied
be
such
for
1877,
of later
reports
calculation;
by
discussion;
to
pressures
and
was
water
not
have
with
also
and
D
boiler
difiFerent
at
in
made
conducted
subjected
were
in
of essential
Delafond^
were
especially arranged
engine
an
experiments
and
knowledge
them
by
carried
was
experiments
statement
followed
be
to
experiments
are
These
engine.
these
The
of
(some
were
condensation.
on
with
report
eighth
Dwelshauvers-Dery.^
by
exceptions
without
but
of them
two
the
vapor;
reported
detailed
more
(wet)
steam,
only
and
vapor,
saturated
superheated
with
on
superheated
with
conducted
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
pressure
t^l50^
temperature
has
the
temperature
223"[433.4^.
There
is
jet condenser,
[0.622 lb.]; the

its initial
here
with
75-16.51
aoci^te
injected
de
de
chaleur
le m^tal
entre
Annales
des
et
effectu^
mines,
1884.
la
final
G"
kg.
0.2822
kg. [18.956
lb.]
and
which
temperature,
[95.47"];
is
ingly
accord-
[63.54 B.t.u.].
Bulletin
vapeur."
de
la
XLVII.
nouvelle
vapeur."
sur
is
^b"^^^- 35.26"
moteurs
"Mdthode
"Essais
'Delafond,
Greuzot.''
is
1877, Vol.
Mulhouse,
the
76-9o"45.30Cal.
les
sur
'Dwelshauvere-Dery,
I'dchange
[61.7*1;
temperature,
Experiences
stroke
per
is Gi -8.5983
water
[29.718 B.t.u.] and
'^
Hallauer,
16.5"
condenser
Cal.
industrielle
of
is /5
temperature
identical
weight
weight
steam
une
Bulletin
machine
leprdsenter
pour
de
Mulhouse,
Corliss
aux
1888.
usines
du
436
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
furthermore
There
follows
kg., (G+Go)x,-
0.2448
kg. )
0.0038
kg.,
0.0018
kg.)
0.633
lb., (G+Go)x,-
0.0084
lb.,
(G+Go)a:t-0.2869
G^îr(G+Go)a:,-
L
Now
the
G^
that,
assumption
then
dry saturated,
the
to
is
the
it would
under
diagram,
then
in
from
get
(I)
(IV)
from
On
the
lb.] and
G+
7.69,
other
if
hand,
that
the
indicator
kg.
0.2869
G+G^^^
kg. [0.0104 lb.].
0.0047
0.383;
a?4-
and
the
from
fundamental
tions
equa-
make
we
x,
and
then
we
xt
/4-5.20,-|
Qc -87.660,
then
0.765,
Qd-1.17
9.05,
have
is well
Go-0.0380
find, according
we
"
Qd-4.642J'
which
assumption
an
x.-O.l,
/4-I.3I,
2.28,
/.-
54.604,
take
0.896,
J.-
Qc -22.09,
13.76,
[0.7059],
-0.3202
/,-
176.94,
r/i-702.16,
Ja-
LQa-
06--
The
is
25.318.
circumstance
off
given
admission,
but
/,-
152.94,
Q6--
6.38,
Oa-
the
follow
equations
the
of
of
0.
100,
X4
within
the
kg. [0.0838
equations
to
(a),
0.047,
"
furthermore,
Ji-
heat
(65)
594.38,
Q6--
30.587,
X,
and
0.808,
xi"
149.78,
/,-
-685.65,
Go
and
G^-
further
of the
points
X"!
assume
equations
Q6--
possibility and
of
region
main
four
end
assumption
the
to
pens,
hap-
superheating
to
some
it
(a)
/,-
/i -172.78,
LQa-
to
1, and
as
the
ord^r
tions,
equa-
lb.],and
"?"r/,
in
exactly
Xi"
although,
at
recourse
which
for
follows
still greater
then,
is
kg. [0.6305
steam
fast
really make
we
the preceding
of
admission,
A
"
present
(a), there
1 ;
the
a:, -0.853,
calculate
we
to
-0.2860
case.
must
we
case
Go
the
hold
we
case
third
If
steam
the
the
have
of
any
equations
Xi^l,
therefore
at
of
X4
to
if
the
equations
that
necessary
limiting
such
to
present
so
result.
G+
end
lb.
0.0040
exhaust,
that
(67) ; but
is the
[0.633 lb.], and

We
be
superheated
that
at
in the
saturated,
and
(66)
is not
steam
dry
the
assumed
were
compression
given
first of
degree
it
the
of
lb.], hence
superheated
if
problem,
the
to
small
very
obtain
would
G^^4
"
"
lb.,n
0.538
remarkable
end
G,^4-
1, and, according
Xs"
according
is still
steam
the
at
kg. [0.0084
0.0038
therefore,
furnish
equations
these
G^-
(64a)
equation
from
14.75,
58.533,
in
by
the
also, taken
both
Qb
to
the
whole,
/,-
4.14
Qd-
0.10
^4
Qc -82.144,
cases
steam
as
-20.70
/8-16.03,
606.91,
that
Qc
4.04.
Qd-
appears
cylinder
during
the
Cal.,
16.43
B.t.u.,"]
J*
0-397
negative
walls,
not
expansion.
shows
only
The
that
during
heat
HEAT
EXCHANGE
Qe which
quantity
able;
according
expended
and
BETWEEN
per
then
the
to
stroke
above
in
the
to
escapes
condenser
CYLINDER
the
formation
is Q
steam
to
consider-
very
quantity
which
cal. [769.66
193.95
"
preceding
the
be
heat
total
437
WALLS.
to
appears
calculations
follows, according
there
AND
STEAM
is
B.t.u.],
assumptions,
two
Qc
and
""0.114
and
loss will nearly
this
during
when,
exhaust,
with
From
well
the
be
here,
the
to
it is
which
is called
forth
directly into
is set
munication
com-
indeterminate
in
the
to
1, i.e.,that
the
is
always
generally valid
for all
the
the
heat
tities
quan-
to
adopt
at
the
single-cylinder
spect
re-
between
exchange
saturated,
cussed
dis-
with
made
cylinder
dry
there
question
proceeding
exactly
Go,
for those
heat
in the
steam
whole
values
dubious
value
assumption
different
surely
it may
preceding example
insight into
an
is
It
the
the
obtain
afford
to
compression
of
that
Xs
cylinder
uncertainty
we
Xs,
walls.
hypothesis
the
that, according
and
are
and
steam
of
of
with
that,
value
which
loss of effect
result
lamentable
the
space.
numerical
inferred
still exists
interior
condenser
the
to
correspond
the
respectively,
0.107
and
the
ning
beginto
say
condensing
engines.
with
Recently,
heat
exchanged
indicator
the
in
units
this
have
quantities
work
as
been
the
in
graphically
quantities expressed
heat
bases
and
computed
represented
rectangles having
by
these
basis,
by representing
diagram
of
hypothesis
corresponding
to
the
piston travel.
Let
they
/?a, h,
be
can
and
he,
h^ be
from
computed
FiAa
424
g",
(7i-F8)Ac=424Q,
and
these
to
the
the
the
heights
Q^ [772.83],
Fi);i5=424
0d [772.83],
(F3-74)Ad=424
into
the
algebraic sign, a procedure
into
which
has
gone
heights
are
to
be
rectangles, then
formulas
(72and
these
of
introduced
with
diagram
we
will
not
ence
referenter
here.
Dwelshauvers-Dery
this
question (see remark,
time,
by
specially
drawn
p.
434)
curves,
and
the
more
tried
to
course
thoroughly
show
at
the
of
the
into
same
heat
438
TECHNICAL
and
transferred,
thus
(diagramme
gram
THERMODYNAMICS.
to
des
with
along
construct,
pressions),
the
dia-
indicator
heat-exchange
diagrams
(dia-
'
des
grammes
the
But
changes).
it is much
and
often
better
employed
Here,
to
will
we
wHl
for
briefly state
the
In
ab
of
same
'
method
transformation
the
refer
simply
in
representation
reader
which
the
let
place
first
curves.
to
the
other
indicator
diagram
the
then
Fig. 46,
in
also
we
the
of
for
the
there
curve
indicator
is
latter
value
f/, and
the
determined
considered
point
the
from
heal
to
f,
also
the
a', therefore,
the
sponding
corre-
p',
and
then
for
give
now
the
value
the
weight
(F'
propositions
P'
determine
P^,
the
the
quantities f, vf,
t' and
steam
/.
quality
a/
is found
7o)r',
is
discussed
from
the
(70)
on
p.
64, the
sponding
corre-
equation
AP'"((?+(?o)(/+^)
we
this
equation
((?+(?o)x'
and, according
the
travel
will
the
of
from
pressure
tables
during
a'
taken
diagram
steam
steam
walls
expansion.
piston
the
between
point
any
of
graphically
cylinder
course
If
show
exchange
and
curve
transformation
will
heat
steam
curve
employed
expansion
the
curve
the
If
hand,
be
can
is
procedure
On
consider
specially
us
this
For
one,
pressure
of transformation
method
the
of
of the
eighth experiment.
how
the
by
cumbersome
very
purpose.
the
the
it
article
hauvers-Dery's
to
question is
replace
in the
above
therefore,
applied
in
representation
and
for
lay
series
ofif this
of
value
points
as
of
abscissa
the
and
(71)
expansion
the
cor-
HEAT
EXCHANGE
BETWEEN
absolute
responding
the
expansion
curve
give
variation
in
curve
walls
but
the
pressure
curves
in
variable
in the
and
the
other
with
transformation
for
curve
and
probable
seems
hauvers-Dery
But
to
and
the
will
expansion
under
equation
in
substitute
there
be
omit
other
the
hand
consideration
J3 the
rise
If
we
G^g0+(?i(g6-g5)-
pressure
pa,
Lc
therefore
Gi(q^ -qs)
-^
the
that
assume
mean
of their
the
to
him.
by
admission
already
course
We
curves.
question.
fundamental
third
given
Let
remark.
under
(65),
us
then
exhaust
steam
we
can
which
((?+ Go)b2
can
be
takes
+Go(33+X3/"3)
place
under
+0t.
the
stant
con-
write
(G +(jo)-4p3X2W8- GoApzXzUZf
have,
we
((?+Go)(32+X2^2)
from
the
preceding equation,
+X2{p2 +^P3W2)]
-
from
the
that
another
formulas
in
proposed
the
according
is what
of the
to
assume
sketch
or
pressure
of
increase
to
either
method
consideration
and
the
reversible
(III), p. 427, gives

it for
this
and
portions
the
appears
be
to
appears
emission
in certain
further
and
circumstance
as
change,
the
regarded
the
exhaust-
and
must
we
the
to
in
the
follows
I/c + 0c
and
did
of
transformed;
be
that
curve
admission
opposed
curves
cannot
therefore
On
is
there
former
possible,
really
all this
mentioned
the
the
from
flows
can
diflBculty
respect
direction
heat
of
law
the
admission-
the
accordingly
decrease;
to
the
curve
of
in the
equation (70) ;
particular hypothesis
what
compression
the
this
direction.
opposite
encounter
we
under
the
whether
transformation
of
64)
p.
moreover,
shows
the
on
curve
transformation
strips lying
the
explained
was
in the
way
effecting
of
areas
exchange;
or
same
the
parts
steam
the
in
heat
the
its various
to
In
and
curve,
is the
the
then
ordinate,
as
obtained
thus
points
directly (as
of
439
WALLS.
CYLINDER
AND
temperature
the
passing through
STEAM
found
the
weight Gi
Gqo-
of the
Goiqz -hxzrz) +Qc-Qir
cooling
water
for
the
440
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
Qi=^0;
this
for
but
condenser;
substitute
can
Go=^0
"?t(g6~36)=%2-3o+XaO"2+-4p8W2)]+0".
If
given
preceding
identity, provided
That
cooling
of
weight
of
^
r
has
water
this
course
neglected,
G(l
of water
X2) present
"
Qe='G(l
assume
sufficient
just
circumstances,
the
at
Giiq^-qs)
structure
on
the
have
shown
only by
reached
of
importance
helpful
in
in
and
extended
pursuit
to
of
known.
heat
For
that
quantity
equation
(72)
ApzU2
can
Qe is,under
the
evaporate
then
this
and
all
quantity
that
we
may
follows
^G{q2+p2-qo)f
for
proposed
practical
for
proposed
the
in
and
use
same
purpose
whole
preceding section,
of
discussion
single
of certain
of
subject
the
the
deals
-cylinder engines,
doubtful
The
experiments.
which
method
and
points
will
will
supplementary
be
can
also
developed
equations
with
question
several
would
lead
above
cylinders;
far
too
us
"Note
iDwelshauvers-Dery,
Revue
universelle
des
be
specially
heating
of
from
can
easily
be
but
the
the
further
purpose
book.
the
an
receivers.
engines
this
is
multiple-cylinder engines,
fundamental
The
the
of
further
clarifying
cylinders
the
is
byDwelshauvers-
expansion,
formulas
final
the
that
be
right
Qe in calculating the
of
investigation
calorimetric
with
end
there
the
140.
and
presentations
The
been
the
with
agrees
137
pp.
has
which
equation
an
value
completely
to
X2)p2'j from
"
the
in
quantities.
supposes
exhaust
during
that
was
the
to
respects
thjtt Qe
assumes
that
added
same
emphasized
been
(72)
preceding developments
the
the
find
been
in the
(33), which
we
other
for
of
account
in
Dwelshauvers-Dery
purpose
be
take
must
one
that
chosen
been
have
subscripts
other
has
that
consider
we
condenser,
but
equation,
the
of
member
equation
quantity Qe
heat
the
caae
with
surface
the
for
137
p.
on
formula
this
compare
we
and
obtain
therefore
we
we
purpose
mines,
1889,
Vol.
V, 3d
sur
la
Series,
throne
p.
225.
des
ooDdenseurs.''
of
The
great
in the
progress
far-going expansion,
of the
exhaust
As
the
under
from
steam
This
exist
it
in the
superheater,
an
has
available
365"
[689"],
atmospheres
pressures
would
connection
and
the
"standard
there
at
the
disposal
our
be
can
p. 396).
consider
only
is
describing
one
as
which
objection
no
standpoint
engines
working
extensively
[662" F.]
become
to
with
used
superheated
and
steam
employed,
were
to
necessary
drop
peratures
tem-
that
so
the
with
comparison.
that
boiler
steam
the
constant
generation
steam
and
this
itself,in
and
steam,
then
The
already
corresponds
;
therefore
enormous
obtain.
the
it must
with
steam
close
to
to
the
and
take
temperature
which
temperature
condition.
(p. 207)
this
engine (see " 51,
plant
and
expressly
be
used
was
limit,
temperature,
which
STANDARD
cycle.
C.
saturated
at
in
to
actual
boiler
more
[662" F.] is, however,

U
of the
however,
for
highest
into
demands
cycle
constant,
CIENCY
EFFI-
THE
theoretical
350"
to
standard
as
THERMAL
steam;
heating
the
and
engines
cycle
into
more
up
such
the
purely
passed,
were
the
EFFICIENCY.
cycle
temperature
the
time
As
ignore
upper
of
use
in
Steam.
understood
this
cycle
entering
the
this
that
during
investigations referred
was
and
of the
we
as
quantity
heat
fact
the
to
condenser
THE
AND
saturated
engine
judging
long
pressure,
longer directly
no
ENGINE.
the
with
cycle,
not
in
cycle"
three-
steam
and
CORRESPONDING
articles
steam
Car
the
Superheated
STEAM
THE
working
perfect
the
for
THE
foregoing
engines
to
of
WORK
AND
CYCLE
the
is
cylinder
interior
the
Engines
OF
In
high
steam-jacketing,
INDICATED
THE
56.
of
use
and
two-
steam.
b)
"
of
the
to
high-pressure
with
communication
due
441
STEAM.
construction
generous
the
of
interior
the
is
engines
cylinder
SUPERHEATED
FOR
ENGINES
is first
temperature
the
steam
critical
pressure
verted
con-
in
brought,
diminishmg
at
fore
there-
must
water
be
place
the
pressure,
of
350"
C.
temperature
p^
entirely inadmissible
200.5
boiler
442
If
in the
steam,
then,
not
obtain
same
the
of
engines
excellence,
kind
same
could
we
could
not
the
not
of
capable
for
measure
is necessary
certainly
problem
the
be
two
perfection
solution,
of
with
of
engine
to
saturated
for
C
types
compared
an
compare
with
engine working
cycle
wish
we
cycle;
should
we
engines;
their
to
respect
with
type
one
only
that
another.
question
The
in
The
the
importance;
in
that
of
production
Li
Let
the
let
the
heat
the
be
in
quantity
and
the
to
selves
our-
of
for
the
bined.
com-
kind
any
reduced
[ft-lb.] and
to
the
produce
to
of
one
and
consumed,
steam
necessary
as
superheater
work
of
pound]
due
required
boiler
steam
mkg.
technical
great
accustomed
quantity
the
ticularly
par-
consumption
indicated
measured
[one
kilogram
in
of
have
steam
heat
steam
represent
engine,
steam
the
forth
ical
mechan-
among
one
we
called
quite recently,
is, however,
engines
two
the
evidently
involved
taking
to
of
instead
basis,
is
question
difficulty
greatly
too
and
time,
discussions
lively
to
of
course
propositions,
led
comparing
in the
has,
and
has
England,
engineers.
fact
here
raised
investigations
different
the
supposing
the
what
it is
engine;
engine
steam
in the
as
settle
first
former
the
superheated
manner
same
must
we
but
of
the
judgmg
proceed
in
THERMODYNAlilCS.
TECHNICAL
then
steam,
ratio
the
Li'.Q
at
furnishes
once
the
engine considered;
384)
the
as
calculated
tabulated
If
in
unobjectionable
an
we
place
the
in Col,
express
perfect
has
equivalent
engine-power
for
value
already
of
the
working
engme
for
measure
been
heat
with
the
excellence
designated
it
;
was
saturated
See
steam
maschinen."
by
and
5, p. 387.
the
indicated
designate
of L", and
article
(p.
especially
in
work
the
ratio
units
by
i^t,
we
of
heat,
write
the
author,
ZiviliDgenieur,
"Zur
1896,
Vol.
Theorie
42,
p.
ALi
get
^-f'
*
of
02)
und
665.
Beurtheilung
der
Dampf-
444
TECHNICAL
Example
p,
with
indicated
The
and
the
in
horse-powers
the
before,
as
of
temperature
feed
the
accordingly
[77.9**],and
50201
Qand
equation
from
then,
mkg.
[164320
(72), the
and
indicated
the
work,
unit
per
superheated
of
in
developed
state
the
with
the
DfîNit
It
[lb.] of
hourly
(736),
equation
B.t.u.],
efficiency
[" 138.03].
1 shows
the
advantage
work
with
of
employing
steam
with
Li be
steam
steam
indicated
the
still the
(Dy^)
in
kg. [lb.] which
and
it is
and
it is
question
for
one
of
work
expressed
consumption,
LiD^
in
then
per
this
of
custom
as
hour
ratio
power."
horse-
per
statement
be
must
comparing
superheated
to
is consumed
stated
**
that
employed
general
usually
out
engine
an
steam;
will
we
briefly.
question
the
upon
been
is
pointed
where
touch
it
engines
steam
our
rarely
consumption
steam
caution
of
hitherto
has
Ni]
been
often
excellence
the
weight
steam
indicated
the
saturated
Let
"^"25.5^
was
heat,
experiments;
indicated
has
therefore
foregoing
up
hourly
S'S
accepted
of
of
judging
the
working
when
experiment
0.1786,
Example
of
results
steam
ft-lb.].
this
[1193.4
lb.].
is
steam.
method
The
for
the
with
from
75.718
~=
Comparison
during
thermal
ij"-
""
F.].
[1028.12],
1042.4
kg. [12360.0
5606.4
kg. [lb.] of
per
Cal.
663.0
iVi=
pressure
[447.8"
"-231"
be
to
is Da
work
calculate,
we
found
boiler
same
temperature
was
water
the
at
hour
per
indicated
L"
The
of
steam
consumed
weight
worked
engine
superheated
work
steam
Here,
This
2.
kg.
7.2
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
mkg.
we
get
engine
reduced
[ft-lb.],and
at
to
let
D/^
be
kg.
the
once
LiD,
fxr
._
Ni=,
3600x75
3600x75
rZ)"
rZ)"
3600x550j
or
Dfc
3600x550
3600X5501
._^
Ni
Li
But
this
Nr
iNr
AL
3600x550.1
FDh
[Dh
with
hence,
written
3600x75il
Dh
and
be
also
can
445
STEAM.
SUPERHEATED
FOR
ENGINES
ALj
(72),
equation
2)^3600x75.1
rDA_ 3600x550^1
or
636.79
Vi="7rrr
We
of
place
the
kg. [lb.]of
an
standard
then,
follows
equal
For
as
of
with
engine working
steam,
the
For
thermal
Ni
of
does
not
also
take
vapor
repeatedly
T)t we
to
take
if
with
value
wish
we
to
proposed,
we
find, from
equation
can
one
D^-Ni
compare
using
one
into
generate
the
engine
but
comparison,
efficiency
must
we
is necessary
type
same
superheated
been
has
D^
ratio
that
but
which
quantity
steam.
as
serve
can
heat
the
"
efficiency factor,
an
the
account
that
equation
this
from
see
(76)
..""""".
saturated
proceed
as
(75),
o'(^)'-"(t).
where
distinguish
and
then
relating
symbols
the
we
them
from
get, with
\NJ
the
to
belonging
ones
equations
Q'\Ni/
superheated
(73a)
and
to
steam
are
the
saturated
primed
to
steam,
(736),
qi-qo+ri+Cpit-ti)\N,r
'
^'^^
446
TECHNICAL
(t^)
value
The
THERMODYNAMICS.
been
has
designated
reduced
the
as
weight.
steam
pies
there
443
p.
on
the
In
Example.
data
furnished
given
was
for
by
with
engine
an
the
for
exam^
saturated
steam
1)
(example
5944.1,
ATt"
[Z"A- 13104.5,
ATi-
Da-
1007.23,
993.431,
cal.
Q-
624.4
Q-
1123.92
B.t.uJ;
therefore
^-5.901
[-13.191].
superheated
with
engine
the
For
Z)*-
5606.4,
Aî-
1042.4,
Q'-
iVt-
1028.12,
Q'-
[Da -12360.0,
2)
(example
steam
663.0
1193.4];
therefore
^-5.378
[-12.05].
Art
Accordingly
which
is
thermal
The
of
utilization
is;
moreover,
the
cycle
the
to
does
not
actually
made
been
cycle
the
is the
actual
unler
(a)
cycle (so
boiler
as
one
steam
to
this
to
engine,"
free
pressure,
from
the
work
be
in that
ignored
loss) the
expansion
in
the
" 51,
the
case
is adiabatic
the
engine
steam
parison,
com-
with
and
the
there
assumed
have
''cycle
of
mentioned
that
under
extends
the
suitable
most
as
place
of
improvement.
the
losses
takes
really
suggestions
396,
p.
the
parts
compared
; it is therefore
admission
of
it
of
doubtless
cycle;
engine.
than
standard
Different
L,.
discussed
but
for
cycle being
standard
already
(/) should
the
capable
devising
a
in accord*
allows
and
recognize
to
are
as
serve
indicated
observed
which
to
first
unfavorable
one
given
of
work
the
enable
the
of
small
very
more
appear
will
that
always
rjt is
been
[13.191]
5.901
engine,
second
weight
steam
value
engine
therefore
cycle
working
the
heat
actual
an
has
reduced
with
the
for
comparison
correct
efficiency
it
of
Thought
compared
be
to
in
(76), the
equation
with
ance
find
we
in the
constant
to
the
con-
denser
back
constant
steam
is
water
at
cycle
to
series
different
been
taken
the
different
the
the
form
basis
Fig. 38,
cycle
the
as
of
good
of
time,
working
with
"
as
's
efficiency for
been
steam
on
conducted
valid.
If
by
the
dry
assume
we
work
then
(for G
l) the
steam,
normal
the
of
saturated
indicated, equation
assumptions
the
at
that
so
cycle
quoted
(36),
for
equation
steam,
and
Xi=l,
the
the
if
contrary,
are
and
steam
propositions
we
with
deaUng
if T
is at
398,
p.
unit
of
weight
of
gives
(76a)
.
engine using
an
once
designate
ALn^qi-q2-T2(ri-T2)+Y[(Ti'T2).
On
p. 398.
1 1 i
experiments
have
with
normal
of
the
therefore
process
corresponding
but
course
engine
steam
steam,
in
The
the
places.
For
Ln
also
of
^2.
of
is effected
boiler
the
against
occurs
condensation
the
designated
calculated
very
which,
engines
under
of
diagram
I have
has
he
and
discussion,^
whole
cycle
this
^;
of
limit
tempierature
purposes
cylinder
condenser,
feeding
the
indicator
an
present
"
and
lower
the
the
447
STEAM.
the
from
of
pressure
complete,
corresponds
For
exhaust
the
pressure,
SUPERHEATED
FOR
ENGINES
is its temperatxire,
then
heated
super-
by preceding
have
we
log,|^,
(766)
ALn'qi-q2'T2(T,-T2)^Y^(Ti''T2)^Cp{T'TiyCpT2
where
of
it is assumed
course
is saturated
expansion
that
and
wet,
there
has
other, then,
with
the
steam
that
case
the
at
will
end
always
of
exist
the
in
practice.
If, in this
case
one
the
or
in
observed
manner,
designated
engine,
the
as
the
get
we
indicated
been
the
the
calculated
help
of
the
efficiency
the
value
indicated
1^,,
which
L"
work
Li
may
be
efficiency
""-r:'
"
^
Zivilingenieur,
M
Vereins
1 1 i
''
r,
deutscher
1896,
Vol.
42,
p.
1898,
(77)
665.
tJber die Beurtheilung
Ingenieuie,
for
Vol.
der
Dampfmaschinen."
42, p.
685.
Zeitschrift
des
448
TECHNICAL
It would
be
and
""52
but
53;
quantity
work
the
in
Ln
of
to
this
for
pursued
effect,
of
in
use,
the
(766), for
are
not
simple,
they
can
easily
with
works
place
calculations
for
be
they
in
which
of
the
of
the
presuppose
by
other
steam,
then
replaced
is
work
follows
therefore
of
the
back-pressure
work
equation
p.
the
piVi,
that
saturated
dry
expansion, according
of
because
or,
but
that
to
losses
have
work
of Ln-
and
cycle,
tables;
engine
admission
It
value
(76a)
normal
steam
the
work
should
we
preceding
the
the
of
formulas.
simpler
If
(^,
formulas
two
use
the
the
Lm,
The
by
similar
manner
determining
in
losses
several
the
the
in
cycle
characterized
are
calculate
to
easy
normal
assumed
THERMODYNAMICS.
to
engine
the
(77),
and
P2V2,
the
84, is
is
work
relation
P2V=PlVl',
^-=;;^pi''{i-(^:)'^](78a)
....
(with
/"
On
1.135), in place of equation
the
other
the
steam,
(14),
work
of
of
work
279,
p.
equation
and
vq
The
determined
with
combined
value,
work
superheated
P2V2,
by
the
then
tion
equa-
admission
gives, instead
(766),
(piVi
take
must
we
referring
with
curve
be
must
back-pressure
Ln=-"\
Here
this
with
works
engine
expansion
and
the
and
piVi
if the
hand,
(76a).
the
values
(11) and
the
to
limit
po,
"
(12a)
to
of
-f
-3t(poVo-*P2V2).
and
1.333
point
//
and
poVo
(12c),
p.
are
Tq
the
determined
easily
moreover
P2V2=PoVo\"J
of
(786)
"
"
symbols
po
expansion
279).
p.
278, and
the
1.135,
intersection
(see Fig. 27,
curve
I'o,
povo)
^
,
from
we
find
tions
equa-
THEORY
ADDENDUM.
which
with
ratio
expansion
of
state
the
would
data
existing
the
Ply
the
in
L,
the
of
the
o,
D^
temperature
pressure
the
ture
tempera-
of
the
and
p2
condenser,
the
hour,
boiler
pressure
an
on
per
normal
the
ing
follow-
the
observations
by
the
the
the
expansion.
ti, the
in
^0, and
water
V2=X2U2
consumption
temperature
^2
find
can
preceding expressions
steam
temperature
feed
the
horse-powers,
corresponding
corresponding
from
established
be
to
engine:
work
of
end
of all the
us3
have
steam
indicated
the
at
X2
make
to
consequently
and
V2
finally obtaining
Vi:v2,
steam
order
In
determine
can
we
449
ENGINES.
STEAM
FIRELESS
OF
the
heated
super-
steam.
"
THEORY
ADDENDUM-
57.
STEAM
FIRELESS
OF
ENGINES.
Let
placed
plant,
be
under
high
the
in
will
exist
the
lower
boiler
under
heat
the
in
in
and
the
the
for steam
water, whose
the
same
with
will
The
water
the
by
efflux,
the
by
the
pressure
chamber.
is furnished
let
and
boiler
the
caused
pressure
diminishes
temperature
then
finally
formation
steam
towards
and
space
receiving
diminishing
necessary
steam
till
and
water
temperature,
prevails,
pressure
partially emptied,
the
with
filled
corresponding
at
orifice
an
be
heating
without
boiler
steam
and
wagon
and
and
in
evaporates
and
from
which
gradually
be
on
example
pressure
flow
steam
place
for
vessel,
heated
super-
sinking
steam
pressure.
If
the
boiler
is
large quantity
of
for
used
quite
same
wagon,
boiler
is
When
the
the
lower
behind,
water
of
at
the
ship,
certain
boiler
initial
weight
must
be
of
in order
temperature
and
water
newly
boiler
filled
to
steam
with
make
if
the
engine.
have
reached
will
highly
it
the
on
or,
"
be
can
situated
locomotive,
in the
temperature
steam
fireless marine
sufficiently
generated
fireless
obtain
we
with
engine
steam
get
and
pressure
the
run
thus
we
to
is filled
and
start, the
the
at
period
upon
limit,
and
water
and
placed
large enough
remain
heated
again capable
driving.
This
filling
takes
place
at
particular
supply
stations
pro-
450
TECHNICAL
with
vided
stationary
ordinary
by
heated
flow
to
Now
through
avoid
losses
boiler
to
is
utilize
the
first
"}
later
running
L6on
e
of
sort
the
the
in
out
by
while
with
dicated
in-
but
carried
built
promoted,
the
manner
the
tically
prac-
In
Europe
the
French
(1872).
(1875),
is
pressure
(1823),
were
low-
begin.
can
and
Paris
Diisseldorf
of
stationary
the
in
boiler
locomotives
in
Franc
trip
to
as
consumed
water
new
so
by
finally
Lamm
the
the
from
Perkins
by
street
of
led
fireless
Dr.
by
machines
perfect
engineer
of
thought
advantageously,
the
a
highly
is allowed
water
until
and
and
a
the
it is condensed
there,
from
and
hot
is
boilers,
is produced,
there
steam
more
or,
boiler, where
steam
up
the
steam
both
first
for
pipe,
again replaced
the
taken
was
the
in
trip
was
idea
filling,either
remaining
same
which
in
high-pressure
the
heat,
water
preceding
To
in
locomotive
temperature
the
the
connecting
of
the
boilers
steam
heating,
water.
^most
THERMODYNAMICS.
in
Germany
technical
great
the
knowledge,
Fig.
gives
47
flows
eteam
of
building
the
engines.
of
sketch
of
out
such
a
boiler
fireless
locomotive
the
through
from
the
and
the
led
is
cooling
and
thought,
to
at
place
the
is very
sq.
the
in
[227
to
boiler
242
run,
so
lb. per
6
diminishes
part of the
increased
the
of
about
to
as
pipe
cc
The
steam
and
to
avoid
order
perhaps,
evaporate
it
some
when
is necessary,
b which
the
steam
considerable, generally amounting
steam
the
valve
reducing
beginning
cm.
at
is
trained
en-
47.
the
at
there
valve
the
in
space
greatly enlarged,
cc,
water.
takes
from
cylinder.
through
water
pipe
steam
steam
pipe
steam
and
the
through
to
Fia.
reducing
The
efilux
steam
dome
through
boiler.
to
to
the
piston
keep
sq.
steam
in the
work
from
this
100
to
throttling
stroke
the
in.], and
kg. [85
particularly
in
pressure
to
is
steam
of
16
the
17
to
throttlmg
lb.].
As
diminished,
cylinders
the
throttling
the
and
is
boiler
kg.
per
reduces
pressure
the
mission
ad-
gradually
engine nearly
con-
452
TECHNICAL
and
this,
from
the
efflux,
when
the
have
we
THERMODYNAMICS.
diminishes
weight
for
the
dG,
by
increment
corresponding
of
account
on
of
the
heat
content
dJ^-'diGq)
if
Now
pipe,
steam
regard
and
pressure,
heat
the
carried
by
quantity
the
the
unit
of
Apux;
discharging
heat
weight
interval
steam
consequently
the
the
unit
of
time
of
under
of
we
the
constant
takes
up
heat
the
quantity
is
dO
mass
of
content
taking place
as
toward
flowing
steam
infinitesimal
an
formation
therefore
additional
of!
Within
steam
of the
for
{q+xp)
steam.
the
quality
steam
have
we
this
of
weight
can
is the
(79)
{q-^xp+Apux)dG,
or
{q+xr)dG.
is identical
value
This
in
contents
the
with
from
boiler;
the
equation
diminution
"dJ
(79)
therefore
we
the
of
heat
get
d{Gq)^{q-^xr)dG,
or
If
permissible,
the
For
the
that
pipe
steam
because
proceed
now
we
and
from
facilitating
the
xf
(80)
this
then
of
calculations
the
steam
equation
functions
as
is here
which
assumption
quality
steam
known
dq
the
is constant,
are
dG
flowing
be
can
make
It will
the
more
=862.58
[1552.64]
shown
immediately
be
exact
formulas
within
and
of t.
use
the
empirical
formula
(81)
^9=1.420
how
the
toward
integrated,
qâ-pr,
and
always
well
limits
[1.420].
this
formula
existing
here.
agrees
with
ADDENDUM.
From
THEORY
OF
STEAM
follows
there
(81)
equation
FIRELESS
453
ENGINES.
and
dq=""fidr,
from
then,
(80), by integration,
equation
'"s|=ôgr'
the
(?i represents
where
boiler.
is the
If G2
initial
weight
weight
the
at
of
G2
and
water
of the
end
"82)
then
run,
in
steam
we
have
ri
,
^"^Grx'^^v,
But
r2
and
and
G2
the
by
logarithms
always
little
differ
we
ri;
values
^^)
slightly
differ
from
initial
of
from
Gi
therefore
can
their
and,
likewise,
series, and
get
at
end
the
also
we
(82a)
..
'
Gi
have
13 (ra-n)
G1-G2
[poa)
the
Between
we
and
pressure
with
substitute
can
Let
for
us,
sufficient
sake
[1543.25] by 6,
S39.64
the
steam
and
water
weight
weight
diminishes
of the
steam,
and
which
from
then
occurring
here
accuracy
[839.64-^]
(i-32)
-0.726
the
limits
temperature
r=609.58-0.726i=0.726
[r =1097.24
the
represent
"hf^JJl^,
and
the
of
simplicity,
that
remember
is
=0.726
generated
G\
to
G.
according
Gr~b^
(84)
(1543.25-0]-
{Gi
G)x
"
while
the
Finally,
to
this
represent
equation
only
represents
weight
let
constant
of
steam
represent
(82a),
we
the
have
^^^^
454
TECHNICAL
and
here
for
the
the
lowest
end
which
of
the
run
the
substitute
may
the
formulas
tabulation
(81) and
shows
to
weight
steam
boiler.
(84)
sufficientlyexact,
are
kg.
p-2
pressure
(81);
corresponding
total
the
equation
to
t=t2,
calculate
to
single fillingof
empirical
following
Boiler
we
to
according
/}" 1.420
in order
pressure,
corresponds
That
the
substitute
must
we
THERMODYNAMICS.
kg.
kg.
10
kg.
15
(absolute).
"-110.570
Acoordine
Table
to
of
12
9-120.369
Appendix
According
r-522.600
equation
to
(81 )..
.
'*
In
below
kg.
per
to
p,
table
12
r^p
because
Hence,
there
200.324
500.
(r2
479.817
466.335
48
181
499.96
terminal
the
lb.
per
24
[835.31],
464.06
r^-
follows,
from
equation
rarely
sink
in.].
sq.
single
the
run,
steam
sure
pres-
ing
Here, accord-
[247.23], and
119.57
[940.68].
522.60
r,-
466.38
will
[392.58], t,-
^ =200.32
38
.
479.71
pressures
boiler, during
Appendix,
200
kg. [227.57 lb.] to p,-=2 kg. [28.45 lb.].
of the
Apu,
197.244
181.243
152
49
r-522.77
fireless
16
178.886
152.480
[28.45
cm.
In
120
-"
boilers
sq.
Example.
falls from
(84)...
fireless
these
150.991
the
(83),
0.0732653
G2
,
and
this
from
for
follows
(?2
and
i)
and,
from
the
Gi,
0.8447
total
the
get, for
we
0.1553
D
and
therefore,
practical
and
end.
The
the
water
The
boiler
at
G"
0.8231
G"
0"
0.1521
get
we
0.1592
the
the
We
the
at
would
therefore
to
see,
take
can
end
not
of
have
place with
take
that
moreover,
is
the
to
be
hot
almost
water;
place directly.
weight
from
is still
run
(826)
the
different
very
ft.
0.8018
formula
approximate
beginning
boiler
boiler
G"
0.8408
purposes
fillingwere
stationary
"
values.
exact
G"
respectively,
G,
For
(?"
0.1538
(826),
=
0.8099
generated,
G|,
formula
approximate
0.8
G"
0.8291
weight
steam
{G" -G^)^-
0.9
x"
the
largely
furnishes
G|
the
weight
filled
entirely emptied
but
of
fillingwith
ciently
suffi-
G,
with
of
steam
steam
at
the
water.
water
from
if
a
ADDENDUM.
THEORY
the
dependent
the
in
drop
same
that
initial
for
the
pressure,
the
on
of
Drop
kg.
15
Now,
0.00713
*'
''
'*
0.01433
'*
*'
''
0.02609
'*
"
filled
other
fireless
question,
boiler, it
sufficient
with
the
of
be
may
in the
accuracy
work
of
amount
answered
for
following
manner:
non-condensing
high-pressure
ordinary
kg.
0.01024
''
pressure
j^.
"
11
for
mainly
shows
survey
and
purposes
following
and
is
steam
''
'*
diminishing
kg.
14
regards the
in
available
the
Gi,
generated
0.00839
"
as
with
fill
''
"
weight
steam
as
initial
same
45"
ENGINES.
pressure.
to
*'
12
the
pressure;
quantity increases,
steam
In
shows
(826)
Equation
STEAM
FIRELESS
OF
practical
engines
steam
we.
estimate
^*
=
D^
where
in
higher
the
to
Let
values,
^
we
we
the
of
weight
in
10800
to
mkg.
16875
[35434
value
the
the
is the
hourly
ing
correspond-
greater
expansion.
which
work
the-
from
the
can
be
ing
preced-
to
55237
ft-lb.].
(85)
.
both
of
members
we
pressure
can
calculate
limits
the
for
work
equation (826) by
we
fireless boiler
which
get
^^^'
D^''
(6-0
known
to
Ne
determine
multiply
which
smaller
[ft-lb.],
then,
mkg.
^~
from
the
and
ratio
preceding
and
lb.],
consumption
and
steam
35.76
to
steam
of admission
by it, expressed
produced
hourly
horse-power,
per
pressure
the
be
kg. [55.88
horse-powers;
consumption
steam
16
to
the
represents
work
effective
25
with
is available.
given
fill and
456
TECHNICAL
example
For
1719(?i
other
the
On
the
help
Gi,
8812
to
for
hand,
of
on
pressure
the
values
the
average
the
average
of
drop
of
drop
to2686Gi,on
[L=5640(?i
get, for
we
kg. [28.5 lb.],with
to
THERMODYNAMICS.
from
in
kg. [228 lb.]
16
equation (85)
L=2200Gi
L
pressure
mkg.
7218(?i
ft-Ib.].
from
16
1600
G, mkg.
5249
Gx f t-lb.].
kg. [228 lb.] to
kg. [57 lb.]:

L
Gi
1266
Gx
1978
to
on
the
average
on
the average
[L
i
Gx
4154
G,
6490
to
estimates
Gx
2000
and
[6562 Gx]
the
for
z
,
of
sake
and
safety
it would
the
to
it, the
from
will
the
If at
we
Go
weight
till the
briefly
the
run
The
1883.
to
in other
with
the
temperature
in
The
heat
k, ''Die
boiler
according
mkg.
for
computed,
force
traversed
the
up
steam
technical
heat
by
motive
loco-
calculated
the
engine
of
question
heat
treatises.
quality
quantity
is
newly
boiler
equal
is
to
J of saturated
xo,
inrer
this
B
the
transfer
has
again
contained
Jo
in
stationary
prevails,
po
boiler
in
because
the
from
fireless
the
inexact,
in the
steam
content
pressure
steam
investigations
are
of the
weight
the
Locomotiv
feuerloae
theoretical
the
take
transferred
which
in
possessing
recommended,
be
heat
out
G2(g2+X"2).
is
there
that
value.
initial
fireless
3,000,000
tractive
be
can
corresponding
the
boiler)
feed
(the
be
the
and
of
work
easily
which
J2
Suppose
in
water
kg. [4409 lb.],then
can
load
may
the
of
end
a/') then
"
give
steam
boiler.
the
charging
the
cause
be-
[4921 Gx]
charge.
boiler
conclusion
In
this
distance
whole
and
steam
available
be
prescribed
single
have
to
is Gx =2000
run
ft-lb.]; from
with
of
weight
a
there
{21,700,000
G2(l
of
beginning
e
with
the
that
Suppose
at
embarrassing
very
G\
1500
trip.
the
during
be
takes
properly,
very
iheorie
und
treatise,
i
steam;
in
this
steam
continuing
risen
this
still
in
other
the
to
is
steam
Anwendung."
which
throughout
but
the
boiler
Wien,
respects
confuses
frequently
the
is
total
happens
the
at
the
during
GoPoUqXo
end
the
since
and
Go(qo+xopo),
therefore
transfer,
the
heat
other
the
457
ENGINES.
steam
takes
contents
of
the
up
the
total
work
weight
to
amount
'^x''p2) +(?o(9o +0:0^0).
Ji +t/o +AGopoXoiio=G2(q2
On
STEAM
FIRELESS
OF
THEORY
ADDENDUM.
heat
these
hand,
also
contents
to
amount
(G2+Go)(3i+x'/Oi).
equating
by
Therefore
get
we
=Go(qo-qi
G2{q\ -q2^x'pi-x''p2)
the
But
with
the
x'' =0
and
comparison
x'
and
boiler
dry
as
of
water
gives,
value
G2+G0
has
temperature
Gi
make
can
from
the
assumed.
feed
The
the
in
last
heat
total
relation
=Gô(ô-gi),
-""(s)
62+Gô
with
we
represents
qo-\-ro
the
steam,
be
may
neglected
that
so
coming
steam
be
can
follows
which
The
Xo
because
boiler
present,
the
that
so
62(31-92)
from
fireless
assume
may
transferred
the
"lo of
the
weight
saturated,
therefore
equation
in
weight
steam
-^Xoro-x'pi).
when
represents
again
been
initial
the
the
(^
boiler
reached,
this
and
condition
when
charge
has
ought
again
the
be
to
been
initial
identical
completely
restored.
We
find, however,
from
the
above
given
relation
(G,
"
(?2)x:
"
G2
^^"
Gr^-^.
From
the
derived.
If
last
the
two
equations
former
value
the
is
the
ratio
G^2+Go
greater
then
to
Gi
after
can
be
few
458
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
charges
Let
Example.
[227.57
lb.]
[256.01
lb. per
Here
water
(87)
equation
from
help
the
be
mn
feed
the
from
be
boiler
16
kg.
18
kg.
0.90,
(see
example,
^*-0.841,
working
the
of
x-1,
Table
of
12
(?,.
1.178
quality
the
(88)
equation
from
get
we
when
hand,
other
the
in
pressure
with
G,+GoOn
the
during
pressure
discharged
added.
be
must
be
must
in.].
sq.
get
we
of
kg, [28.45 lb.]; let the
to
supply
new
water
some
drop
the
the
ot
boiler, otherwise
the
from
of the
part
is
steam
0.80,
454)
p.
0.823,
0.802
0.970,
0.945.
and
^2^-0.991,
final
the
If
somewhat
the
be
that
of
the
into
cylinder
air.
open
given
quantities;
of
series
be
the
they
fillings may
restored
by blowing
calculation,
inasmuch
0, because
from
contains
water
here
it may
well
number
greater
the
flows
steam
Honigmann
Now
of
completion
interesting
highly
of
the
from
the
proposed
and
process
also
realized
practically.
surrounds
Honigmann
filled
boiler
the
which
with
soda
steam
is
the
steam
is
and
the
heat
boiler.
diluted
to
no
such
available
certain
degree
the
and
by
the
by
boiler
the
evaporation
in
new
is
brought
special vessels.
has
the
new
back
heat,
in
lye
of
Here
of
steam
soda
filled with
lye
into
cylinder.
absorption
is then
second
development
till the
further
dilutefd
with
concentration
steam
produce
to
continues
that
of
degree
from
utilized
process
lye
condition
boiler
steam
accompanied
is
longer possible;
concentrated
the
discharged
released
The
of
lye
condensed,
driving
of
affects
discussed
engine
fireless
the
In
is
the
charging
the
in.],then
sq.
calculation, although
again
must
different
very
last
whole
per
bubbles.
steam
it
really be
can
end
the
at
xf
of
value
as
level
special uncertainty
in.
boiler
fireless
the
of
results
original water
the
pumping
or
with
that
place before
take
the
from
place of the
the
take
lb.
kg. [28.45
than
greater
must
conclude
can
we
approximate,
are
off
values
greater
anyway
is
pressure
the
been
steam
charge
into
an
460
TECHNICAL
There
by
two
are
then
liquid condition,
the
or
this
liquid (water);
(boiler) which
off
the
led
is then
in
to
fully
more
they
the
are
of
are
and
then
be
this
the
rator
evapo-
system
and
shall
treat
we
and
engines ";
accessible
to
the
just
ammonia;
off
the
and
at
accompanied
way,
by
this
or
be
can
other
some
liquid, is
which
best
the
is exclusively
released
liquid
of
when
vapor
water
know
from
the
the
The
the
exit
partial evaporation
circumstance
must
be
latter
of
of
under
perature,
tem-
the
at
case
the
the
be
vapor
of
vapor
quantity
liquid
not
must
and
absorbs
heat
do
we
which
absorbs
to
been
not
Thus
and
sorption
ab-
practically
have
pressure
pressure.
because
be
which
the
according
cannot
experiment.
is
when
we
equations
equations
which
in
occurrences
general
up
by
higher
complicated
the
enough
example
the
vapors
water
vapor
quantities
absorbed
absorption
higher temperature.
at
contain
little do
as
by
such
absorbing
an
of
name
only
again
following
the
mass
for
itself; any
in
conditions
different
the
the
machine.
quantity
from
with
it is ammonia
but
they
heat
the
withdrawn
^s
former
used
absorbed
as
setting
accurately
determined
more
laws;
because
under
off
and
and
thermodynamic
still
steam
the
to
"cold-vapor
name
machines
water
difficulty
no
machine
drive
driven
purpose,
in
is
There
to
the
widely
known
largely
with
vapor,
used
know
of
the
in these
course
and
can
to
utilized
driving
this
compression
different, however,
mostly
easily
Ammonia
suited
and
vessel
of
purpose
liquid,
the
most
are
are
are
ice-machines;
liquid
which
ones
which
as
under
following
circumstances
machines
used
the
by
to
pump
"
investigation.
theoretical
The
it is removed
machines
The
system.
the
in
which
between
distinguish
absorption
the
for
evaporator,
it is absorbed
by
absorbing
from
the
to
the
to
condition.
therefore
We
heat
the
by
by cooling
where
space,
with
condenser
liquid
in
returned
off
is drawn
steam
condensed
is transferred
liquid
taken
steam
second
supplied
is
is
either
and
it
whereupon
to
this
doing
compressed
is led
steam
of
means
and
pump
THERMODYNAMICS.
necessary
higher
perature
tem-
is rendered
absorbed
steam
absorption liquid
considered
in C
'
REFRIGERATING
and
the
presentation
more
because
The
vapors
this
purpose
The
in
differ
in
known
is
contains
engines
for
the
has
been
the
time.
and
which,
vapor
low
at
peratures.
tem-
practically
ether, sulphurous
of
ployed
em-
acid,
besides,
suggested,
bisulphide
methyl,
M
von
Fischer:
must
because
of
6
be
not
confused
S i
(1862)
of
the
at
it is in
no
rison,
Har-
machines
two
which
became
his
with
absorption
patented
he
improvements
machine,
but
although
The
decided
are
ether
engine,
inventor,
1856.
'
with
American,
an
the
until
worked
cold-vapor
being
spoken
time
present
ether
an
under
way
distinguishable
very
slow
his
from
predecessors
mentioned
the
to
i d
K"lte
g
und
r:
to
"Die
Eis."
from
two
we
1837
Fortschritte
Vols.
refer
excellent
217
"'t}ber die Herstellung
being
duced
intro-
costly- vapor
If,
temperatures.
(Vol.
cold-air
will
in
the
low
at
of all the
therefore
used
they
pressure
Journal/'
especially
n
that
fact
illustration
and
were
slight
very
constructed;
constructed
There
C
in
"Polytechnic
or
Dr.
lung
F.
machine
particulars, and
Prof.
all
engine
even
been
have
known,
principle
description
proposed
fuller
of
patented
his
due
'
with
machines
ot ether, which
"
far
chloride
credited
which
in
mainly
afterward
of his
the
That
here
and
this
cold-vapor
pressure
thus
there
were
little
it is often
and
machine
k i
shown
although
name,
real
vapors
construction.
Shortly
machine,
the
ether,
on
1860, but
machine.
the
patent
construction
in
it at
displaced
high
will
we
be
to
system,
closely, employs
acid;
been
little in
but
equations
refrigerating machine,
is the
have
which
usually
get
not
the
absorption
completely
are
machines
have
is
did
of
more
methylic
1835
to
seems
perature
tem-
others.
first
vapor;
type
which
carbonic
of
and
carbon,
it
The
vapors
high
calculations,
th6
exhibits
state,
and
under
off
because
of
which
examine
ammonia,
the
almost
will
for
461
GENERAL.
driven
numerical
other
type,
now
and
theory
the
saturated
is
steam
for
compressor
we
the
of
type, has
compressor
in
utilized
be
IN
pressure.
which
it the
circumstances
cannot
up
omit
high
such
Under
set
in
because
machine,
MACHINES
64)
engines
the
reader
on^
and
to
probably
cold-vapor
this
jounial
articles:
in der
and
vonEis."
kunstlichen
218.
Vol.224.
Entwick^
462
TECHNICAL
is
as
machine
the
the
actually
varies
between
atmospheres;
their
heating
of
parts
of
his
experiment
known
acid
glance
in
Table
at
temperature
is due
machine
to
suggestion,
The
Pictet
into
it
engines;
the
great
with
which
Appendix
aD
27.
1881,
work
This
by
p.
preceded
"(jber
was
Linde,
205,
des
321.
Vereins
year,
des
in
when
acid
in
then
the
to
only
engines.
perfecting
i
of
reduce
down
evaporator
lowering
we
hot-vapor
ing
work-
one
acid.
great
bonic
car-
went
and
(Uke
the
to
over
tending
ex-
use
constructively, also, brought
this
perfection.
are
with
accordance
has
been
again
machines
the
author:
"Zur
be
the
most
ones
Windhausen's
employed.
with
discussed
Theorie
der
VerhalteD
time
working
easily
can
this
at
der
the
the
by
abovelaws
of
Kaltdampfmaschinen/'
Ammoniakd"mpfe."
Zivilingenieur,
449.
mechanische
pp.
but
ammonia
with
the
utilized
carbonic
what
Originally
and
(jber das
ether,
of
with
shows
Prof.
he
he
later, in
engines,
two
other
carbonic
engine.
vapors,
"
the
in
in
article
united
when
moreover,
of gases,
is customary
acid
carbonic
machines;
the
recently,
simple
the
See
55th
air
of
cause
Raoul
in from
high degree
occurrences
mentioned
Extrait
0.57
cold-vapor
cylinder
he
by
methylic
working
used
widely
lungen
and
air, however,
compression
Appendix
vapor
Machines
1878,
of
main
the
then
0.9
access
the
+68"],
atmospheric
all
with
these
and
to
cold-vapor
ammonia
durch
and
between
The
by
way
drawn
that
suggested
Carl
be
within
vapor
[-4"
condensation
effected
vapor
credit
the
Vol.
the
clever
of the
pressure
Great
With
external
probably
for
acid
be
can
boiler
the
of
the
on
very
10
of the
pressure
and
acid
sulphurous
with
of
will
made
was
progress
sulphurous
ether
injurious
is
employed
+20"
unavoidable.
and
effect
certain
Marked
1 i
the
and
the
contend.
must
the
of
degree
highest
reduces
we
-20"
is therefore
the
of
temperature
penetration
machine
is in
the
case,
variations
pressure
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
differently
very
Bayerisches
and
der
''Theorie
Bef6rderung
zur
p.
des
185;
mines.
also
des
Le
Dunod,
treated
bei
Wftrmeentziehung
Mittel."
363,
1876,
Annales
only by
die
Industrie-
und
articles
niedrigen
presented
Temperaturen
Geweibeblatt,
K"lteerzeugungsmaschinen/'
Gewerbefleisses,
54th
"Th^rie
des
x,
editor, Paris, 1878.
by
year,
machines
2d
year,
Verhand-
1875,
k
p.
357,
froid."
THE
OP
CYCLE
Thermodynamics,
the
as
the
of
establishing
the
cold-vapor
5 59.
CYCLE
the
on
carbonic
and
COLD-VAPOR
will
following
above
presented
ammonia,
PERFECT
acid
the
behavior
had
basis
necessary
THE
OF
basis
for
(Fig.
in
used
this
the
purpose
and
calculating
ing
judg-
let
has
(Vol.
when
Let
been
I,
sentation
repre-
in
and
represent
ing
treat-
also
has
theoretically
the
here
figure
Bchematic
employed
377)
p.
considering
the
the
take
us
already
engine
volume
PERFECT
ENGINE.
following
hot-air
engine.
hot-vapor
for
main
THEORETICALLY
which
48)
closed,
the
their
for
engines.
COLD-VAPOR
As
acid, ether,
sulphurous
of
tigations
inves-
the
fully show;
more
vapors
463
ENGINE.
been
perfect
cold-vapor
engine.
the
in
that
so
heat
the
to
let
liquid
the
liquid
the
filled
and
easily
example,
For
AA
body
mediating
by
that
boiler
tubular
The
which
us
suppose
the
evaporator;
of
order
it is
of
is
is
cooled,
this
filled
of
pressure
[ +5"]
will
with
2.3
obtain
because
latter
rounded
sur-
Uquid.
another
15"
that
i.e., with
steam,
evaporator;
evaporator
form,
envelope
in
the
the
and
liquid
is filled with
vapor
temperature
in
called
is
B,
and
with
pheres,
atmos-
there,
it
liquid
monia
am-
gives
may
and
off
not
464
TECHNICAL
it is in
freeze
In
calcium.
in
led
it is
produce
cooled
to
which
the
and
is
order
facilitate
to
The
B.
The
space
by
the
heat
to
the
evaporator,
which
imits
the
other
it is
the
is
and
which
the
in
name
in
motion
estimated
heating
the
by
be
where
one,
usually
by
hour
per
withdrawn
words,
B,
artificiallyset
machine
off
given
continuous
is
to
are
space
heating fluid, by
brine,
of
are
in
is
brine
cold
the
this
containing
Uquids
to
of
in
ceUs
the
or
back
led
the
of
performance
in
air
process
cooUng
the
tin
cases
which
is then
brine
briefly designate
may
in
other
chloride
or
immersed
are
[ + 14^,
In
salt
table
there
"10"
spaces
off.
of
ice
frozen.
warm
cooled
again
solution
to
pipes through
cooled,
we
order
water
of
form
usually
solution,
fresh
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
fluid
latter
from
fluid.
the
in the
procedure
The
continuous
or
compressor-cylinder
or
less
the
liquid
boiler
by
in the
through
into
casing
pipe
the
first
portion
the
the
into
which
been
warmed
more
stroke
travel
and
tubular
is also
at
In
m,
the
power-
retiu-n
second
be
with
piston
flows
water
it has
is mixed
condenser,
cooling
in the
piston
during
of
likewise
must
which
portion
or
which
the
i4, and
remaining
after
engine
in vapor,
cooling apparatus
the
EE,
draws
the
the
stroke
evaporator
during
forced
is then
the
from
compressed
is
mass
of
forward
the
diuing
one;
interior
rounded
sur-
ing
dischargcondenser
the
is +20"
there
according
to
now
is
in
back
as
This
of
if
again
liquid;
dealing
are
the
Appendix,
in the
actual
with
if its
with
temperature
ammonia,
in
pressure
is vapor
then
taken
from
procedure, however,
as
we
will
evaporator
show;
is
much
as
the
a
rather
to
cycle begins
and
cold-vapor
the
back
in
then,
the
denser
con-
hy
liquid
evaporator
the
"
for
ing
lead-
condenser
pipe
leading
provided
is allowed
in
the
As
considerably
the
theoretically
the
tor,
evapora-
is needed
engines
A
the
anew.
general
special device
no
and
regulating valve,
liquid
the
is greater,
evaporator,
connected
there
and
vaporized
in
the
bringing
condenser
liquid back;
one,
we
the
of
question
the
than
simply
with
Table
it is
pressure
the
and
where
greater,
[+68"],
to
atmospheres.
is 8.5
It is
reduced
completely
is
vapor
to
same
flow
time.
fect
imperback
of
the
liquid
CYCLE
should
be
I call
in that
sucks
end
the
of
during
back
the
the
Let
added.
in
that
the
62C2 the
curve,
The
expansion
both
horizontal
the
boundaries
lines, because
which
the
we
is constant
temperature
is the
the
work
in
indicator
dealing
here
are
of
work
curves
of the
p^
compression
adiabatic
are
in
is the
two
biCi is the
curve
and
stroke
II
of the
are
aibiCidi
area
diagram
difference
curve;
diagrams
hatched
of
in
pressure
per
aJ)2C^2
area
and
is forced
evaporator
consumed
the
at
mass
steam
the
and
expansion,
whole
in
cylinder
is reached
indicator
horizontally
machine.
for
vapors
pressure
the
isothermal
are
the
feed-cylinder;
while
perfect cycle,
constant
theoretical
work
the
the
run
the
first
formed
just
was
during
the
cylinder
in the
piston
the
the
the
and
the
in
pressure
is formed
against
figure
represents
to
of
condenser;
in the
produced
Steam
represent
power-cylinder,
needed
stroke.
special cylinder
which
it is confined
evaporator
evaporator
pi
the
diagram
till the
of
piston
pressure,
then
465
ENGINE.
insertion
The
constant
stroke
In
latter.
the
by
condenser,
return
into
the
under
liquid
piston
COLD-VAPOR
feed-cylinder.
the
expand
to
PERFECT
follows
as
in the
stroke
allowed
THE
effected
Z), which
per
OF
grams
dia-
with
when
the
rated
satu-
the
sure
pres-
is constant.
The
which
in
in
of
the
the
show
hot-vapor
two
the
engine;
be
must
arrows
direction
for
the
regarded
should
with
Fig.
48
as
Let
per
stroke
is
which
Xi
be
the
to
whether
actual
the
the
(Fig. 48)
at
feed-cylmder,
the
to
the
quality
steam
the
and
;
i.e.,at
liquid
of
engine
the
not
or
in
order
to
at
the
be
and
X3
point
C2.
61,
the
the
the
the
the
quality
the
developed,
at
end
of
is sucked
and
evaporator
feed-cylinder, and
piston
quality
steam
at
by
of
is
which
vapor
from
end
the
engine
manner:
and
condenser
therefore
let X2
point
following
power-cylinder
back
brought
in
weight
the
by
cold-vapor
perfect
basis,
represent
power-oylinder
diagram
added
the
of
theory
The
be
show
cycle.
the
perfect
will
investigations
following
feed-cylinder
let
is described
diagrams
reversed.
The
in
indicator
two
directions
the
case
the
cycle
the
present
as
in
arrows
the
at
stroke
point
the
the
end
stroke
Ci
in
the
of
the
of
pression
com-
in
the
466
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
and
evaporator
so-called
is the
Oxz
Therefore
(j(x^
in
the
from
latter
the
corresponding
and
letting
heat
quantity
Qi,
from
the
or
brine
under
the
heat
the
the
the
notation
place, the
first
withdraws
evaporator
and
pi
above
the
stroke
per
fluid
heating
Qi-Gri(xi--Xs)
The
is
condenser
the
quantity
steam
constant
Gx2,
and
pushed
this
as
quantity Q2 absorbed
heat
is
steam
the
by
(1)
power-piston
the
by
the
and
p2
pressure
temperature
cooling
in the
for
walls
following discussion
(2)
neither
space,
and
cylinder,
receive
the
that
and
give
nor
in the
cycle;
exists
everjrwhere
that
it is
moreover,
of
the
condenser
for
the
heat
of
steam
in
the
the
it may
heat,
the
steam
be
written
in the
is
there
its
and
also
that
^2 exists.
unit
We
of
change
dL
expansion.
is
the
outer
work
cylinder
the
power-
superheated
temperature
in
weight
î
part
every
have
therefore
of mixture
of state,
rd(r+y),
(3a)
.
form
dQ=^dq+d(xp)+AdL,
where
clearance
no
is nowhere
the
the
the
in
cycle
that
infinitesimal
an
that
presupposed
temperature
liquid for
that
assume
during
quantity dQ, required by
and
first
evaporator
dQ
or,
off
is wet
steam
therefore
will
we
the
condenser
the
the
at
have
fc, we
water
into
condensed
completely
Q2=Gr2X2
In
or
quantity
pressure
get, in
we
the
Accordingly
steam
constant
Using
^1.
latent
which
the
into
power-cylinder,
evaporator.
stroke
per
temperature
be
Vi
the
stroke
per
the
which
weight
it is formed
X3), and
"
the
takes
compressor,
is formed
there
is
Gxi
forced
weight
steam
corresponding
(3")
to
the
infinitesimal
468
the
Accordingly
and
the
work
pressure
p2
work,
we
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
make
produced
in order
consumed,
into
the
and
dQÔ
is
is
hand,
suction
during
the
push
to
condenser,
other
the
on
work
under
mass
the
Gp2{x2U2-\-a);
found
from
6pi{xiUi+o)
is
constant
compression
equation
when
(3b),
integrate,
^(q2"qi+X2P2"Xipi)
There
results
when
of
combination
the
from
the
consider
we
power-cylinder
the
of
last
r=p-Âpu,
relation
three
the
measured
stroke,
per
the
in
sions,
expres-
whole
units
work
of
heat,
namely,
ilLi=(j[g2-3i+^2r2-Xiri-fi4"y(p2-pi)].
In
feed-cylinder,
the
first the
the
and
condenser,
work
in
hand,
the
during
Gap2
then,
other
the
on
the
suction
of
consequence
the
L2
work
of
the
(10)
is
duced,
pro-
liquid
from
expansion,
G.
-jw-qi-xspi).
since
However,
work
the
preceding
three
the
Gpi(x3Ui
values,
of
transfer
a)
to
mass
get, by
we
work
the
the
expressed
the
the
evaporator
combination
in units
of
machine
of
by
Lmf
the
and
work
necessary
L,n=Li
because
equations (10)
and
per
"
L2,
with
the
help
of
we
to
run
get, from
(11)
perfect
tion
the utiliza-
(11),
ALm=G[x2r2-(xi-X3)ri],
or,
stroke
the
heat, namely,
AL2=-G[q2-qi-XBri+Aa{p2''Pi)l
Designating
of
quires
re-
equations
(1) and
ALm=Q2'-Qi,
(2),
(12)
CYCLE
THE
OF
PERFECT
and
equation
to
ALn,
the
formula
for
gives
withdraws
brine
is
work
minimum;
the
unavoidable,
of
immaterial
ammonia,
any
of
the
or
the
In
for
as
small
cooling
water
not
to
in
on
the
temperature
/i
average
5"[ + 23"];
avoid
the
in
so
and
of
production
far
they
as
this
that
hot-air
constructive
pressure
and
equation
and
and
just
that
as
with
when
of
work
the
valid
this
the
valid
t
for
cycle.
for
the
of
the
ture
tempera-
upper
ought
we
ti
estimate
be
can
cold-air
It is
or
that
coolmg
embraces
above,
In
or
kept
fluid
rule
to
effected
engines
worthy
of
perfect hot-vapor
equation
boiler,
(13)
be
must
practical
purpose
as
formula
we
the
quirement
re-
small
as
temperature
producing
same
be
the
temperature
ice
obey
the
mindful
the
arrangement.
in
ether,
driving
consequently
producing
is
work.
with
T2'-Ti
the
and
T2,
and
the
see
Fig. 48, given
theoretical
temperature
we
(13) is also
the
all
particular
from
prescribed
therefore
describe
engine,
mentioned,
is
ice when
cycle,
it is therefore
machine
to
necessary
Formula
same
the
d;
or
When
will
we
be
ever
differences
~15"[+5"],
cooling fluid.
engines
is
evaporator.
/i=-"
by
than
lower
Qi
work
driving
on
of
same.
of
^2
this
works
same
(which
machine
the
machine
of
there
the
temperature
respect
disposal
our
the
go
the
Ti
at
work
With
of
the
limits
perfect
of
must
temperature
possible.
as
limit,
note
the
accordingly
that
the
depends
the
Qi
machine;
that
the
value
prescribed
the
in
case
given
increase
for
our
within
from
the
we
In
derived
quantity
construction
always
driving
heat
by
limits
engine
the
that
possible
in the
vapor;
is
cold-vapor
the
required
same
other
repeatedly
evaporator,
whether
machine
perfect
of
(13)
cycle.
quantity
the
theoretically
been
departure
no
For
resistances
hurtful
vapor.
the
Lm
contains
formula
(7),
has
value
imperfections
separate
kind
every
the
The
the
from
the
temperature)
which
certain
4t)9
ENGINE.
^^{T2-Ti)
one
for
treatise
present
the
is the
equation
This
COLD-VAPOR
all
represents
this
heating
engine
the
their
the
apparatus,
470
TECHNICAL
greater
We
therefore
and
machine
into
cycle
and
value
of
the
in order
to
is to
increase
the
Qi.
The
quantity
heat
high
already
heat
the
Qg
brine
equation
cold-vapor engine
is
the
to
engine
the
possible
smaller
ture
tempera-
as
with
which
work
the
the
this
the
or,
by Nm,
if the
we
work
to
is
to
has
as
in
but
in
the
engi
designating
withdraws
for
work
same
engines.
therefore
value
required
be
may
steam,
stroke,
per
evaporator
substituting
work
these
second;
fixed,
engines ought
highly superheated
machine
value
well
high
as
this
perfect
is pretty
steam
considering
to
designated
from
leads
as
ordinary
or
the
If in
engines, therefore, ought
our
second,
per
much
as
when
gives
(13), L^
and
L^
pressure
and
the
temperature
hot-air
quantity
second
per
work
is reduced
work
the
in
ing
operat-
get, in the
we
above
running
an
mover.
departure
made
the
(13) gives the
Equation
(13)
tive,
nega-
in
from
prime
every
Since
keep
becomes
consumed
cooling apparatus,
or
emphasized
been
neering
boiler
high
or
equation
work;
and
temperature
with
work
in
produced.
condenser,
practical rule
the
signs
being
is transformed
assumptions
the
work
the
of
machine
of
from
t2 in
by
the
cooling apparatus.
or
Accordingly L"
instead
the
maximum
the
T2.
driving machine,
reverse
we
condenser,
"
produced
hence
machine
Lmt
at
is
the
Ti
have
simply
i.e., work
machine
in
than
are
the
THERMODYNAMICS.
from
place
of
Qi
in
of the
running
expressed
the
in horsepowers
have
[^""""650x'iir/^'"^^^J*
If the
heat
be
judged
is to
which
quantity by
is reduced
to
the
the
cooling
hour
and
action
of the
designated
machine
by Qh
there
obtains
Qa=3600Q.
Now
there
as
arises
cylinder
or
regards
first
of
compressor
the
all
(15"
of the
dimensions
the
C
question
for
as
to
the
cold-vapor enginesize
of
prescribed performance.
the
power-
CYCLE
The
(8)
volume
but
in
OF
THE
Vi
of
this
formula
of the
liquid
PERFECT
this
COLD-VAPOR
we
then
and
directly given
by
unhesitatingly neglect
can
volume
is
cylinder
471
ENGINE.
equation
the
specific
get
Vi =GxiUi.
From
equation
(1), however,
Qi^'Griixi-xs),
hence
there
lows
fol-
division
by
Vi
,^\^
(16)
Ui
V2 of the feed-cylinder is determined
volume
The
xj
the
by
formula
V2 ^GxsUi,
from
the
be
cross-section
and
let
minute,
then
power-cylinder
revolutions
absorbed
per
by
Substitution
of
these
two
pistons
the
make
number
same
revolutions.
Let
the
of
cranks
the
provided
of
follows
which
the
the
evaporator
in
of
the
of the
piston,
per
the
douBle-acting
Vj =Fs
equation (16)
power-cylinder
the
and
second,
therefore
the
piston
machine
heat
stroke
make
quantity
Q,'
Ui\
Xi/
Qb,
is
gives, for
the
calculation
perfect cold-vapor engine, the
Fsn
of
tion
equa-
472
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
if
or
subrtitute
we
from
x,
(5)
equation
get
we
(176)
h(i
30
7'.(T2-r,h
"A
which
tions
different
be
is
liquid
who^
the
at
time, leads
same
the
to
.'
and
J^^S/^'d^Ltr^SI
^
ZT
of
kmd
vaoor
^^p^^'^P^**^^-
working
cheaply
and
easUy
the
for
choose
iti^
vaoors
different
the
to
according
Q.
of
valu.
same
therefore
wiU
We
the
for
different
fun.
temperature
contains
equation
for
different
are
that
evident
this
of
ri^tmember
The
x,r,
product
ruriJorwhir
'**'
dimenSn^
engine
smallest
evef
Je^ri::-:^^^:!^;!^^
0"
be
B.t.u.];if the
[142.2
of
produced
the
kg. pb.]
for
heat
importance
r-jooi'
*
(r"
At
*'
tL wêrthrh^^Ti^"^^^
withdraw^,"
T '""'^^^
temperatteTa^
must
we
cal.
kg. fib 1 of ice
produce
to
order
In
is of practical
following remark
The
has
water
watTk
ttT
^"
-/.""
^
temperature
of
the
"^^^^^
'
^^^
*"
of
^^^^
79+t+cto,
[142.2
where
the
=0.5
value
solid
possible,
as
If
we
wish
to
and
vapDr,
and
P.-2.291
and
/=15"[59"]
take
""
produce
Suppose
Example.
[+5"],
specific heat
of
in ordpr
i -8"?+
17
",.
!"
f",
fioi
''
If
ice
^"*
'
*u
..
"
-^^
'"
u
""^t"tute
'^^
be
"^7
^"""^^
as
numbers
[180 B.t.u.].
calories
100
"-32)+c"o-32)],
the
represents
average
the
suppose
m
and
the
that
L~
;""
nf
cold-vanop
temperature
condenser
p.-8.509
flh 1
E^ke
+20"
atmospheres.
i"
ffwoi
""""
'I*
Se ^^^^^^
"t
^' *'
^^^^^^
P"^"^
to
"*'
be
"ônia
","
,"
^spectively.
CYCLE
OF
AccordiDg
THE
Table
to
PERFECT
the
8 of
COLD-
Appendix
have
we
473
ENGINE.
VAPOR
the
for
assumed
tures:
tempera-
p-"L2536, ^^-1.0243,
t\
-
be
the
let
Now
then
Xi-0.90,
the
values,
the
this
be
must
end
ing
to
replaced
From
the
which
to
case,
the
the
(5)
above
the
in
the
the
the
revolutions
F"
horse
If
per
powers
it
hour,
were
10
[0.38494
and
"=
the
In
1.
valid
and
0.1045,
and
(17a)
quality
steam
and
since
(14) give
Q,
and
iNrm-0.1906Q.].
and
required
volume
0,767
hence
ft.] and
[142860
calories
if the
of
the
the
at
accord*
B.t.u.]
machine
makes
n=50
power-cylinder
work
necessary
kg.
[lb.] of ice
is
heat
of
be
must
JVm"7.67
7.565].
"
ice
of
case
Qh
and
production
"
Eh
1(X)
[180
mO^^
Eh
Eh],
we
should
were
produced
have
L"'-3600^*"20j'
therefore
iVm
[iVm
This
47
the
for
Nm"
36,0(X)
cu.
^'
and
x,
longer
no
fore
there-
place
and
[39.683],
the
because
then
withdraw
to
minute,
cbm.
are
preceding
0.9735;
i.e., if
saturated,
xs""
equations
0.
0.001825
Q"-"
then
per
0.0109
is
machine
brine,
the
takes
case
feed-cylinder
|^^" 0.0162410.
from
is x,
formulas
assumed
[69.645],
-619.80
the
power-cylinder
utilizing
compression
initially dry
in
get
we
If
the
in
suction
evaporation
were
return,
the
(4), and
the
of
ammonia
if it
expansion
table
of
others.
by
equation
of
of
will
end
the
compression
end
0.0774.
equation
to
at
superheated
be
will
vapor
quahty
the
at
according
steam
during
quality
steam
t'
0.0536,
perfect
kg. [104.9
is much
machine
lb.]
smaller.
of
ice.
0.0213
Ea
0.009532
would
In
actual
";a
Nm
or
Eh--
47
or
"=
104.9
therefore
machines
deliver
of
per
course
ATm].
hour
the
per
horse
production
power
of
ice
474
TECHNICAL
"
CYCLE
60.
THERMODYNAMICS.
OF
PERFECT
COLD-VAPOR
ACCORDING
In
the
preceding
and
(Fig. 48),
that
the
everywhere
the
upper
to
the
saturation
here
directed
and
to
its
of
the
pressures
brine
the
in another
cooling
the
first
announced
is the
exists
lower
and
correspond
is
attention
moreover
carbonic
(ammonia,
and
then
acid)
body
heat
the
o
of state
is
which
(here the
broadened;
cycle
n
(here
body,
problem
results
L
the
of
absorbs
the
investigated by
changes
mediating
and
there
the
think
withdraws
conditions
of
the
to
also
condenser),
and
think
we
heat
the
cycle
the
certain
under
time
same
evaporator),
in
water
and
p2,
AA
there
temperatures
mediating body
furnishes
of
part
which
Ti
the
evaporator
condenser
here
T2;
and
pi
the
of
the
that
state.
the
at
the
thus
p.
of
which
in
the
to
changes
body
interior
the
assumed
been
within
points
of temperature,
only
it has
temperature
same
If, however,
all
at
same
in
Umit
T2
LORENZ-
investigations
Ti is the
temperature
TO
ENGINE
which
was
Vol.
(see
296).
Let
first think
us
Let
C2
be
the
then
of
this
cooling water,
in
apparatus
cooling body
(with
unit
water
of time.
C2
=1);
is
withdrawn
heat
the
through
specific heat
the
let
(Fig. 48), and
of the
temperature
kg. [lb.]passes
EE
temperature,
efflux
Tathe
of which
condenser
of the
influx
the
be
^3
Q2-=C2K(T2-Ts):
In
the
the
first
place
evaporator.
through
led
then
and
line
led
be
higher temperature
"
des
I),
Lo
re
Vereins
z,
let
the
of
pipe
back
to
to
the
at
lowest
again
1894,
Vol.
reduced
der
38,
of the
brine
temperature
Ti
cooling
which
evaporator,
Beurteilung
Ingenieure,
its
whose
spaces
it is
jT,where
zur
circulation
brine
Let
"Beitr"je
deutscher
assume
us
(18)
is to
be
it reaches
to
the
low
Kiihlmaschinen."
pp.
62,
98, and
in
be
effected
with
the
temperaZeitschrift
124.
476
THERMODYNAMICS
TECHNICAL
ifiintroduced,
(22)
which
of the
equation L o r e
perfectcyclewith
presents
finite
as
the
fundamental
of brine and
quantities
equation
coolingwater.
Earlier
liquidthat
we
found
for
the entropy
unit
of
weight
of mixture
of vapor
and
was
OCT
Now
unit
let G
be
the
of time, and
weight
of the
mediating body
let the steam
qualityat
designatedby the
diagram (Fig.49a) be
correspondingtemperatures, then
we
reduced
to
the
the four vertices of the

same
subscriptsas
the
have
APa
also
"
"
"
(23)
APi
From
this
we
find
AP,
-4P.-G[T,-t.+^-?^].
(20c)
.
CYCLE
LORENZ
which
assumed
four
and
that
with
G
equation
and
is not
body
mediating
the
between
or
(20a)
477
ENGINE.
COLD-VAPOR
PERFECT
tions
rela-
(206) gives the
or
of
where
6,
superheated
it is
course
at
of the
any
vertices.
In
"
united
equation
between
OF
doing
so
the
T2,
exists
complete
of
proceed
can
condensation,
that
assumption
in the
hence
and
(20c) with
equation
the
on
expansion
of the
beginning
vertex
bination
we
(206) then
the
X2=0;
follows
which
C2
the
1 because
is
water
theoretical
The
relation
between
work
driving
the
as
of the
and
employed
com-
gives
G(jl-T2+jr)'=C2K\0ge7^^y
from
theie
feed-cylinder,
that
the
at
(24).
"
here
K;
stitute
sub-
we
cooling body.
machine
is found
from
AL=Q2-Qi,
utilizing equations
or
(18), (19),
and
(21),
AL=C2K[T2-Ts-m{T-Ti)]
The
foregoing reproduces
(25)
main
the
features
developments
of the
by
in which
case
from
the
for
here
cool
the
this
brine
considered,
then
process
in
as
back
led
of
pipe,
away
condition
warm
machine
continuous
line
it in the
to
the
emphasized,
was
led, through
was
and
evaporator
cooling;
first
we
is
constantly
the
mediating
repeated.
it is at
Moreover,
follows
flows
(which
body
exactly,
this
Compare
the
time
same
the
through
partly
with
also
Lo
his
Vergleichende
Munich,
1897,
K"lteindustrie/'
but
of
one
an
take
up
the
Theorie
and
his
Munich
present
changes
book,
on
the
in
Leipsic.
the
purely
that
of
in
theoretical
Grenzwerthe
as
der
Munich,
thcrmoAlso
1895.
Kompressions-Kuhknaschine,"
"Zeitschrift
the
Since
literature
so
the
evaporator)
partly
Dissertation.
der
Berechnung
articles
extension,
extraordinary
the
und
the
and
"Die
on
Inaugural
various
and
nz
of
system
vapor
re
dynamischenEnergieumwandlung."
"
pipe
as
that
assumed
of
appearance
refrigerating
this
side
edition
of
the
die
fiir
the
machines
we
have
questions
gesammte
last
has
only
edition
enced
experihad
involved.
to
478
TECHNICAL
the
liquid,
when
consider
we
of
in
the
sense,
the
whether
the
boiler
it is different
course
is filled almost
in
body
its
If
ice
in
the
solution
=
an
of
"
61-
Fig.
50
is
the
the
of
in coiled
by brine
which,
in motion
by
constant,
mean
with
compressor,
circulates
as
the
to
the
present
question
the
with
of
pipe
the
follow
cooling
water.
the
state, but
Fig. 48,
be
p.
the
case
463,
then
here
in
assume
(somewhat
remains
justified,because
may
the
by
evaporator
to
tem
sys-
mediating
well
conceived
be
we
inlet
the
total
than
greater
In
the
foUowmg
is the
and
be
so
the
that
outlet
the
proaches
ap-
body
coil is surrounded
is
assume,
may
here
coil, and
condenser
let
kept
assume
T\ (lower
temperature
the
is the
mediating
will
we
evaporator
pi.
closely
valves,
the
same
In
which
compression-cylinder,
evaporator
Let
in the
pressure
engine
developments
temperature.
limit) prevail everjrwhere
ENGINES.
condenser;
stirring apparatus,
saturation
here
warm
cold-vapor
its
the
pipes.
the
certain
temperature
COLD-VAPOR
construction;
and
temperature
ACTUAL
sketch
evaporator
that
to
gases
at
pipe
body).
OF
actual
from
to
that
so
the
of
was
as
more
fire
may
representation
the
constant
mediatmg
latter
in
space,
occurs,
CYCLE
the
back
is the
brine
for
the
in
it is still
extent
away
T^T\
average
the
its whole
conducted
in
the
condenser;
counter-current
and
of
liquid
truth.
in the
evaporator
the
the
that
so
brought
production,
stirring of
Ti
then
assumption
the
state,
is not
and
standing
in
brine
the
line
pipe
liquid
of temperature
changes
the
throughout
which,
possible,
(Fig. 49)
with
and
similar
case
but
larly
particu-
in
in
engines
procedure,
nearer
of vapor
It is not
T-=Ti
is not
mediating body
Of
this
assumption
here
well
may
this assumption,
temperature
charge.
We
pressure
of
the
brine.
mixture
have
boilers
from
the
same
We
follow
exactly
to
that
fact
the
falls
of the
temperature
time,
the
steam
heat
of
permissibility
evaporator.
the
of the
temperature
under
the
occurring
the
to
as
is everywhere
system
of
changes
doubt
express
THERMODYNAMICa
the
K
sponding
corre-
the
coil
CYCLE
is surrounded
by
the
with
the
OF
cooling
V,
evaporator
in
corresponding
to
under
the
and,
the
to
pressure
is
place
problem
feed-
it
doing
that
there
that
in
of
to
results
were
with
harmony
the
"
Fio,
acconi-
(cold-
which
obtained
was
actual
to
machine,
vapor)
this
463)
p.
In
evaporator.
ferring
trans-
acid
carbonic
4S,
(Fig.
the
to
last
particularly
machines,
not
in
463,
p.
liquid
so
propositions
the
were
thia
was
this
to
assumption
the
at
in
h,
It
due
59,
liquid
subject
the
prevailed
7*3 "Tj.
mainly
"
the
the
where
every-
temperature
that
As
Tz.
is still
that
cooling
more
further-
was
assumed
same
of the
liquefied,
say
denses
con-
vapor
or
and
expansion-cylinder,
the
return
machine
perfect
the
by
plished
so
we
the
temperature
completely
7*3"!r3,
has
is to
now
theoretically
the
the
temperature
current
the
at
undercooled."
"
The
with
is here
but
opposite
coil
above,
has
"p^;
the
from
condenser
the
liquid
with
away
vapor
prevails;
pressure
of the
end
it into
and
vapor
saturation
lower
pj,
where
influence
which
body,
mediating
every
of
the
the
reaches
water,
forces
led
the
sucks
it, and
pa
mixture
the
entrance,
7*2
pressure
and
discharged
casing
enveloping
the
enters
compressor
compresses
the
which
The
Tj.
temperature
is
and
Tz
temperature
which
water,
479
ENGINES.
VAPOR
COLD-
ACTUAL
,"
50-
,.
observations.
actual
The
in
pressure
valve
back
to
Let
(Fig.
the
us
50),
is
connected
through
greater
by
which
expansion-cylinder;
no
possess
condenser
simply
are
spaces
the
machines
in
than
pipe, provided
the
liquid
of
transfer.
evaporator.
now
consider
this
mode
the
can
evaporator,
with
be
forced
as
the
the
two
regulating
directly
480
TECHNICAL
the
Let
valve,
H
the
that
with
unit
the
ignoring
-^]
flow
liquid
so
THERMODYNAMICS.
the
of
velocity
weight
resistances,
is
regulating
kinetic
the
possesses
this
the
through
of
composed
the
energy
following
parts.
the
During
work
is
evaporator
the
formed;
from
while
(7^2, and
the
to
exit
the
condenser
the
going through
pressure
work
of
valve
in
and
pi
expansion,
takes
liquid
the
adiabatically
expands
doing X3' kg. [lb.]of
so
according
to
the
up
earlier
steam
propositions,
is therefore
because
the
the
liquid
the
During
into
the
the
collecting and
the
demands
the
work
a);
ri=/"i+i4.piMi,
get
the
In
and
the
evaporator
into
goes
from
grows
to
x^
of
state
x^,
spreads
mass
that
so
combination
The
of
(26)
last
the
If the
the
quality
steam
quality,
and
xj,
then
accordingly
Xi
"
the
pressure
quality
steam
per
X4
the
then
gives
^"7(p2-pi),
can
x^
in
sucks
compressor
constant
have
equations
+
quality
steam
doing
so
....
ri{xA-Xz').
riX4=33-3i
which
also
we
under
out
in
rest, and
AH
the
pressure
pi(x3'wi
relation
the
considering
constant
Aff=g3-3i-a;3'ri+^(7(p2-pi).
from
with
valve
regulating
evaporator
which
overcome,
accordingly,
reaches
^3.
or
entrance
be
must
pi
we
T^
temperature
its way
on
calculated.
be
stroke
is the
(27)
mass
increase
of
quantity
heat
G
per
kg. [lb.]of the

stroke
in
Q withdrawn
from
is
brine
0=(?ri(xi-X4),
or, with
this
(28)
equation (27),
0=(?[riXi-(g3-gi
+ Aa(p2-pi))].
.
If X2is
the
steam
quality
at
the end
of theadiabatic
(28a)
compression
CYCXE
in
the
OF
there
compressor,
will
481
ENGINES.
COLD-VAPOR
ACTUAL
relation
known
the
subsist
tion
(equa-
(4))
The
combination
If
cool,
we
in
reaches
the
the
the
to
condenser
with
hence
for
the
G(52"
in
(?ri(xi
the
temperature
then
x^\
then
undercooling
from
place of
in
x^
substi*
must
we
^2*
+A(7(p2-Pi),
33);
this
carbonic
acid
is
from
Gr
1
equation
working
brine
2:4)
ga)
(j(g2
that
of the
which
circumstance
engines
(xi
the
(28) shows
action
the
a
(27)
=3:4
a:40
heightens
^3
p2,
withdrawn
heat
with
Comparison
"2 to
pressure
equation
x^
and
with
under-
not
have
combination
in
does
condenser
valve
regulating
ria:4'=g2-gi
and
the
liquid from
(27) 92 in place of 93 and
equation
shall
we
gives
directly computed.
that
corresponding
tute
be
can
assume
but
preceding equations
the
G[jra:2r2-f-ri(T2-T0+9i-93-ila
(30)
which
from
of
in
by
evaporator
needs
the
the
amount
special consideration
vicinity
of
the
critical
temperature.
Now
running
Fig.
it is
the
51
question
of
the
determining
work
for
necessary
compressor.
a
transformation,
machine,
the
represents
the
necessary
the
entropy
indicator
diagram.
diagram
The
comp'-ession work,
and
driving
can
be
Fig.
work
found
51
L
in the
6
of
its
the
same
482
THERMODYNAMICS,
TECHNICAL
way
equation
of
derivation
the
in
as
(10),
468,
p.
(31)
AL=G[q2-qi+Xir2-Xiri+Aa(pi-pi)l.
the
In
distances
The
and
be
under
ad
therefore
area
b) the
51
for
expressions
the
arate
sep-
are
lying
area
(Fig.
diagram
entropy
the
under
ab
curve
representing
and
Xsr-^
the
measures
represents
q-i-
q,,
respectively;
Xin
the
lying
area
the
hatched
value
q2--qi+X2r.2-Xiri
of
to
the
to
perfect
heat
( C
cycle
quantity
(13),
equation
the
efficiency
there
p.
469,
AU
"
hence
tj
limit
the
curve
and
and
AL
are
to
be
77
under
were
consideration,
correspond
work
L",
its
present
Q
=
11
determined
machine
thea
ing
accord-
"-^(T2-T,y.
L,.
=
would
the
of
'
where
for
stands
gg
curve
respectively.
transformation
If
The
(31).
equation
(32)
is
{T2-T,)
"33)
T,
from
equations
(30) and
(31).
484
TECHNICAL
[68"] and
the
[86^;
^=30"
efficiency:
THERMODYNAMICS.
then
-10"[14T
"t
obtain
we
the
[50"]
INFLUENCE
[68"]
20"
will
we
(dry
(28a)
in
draws
compressor
for
examination
saturated
dry
heat
withdrawn
the
from
the
special
(xi
at
we
THE
PRESSOR
COM-
ENGINES.
vapor
Then
compression).
the
IN
COLD-VAPOR
to
0.268
1) from
the
from
get
once
that
case
indicator
the
diagram
is
the
rator
evapo-
equation
brine
Q=G[qi+ri-'q3-Ao{p2''Pi)l
Here
for
[86"]
30"
0.612
SUPERHEATINQ
ACTUAL
subject
[68"]
20"
0.650
OF
OF
Here
results
^-scr'KeT
0.797
62.
numerical
^-20"[68T
10"
"
following
like
(34)
Fig. 52a,
while
the
corre*
Tt
Fio.
spondmg
der
AccordiDg
in
on
also
for
the
the
and
discussion
generating
reader
this
The
above.
machines
to
Linde,
the
this
and
field
article
of
Vol.
V,
p.
was
the
basis
also
concerning
contains
different
absorption
lowest
excellent
represented by Fig.
paper.
of
the
valuable
data
so
of
that
for
the
concerning
engines,
further
latest
in
presented
arrangements,
cold-air
Lexicon
Lueger's
embraces
investigations
constructive
machines,
temperatures,
article
This
353.
526.
in
''K"lteerzeuguQgsmaschine"
Technik,
gesammten
researches
text
to
is
diagram
entropy
52.
the
experimenta
and
containa
of
machines
and
information
we
refer
SUPERHEATING
In
both
according
with
and
IN
the
figures
X2
l,
so
COLD-VAPOR
hatched
that
of
4S5
ENGINES.
the
gives
area
combination
the
to
ACTUAL
equation
(31)
with
work
driving
equation
(39)
have
we
î'=G[^(y2-ri)H-32-gi-ri(r2-Ti)+il
(36)
On
the
work
which
L',
of the
area
of
account
vertical
will
be
batic
is the
the
and
to
in
Fig.
in
here
the
the
specific heat
as
other
of the
at
for
of entropy
change
TT\
represented by
are
for
curve
xi
from
1.
(which
pressure
passage
AP
and
T^
ctu-ves
the
by
represented
constant
the
added
be
must
limit
the
on
vapor
then
constant),
the
lies
is
526
diagram,
entropy
point T\
there
The
quadrilateral T^TT^d.
assumed
to
superheatmg
Fig. 52a
which,
lines;
If Cp
in
curved
adiabatics
are
the
adia-
one
is
ilP=Cplog"
the
on
other
hand
for
the
paesrge
jt;
7*2^1
limit
the
on
we
curve,
have
Equating,
get
we
+ T2J,
Cplogeyr=(2rH-Tij-(jr
which
from
superheated
The
vapor
whole
area
and
the
corresponding
work
Cpiy!
T^)
there
equation
the
at
area
L'
ilL'
or
with
end
lying
results
now
of the
under
lying
follows
=G[cp(r
the
under
the
(36)
...
temperature
compression
in the
of
compressor.
is determined
curve
TÎ^
Txd
by APTi,
and
the
by
hence
the
from
-ra)-ilP?'iL
equation (36),
ilL'=(?[cp(T-!r2)+^r2-ri+ri(T
(37)
.
486
If
we
add
now
Lc necessary
where
to
the
of the
Q is found
assume,
as
be
steam
an
the
the
483,
before
(36).
The
(equation
get
from
end
of the
ALc
work
for
the
the
33),
(34)
equation
e-71"C.
or
"-
the
the
of
of
us
be
to
condenser
Appendix
the
heated
super-
F.].
equation
(38):
[66.74].
(310.892
-9,X?
-5.)(7].
U
temperature
50"
the
at
regulating valve, namely,
or
ft -20"
or
".-68"],
gives
Q
34.261
[Q-61.67(?
finally from
equation
treat
acid, particularly
the
in
those
critical
and
Q-
and
0-59.333
32.963
G],
(39)
19-0.924
vicinity of
from
(559.606
can
159.8"
[0-
[",
We
the
temperatiu*e
Q-
","10"
calculation
evaporator
to
Table
let
calculate
we
substitute
now
we
the
engine)
or
i4Lc-37.078G
From
the
(36)
is found
compressor
of
help
compression
619.2"
in
corresponding
With
equation
[T-
(cold-vapor
temperature
temperature
[68"].
+20"
we
at
the
r"344"
and
(38)
.
equation
as
machine
ammonia
1, p.
and
",-
0.5084,
Cp"
then
work
(34).
equation
example
[ + 14*']
to
pressure
If
from
calculated
is then
from
In
in
10**
"
The
(ri +9i) +Aa(p2-pi)l
is determined
machine
Example.
and
(r2 +92)
get the
we
from
compressor
^2)
(37)
is
where
"
the
run
and
equations (35)
two
temperature
efficiency
and
the
=G[Cp(r
ALc
"i
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
similar
and
the
way
in which
temperature.
1^-0.889.
the
special
temperature
cases
for
values
carbonic
lie in
the
DIMENSIONS
and
doubted
examination
theoretical
which
cannot
have
always
may
be
machine
of
neighborhood
it
beyond
nevertheless
the
we
which
and
tain
cer-
perature
tem-
formerly
was
thorough,
essay
further
critical
the
difficulties
encounter
we
ments
experi-
eflfects
(which
when
question
overcome
careful
recent,
physical
tigations
inves-
clarify.
the
deriving
(" 8, p. 53)
the
of
yet be
as
must
In
author),
and
carbonic-acid
somewhat
even
the
by
in
cold
of
production
the
that
shown
have
48?
COMPRESSOR.
preceding calculations
the
Although
THE
OF
and
heat
that
assumed
as
the
during
quantity
of
others
and
we
volume
liquid
and
vapor
equations,
specific
constant
of
mixtures
these
applying
when
regarded
for
equations
liquid
the
the
of
changes
state.
this
But
comparatively
regarded
liquid q
and
the
on
them
respecting
is still open
for
heat
still
seem
evaporation
of
so
uncertain
more
and
theoretical
r,
the
that
be
may
heat
the
on
than
experimental
Amagat's
Appendix)
reacts
the
experiences
to
the
in
vapors
value
the
of
10
this
but
sufficiently known;
as
by
According
(see Table
variation
this
experiments
here
for
point,
increment.
large
fulfilled
longer
no
critical
of the
neighborhood
a
is
assumption
of
tabular
data
field
This
before.
the
investigations.
"
"
CALCULATION
63.
DIMENSIONS
THE
OF
OF
THE
COMPRESSOR.
calculating
In
quantity Qh
in
the
which
with
and
then
the
its
help
in
suck
respectively, equations
(28a)
^1, fe, and
regarded
values
If
is
t'l
the
compression
wet
Bcbrift
des
e,
"Zur
Vereins
^3
are
specific
we
have
Theorie
deutscher
volume
get
we
second;
and
(34),
the
where
the
brine
per
which
vapor
doing
so
heat
the
quantity
of
in
the
we
use,
temperature
known.
of
the
sucked-in
for
Kohlens"ure-
Ingenieure,
from
heat
the
weight
per
as
prescribed
hourly
Vi =xiU\+a
der
usually
withdrawn
corresponding
must
compressor
is
there
be
must
evaporator;
second,
the
machine
Vol.
X2
=1?
aiid
(Kaltdampf-)
39,
1895,
p.
then
vapor,
for
the
Maschine."
124.
for
other
Zeitr-
488
of
case
dry
must
give
the
temperature
drawn
we
for
acid
carbonic
second
per
is
if
and
stroke,
-F
volume
volume
Table
in
found
of
here
Xi=l;
that
vapor
we
for
10
then
must
be
Gvi.
is
the
if
the
cross-section
volume
the
of
piston,
compressor
machine
double-acting
the
then
minute,
per
the
and
î,
for
VfUi-â
the
in
its
have
compression
Furthermore,
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
makes
n
through
swept
revolutions
the
by
piston
per
is
second
Fsn
30'
and
if
be
taken
introduce
we
from
coefficient
the
1.2
1.3,
to
4" which
the
get
we
machines
good
in
is
relation
0Gi;i
(40)
(2
and
The
takes
2.2
to
substituted
can
and
for
1.75
to
be
found
from
the
for
(40);
ammonia,
the
assume
we
to
the
for
ratio
s:d,
ratio
ad
carbonic
acid,
acid.
sulphurous
value
if
equation
from
1.5
for
diameter
piston
theoretical
compressor
be
the
calculate
can
we
is
to
for
the
from
preceding
driving
equation
formula.
work
(31)
per
or
(38),
second
where
of
the
is
to
APPENDIX.
Vapor
Tables
with
French
Units:
PAGB
Saturated
Saturated
vapor
of
water
II
vapor
of
ether
VI
Saturated
vapor
of
alcohol
VIII
Saturated
vapor
Saturated
of
acetone
chloroform
vapor
of
Saturated
vapor
of
chloride
Saturated
vapor
of
bisulphide
of
ammonia
Saturated
vapor
Saturated
vapor
of
sulphurous
vapor
of
carbonic
Saturated
principal
First
Second
table
table
Tables
Vapor
with
Saturated
carbon
of
XIV
carbon
XVI
XVIII
acid
XX
acid
water
for
principal
XII
of
for
XXII
XXIV
vapor
water
XXVII
vapor
Units:
English
of
water
vapor
of
ether
XXXIV
vapor
of
alcohol..
XXXVI
Saturated
vapor
of
acetone
Saturated
vapor
of
chloroform
Saturated
vapor
of
chloride
vapor
Saturated
Saturated
Saturated
vapor
Saturated
vapor
Saturated
vapor
Saturated
vapor
of
ammonia
of
sulphurous
of
carbonic
XLII
carbon
of
XLIV
carbon
XLVI
XLVIII
add
acid
for
table
XL
of
bisulphide
principal
Second
XXXVIII
of
table
principal
First
XXX
water
for
LIl
vapor
water
LV
vapor
Tables:
Auxiliary
Enarllsh
units
oorrespondlnir
to
table
with
French
,
units
Conversion
on
62
paês
of
pounds
and
LVIII
63
per
square
Inch
Into
mospheres
atLX
THERMODYNABUCS.
TECHNICAL
FRENCH
UNITS.
Saturated
3.
2.
1.
Steam
Temperature
Centigrade
Absolute
Temperature
Pressure
in Millimeters
4.
Vapor
6.
DifiFerential
Coefficient
in Millimeters
of
Mercury
of
Mercury
dp
P
dt
(Regnault)
-20
-15
-10
6
0
6
10
16
20
25
30
35
40
45
60
66
60
65
70
76
80
85
90
95
100
105
110
115
120
125
130
135
140
145
150
156
160
165
170
175
180
185
190
195
200
pdt
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
IV
UNITS,
FRENCH
Saturated
-20
600.400
-15
601.925
620.394
-19.994
1.525
3.473
4.998
-14.996
616.921
3.473
4.998
(903.450
-10
-
9.998
613.448
3.474
4.999
6
604.975
4.999
609.974
4.999
606.500
608.025
5.000
10
609.550
10.002
15
611.075
15.005
25
612.600
614.125
30
615.650
35
617.175
3.474
606.500
20
000
002
003
005
30.026
35.037
3.477
599.548
618.700
45
620.225
45.068
50
621.750
50.087
55
623
3.482
589.108
3.484
5.009
585.624
5.011
3.486
582.138
3.489
578.649
5.017
3.492
575.157
5.019
55.110
624.800
65
626
325
60.137
65.167
70
627.850
70.201
75
629.375
75.239
80
630.900
85
632.425
90
633.950
80.282
100
637.000
5.038
525
105
638
110
640.050
500
105.568
3.513
3.518
550.618
3.522
547.096
5.052
3.527
543.569
3.532
540.037
5.062
115.721
641.575
120
643.100
120.806
125
644
125.898
529
5.080
130
646.150
135
647
130.997
675
518.727
140
649.200
650.725
146.334
150
652.250
151.462
3.581
511.672
3.587
607.985
3.594
604.391
6.128
3.603
500.788
5.136
155
653.775
156.598
655.300
161.741
3.611
497.177
5.143
3.618
493
5.151
165
65G.825
166.892
170
658.350
172
3.567
3.571
5.119
160
560
515.153
5.1ir
145
555
3
522.294
5.099
136.103
141.215
548
525.854
5.085
5.106
.
543
409
.
5.092
625
.
537
3
532.957
110.641
115
536.500
5.068
5.073
509
554.136
5.043
95.438
100
505
557.649
85.329
635.475
502
3
561.158
5.034
5.057
05
498
564.663
5.030
5.047
90.381
494
568.165
5.027
60
571.663
5.023
3.480
592.590
5.007
40.051
40
478
596.070
20.010
25.017
3.475
603.025
5.014
275
Vapor
559
489
5.160
052
3.626
933
3.636
486.298
5.168
175
659.875
177.220
3.643
482.655
5.178
180
661.400
185
662
182.398
925
187.584
195
664.450
192.780
5.205
665
975
.
197
661
985
671
471.670
680
467
990
.
5.215
200
667.500
203.200
3.663
475.341
5.196
190
479.002
5.186
3.690
464.300
APPENDIX.
FRENCH
of
Water.
Table
UNITS.
lb.
532.14
0.485
528,15
0.484
524
0.482
16
,
0.477
591.42
0-470
592.47
512.19
593.54
608.21
594,62
504
595.71
500.27
0.460
0.447
0.430
24
0-443
40.205
596.79
0.426
40,631
597.80.417
41.04R
599,00
1.1904
600-12
1.0185
601-24
0,8753
0.392
42.250
602.37
476.48
0,7556
603,52
472,52
0,6549
43.010
604.66
468.56
05699
43.377
605.82-
464.61
0.4977
460.66
0.4363
456.70
0.3839
0-384
42
634
0.376
43.735
0.351
44,0S6
0,342
44.42S
609.35
452.75
610,54
448.80
611.74
444
0.333
44.761
0,325
45
0":i
0-317
612:9s
45.403
85
o'2665
440.89
0.2375
436.94
0,2122
432.99
0,1901
0.308
45.
7U
0.299
46.012
0.292
46,304
0,285
46.589
0.275
46.864
47,133
429.04
0.1701
425.08
0.1538
421,13
417.17
0,1257
1389
VI
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
FRENCH
UNITS.
Saturated
1.
2.
3.
4.
Vapor
5.
Differential
Steam
Temperature
Centigrade
Absolute
Temperature
Pressure
Coefficient
in
Millimeters
in
of
Mercury
Millimeters
of
Mercury
dp
dp
dt
pdi
(Regnault)
Saturated
Vapor
VII
APPENDIX.
FRENCH
of
Ether.
Table
2a.
of
Ether.
Table
2b.
6.
5.
7.
Heat
8.
1.
Temper-
Inner
Outer
Latent
UNITS.
Diffei^
enoes
Steam
Heat
Differ,
ences
Latent
Values
Differ-
ences
of
Heat
ature
Centi-
grade
r
J'^XÂpu
"
p^r-Âpu
("-0.0013)
7.521
7.721
7.919
4.24
90.72
0.198
94.86
0.187
3.83
0.160
3.73
3.55
0.061
2.18
73.35
3.50
2.29
71.06
121.06
3.45
-0.003
124.51
2.41
68.65
3.42
-0.084
127.93
8.850
2.04
75.53
114.01
117.56
8.934
1.88
77.57
3.64
0.104
8.937
1.73
79.45
110.37
0.137
8.772
1.57
81.18
106.64
8.635
1.41
82.75
3.92
0.175
2.49
66.16
3.42
-0.195
8.655
84.16
102.81
8.475
1.24
4.01
98.89
8.300
1.08
85.40
4.14
0.194
8.113
8.876
86.48
86.48
0.200
131.35
2.55
63.61
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
via
UNITS,
FRENCH
Saturated
2.
1.
3.
Vapor
5.
4.
Differential
Steam
Temperature
Coefficient
5iillimeter8
iQ
Ceatigrade
Pressure
Absolute
Temperature
of
Millim*
in
Mercury
of
ters
Mercury
dp
dp
dt
pdt
(Regnault)
Saturated
1.
2.
3.
Vapor
4.
Tempera-
ture
Centi-
grade
Total
Heat
Differences
Heat
the
of
Liquid
Differ-
ences
Latent
Heat
r-;-9
(Reirnault)
(Rejjnault)
Differences
IX
APPENDIX.
FRENCH
of
Alcohol.
Table
3a.
of
Alcohol.
Table
3b.
UNITS.
6.
5.
7.
8.
.
Inner
Outer
Latent
Heat
Values
Steam
Differ
Heat
ences
Apu'="j)r
Differ,
ences
^X"Apu
Differ-
ences.
Latent
Heat
p^r
ature
of,
Centi-
(;)
Apu
"
1.
Temper-
grade
t
("7=0.0013)
r
223.43
13.067
223
0.398
7.51
230
13.465
0.504
94
7.09
238
13.969
0.460
03
243
14.429
0.368
14.797
57
20
10
-1.26
7985
9
+
3.63
247
3298
17
61
.
226.08
-1.92
35
226
5.54
32.0875
43
.
225
0.53
20
6.7309
30
3.4616
40
2.59
223.49
0.247
1.76
248
15.044
0.149
96
218.75
0.85
249.81
15.193
249.91
249
15.344
0.084
+0.71
251
78
0.149
183.60
95
2.75
0.166
15.969
0.215
16.184
3.33
32
2850
100
0.2062
110
0.1525
120
0.1152
130
0.0889
140
0.0698
150
5.98
165.05
4.29
264
90
6.18
171.03
260.03
80
0.4045
0
6.39
177.21
256.70
15.803
70
0.5887
7.00
2.17
253
0.8810
7.15
1.21
0.136
15.654
60
7.58
190.60
0.090
15.518
197.75
250.57
15.428
33
205
86
50
1.3529
7.11
0.10
-0.05
0.057
2.1334
6.31
212.44
0.094
15.287
4.74
5.43
159.62
4.59
0.202
16
386
.
268.91
5.53
154.09
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
FRENCH
UNITS,
Saturated
Saturated
Vapor
Vapor
xn
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
FRENCH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
Saturated
Vapor
XUI
APPENDIX.
UNITS.
FRENCH
of
Table
Chloroform.
5a.
1.
9.
8.
7.
6.
Temperature
Centigrade
t
^
pdt
14.790
28.32
26.41
0.06761
13.951
44.95
41.73
0.07168
10
68.07
62.92
0.07558
20
12.603
100.03
92.09
0.07935
30
12.046
142.63
130.79
0.08302
40
50
13.231
11.544
198.06
180.90
0.08662
11.086
268.55
244.33
0.09020
60
10.662
356.28
322.86
0.09379
70
10.265
463.34
418.20
0.09742
80
9.889
591.49
531.68
0.10112
90
9.532
742.29
664.42
0.10491
100
9.190
916.74
816.98
0.10882
110
8.860
1115.40
989.52
0.11286
120
8.542
1338.13
1181.49
0.11706
130
8.234
1584.23
1391.83
0.12145
140
7.935
1852.62
1619.16
0.12602
150
7.646
2141.40
1861.33
0.13079
160
Chloroform.
of
at
Table
5b.
6.
6.
Differ-
ences
Steam
Heat
Differ
ences
Heat
=
Latent
Heat
1.
Values
Inner
Outer
Latent
Apu
8.
7.
Differ
ature
of
Centi-
ences
r
J^XÂpu
"t"r
Temper-
grade
t
{(7-0.0006)
1.17
0.204
63.64
4.734
0.185
4.919
64.83
0.155
60.16
57.89
56.75
1.25
69.74
5.756
0.114
6.870
1.26
72.24
73.50
1.26
51.03
76.03
6.299
0.105
6.404
0.102
".506
1.16
48.70
77.31
0.104
1.17
49.86
1.28
0.107
6.195
1.15
1.26
0.107
6.088
1.26
78.57
1.19
47.51
1.28
79.85
1.18
46.33
1.26
1.21
45.12
81.11
1.28
0.103
82.39
50
0.2276
60
0.1687
70
0.1275
80
0.0981
90
1.15
52.18
74.77
5.981
0.3137
1.14
53.33
1.27
0.111
40
1.15
64.47
70.98
0.118
0.4426
1.13
55.62
1.24
0.124
5.638
30
1.12
1.23
0.132
5.514
20
0.6408
1.12
1.23
68.49
5.382
0
10
0.9560
1.15
59.01
67.26
0.141
1.4693
1.15
1.20
66.03
5.241
2.3660
1.16
61.31
1.19
0.167
5.086
6.609
62.47
62.47
4.530
1.20
43.92
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
XIV
FRENCH
1.
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
of
Saturated
Vapor
of
3.
2.
4.
Tempera-
ture
Centi-
grade
Total
Heat
Differ-
ences
Heat
the
of
Liquid
Differences
Latent
Heat
Differ-
ences
q.f'cdt
(Rep^nault)
(ReRnauU)
52.00
0.00
53.44
1.99
52.00
1.99
10
0.55
51.45
2.00
20
54.86
0.58
50.87
3.99
2.03
30
56.23
0.66
50.21
6.02
2.04
40
57.58
8.06
50
58.88
10.12
0.69
49.52
2.06
0.76
48.76
2.08
60
60.16
12.20
70
61.40
14.30
0.80
47.96
2.10
0.85
47.10
2.12
80
62.60
2.13
90
63.77
0.96
45.22
18.55
2.15
100
64.90
1.02
44.20
20.70
2.17
110
66.01
22.87
120
67.07
25.06
1.06
43
2.19
14
.
130
68.10
27.27
140
69.10
29.49
150
70.07
31.73
1.18
40.83
2.22
1.22
39.61
1.27
2.24
38.34
2.27
71.00
34
1.13
42.01
2.21
160
92
46.18
16.42
00
1.34
37.00
XV
APPENDIX.
UNITS,
FRENCH
Chloride
of
Carbon.
Table
6a.
Chloride
of
Carbon.
Table
6b.
8.
Differ-
ences
Steam
Heat
Heat
Diffei^
J^X"Apu
Apu='"l"r
ature
DifferLatent
ences
1.
Temper-
Values
Inner
Outer
Latent
7.
6.
5.
ences
of
.
Heat
p^rÂpu
Centi-
grade
t
("y= 0.0006)
1.27
0.143
3.728
3.864
0.123
236
0.076
564
629
631
60.34
577
35.00
1.00
65.49
66.48
0.1252
90
0.0970
100
0.0761
110
0.0603
120
0.0482
130
0.0388
140
0.0314
150
0.0255
160
1.24
33.76
1.28
0.99
0.060
80
1.20
1.02
0.037
517
36.20
64.49
70
0.1638
1.18
1.03
0.017
4.614
0.2178
1.15
37.38
63.47
60
1.11
1.04
0.002
39.64
38.53
62.44
50
0.2952
1.08
1.06
61.40
0.023
40.72
1.07
0.042
0.4087
1.03
1.10
0.059
606
41.75
59.27
4.505
40
1.01
1.11
58.17
4.429
0.96
42.76
57.06
0.090
30
0.5803
0.92
43.72
1.14
0.103
4.339
44.64
1.16
55.92
20
0.88
1.18
54.76
0.116
1.2776
0.8471
0.83
45.52
53.58
4.120
46.35
1.21
0.133
3.997
10
0.79
1.24
52.37
1.9971
0.73
47.14
51.13
0.136
47.87
49.86
3.2584
0.69
1.30
0.143
3.585
48.56
48.56
3.442
32.48
XVI
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
FRENCH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
of
Saturated
Vapor
of
XVII
APPENDIX.
FRENCH
of
Bisulphide
Carbon.
Table
UNITS.
7a.
12.477
51.18
11.950
76.04
10
11.467
109.59
20
11.024
153.64
30
10.614
210.18
40
10.233
281.27
50
9.877
368.81
60
9.543
474.93
70
9.226
601.32
8.926
749
80
69
90
33
100
921
8.641
8.367
1117.25
110
8.104
1337.99
120
7.851
1583.97
130
7.607
1854.82
140
7.371
2149.85
of
Bisulphide
Carbon.
Outer
Latent
Table
150
7b.
6.
5.
0.13567
1858.18
7.
8.
ences
Steam
Heat
ature
Values
Inner
Differ-
1.
Temper-
Differ-
ences
Latent
DifferHeat
Heat
of
Centi-
ences
r
tt
J^XÂpu
grade
"
P'^r"Apu
("7=0.0008)
7
213
452
676
82.79
0.187
0.98
0.171
8.390
76.07
0.86
0.79
0.133
89.68
8.523
8.638
0.67
0.096
8.734
8.869
0.53
0.47
0.037
92.67
8.906
0.42
0.016
8.917
2.14
0.35
-0.005
-0.031
0.29
93.73
90
0.0826
100
0.0664
110
0.0539
120
0
2.22
58.91
93.44
80
0.1040
2.07
63.27
61.13
93.09
8.922
70
1325
1.99
65.34
92.20
0.1712
1.91
67.33
91.07
0.057
60
1.82
0.60
0.078
8.812
50
0.2247
69.24
91.67
0.2997
1.76
71.06
90.40
40
1.66
72.82
0.72
0.115
30
0.4074
1.59
74.48
88.89
20
0.5655
1.50
0.92
0.151
0.8032
1.43
77.67
88.03
8.239
10
1.34
79.00
87.11
8.068
".8S6
80.34
1.05
86.13
881
1.1712
1.27
1.11
85.08
0.205
1.18
81.61
83.97
0.224
1.7587
82.79
1.18
0.239
0442
130
0.0366
140
0.0305
150
2.30
56.61
XVIII
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
FRENCH
UNITS.
Saturated
1.
2.
Steam
Temper-
ature
3.
grade
Specific
Preasure
Heat
of
Liquid
of
Atmospheres
the
Steam
pdt
Atmosphere
Kilogram
per
sq.
m.
According
to
the
older
For
temperature
investigations
values
30
1.153
11890
0.048566
0.9961
-26.60
25
1.463
15085
0.046647
0.7970
-22.69
20
1.839
19004
0.044803
0.6434
-18.57
"15
2.291
23670
0.043032
0.5238
-14.24
-10
2.828
29227
0.041332
0.4300
3.464
35789
0.039699
0.3558
According
For
the
Volume
6.
5.
4.
dp
Centi-
Vapor
to
the
9.70
4.96
experimental
values
temperature
4.207
43475
0.038130
0.2940
5.072
52406
0.036623
0.2455
0.00
6.62
10
6.069
62710
0.035175
0.2060
11.28
15
7.214
74607
0.033785
0.1740
17.00
+20
8.509
87923
0.032450
0.1480
+22.80
+25
9.976
103078
0.031168
0.1265
28.60
34.60
+30
11.622
120089
0.029936
0.1085
+35
13.458
139064
0.028753
00932
+40.40
+40
15.495
160107
0.027617
0.0809
46.38
XX
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNABflCS.
FRENCH
UNITS,
Saturated
3.
2.
1.
5.
4.
6.
7.
PreBSure
Steam
of
Vapor
Latent
8.
Heat
Temper-
ature
Heat
dp
P
Centi-
Atmos-
grade pheres Kilograms

t
pdt
dt
of
Liquid
Outer
Atm.-
10333
leg.
per
Apu
sq.
in.
Inner
XXI
APPENDIX.
FRENCH
Sulphurous
Acid.
Table
9.
UNITS.
XXII
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
FRENCH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
of
According
to
XXIII
APPENDIX.
FRENCH
Table
Acid.
Carbonic
and
1 1 i
10.
r.
UNITS.
XXIV
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
FRENCH
Principal
First
Table
2.
1.
3.
Heat
Pressure
for
UNITS.
the
4.
Latent
Vapor
5.
of
Water.
6.
Heat
Values
Tem-
in
the
pheres perature
Liquid
t
(1
atm.
7.
of
11a.
8.
icific
5pec
VVeii
Weight
of
Atmos-
Table
Inner
P
Outer
Apu
kg.
sq.m.)
kg.
10,333
per
com.
per
APPENDIX.
FRENCH
First
Principal
Table
for
XXV
UNITS.
the
Vapor
of
Water.
Table
lib.
XXVI
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
FRENCH
Principal
First
2.
1.
Table
3.
Heat
Pressure
for
UNITS.
the
4.
Latent
Vapor
5.
of
Water.
6.
Heat
Values
Table
7.
of
Tetoin Atmos-
pheres perature
t
of the
Liquid
lie.
8.
Specific
Weight
Inner
P
Outer
Apu
".
u
(1
atm.
10,333
persq.
"
kg.
m.)
kg.
per
cbm.
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
XXVllI
FRENCH
Second
Table
Principal
2.
1.
for
4.
5.
UNITS.
Vapor
6.
of
Table
Water,
7.
8.
12b.
9.
10.
Pres-
sure
in
kg.
Bq.
Tem-
Heat
perature
of
per
Latent
Heat
Values
of
Specific
Weight
the
Liquid
Inner
Outer
cm.
r_
T
Apu
u
(Abs.)
4.0
142.820
144.102
462.429
43.529
0.4614
002.23
2.1625
0.42421
4.1
143.707
145.010
461.728
43.593
0.4508
024.24
2.2132
0.42639
1.2127
4.2
144.576
145.901
461.040
43.655
0.4407
046.15
2.2639
0.42863
1.2086
1.2168
4.3
145.429
146.776
460.366
43.715
0.4311
067.89
2.3141
0.43062
1.2047
4.4
146.266
147.633
459.704
43.774
0.4218
089.86
2.3650
0.43267
1.2009
4.5
147.088
148.475
459.053
43.834
0.4130
111.51
2.4153
0.43467
4.6
147.895
149.303
458.415
43.890
0.4046
133.01
2.4663
0.43664
4.7
148.689
160.117
457
43.946
0.3964
164.86
2.5162
0.43868
1971
.
1934
.
787
1898
4.8
149.469
150.918
457.170
44.000
0.3887
176.16
2.5659
0.44047
1.1863
4.9
150.236
151.705
456.563
44.064
0.3812
197.70
2.6163
0.44233
1.1828
5.0
150.991
152.480
455.966
44.106
0.3740
219.16
2.6665
0.44416
1.1794
5.1
151.734
163.242
465.378
44.169
0.3671
240.47
2.7165
0.44596
1.1761
5.2
152.465
153.993
454.800
44.209
0.3605
261.58
2.7660
0.44773
1.1729
5.3
153.185
164.733
464.231
44.267
0.3641
282.78
2.8159
0.44946
5.4
153.895
165.462
463.669
44.307
0.3479
304.02
2.8669
0.45117
1.1665
5.5
154.594
156.180
453.116
44.355
0.3419
325.29
2.9161
0.45285
5.6
155.282
156.888
462.572
44.401
0.3362
346.14
2.9654
0.45451
1.1604
1697
.
1634
.
5.7
155.961
167.686
452.036
44.447
0.3306
367.32
3.0154
0.45613
5.8
156.631
168:274
461.606
44.493
0.3263
387.96
3.0644
0.46774
1.1545
5.9
157.292
168.964
450.982
44.538
0.3201
408.87
3.1140
0.46932
1.1516
1574
.
6.0
157.944
169.625
460.466
44.582
0.3160
430.06
3.1643
0.46088
1.1488
6.1
158.587
160.287
449.968
44.624
0.3102
450.54
3.2131
0.46241
1.1460
6.2
159.222
160.940
449.456
44.668
0.3056
471.21
3.2623
0.46392
1.1432
6.3
159.849
161.685
448.969
44.709
0.3009
492.06
3.3120
0.46542
1.1405
6.4
160.467
162.222
448.471
44.749
0.2965
512.55
3.3610
0.46689
1.1378
6.5
161.079
162.852
447.987
44.790
0.2922
533.15
3.4103
0.46834
6.6
161.683
163.474
447.509
44.830
0.2880
663.86
3.4598
0.46977
6.7
162.279
164.088
447.037
44.870
0.2840
574.07
3.6084
0.47118
1352
.
1326
.
1301
.
6.8
162.869
164.696
446.671
44.909
0.2800
694.90
3.5583
0.47258
6.9
163.452
165.296
446.109
44.948
0.2762
616.17
3.6071
0.47396
1.1251
7.0
164.028
165.890
445.654
44.986
0.2725
635.43
3.6559
0.47631
1.1227
7.1
164.598
166.478
445.203
45.021
0.2689
665.65
3.7047
0.47666
1.1203
7.2
165.161
167.058
444.768
46.068
0.2653
676.43
3.7647
0.47798
1.1179
7.3
165.718
167.633
444.317
45.094
0.2619
696.51
3.8033
0.47929
1.1155
7.4
166.270
168.202
443.880
45.130
0.2686
716.47
3.8516
0.48059
1.1132
7.5
166.815
168.764
443.449
45.166
0.2663
736.97
3.9012
0.48187
1. 1110
7.6
167.355
169.321
443.022
45.200
0.2622
756.63
3.9489
0.48314
1.1087
7.7
167.889
169.872
442.600
45.234
0.2491
776.80
3.9979
0.48439
1.1065
7.8
168.418
170.418
442.181
45.268
0.2461
796.75
4.0464
0.48562
I. 104a
7.9
168.941
170.968
441.768
45.301
0.2431
817.23
4.0961
0.48685
1.1021
127e
.
8.0
169.459
171.493
441.358
45.334
0.2403
836.70
4.1437
0.48806
I.IOOO
8.1
169.972
172.023
440.952
46.366
0.2375
866.64
4.1923
0.48926
1.0379
8.2
170.480172.548
440.560
45.398
0.2347
877.08
4.2421
0.49044
1.0958
8.3
170.983,173.067
440.
162; 45.430
0.2321
896.39
4.2894
0.49161
1.0937
0.2295
910.16
4.3378
0.49277
1.0917
8.4
1171.482
173.583
439.758
45.461
APPENDIX.
FRENCH
Second
Table
Principal
for
XXIX
UNITS.
Vapor
of
Water.
Table
12c.
1.
10.
Pres-
sure
in
kg.
sq.
per
T
cm.
(Abs.)
8.5
171.976
174.093
439.367
45.492
0.2269
1936.39
4.3872
0.493i2
1.0896
8.6
172.465
174.599
438.980
45.523
0.2244
1966.24
4.4359
0.49505
1.0876
1.0857
8.7
172.950
176.100
438.597
46.553
0.2220
1976.66
4.4836
0.49618
8.8
173.430
175.596
438.217
45.583
0.2196
1995.62
4.5324
0.49729
1.0837
8.9
173.906
176.089
437.840
45.612
0.2173
2014.91
4.5801
0.49839
1.0818
9.0
174.379
176.578
437.466
45.642
0.2150
2034.73
4.6289
0.49948
1.0799
9.1
174.846
177.061
437.097
45.670
0.2128
2054.03
4.6765
0.50066
1.0780
9.2
175.310
177.541
436.730
45.699
0.2106
2073.74
4.7251
0.50164
1.0761
9.3
175.770
178.017
436.366
45.727
0.2086
2092.88
4.7725
0.50270
1.0743
9.4
176.226
178.489
436.006
46.765
0.2064
2112.43
4.8208
0.50375
1.0724
1.0706
9.5
176.679
178.958
435.647
45.782
0.2043
2132.39
4.8701
0.50479
9.6
177.127
179.422
435.293
45.809
0.2023
2161.72
4.9180
0.50682
1.0688
9.7
177.572
179.882
434.941
45.836
0.2004
2170.36
4.9644
0.50684
1.0670
9.8
178.014
180.340
434.591
46.863
0.1984
2190.48
5.0141
0.50786
1.0653
9.9
178.451
180.793
434.245
45.890
0.1965
2209.90
5.0624
0.50886
1.0636
10.00
178.886
181.243
433.901
46.916
0.1947
'2228.56
5.1089
0.50986
1.0618
10.25
179.957
182.353
433.064
46.980
0.1902
2276.83
5.2291
0.51231
1.0576
10.60
181.008
183.442
432.223
46.042
0.1859
2326.03
6.3494
0.51472
1.0534
10.75
182.040
184.513
431.406
46.103
0.1818
2372.97
5.4694
0.51707
1.0494
11.00
183.053
185.563
430.606
46.163
0.1779
2420.49
5.5885
0.51938
1.0454
11.25
184.049
186.597
429.817
46.221
0.1742
2467.38
5.7065
0.52164
1.0415
11.50
185.027
187.612
429.044
46.277
0.1706
2614.91
5.8262
0.52386
1.0378
11.76
185.989
188.611
428.283
46.333
0.1672
2561.50
5.9439
0.52604
1.0340
427.534
46.387
0.1639
2608.51
6.0629
0.52818
1.0304
0.1607
2655.87
6.1828
0.53028
1.0268
12.00
186.986
189.594
12.26
187.866
I90.56l|426.798 46.440
12.60
188.782
191.613
426.073
46.493
0.1677
2701
12.76
189.686
192.452
426.369
46.543
0.1548
2747.80
13.00
190.573
193.376
424.657
46.692
0.1520
13.26
191.449
194.287
423.964
46.641
0.1492
13.60
192.311
195.
46.689
0.1466
2887.33
6.7732
0.54026
1.0100
13.75
193.162
196.070
46.736
0.1441
2932.75
6.8898
0.54216
1.0068
6.2996
0.53234
1.0234
6.4168
0.53437
1.0199
2793.80
6.5342
0.53637
1.0166
2841.58
6.6560
0.53833
1.0133
79
.
184423.282
422.609
14.00
194.001
196.
14.25
194.828
197. 806'421.
944421.
945
46.781
0.1417
2977.73
7.0057
0.54404
1.0037
290
46.826
0.1393
3024.34
7.1256
0.54588
1.0006
14.50
196.644
198.656
420.645
46.870
0.1370
3070.40
7.2442
0.54770
0.9976
14.75
196.449
199.495
420.009
46.913
0.1348
3116.79
7.3615
0.54949
0.9946
15.00
197.24
200.324
419.
380
46.955
0.1327
3160.36
7.4771
0.55125
0.9917
16.00
200.32
203.533
416.
947
47.118
0.1249
3339.23
7.9428
0.56805
0.9804
17.00
203.26
206.666,414.
621
47.268
0.1177
3521.44
8.4176
0.56452
0.9697
18.00
206.07
209.544;412.
399
47.408
0.1117
3692.95
8.8652
0.57068
0.9698
19.00
208.75
212.350
410.
20.00
211.34
215.066
408.
279,47.640
'47.664
230
0.1061
3867.31
9.3284
0.57662
0.9603
0.1010
4039.96
9.7943
10.58214
0.9413
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
ENOUSH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
APPENDIX.
ENGLISH
XXXI
UNITS.
20.980
0.07007
0.06674
0.047664
20.614
0.10400
0.09900
0.048510
20.249
0.16270
0.14516
0.049386
19.884
0.22302
0.21181
0.050293
23
19.520
0.3235
0.30700
0.051229
32
19.158
0.4511
0.42757
0.052196
41
18.799
0.6207
0.58770
0.053193
50
18.444
0.8440
0.79817
0.054219
59
18.091
1.0710
0.055274
68
77
1337
6
14
17.743
1.5057
1.4208
0.056358
17.400
1.9780
1.8642
0.057470
86
17.062
2.5715
2.4209
0.058609
95
16.730
3.3098
3.1119
0.059774
104
16.403
4.2195
3.9623
0.060964
113
16.083
5.3305
4.9992
0.062176
122
15.771
6.6756
6.2524
0.063409
131
15.465
8.2913
7.7551
0.064661
140
15.168
10.2172
14.879
12.4967
14.600
14.329
0.065927
149
11.6569
9.5437
0.067206
158
15.1773
14.1377
0.068494
167
18.3101
17.0323
0.069786
176
14.069
21.9517
20.3913
0.071076
185
13.820
26.1632
24
0.072359
194
2701
.
13.582
31.0124
28.7290
0.073628
2oa
13.344
36.5428
33.8042
0.074940
212
13.117
42.8413
39.5753
0.076236
221
12.897
49.9753
46.1004
0.077536
230
12.684
58.0185
53
4444
0.078838
239
12.478
67.0493
61
6747
0.080143
24a
12.277
77.1476
70.8638
0.081450
257
12.083
88
81.0798
0.082761
266
3955
.
11.894
100.8772
92.3961
0.084075
275
11.711
114.6777
104.8853
0.085391
284
11.533
129.8838
118.6215
0.086709
293
11.359
146.5831
133.6789
0.088034
302
11.191
164.8640
150.1318
0.089361
311
11.026
184.8166
168.0554
0.090691
320
10.866
206.5264
187.5207
0.092026
329
10.711
230.0825
208.6009
0.093365
338
255
231
0.094709
347
10.410
283.0769
255.8851
0.096059
356
10.265
312.6841
282.2246
0.097413
365
10.124
344
310.4480
0.098774
374
559
10
.
5709
3660
.
4730
.
9.986
378.5210
340.6156
0.100140
383
9.851
414.9065
372.7877
0.101514
392
THERMODYNAIUCS.
TECHNICAL
XXXII
UNITS.
ENGLISH
Vapor
Saturated
4.
3.
2.
1.
Tempera-
ture
Differ,
Total
Differ-
ences
of
Heat
Differ-
ences
Latent
Heat
Liquid
enees
Heat
Fahren-
heit
r-i-g
t
(Regnault)
(Regnault)
"F.
1080.720
"(
1083.465
1086.210
tt
2.745
14
1116.709
6.251
-35.989
8.996
1110.458
6.252
-26.993
8.997
1104.206
6.253
-17.996
8.998
1097.953
6.253
8.998
8.998
1091.700
6.255
0.000
9.000
1085.445
6.258
9.000
9.003
1079.187
6.261
18.003
9.006
1072.926
6.264
27.009
9.009
1066.662
6.268
36.018
9.013
1060.394
6.271
45.031
9.016
1054.123
6.275
54.047
9.020
1047.848
63.067
6.280
9.025
1041.568
6.285
72.092
9.030
1035.283
6.290
81.122
9.035
1028.993
6.297
1088.955
23
32
41
60
59
1091.700
tl
1094.445
ft
1097.190
1099.935
tl
1102.680
68
("
77
86
95
104
1105.425
(I
1108.170
l(
1110.915
4"
1113.660
"l
1116.405
113
(I
122
131
140
149
1119.150
""
1121.895
l"
1124.640
""
1127.385
tl
90.157
9.042
1022.696
6.303
99.199
9.048
1016.393
6.309
108.247
9.054
1010.084
6.316
117.301
9.061
1003.768
6.323
126.362
9.068
1130.130
158
tl
167
176
185
194
1132.875
CI
1135.620
CI
1138.365
II
1141.110
l"
9.077
991.113
6.340
144.507
9.085
984.773
6.349
153.592
9.094
978.424
6.357
162.686
9.102
972.067
6.367
171.788
9.112
965.700
6.377
180.900
9.122
959.323
6.387
190.022
9.132
952.936
6.398
199.154
9.143
946.538
208.297
6.409
9.154
940.129
6.421
217.451
9.166
933.708
6.433
226.617
9.178
927.275
6.445
235.795
9.190
920.830
6.457
244.985
9.202
914.373
254.187
6.470
9.215
907.903
6.485
263.402
9.230
901.418
6.499
6.513
tt
1146.600
212
1149.345
221
230
239
It
II
1152.090
tt
1154.835
tl
1157.580
248
II
1160.325
257
266
275
284
293
302
311
320
329
338
347
356
365
374
383
392
tl
1163.070
It
1165.815
It
1168.560
II
1171.305
tt
1174.050
II
1176.795
CI
1179.540
tt
272.632
9.244
894.919
281.876
9.258
888.
9.272
881.879
6.543
300.406
9.288
875.336
6.558
309.694
9.303
868.778
318.997
6.574
9.319
862.204
328.316
6.590
9.335
855.614
6.608
337.651
9.353
849.006
347.004
6.624
9.369
842.382
6.642
356.373
9.387
134
291
.
1182.285
11
1185.030
It
1187.775
It
1190.520
tt
1193.265
"l
1196.010
It
1198.755
"06
835.740
tt
365.760
1201.500
6.332
135.430
1143.855
203
997.445
6.527
XXXIII
APPENDIX.
ENOLISH
Water.
of
"3.226
53.869
Table
1027.49
2.07
2.07
0.686
2.03
1035.77
1035.77
2.00
0.751
57.406
1039.79
60.581
0.819
1.94
1045.66
1.91
0.857
0.864
0.873
67.460
1.87
0.859
1064.56
0.805
1.94
1072.28
0.797
1.98
1078.20
0.737
74.623
2.01
1080.21
0.721
75.344
76.050
0.677
2.08
0.645
78.723
79.355
2.11
0.600
80.570
2.16
0.555
82.280
1105.50
0.513
2.23
0.495
2.25
0.481
7.12
758.03
2.27
1116.66
230
16.315
239
14.021
248
12.104
257
10.490
266
9.129
275
7.973
284
6.989
293
6.150
302
6.427
311
4.807
320
4.269
329
3.804
338
3.399
347
3.045
356
2.736
365
2.464
374
2.225
383
2.014
392
7.12
765.15
1114.40
19.068
7.11
772.27
1112.15
84.355
7.12
779.38
1109.92
83.860
84.839
786.50
2.22
0.525
347
221
7.11
2.20
1107.70
212
22.392
7.11
793.61
2.20
0.542
822
7.12
800.72
2.17
1103.30
26.427
7.11
807.84
1101.13
0.570
81.725
7.11
814.95
2.15
0.585
83
822.06
1098.97
155
7.12
2.13
1096.82
203
7.11
829.18
1094.69
194
31.345
7.12
2.10
0.615
79.970
185
397
7.12
836.29
1092.58
0.631
843.41
1090.48
176
44.861
7.13
850.53
2.07
0.661
78.079
82
857.66
1088.40
77.418
167
54.130
7.13
2.05
1086.33
65.720
7.13
864.79
1084.28
158
7.13
2.04
0.691
76.741
879.05
2.03
0.706
149
80.323
7.14
871.92
1082.24
988.61
7.13
886.19
1.99
0.750
73.886
140
7.16
893.33
1076.21
131
122.60
37
7.14
1.95
0.767
73.136
122
153.17
7.15
900.49
1074.23
72.369
193.02
7.17
907.63
1.97
0.774
572
95
.
914.78
1070.31
113
7.18
921
1068.37
70.798
929.13
1.91
0.828
245.34
7.18
1.90
1066.46
69.993
7.18
936.31
1.89
0.846
69.165
104
7.18
943.49
1.88
1062.67
68.319
7.18
950.67
1060.79
0.867
95
314.70
7.17
957.85
1.87
0.871
66.593
81
965.02
1058.92
65.722
86
7.15
1.87
1057.05
77
7.14
972.17
1.89
0.870
64.849
1.89
1055.18
63.979
704.28
532.92
7.12
979.31
1053.29
63.115
68
407.48
1.90
40
1051
59
940.70
7.11
986.43
0.844
62.258
71
993.54
1049.50
50
7.09
1.93
0.833
41
1738.3
7.07
1000.63
59
1047
61.414
7.05
1007.70
0.803
59.762
32
2406.6
1271.1
1014.75
1.95
1043.72
58.959
3374.8
7.03
1.98
1041.77
0.787
23
7.01
1021.78
0.766
58.172
4922.9
6.98
1028.79
1037.79
14
6.96
2.02
0.727
56.655
7231.0
6.94
1042.73
1033.74
0.709
6.91
1049.67
1031.67
55.928
10677.7
59
1056
0.664
6.89
2.11
1029.60
55.219
15934.8
1063.48
0.643
54.533
UNITS.
lb.
7.13
750.90
XXXIV
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
ENGLISH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
XXXVI
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNABOGS.
ENGLISH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
APPENDIX.
EN0U8H
of
Alcohol.
Table
UNITS.
3b.
:i5.144
407.
25.972
406.95
26.634
444.97
27.079
448.12
Wl
402.29
11,:
27.347
449.65
0.170
+0.19
J2.7S
449.84
27.517
0.102
27.619
355.94
449.74
0.151
27.770
451.03
1.29
12.86
343.08
2.18
0.162
27.932
13.66
-0.10
453-21
12.59
330
0.245
11.52
457-10
318-97
28.445
462.06
307.85
28.744
468.06
297.10
29.131
475.77
287-31
28.177
49
11.12
0.267
10.75
9.79
XXXVIII
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
ENGLISH
UNITS,
Saturated
Vapor
XXXIX
APPENDIX.
ENGLISH
of
of
Acetone.
Table
4a.
Acetone.
Table
4b.
UNITS.
XL
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
ENGLISH
UNITS,
Saturated
f
1
Vaoor
XLI
APPENDIX,
ENGLISH
of
Chloroform.
Table
5a.
of
Chloroform.
Table
5b.
UfflTS.
XUI
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
ENGLISH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
of
Saturated
Vapor
of
xuv
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
ENOLISH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
of
Saturated
Vapor
of
XLV
APPENDIX.
ENGLISH
Bisulphide
of
Carbon.
Table
UNITS.
7a.
12.477
5.751
5.290
0.08015
32
11.950
8.545
7.830
0.08368
50
11.467
12.315
11.241
0.08721
68
11.024
17.265
15.698
0.09071
86
10.614
23.618
21.393
0.09421
104
10.233
31.607
28.520
0.09772
122
37
0.10124
140
47.777
0.10478
158
60.248
0.10838
176
74.807
0.11202
194
91.550
444
9.877
41
9.543
53.368
9.226
67
249
.
571
.
84.243
8.926
531
8.641
103
0.11573
212
8.367
125.546
110.542
0.11951
230
8.104
150.351
131.799
0.12339
248
7.851
177.992
155.321
0.12737
266
7.607
208.428
181.029
0.13146
284
7.371
241.581
208.805
0.13567
302
Bisulpliide
of
Carbon.
Table
7b.
'
XLVl
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
ENGLISH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
According
For
valuea
temperature
22
1.153
16.912
0.026981
15.956
-47.88
"13
1.463
21.456
0.025915
12.767
-40.84
1.839
27.030
0.024891
10.306
-33.43
2.291
33.667
0.023907
8.390
-25.63
14
2.828
41.571
0.022962
6.888
-17.46
23
3.464
50.904
0.022055
5.699
"
According
For
to
the
older
the
to
8.93
experimentaf
valuea
temperature
32
4.207
61.836
0.021183
4.709
0.00
41
5.072
74
0.020346
3.933
10.12
0.019542
3.300
20.30
539
.
89.195
60
6.069
59
7.214
105.974
0.018769
2.787
30.60
68
8.509
125.056
0.018028
2.371
41.04
77
9.976
146.612
0.017316
2.026
51.48
86
11.622
170.807
0.016631
1.738
62.10
95
13.458
197.796
0.015974
1.493
72.72
15.495
227.727
0.015343
1.296
83.
104
4"
XLVll
APPENDIX.
ENGLISH
of
Ammonia.
Table
8.
UNITS.
XL
VIII
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
ENGLISH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
-22
0.379
5.564
0.029803
13.516
-16.675
159.419
-13
0.492
7.228
0.028344
17.041
-13.957
158.396
0.631
9.272
0.026999
21
-11.216
157.111
4
-
242
.
0.025758
11.756
26.141
8.449
155.563
5.657
153.753
2.842
151.680
0.000
149.346
745
14
0.024608
32.007
-
18.311
0.023541
38.747
-
22.530
0.022546
46
510
.
27.483
0.021117
55.391
2.866
146.748
33.253
0.020748
65.485
5.758
143.889
39.931
0.019932
76.882
8.674
140.767
47.611
0.019164
89.662
11.615
137.383
56.386
0.018440
103.924
14.582
133.718
66.359
0.017756
119.740
17.572
129.827
77.630
0.017108
137.192
20.588
125.656
90.300
0.016493
156.358
23.629
121.223
of
XLIX
APPENDIX.
EXGLISH
Sulphurous
Acid.
Table
9.
UNITS.
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
ENGLISH
UNITS.
Saturated
Vapor
of
According
to
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
UI
UNITS.
ENGLISH
Principal
First
Table
for
of
Vapor
4.
1.
Water.
5.
Latent
Table
7.
6.
Values
Heat
11a.
8.
Specific
of
Pressure
Weight
Atmos-
pheres
in
Inner
Outer
lb.
per
ft.
cu.
Apu
r
u
atm.
14.6967
per
sq.
"
lb.
in.
0.02
64.09
32.108
0.04
84.83
52.875
1010.333
993.931
59.047
1078.08
61.007
666.94
0.93716
0.00093
7847
0.00180
1
.
0.06
97.81
65.882
983.666
62.224
378
69
2.5976
0.C0264
0.08
559
75
107.46
976.034
63.121
288.12
3.3875
0.00347
969.926
63.835
233.10
4.1610
0.00429
115.18
83.308
0.12
121.69
89
964.771
64
196.08
4.0203
0,00610
0.15
129.87
98.069
958.307
65.183
158.68
6.0392
0.00630
0.2
140.81
109.060
949.651
66.176
120.82
7.8698
0.00828
0.3
167.08
125.437
936.779
67.633
82
0.4
169.25
137.698
927.156
68.708
62.723
0.10
851
435
.
323
11.380
0.01214
14.781
0.01594
0.01968
0.5
0.6
.179.08
187
38
147.631
919.381
69.547
60.791
18.101
155.992
912.818
70.281
42.774
21
340
0.02337
0.7
194.58
163.267
907.123
70.897
36.983
24.628
0.02703
0.8
200.98
169.747
902.054
71.438
32.609
27.664
0.03065
0.9
206.74
175.577
897.498
71.923
29.182
30.755
0.03425
1.0
212.00
180.900
893.340
72.360
26.422
33.810
0.03782
1.1
216.82
185.789
889
72.768
24.163
36.830
0.04138
624
.
190.332
886.978
73.127
22.263
39.814
0.04491
225.60
194.587
882.661
73.469
20.637
42.772
0.04842
229.42
198.569
879.667
73.787
19.246
46.700
0.05192
202.334
876.626
74.086
18.036
48.607
205.900
873.848
74.367
16.973
61
1.2
221
1.3
1.4
31
.
1.5
233.13
1.6
236
64
484
1.7
239
1.8
243.14
1.9
246
0.05540
0.05887
97
209.284
871.214
74.633
16.031
64.345
0.06232
212.506
868.709
74.884
15.192
57.182
0.06676
215.602
866.302
75.121
14.438
60.004
0.06919
0.07260
18
.
2.0
249.08
218.551
864.009
75.360
13.758
62.800
2.1
251.87
221.391
861
802
75.566
13.140
65.586
0.07601
2.2
254.55
224.123
869
682
75.773
12.578
68.360
0.07940
2.3
257.13
226.746
857
0.08280
2.4
259.63
229.296
865
646
76.973
12.062
71
666
76.166
11.589
73.832
104
0.08617
231.755
863.758
76.349
11.152
76.656
0.08964
234.142
861.908
76.527
10.748
79.260
0.09290
0.09625
2.5
262.04
2.8
264
2.7
266.63
236
2.8
268.83
238
2.9
270.97
240.866
38
.
437
860.127
76.698
10.374
81
678
848.890
76.864
10.024
84.633
0.09960
846.697
77.024
9.699
87.297
952
.
10293
.
LIIl
APPENDIX.
ENGLISH
First
Principal
Table
2.
1.
for
perature
Heat
in
pheres Fahrenheit
atm.
14.6967
per
5.
Latent
Heat
Water.
Table
7.
6.
Values
lib.
8.
of
Specific
of
Weight
Atmos-
sq.
Liquid
Inner
lb. per
ft.
cu.
Outer
Apu
P
1
of
Vapor
4.
3.
TemPressure
UNITS.
tt
"
lb.
in.
3.0
273.04
242.980
845.059
0.10626
3.1
275.05
245.039
843.464
0.10959
3.2
277.02
247.045
841.912
0.11292
3.3
278
249.014
840.389
0.11622
3.4
280.81
250.927
838.908
0.11963
3.5
282.63
252.788
837.470
0.12283
3.6
284.41
254
836.060
0.12612
94
.
610
.
256.415
834.665
0.12940
287.87
258.149
833.326
0.13268
289.54
259
862
832.003
0.13696
558
830.693
0.13923
200
829
0.14249
3.7
286
3.8
3.9
18
.
4.0
291.20
261
4.1
292.80
263
426
.
4.2
294.37
805
264
828.187
0.14676
826
4.3
295.90
266.373
976
14902
4.4
297.43
267.943
825.766
0.16226
4.5
298.92
269.474
824.585
0.15651
4.6
300.38
270.970
823.432
0.15876
4.7
301.82
272.448
822.292
0.16199
4.8
303
273.908
821
4.9
304.63
275.330
820.071
0.16846
5.0
306.00
276.734
818.989
0.17168
5.1
307.35
278.122
817.922
0.17490
5.2
308.66
279.472
816.881
0.17812
5.3
309.97
280.822
815.843
0.18134
5.4
311.25
282.134
814.831
0.18454
24
167
0.16622
5.5
312.53
283.448
813.821
0.18774
5.6
313.77
284.726
812.839
0.19094
5.7
315.00
285.984
811.870
0.19414
5.8
316.22
287.242
810.902
0.19734
5.9
317.41
288.466
809.962
0.20053
0.20373
6.0
318.60
289.688
809.023
6.1
319.77
290.893
808.097
6.2
320.90
292.059
807
6.3
322.05
293.247
806
0.20690
199
0.21008
288
6.4
323.17
294.395
805.406
21326
.
0.21644
uv
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
ENOLISH
First
Principal
Table
UNITS,
for
1.
of
Vapor
4.
Latent
6.
Water.
6.
Heat
Values
Pressures
in
Table
lie.
7.
8.
of
Specific
Atmos-
pheres
Imier
Outer
Apu
Weight
lb. per
"
cu.
ft.
atm."
14.6967
per
sq.
1b.
in.
6.5
324.27
295.526
804.537
80.777
4.538
177.31
0.21961
6.6
325.36
296.658
803.669
80.849
4.472
179.69
6.7
326.44
297.770
802.814
80.921
4.410
182.06
22278
.
22594
.
6.8
327.52
298.885
801.961
80.989
4.349
184.43
0.22910
6.9
328.57
299.961
801.135
81.058
4.290
186.79
23227
.
7.00
329.61
301.037
800.309
81.126
4.232
189.12
7.25
332.19
303
798.273
81.292
4.094
194.99
307
81.450
3.965
200.82
0.25117
385
81
3.846
206.62
692
0.23542
24330
7.50
334.67
306.256
796
.
7.75
337.10
308
763
794
607
25901
8.00
339.46
311.198
792.520
81.756
3.731
212.39
8.25
341.78
313.598
790.684
81.902
3.625
218.14
0.27466
8.50
344.03
315.925
788.904
82.040
3.624
223.86
8.75
346.23
318.195
787.167
82.177
3.430
229.66
0.29026
9.00
348.39
320.431
785
459
82
309
3.340
235
9.25
350.49
322.610
783
792
82
436
3.253
240.87
0.26685
28247
.
23
29804
30580
0
.
9.50
352.54
324.734
782.170
82.662
3.173
246.49
0.31355
9.75
354.58
326.842
780.661
82.683
3.096
262.08
0.32129
10.00
356.56
328.894
778.995
82.802
3.023
267
10.25
358.48
330.890
777.470
82.915
2.954
263.23
10.50
360.39
332.869
775.962
83.029
2.886
268.76
0.34444
10.75
362.26
334.809
774.481
83.140
2.824
274.26
67
0.32902
0.33674
35212
.
11.00
364.10
336.717
773.028
83
11.25
365.92
338
771
83.351
245
2.763
279.76
2.706
285.22
0.36747
35980
.
639
.
590
.
11.50
367.68
340.436
770.195
83.452
2.650
290.68
0.37514
11.75
369.43
342
768.814
83.651
2.697
296.12
0.38279
250
.
12.00
371
344.027
767.462
83.648
2.645
301.64
12.25
372.83
345.787
766.123
83
743
2.496
306.93
12.50
374.49
347.508
764.813
83
837
2.449
312.31
0.40569
83.927
2.403
317.68
0.41330
237
84.017
2.360
323.01
0.42091
984
84
2.318
328.35
744
84.190
2.276
333
520
84.272
2.238
338.97
14
39046
39807
12.75
376.12
349.213
763.619
13.00
377.74
350.899
762
13.25
379.33
352.548
760
13.50
380.89
354
179
759
720
758
13.76
382.44
355
383.75
357
757
0.43610
0
44368
.
325
.
66
.
367
.
0.42851
14.00
103
365
84
.
2.199
344.24
0.46125
APPENDIX.
UNITS.
BNQU8H
in
Press.
in
kg.
lb.
Heat
Temp.
per
sq.
cm.
Values
Heat
Latent
".
6.
Water.
Liquid
renheit
Table
7.
8.
12a.
9.
10.
of
Specific
of
Fah.
per
sq.
V,
1.
Press.
of
Vapor
for
Table
Principal
Second
LV
vt
Outer
Inner
/cdt
eight
in.
"
Apu
^"7
'
(Abs.)
63.731
970.825
240.469
4.038
0.004160.16463
1.8041
124.633
7.628
0.008020.19836
1.6975
0.1
1.4223
114.042
82.168
0.2
2.8447
139.659
107.802
950.64166.062
0.3
4.2670
155.736
124.081
937.845
67.513
84.912
11.045
0.01177
0.22518
1.6344
0.4
5.6894
167.841
136.278
928.271
68.682
64.693
14.349
0.01646
0.24482
1.6893
0.5
7.1117
177.618
146.140
920.536
69.437
62.399
17.568
0.01908
0.26042
1.5641
0.6
8.5340
185.871
154.472914.008
70.160
44.115
20.719
0.02266
0.27341
1.6262
0.7
9.9564
193.044
161.719908.334
70.766
38.146
23.81310.02621
0.28458
1.5007
0.8
11.3787
199.405
168.169
903.303
71.287
33.623
26.866
0.02973
0.29439
1.4793
0.9
12.8011
205.137
173.950
898.769
71.788
30.097
29.863
0.03321
0.30316
1.4606
1.0
14.2234
210.358
179.237
894.638
72.226
27.262
32.828
0.03667
0.31108
1.4436
I.l
15.6457
215.164
184.106
890.836
72.623
24.912
35.760
0.04012
0.31833
1.4283
1.2
17.0681
219.623188.626
887.310
72.990
22.951
38.661
0.04354
0.325001.4142
1.3
18.4904
223.786192.848
884.018
73.328
21.284
41.536
0.04695
0.331201.4013
1.4
19.9128
227.691196.810
880.929
73.647
19.848
44.383
0.05034
0.33699
1.3893
1.3781
1.5
21.3351
231.373200.549
878.015
73.946
18.601
47.204
0.06371
0.34241
1.6
22.7574
234.858204.088
875.259
74.225
17.506
50.001
0.06707
0.34752
1.3676
1.7
24.1798
238.170
207.454
872.640
74.488
16.533
52.783
0.06042
0.35236
1.3578
1.8
25.6021
241.322
210.658
870.147
74.738
15.666
55.544
0.06376
0.36694
1.3484
1.9
27.0245
244.339
213.727
867.760
74.977
14.889
58.281
0.06709
0.36131
1.3394
2.0
28.4468
247.226
216.664
865.476
75.204
14.188
61.003
0.07041
0.36548
1.3312
2.1
29.8691
249.996
219.483
863.285
75.420
13.552
63.704
0.07370
0.36946
1.3232
2.2
31.2915
252.662
222.197
861
76.647
12.978
66.356
0.07696
0.37328
1.3156
176
.
2.3
32.7138
255.231
224.815
859.145
76.825
12.440
69.064
0.08028
0.37695
1.3083
2.4
34.1362
257.711
228.342
867.183
76.016
11.961
71.723
0.08356
0.38048
1.3013
2.5
35.5585
260.
107
229.784
856.288
76.199
11.601
74.365
0.08683
0.38388
1.2946
2.6
36.9808
262.
427
232.150
853.462
76.379
11.085
76.993
0.090080.38716
1.2882
2.7
38.4032
264.
675234.443
851.674
76.650
10.697
79.617
0.093340.39033
1.2819
2.8
39.8255
266.
857
236.669
849.947
76.714
10.338
82.214
0.09658
0.39340
1.2769
2.9
41.2479
268.
975
238.831
848.272
76.874
10.002
84.811
0.09982
0.39638
1.2701
3.0
42.6702
271.036
240.935
846.643
77.027
9.688
87.3920.103050.39926
1.2646
3.1
44.0925
273.043
242.986
846.055
77.177
9.393
1.2691
3.2
45.5149
274.998
244.984
843.509
77.323
9.118
89.965,0.106280.40206
0.10948*0.40479
92.614
3.3
46.9372
276.903
246.929
842.002
77.463
8.867
96.071
0.11270|o.
40743
1.2488
3.4
48.3596
278.762
248.830
840.632
77.600
8.610
97.605
0.116900.41001
1.2438
3.5
49.7819
280.578
250.688
839.096
77.733
8.381
100.121
0.119090.41262
1.2390
3.6
51.2042
282.353
252.502
837.691
77.913
8.161
102.641
0.122270.41497
1.2343
3.7
52.6266
284.088
264.277
836.318
77.992
7.953
105.155
0.126480.41737
1.2298
3.8
54.0489
'285. 786
256.014
834.975
78.116
7.756
107.664
0.128660.41970
1.2263
3.9
55.47131287.447
257.715
833.661
78.236
7.569
110.146
0.13184
1.2210
The
formulas
metric
underljring
table
12a,
page
these
XXVIL
tabular
values
are
given
at
bottom
0.42198
of
the
1.2639
sponding
corre-
LVI
TECHNICAL
THERMODYNAMICS.
ENOLiaH
Second
Table
Principal
8936
289
3159
290.
076*259
UNITS.
for
372!78
384(832
4.0
56
4.1
58.
4.2
59.7383292.237
262.
4.3
61.1606293.772
264.195
828.659
4.4
62.5830295.279
265.739
827.467
4.5
64.
4.6
65.4276298.211268.745
4.7
66.8500299.640270.211
4.8
68.2723
4.9
69.6947,302.425
273.069
0053
296
758267
7.391!12.622
Table
12b.
0181831.
11078.467
0.135000.42421
.2168
622"829.
872178.
7.221:
15.095;0.13817!0.42639
.2127
7.059'
17.55710.14133
0.42853
.2086
78.687
6.906'
19.9990.14447
0.43062
.2047
78.793
22.469
6.757J
0.14764
0.43267
.2009
826.296
78.901
6.616,
24.901
0.15078
0.43467
971
825.147
79.002
6.481
27.317
0.15391
0.43664
934
824.017
79.103
6.350'
29.773
0. 15708
0.43858
898
822.906
79.200
6.226
32.165
0.16019
0.44047
863
821.813
79.297
6.106
34.587
0.16333
0.44233
82a
464
820.
739
79.391
6.991
36.998
0.166470.44416
794
836
819.
680
79.486
6.880
39.393
0.16959^0.44596
761
255
579
301.0441271.652
5.0
71.1170303.
784
274.
6.1
72.5393305.
121
275.
5.2
73.9617
5.3
75.3840307.
5.4
76.8064
309.
011279.
5.5
78.
310.
269281.124
5.6
79.6510311.
508
5.7
81.0734312.
730283.665813
5.8
82.4957
5.9
83.9181315.
6.0
85.3404
316.
299,287.325
6.1
86.7627
317.
457
6.2
88.
'318. 600
6.3
89.6074
6.4
91.0298
320.
6.5
92.
'321.
942
293.
6.6
93.8744
323.029
294.263
6.7
95
6.8
96.
6.9
98.1415
326.214,297.533
7.0
99
6638
327
71
00.
9861
328
7.2
02.4085
73
306.
352
Water.
673261.
of
Vapor
187
818.
640179.576
5.775
41.766
0.17268;o.
519
817.
61679.662
6.672
44.147
0.17579
0.44946
697
832
816.
604
79.753
5.573
46.532
0.17891
0.45117
665
815.
608
79.839
5.477
48.924
0.18204
0.45285
634
814,
630
79.922
5.386
51.267
0.18513
0.45451
604
663
80.006
5.296
53.647
0.18826
0.45613
674
812.
709
80.087
5.211
56.966
0.19131
0.46774
545
811
768
80.168
6.127
68.316
0.19440
0.45932
5ie
810.839
80.248
5.046
60
0.19754
0.46088
488
288.617
809.924
80.323
4.969
62.999
0.20059
0.46241
460
289
692
809.01980.402
4.894
65.321
0.20366|0. 46392
432
853
808.126,80.476
4.820
67.663
0.20676:0.46542
405
807.248
80.548
4.749
69.967
0.209820.46689
378
806.377
80.622
4.681
72.282
0.212900.46834
352
805.516
80.694
4.613
74.608
0.216990.46977
326
804.667
80.766
4.549
76.880
0.2190210.47118
803.828'80.836
4.485
79.220
0.22214
0.47268
276
802.996
80.906
4.424
81.498
0.22619
0.47395
251
602
802.177
80.973
4.365
83.776
0.22823
0.47531
227
660
801.365|81.038
4.307
86.047
0.23128
0.47666
203
329.290300.704
800.564,81.104
4.260
88.
0.47798
179
03.8308
330.292
799.77181.169
4.195
90.638
0.2374310
7.4
05.2532
331.286302.764
798.984
81.234
4.142
92.881
0.24046
0.48059
7.5
06.6755
332.267
798.208
81
.299
4.089
95.186
0.24355
0.48187
110
7.6
08.0978
333
360
4.040
97.394
0.24652
0.48314
087
3.990
99.661
0.24958
0.48439
065
152
421
770,796 68081
81.482
306.752,796.926
3.942
201.903
0.25261
0.48562
043
094
307
542
3.894
204.203
0.25671
0.48685
021
3. 849
206.
392
0.25868
0.48806
208.
632
0.26172,0.48925|
2287
1851
4371277
733
313.
282.398
936284.893
126
286.117
728290
.
4521
841292.000
2968*324
.
102|295
260
2761299
.
301.739
303.775
335.
7.9
12.3649
336
44081
724
795
182,81
.
687i794.
13.
15.2095
337.950
309.641
793.
8.2
16.6319
338.864
310.586
792.99081.7163.760210.929
8.3
18.0542
339.769
311.521
792.
8.4
19.4766
340.668
312.449
701.564
026308.
.47929
165
132
8.1
337.
23440
301
8.0
7872
382i0.
72"
200'307
.
10.9425
7781797
239304
334
7.8
358
.
298
09.6202
134
164,296.453
719r325.
7.7
696
319.
44773
278.
444
81.
601
714
81.
65913.
274
81.
774i3.
81.830
804
718213.
3.676215.321
0.26483
099
0.49044
0.26778,0.49161'
O.27O8OI0. 49277
1000
0979
0958
0937
0917
LVII
APPENDIX.
UNITS,
ENGLISH
Second
!120. 899^341.
for
Table
Principal
Water.
Table
12c.
790.861
81.88613.634
217.
8.6
122.321342.437,314.278
790.164
81.941|3.694
219.825|0.27693;0.495051
8.7
123.744
343.310315.180
789.475
8.8
125!166
81.995|3.556222.007,0.27990,0.496181
344.
8.9
126.588345.031
9.0
128.011
9.1
129.433
8.6
557!313.
of
Vapor
367
27389!0.49392
5940.
788.79182.049
3.518
224.239
316.960
788.112
82.102
3.481
226.417,0.28593
0.49839,1
345.882
317.840
787.439
82.156
3.444
228.6450.28897
0.499481.0799
346.723
318.710
786.775
82.20613.409
230.813
0.50056'l
3.375
786.114182.258;
0.28295
0.49729
0.29195
347.558
319.574
9.3
132.278
348.386
320.431
785.459
82.309
3.340
235
9.4
133.700
349.207
321.280
784.809
82.359
3.306
237.3760.300950.503761.0724
135.122
350.022
322.124
784.165
82.408,3.273
.630
179
.
0837
0818
.0780
29794
50270
0743
239.619,0.30403
0.604791.0706
241.791
0.30702
0.5068211.0688
82.505, 3.210
324'.612|782!264
82.554' 3. 178
243.885
0.30992l0.
246.146
0.313020.60786
1.0663
3.148
248.329
0.31604
0.60886
1.0636
0.31894
0.60986
1.0618
0.61231
1.0676
456' 3.241
322.960'783.527|82.
;i36.645i350.829
351
233.028,0.294980.501641.0761
130.855
9.6
0876
0857
316.073
174
9.2
9.5
0896
788i782.
323.
893
60684
1.0670
9.7
137.967
9.8
139.
9.9
140.812
353.212
325.427
781.461
82.602
0.00
142.234
353.995
326.237
781.022
82.649
3.119
250.425
0.25
145.790
355.923
328.235
779.497
82.764
3.047
255.
0.60
1149.346 357.814
330.196
778.001
82.876
2.978
261.266
0.33395
0.61472
1.0634
0.75
'152.902
359.672
332.123
776.531
82.985
2.912
266.653
0.34144
0.61707
1.0494
776.089
3891352.
425
83.093
2.860
271.9930.348880.51938
1.0464
671
83.198
2.790
277.2620.356250.52164
1.0416
279
83
'282.60310.363720.62386
1.0378
2.678
287.8380.371070.62604
1.0340
83.497
2.625
293.121
0.378600.628181.0304
83.692
2.574
'298
,0 38598
766.931
83.687
2.526
303.603,0.39327
0.632341.0234
766.646
83.777
2.480
308.7730.40059
0.634371.0199
764.383
83.866
2.436
313.942
0.40792
0.63637
1.0166
763.135
83.954
2.390
319.311
0.41652
10.63833
1.0133
761.908
84.040
2.348
324.452
0.422840.64026
84.123
2!308 329!6660!430120.64216l!0068
1.00
156.457
361.495
334.013
1.25
160.013
363.288
335.
1.60
163.569
365.049
337
1.75
167
366.780
339.600
770.909
83.399
368.673
341.269
769.661
2.25
,174.237 370.159
343.010
768.236
2.60
;177.793 371.808
344.723
2.75
181.348
346.414
3.00
,184.904,376.031 348.077
349.717
|188.460 376.608
125
875;773.
702
850K) .32644
772
299
.
733
.
2.00
3.25
170.681
373.433
443
.
3.50
192.016
378.160351.331
3.75
195.572
379.692
352.926
760.696
4.00
199.128
381.202
354.499
759.60184.206
758.322
84.287
4.25
202.684
382.690
356.051
4.50
206.239
384.159
357.581
757.16184.366
4.75
209.795
385.608
359.091
756.016
84.443
0. 54404
848
0. 64588
1.0006
2.196
346.
0240.462240.
64770
0.9976
2.169
360.
1240.46967;0.
64949
0.9946
0.44483
1330.46678
376.
2320.495860.
746
.318
85.082
1.885
396.
708
377.179
742
.318
85.334
1.789
414.
407.750
382.230
738
.602
85.572
1.700
434.
412.412
387.117
734
.81485.795
'241
397.868
371.997
8.00
256.021
402.926
9.00
270.245
798
"
366.
7.00
1.0037
6100.43736
2.001
366.359:760
1.0100
339.
2.126
360.683
392.576
334.
84.812
387.032
227.674
0268
2.231
.605
754.88484.619
213.351
6.00
2.269
5.00
,0 63028
0. 65125
0.9917
55805
0.9804
0. 66452
0.9697
9800.663440.
67068
0.9598
6730.682360.
67662
0.9603
974.0.611440.
58214
0.9413
0.52549
20.00
468
284
.
1.618,453
TECHNICAL
LVIII
THERMODYNAMICS.
ENGLISH
UNITS.
Auxiliary
"
".*
For
French
Table
Units
for
see
THERMODYNAMICS.
TECHNICAL
LX
Auxiliary
Table
for
Converting
Pounds
Table
Atmospheres.
Lb.
Lb.
per
Atmoe-
per
sq.
pheres
8q.
sq.
sq
in.
m.
in
in.
pheres
Atmos-
pheres
per
per
Atmos-
ph"
into
Inch
Square
14.
Lb.
Lb
Lb.
Atmos-
per
per
Lb.
Atmos-
pheres
per
sq.
Lb.
Atmos-
pheres
per
sq.
m.
m.
Atmo""
pheres
m.
0.02
0.00136
8.0
0.64433
20
1.3608
0.5267
200
13.608
260
17.601
0.03
0.00204
8.2
0.55704
21
1.4280
0.6038
201
13.676
261
17.750
0.04
0.00272
8.4
0.67154
22
1.4060
0.6618
202
13.744
262
17.827
0.06
0.00408
8.6
0.58515
23
1.6640
0.7200
203
13.812
263
17.805
0.08
0.00544
8.8
0.60876
24
1.6330
0.7070
204
13.880
264
17.063
0.10
0.00680
0.0
0.61237
25
1.7010
0.8660
206
13.048
266
18.031
0.15
0.01021
0.2
0.62608
26
1.7601
0.0340
206
14.016
266
18.000
0.20
0.01361
0.4
0.63058
27
1.8371
10.0020
207
14.064
267
18.167
0.30
0.02041
0.6
0.65310
28
1.0061
10.0701
208
14.153
268
18.235
0.40
0.02722
0.8
0.66680
20
1.0732
10.1381
200
14.221
260
18.303
0.50
0.03402
10.0
0.68041
30
2.0412
10.206
210
14.280
270
18.371
0.60
0.04082
10.2
0.60402
31
2.1003
10.274
211
14.357
271
18.430
0.70
0.04763
10.4
0.70763
32
2.1773
10.342
212
14.425
272
18.507
0.80
0.05443
10.6
0.72123
33
2.2454
10.410
213
14.403
273
18.576
0.00
0.06124
10.8
0.73484
34
2.3134
10.478
214
14.661
274
18.643
1.000.06804
0.07484
1.10
11.0
0.74845
36
2.3814
10.646
215
14.620
275
18.711
11.2
0.76206
36
2.4405
10.614
216
14.601
276
18.779-
1.200.08165
11.4
0.77567
37
2.5175
10.682
217
14.765
277
18.847
11.6
0.78028
38
2.6856
10.750
218
14.833
278
18.015
10.810
210
14.001
270
18.083
1.30
0.08845
11.8
0.80288
30
2.6636
0.10206
12.0
0.81640
40
2.7216
10.887
220
14.060
280
10.051
0.10887
12.2
0.83010
41
2.7807
10.056
221
16.037
281
10.119
1.70
0.11567
12.4
0.84371
42
2.8577
11.023
222
15.105
282
10.188
1.80
0.12247
12.6
0.85732
43
2.0258
11.001
223
16.173
283
10.256
1.00
0.12028!
12.8
0.87002
44
2.0038
11.160
224
15.241
284
10.324
2.00
0.13608,
13.0
0.88463
46
3.0618
11.227
225
16.300
286
10.393
2.10
I 13.2
0.80814
46
8.1200
11.205
226
15.377
286
19.460
1.40
0.00526
1.50
1.60
2.20
0.14280
0.140601
13.4
0.01175
47
3.1070
11.363
227
15.445
287
19.528
2.30
0.15640'
13.6
0.02636
48
3.2660
11.431
228
15.513
288
19.596
2.40
0.16330'
13.8
0.03807
40
3.3340
11.400
220
16.581
280
19.664
2.50
0.17010
14.0
0.05257
60
3.4020
11.667
230
16.640
200
19.732
2.60
0.
14.2
0.06618
61
3.4701
11.636
231
16.717
201
19.800
2.70
0.18371
0.10051
0.10732
14.4
0.07070
62
3.6381
11.703
232
15.785
202
19.868
14.6
0.00340
63
3.6062
11.771
233
15.854
203
19.936
14.8
1.00701
64
3.6742
11.830
234
15.022
204
20.004
2.80
2.00
17601
3.000.20412
0.21773
3.20
0.23134
3.40
15.0
1.02061
55
3.7422
11.007
235
15.000
205
20.072
15.2
1.03422
56
3.8103
11.075
236
16.058
206
20.140
15.4
1.04783
57
3.8783
12.043
237
16.126
207
20.208
12.111
238
16.104
208
20.276
299
20.344
3.60
0.24405
15.6
1.06144
58
3.0464
3.80
0.25856
15.8
1.07505
50
4.0144
12.170
230
16.262
4.00
4.80
0.27216
0.28577
0.20038
0.31200
0.32660
6.00
5.20
16.0
1.0887
60
4.0825
12.247
240
16.330
16.2
1.1023
61
4.1505
12.315
241
16.308
16.4
1.1150
62
4.2185
12.383
242
16.466
16.6
1.1205
63
4.2866
12.451
243
16.634
16.8
1.1431
64
4.3546
12.620
244
16.602
0.34020
17.0
1.1667
65
4.4227
12.688
245
16.670
0.35381
17.2
1.1703
66
4.4007
12.656
246
16.738
5.40
0.36742
17.4
1830
67
4.5587
12.724
247-
16.806
5.60
0.38103
17.6
1075
68
4.6268
12.702
248
16.874
5.80
0.30464
17.8
1.2111
60
''.6048
12.860
240
16.042
6.0
0.40825
18.0
1.2247
70
4.7620
12.028
260
17.010
6.2
0.42185
18.2
1.2383
71
4.8300
12.006
251
17.078
6.4
0.43546
18.4
1.2620
72
4.8080
13.064
252
17.146
6.6
0.44007
18.6
1.2656
73
4.0670
13.132
253
17.214
6.8
0.46268
18.8
1.2702
74
5.0360
13.200
254
17.282
7.0
0.47620
10.0
1.2028
75
5.1031
13.268
266
17.360
7.2
0.48080
10.2
1.3064
76
6.1711
13.336
256
17.418
7.4
0.50350;
10.4
1.3200
77
6.2301
13.404
257
17.487
7.6
0.51711,
10.6
1.3336
78
6.3072
13.472
258
17.665
7.8
0.53072110.8
1.3472
70
6.3752
13.540
250
17.623
4.20
4.40
4.60
INDEX,
II.
VOLUME
table
Auxiliary
Actual
Cycle
engines,
-vapor
(English)
for
saturated
(French)
for
saturated
App.
steam,
cold
of,
table
Auxiliary
478
cold-vapor
Actual
in
cycle,
weight.
steam
Adiabatic
Battelli's
mixture
air
of
and
for
wet
steam
poly-
of
Behavior
of
wet
mixture
75
vapor.
Behavior
mixture
of
124
Behavior
expansion
of
in
der,
cylin-
steam,
231,
steam
work,
of
production
and
84
Behavior
mixtures,
steam
of,
320
and
liquid
and
steam
and
heated
super-
researches
on,
of
saturated
Behavior
of
superheated
machine
'
202
vapor,
Boiler-explosion
problem,
Boiler
Velocity
pressure,
202
vapors,
unsaturated
of
vapors,
94
rise
of
96
of,
308
303,
equation
Air's
303
vapor,
liquefaction,
for,
air,
Recent
Behavior
Behavior
as
saturated
un-
357
Adiabatic
Air
of
saturated
of
steam.
234,274
and
350
Behavior
superheated
for
air
of
mixture
of
ice,
1 16
Air
steam,
338
vapor,
Air
and
air
of
Non-reversible,
expansion.
Adiabatic
the
48
water,
of
242
of
320
curve
Adiabatic
umes
vol-
on
240,
steam,
investigations
vapor
Adiabatic
superheated
Battelli's
81,83
Adiabatic
experiments
of
in
curve
tropic,
of
333
steam,
wet
equality
70
change
Adiabatic
306
and
chanse
Adiabatic
484
of,
steam-engine
Actual
ing
Superheat-
engines,
compressor
63
62,
steam,
of
condition
extended,
313
in
volume
AirA
Ammonia-vapor,
Cailletet's
141
on
experiments
acid,
bonic
car-
Galorimetric
263
data
on
phurous
sul-
257
investigation
of
investigation
of
engines,
419
252
Ammonia-vapor
i
condensers,
experiments
acid,
ric
jet
'
from
Galorimetric
-
injector,
142
255
,
equation
Ammonia-vapor,
for,
Andrew's
Apparatus
of
tion
condi-
Carbonic
acid,
253
for
on,
experiments,
209
Carbonic
superheating,
281
of,
'
ments
experi-
263
acid,
Equation
of
condition
263
LXI
LXII
INDEX.
acid, Fonnulas
Carbonic
and
Eneii^,
1 1 i
due
the
to
action
of, 419
Heat
acid.
Carbonic
walls, Lo68
Cylinder
Entropy
for
271
liquid by
the
of
269
r
,
Carbonic
acid,
acid,
Total
for,
Carbonic
M
11
'
formula
262
1 1 i
latent
heat
by
of
vapors,
Definition
of
zero
269
Definition
Laval
3
105
curve,
nozzle,
196
acid
Carbonic
C
Derivatives
De
of, 38
Clapeyron's
wet
condition,
of
of
Loss
Cold-
vapor
Cold-
vapor
work
of
due
410
to.
engine, 459
engine, Actual
-vapor
cycle of, 478

heating
Superengine-compressors,
in,
engine,
Cold-vapor
cycle
Heat
Theoretically
injector with
of
of observed
Comparison
t e
50,
Comparison
of
feed
Comparison
and
cubic
unit
the,
Condenser,
Theory
Condenser.
Theory
Constant
of
'
for
ammonia
investigation
of
heat
366
the
of
compressor
cold-
487
the
perfect
'
1 1
for
Constants
for
steam
gine,
en-
of
Curve
of, 99
of
mula,
for-
Heating
volume,
constant
or
cooling
and
limit
and
pressure
207
steam
coldactual
standard,
441
Efflux
(First
of
172
Efflux
vapor
of
(Second
173
Total
vapors,
and
Efflux
on
flow
of
standard
wet
heat
of,
weight,
99
engines.
engine,
corresponding
vapor
steam
experiments
with
478
of
dry
hypothesis,
Efflux
saturated
of
of
pressure,
Efflux
of
steam.
under
vapor
liquids,
N
steam
on,
Second
vapor,
167
heated
highly
saturated
e?^riments
First
vapor.
ciency,
effi-
jet
steam
172
of dry saturated
173
hypothesis,
Efflux
of
dry saturated
Efflux
441
153
189
constant
396
cycle,
vapors,
Efflux
temperature,
the
pors,
va-
steam.
vapor,
based
Efficiency
Efflux
89
the
205
actual
and
gases
Efflux
of, 12
temperature
205,
der,
cylin-
21,22
pump,
of
between
mulas
for-
Re^nault's
constant
in
14
volume.
of
exchanges
17
89
volume,
heat
of
tion
equa-
38
steam,
hypothesis),
Dry saturated
bsrpothesis),
saturated
Diy
135
surface,
Determination
at
vapor,
Clapeyron's
of
wet
''Dry saturated"
saturated
Dry
engine,
vapor-formulas,
Kegnault's
of
saturated
177
oif jet, 138
vapors,
Constants
dry
of
176,
Distinction
487
derivatives
for
of
of
Discussion
rated
satu-
ordinary
at
weight,
steam
Constants
curve,
12
data
of
constants
428
vapors
of
Dimensions
Critical
'
of
Discussion
18
of
Critical
engine,
for
boiling points, 36
Action
of, 410
Compression.
of
cold-vapor
Compressor
Cooline
Dischaige
Tables,
pump,
computed
temperatures
vapors,
Constant
water,
51
volumes,
Dimensions
fect,
per-
150
Cycle,
381
Comparison
Cycle
Cycle
255
463
Curve
for
formula.
vapor,
'
vapor
engine.
Cold-vapor
of
Dimensions
of
474
perfect,
of
484
at,
171
42
40,
vapor.
Determmation
215
and
hypothesis,
Despretz
equation
Clearance,
Venant
'
vapor-
for, 17
Cold
Constants
8aint
z
29
steam.
a
for
equation
nozzle.
Regnault's
of
formulas.
Discussion
equation.
Clapeyron's
steam-turbine
180
engine,
steam
371
Laval's
De
262
vapor,
cycle of the
'
183,
185,
Experiments
160
p i e r 's
186, 188
a
on,
181
Efflux
resistances
flow
to
tormulas
Empirical
171
of vapor,
saturated
for
LXIII
DEX.
IN
por,
va-
Tate's
and
periments,
ex-
9
35
Calorimetric
Engines.
of,
investigation
Fairbairn's
and
experiments
419
rise
Cold-
Engines,
Engines
Engines
supertieated
for
and
Entropy
Feed
150
441
steam,
Fireless
engine.
steam
acid,
carbonic
for
energy
Flow
and
Flow
of
efflux
of
Theory
of,
vapors,
153
wet
271
Entropy
of
changes
with
vapors
wet
of
batic
Equation
Flow
of
Flow
of
Flow
ot
215
by
condition
of
Van
by
of
ranch,
by
orifice-
to
200
on,
for
heated
super-
243
vapor,
condition
ot
201
on,
investigations
equations
211
Equation
of
Stodola
Fundamental
d
Recent
vapors,
227
196
Flow
condition
Equation
Waals,
to
180
vapors.
Clausius,
by
Ratio
efflux-section,
on,
of
vapor.
its technical
and
224
requirements,
ot condition
Equation
Equation
vessel
one
293
vapor,
79
condition
of
fiom
steam
another,
adia-
during
weight
steam
of
61
vapors,
change,
constant
unoer
160
pressure,
Flow
ot
liquids
hot
449
perature,
tem-
68
Entropy
Eauality
injector,
with
Comparison
pump,
371
vapors,
95
pressure,
459
vapor,
saturated
for
boiler
the
ot
228
Equation
condition
ot
for
air
extended,
Generation
313
Equation
condition
of
for
superheated
of
Giffard
ammonia
of,
281
steam.
Calorimetric
injector.
gation
investi-
142
253
vapor.
Ekûation
acid,
condition
of
carbonic
for
H
263
Equation
condition
of
saturated
for
Heat
Equation
condition
of
Heat
superheated
of
208
vapor,
Equation
Equation
of
equation
of
equation
of
superheated
vapor,
superheated
vapors,
243
condition
of
of wet
Equation
of
condition.
Equation
of
the
and
Heat
approximate
Testing
of,
Heat
360
Heat
Fntropy changes of, 67

behavior
of. 67
Exceptional
Heat
of, 21
Evaporation.
127
Spontaneous,
Evaporation,
in
Hypotheses
Expansion
cylinder,
Etner,
Heat
Loss
Expansion
of
equation
Heat
due
mconiplete,
to
as
per
Heat
406
c
Heating
114
Second
Third
vapor,
58
and
steam
428
cubic
a
r
vapor,
between
walls,
for
e
Fourth
57
wet
of,
exchange
cylinder
steam
of
vapor,
60
wet
of,
transformation
106
Expansion.
wet
of
equation
First
vapor,
55
of,
transformation
Ether.
concerning.
of
equation
53
vapors,
wet
of,
transformation
103
curve,
zero
wet
of
equation
transformation
223
of,
form
Heat
28
steam,
Older
condition,
of
let
contents
251
242
steam,
unit
40,
of
vapor
per
42
at
volume.
constant
89
Expansion
of
varied
under
vapors
ditions,
con-
with
when
of
Experiments
pump,
Exneriments
Fxplosion
External
supply
heat
varies
117
temperature,
Experiments
in
Andrew's,
efflux
on
209
with
jet
steam
on
the
problem
latent
efflux
with
heat,
of steam,
boilers,
Formulas
181
94
for, 32
to
366
Heat
of
Heat
of
the
Heat
of
the
evaporation,
liquid,
liquid
21
20
of
saturated
vapor,
22
Heat
189
according
water
rici,
120
Expansion
Heat
supply
Expansion
Heaviness
Formula
varies
with
when,
117
and
for, 37
pressure
temperature.
of
steam,.
LXIV
INDEX.
'
volume
on
of
expansion
in
engine,
n
Loss
due
Loss
due
Loss
of
engine, 441
of,
mvestigation
steam
Calonmetric
feed
with
Inner
latent
beat,
26
Inner
latent
heat,
Formulas
pump,
h i
of
406
expansion,
sulphurous
on
Mixture
of,
and
change
and
wet
of
air,
thermal
Iso-
steam,
323
of,
change
Mixture
Adia-
steam.
wet
333
in,
air
of
vapor,
338
air
of
Mixture
unsaturated
and
air
of
cent,
Re-
vapors.
engine's
of
experiments
s'
Mixtui^
flow
4 19
410
31
for,
walls.
and
steam,
havior
ice, Be-
of. 350
Isodynamic
of
curve
wet
71
vapors,
Mixture
Non-reversible,
expansion,
Isodynamic
Mixtures
superheated
for
Isothermal
change
water,
ice,
air,
of
of
Isothermal
curve
Isothermal
expansion,
air
of
Mixtures
71
vapors,
274
steam,
kinds
different
of
liquids
of
353
vapors,
of
vapors.
353
of
Mixtures
superheated
for
kinds
different
of
their
Mixtures
Non-reversible,
122
Isothermal
liquids,
of
353
and
wet
kinds
different
of
Mixtures
323
steam,
wet
Behavior
steam,
of, 320
329
mixture
of
change
Isothermal
and
air
ice.
in, 329
change
of
and
water,
steam,
274
steam,
mixture
in
and
air,
of
Isothermal
123
Isodynamic
and
201
incomplete
to
196
steam,
vapors,
imperfection
to
due
batic
of
of
acid, 257
150
Investigations
cold-
396
Behavior
Comparison
perfect
142
Injector,
cylinder
clearance,
work
of
work
indicated
Injector,
Loss
cycle,
of
396
to,
flow
of
action
to
cycle,
due
ot
474
the
on
to
due
Loss
106
mperfeiition
Cycle
vapor
239
steam.
superbeatea
engines, 371
Hot-vapor
concerning
Hypotheses
cylinder,
experiments
rn
227
condition.
of
equation
B
'
kind,
M
wet
the
of
vapors
same
129
1 1 i
formula
'
carbonic
for
acid, 267
Jet
condensers.
Jet
condenser,
in,
volume
Air
141
of, 138
Theory
experiments
Napier's
of
saturated
the
on
efllux
186,
185,
183,
steam,
188
Formulas
heat.
Latent
for
Latent
heat,
Formulas
Latent
heat,
Inner
for
and
Latent
heat
of
saturated
Latent
heat
of
steam,
Limit
and
curve
the
external,
inner,
32
31
Non-reversible
Non-reversible
205
and
Limit
curves.
Lower
Limit
curves.
Transformation
machine
'
for
upper,
7,
of,
Non-reversible
64
of
Nozzle
Liquid
air,
Liquid
Liquid
air
heat
of,
Liquids,
constant
Liquid
isodynamic
expansion,
isothermal
expansion,
of
Laval,
196
303
and
its
constant
at
superheated
122
308
air, 303,
vapors,
123
liquefaction
wet
274
vapor,
ture,
tempera-
of
changes
Non-reversible
20
critical
of
change
120
23
vapors,
expansion,
124
26
outer,
adiabatic
Non-reversible
applications,
pressure,
310^
Specific
Outer
Latent
Heat,
26
21
highly
heated,
pressure
weight,
Flow
of, 160
Specific, 5
under
hvpothesis
Pambour's
in
cylinaer,
112
as
to
pansion
ex-
LXV
INDEX.
Fambour's
theory
cylinder,
cold-vapor
Perfect
L
in
expansion
of
Saturated
engine
per
as
474
Saturated
vapor,
Saturated
vapor,
Behavior
Perfect
and
engine
steam
its
Saturated
sions,
dimen-
for.
381
Poncelet's
hjrpothesis
cylinder. 114
in
Pressure
and
Saturated
by
vapor,
Heat
vapor,
Latent
for, 371
of
formula
by
of
vapor
liquid of,
the
heat
of, 23
Specific
water.
of, 34
weight
Saturated
42
Engines
vapor,
Saturated
formula
Pressure-temperature
formulas
22
vapors,
of, 9
Saturated
saturated
of
saturated
steam,
Pressure
pansion
ex-
tion
condi-
of
Empirical
vapor.
Saturated
of
temperature
to
as
Equation
steam,
of, 242
66
Pressure
vapor.
of, 9
Raoult
Pictet,
win,
44
formula
by
43
Specific weight of, 23

vapor,
364
of superheated
Specific heat
steam,
of the
Specific heat
liquid at constant
21
pressure,
formula
used
10
Regnault,
Pressure-temperature-volume
for
Saturated
by
steam
by
formula
1 i
Specific liquid weight, 5

Specific
steam
weight, 5
for superheated
Specific volume
steam,
239
49
z
,
Specific volume
of
Specific volume
of
moist
of
steam,
Formula
and
and
1 1
reliability
'
formulas,
s
'
formula,
of
23
Spontaneous
Standard
pressure-temperature
of
pressure
steam,
33
vapor,
of
vapor
74
water,
for,
37
tor,
Specific weijght of saturated

of saturated
Specific weight
Range
Formula
24
Specific weiffht
Quality
358
vapors,
water.
127
evaporation,
cycle and
corresponding
ciency.
effi-
441
42
Steam
Battelli's
investigation
Raoult
Pictet's
perature
pressure-tem-
formula,
Refrigerating
and
Range
Regnault's
formula,
Relation
Steam
pressure-temperature
Steam
heaviness
and
37
steam,
steam
to
engines, 371
engine, Theory
and
'
1 1
Reversible
of
range
formula,
changes
changes
Reversible
23
cycle of,
Indicated
work
371
of, 441
of, 368
fireless, 449
of
engine. Theory
Thermal
engine.
efficiency
of,
expansion
as
per
'n
wet
vapors,
of
Steam
89
superheated
274
Steam
and
superheated
researches
Saturated
(English),
Saturated
(French),
steam.
on,
steam.
357
Auxiliary
table
Auxiliary
table
62,
63
flow
from
Stjam
heat,
Steam
heat
vessel
one
curve,
to
another,
Steam
quality,
Quality.
27
26,
of
superheated
vapor,
Charpentier's
for, 85
formula
Steam,
Superheated,
Steam,
Throttling.
Steam-turbine
App.
steam.
polytropic
293
Steam
Saturated
by
expansion
108
Recent
112
Reliability
vapor,
Steam
Steam
35
441
saturated
of
engine.
Steam
sure
pres-
Dr^ saturated,
engme,
Steam
Steam
weight
air.
general, 450
empirical
formula.
reliability of, 23
between
Relative
Steam,
in
10
of
44
machines
Regnault's
of, 48
6
293
nozzle,
de
180
Steam
weight,
Specific, 5
Laval,
249
LXVI
INDEX.
Stodola
oa
Sulphurous
acid,
the
acid
Tables'^f
200
vapors,
'
periments
ex-
266
vapor,
researches
Superiieated steam,
Adiabatio
for, 231-
234
Superheated
by mixing
steam
of
vapors,
E^her,
281
steam.
Engines
Superheated
steam.
Generation
Superheated
aynamic
Superheated
4b.
for
adiabatic
produced
steam
iso-
5b.
waste
heat
317
gases,
Superheated
heat
Specific
steam,
of,
of;
por
Superheated
for.
6b.
volume
Specific
steam,
1 i
mula,
for-
'
experiments
experiments
Superheated
vapor,
Superheated
vapor.
7b.
242
on,
for,
Ammonia,
8.
290
u,
Behavior
tion
of condi-
Ekfuation
Fundamental
and
vapor,
of,
contents
11a.
Heat
vapor.
equations
of,
lib.
243
Superheated
Reversible
vapor,
non-reversible
changes,
tf
vapor
heat
12a.
of, 249.
12b.
actual
484
Surface
Surface
condenser.
heat,
for,
25
of,
135
of;
XXII,
vapor
elements,
Watt's
principal
First
Tables
formula
principal
of the
and
Water,
Appendix
saturated
ratios, II, III
(French
vapor
units)
of ;
p,
T.
Ether,
2b.
Ether,
water
table
for
water
table
for
water
principal table
for water
principal
table
for
water
table
for
water
XXVIII
principal
XXIX
Appendix
saturated
ratios,
XXX,
saturated
XXXII,
saturated
quantities,
for
XXVII
Second
Water,
la.
141
table
XXVI
Second
vapor,
2a.
Water,
elements,
XXV
quantities,
and
heat
principal
First
vapor,
Second
u,
la.
vapor
heat
XXIV
12c.
lb.
of the
and
u.
acid, saturated
First
vapor,
of
compressor
Equation
condenser,
Theory
Tables
vapor of' p, t,
XVlII
AlX
saturated
acid,
and
u,
vapor,
281
apparatus,
in
lie.
and
274
Steam
vapor.
engines,
for, 137,
ratios, XVI,
XXI
vapor,
of
XV
carbon, saturated
quantities,
XVI,
elements,
t,
p,
vapor,
Supply
saturated
XXIII
Heat
251
cold-
carbon,
saturated
heat
Carbonic
p,
tion
equa-
243
Superheated
Superheating
Superheating
saturated
of;
XX,
202
of,
10.
Superheated
Superheated
va"
XV
XIV,
of
of
Sulphurous
9.
vapor,
saturated
ratios,
Quantities, XI
heat
of;
vapor
208
Superheated
of:
vapor
XIII
XVII
283,
vapor,
of;
vapor
XIIJ
T, and
p,
Bisulphide
'
Wethered's
steam,
Superheated
of;
; heat
XVII
239
on,
Superheated
t e 1 1 i
240,
experiments
s
on,
H
1 r
Superheated-steam
volume,
of.
7a.
vapor
volume,
of ; p, T,
carbon,
of
of; heat
Bisulphide
241
49,
Superheated-steam
vapor
XII,
r, and
vapor
steam,
of; heat
vaix"rof
of carbon,
p,
Chloride
239
Superheated
vapor
XI
quantities,
Chloride
6a.
364
p,
IX
ratios, XII,
T, and
saturated
Chloroform,
p,
by
of;
quantities, X, XI
5a.
saturated
Chloroform,
for, 274
heat
of;
vapor
saturated
Acetone,
p.
IX
saturated
ratios, X,
of:
vapor
VIII,
Acetone,
and
281
needea
Isothermal,
steam,
and
of.
289
of,
SuDerheated
4a.
441
for,
Heat
steam.
production
nre
saturated
quantities,
Superheated
units):
of; heat
vapor
quantities, VI, VII

3a.
Alcohol, saturated
T,andratios,
VUI,
3b. Alcohol, saturated
229
6,
steam,
(Frsoeh
saturated
Ether,
vapor
7, and
ratios, VI, VII
2b.
357
on,
Appendix
saturated
Water,
quantities, IV, V
cent
Re-
steam,
the
lb.
2a.
saturated
and
Superheated
of
t
257
on,
Sulphurous
Superheated
flow
XXXIV,
saturated
quantities,
XXXIV,
(English
vapor
units)
of ;
p,
XXXI
vapor
of*
heat
of;
heat
of-
heat
XXXIII
vapor
XXXV
vapor
XXXV
T,
':
LXVIII
INDEX.
Vapor,
Specific
Vapor,
Two
volume
Wet
258
of,
different
essentially
Wet
of,
Varied
conditions
of
120
of,
Velocity
of
Volume
of
Volumes
computed,
50,
served
ob-
of
Wet
Wet
101
Transformation
Adiabatic
and
Entropy
vapor.
Fundamental
of,
flow
of,
75
153
61
of,
formulas
for
53
Heat
of
of
equations
isothermal
vapor,
curve
of,
curve
Efflux
vapor,
Wet
99.
of,
curve
vapor.
flow
of
61
vapor,
Wet
51
condition
of
diagrams,
vapor,
Wet
358
Comparison
steam,
and
Wet
96
pressure,
Specific,
vapor.
of
boiler
in
rise
Zero
steam,
Wet-vapor
expansion,
vapor
Equation
steam,
28
states
53
isodynamic
and
71
,
Walls
cylinder,
of
and,
steam
Water,
Heat
1 1 i
Wet
'
formula
137,
for
experiments
steam,
"Wetness"
of
283,
mixture
on
steam
for.
29
changes
equation
in,
of
228
and
Zero
Clapeyron's
steam,
Reversible
perheated
su-
water,
Mixtures
290
of
tion
equa-
Zero
Zero
120
chances,
kind,
same
129
vapor,
tion,
141
Wethered's
the
Weyrauch's
sers,
conden-
surface
non-reversible
of
vapor
of,
investigation
Wet
Watt's
vapor,
Wet
228
48
of,
Wet
exchange
tween
be-
curve,
curve,
curve
Definition
of,
Equation
ot
wet
of,
steam,
105
105
99,
101
89
condi"
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CONSTRUCTION
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Second
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Second
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OF
Bender,
Thos.
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PROPORTIONS
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Prof.
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DESIGNING
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SKEW
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ARCHES.
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Hyde,
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z6.
GRAPHIC
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or
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By
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From
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Spangenburg,
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Preface
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PRACTICAL
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TREATISE
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R.
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WHEELS.
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TEETH
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By
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OF
tinuous
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INCRUSTATION
Ne\7
Rowan.
ON
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THEORY
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John
By
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IRON
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48.
AND
By
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ARCHES.
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Prof.
By
Third
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From
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THE
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Carpenter,
Fourth
''Engineering
WAVE
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CoUege.
No.
OF
OF
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New
OF
THEORY
43.
IN
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Vaulted
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STRENGTH
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ITS
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De
STRESSES
Cain,
39.
Frank
By
MAXIMUM
WilHam
No.
Qerk
SURVETING:
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J.
By
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American
No.
MOTION.
By
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By
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SCIENTIFIC
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50.
tion
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chapter
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Bibliograpny
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A.
OF
With
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Evolution
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W.
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Refracting
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Prof.
OPTICAL
Construction
the
No.
THEIR
By
Arrangements.
THE
5X.
PUBLICATIONS.
Flynn.
Third
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Conduits.
P.
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OF
Based
THE
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No.
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Walling.
Third
IN
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No.
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ALGE-
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Machinery."
By
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By
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SURVEYING.
The
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Theory
Sixth
Winslow.
Arthur
Stadia
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Measure-
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INDICATOR
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Frank
C.
USE.
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Le
79.
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No.
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Abbott.
REPRODUCTIVE
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Thompson.
P.
James
THE
Wisser.
Gain.
THEIR
V.
PROGRESS
MODERN
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George
H.
THE
OR,
William
Prof.
Supplement
By
No.
Fourth
Hopkinson,
By
and
McMaster,
Arthur
By
Sylvanus
Lieut.
No.
B.
MACHINES:
Use.
Being
No.
John
By
RECENT
Prof.
John
By
ALGEBRA:
and
tioii
Foye.
Day.
".
Hardy,
TESTING
74.
John
SURVEYING.
Numbers.
braic
Ne.
R.
SYMBOLIC
73.
vised,
re-
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edition,
No.
J.
Lieut
By
ELECTRICITY.
S.
Prof.
By
TOPOGRAPHICAL
A.
edition,
enlarged.
and
and
Third
Briggs.
Wolff.
R.
MATERIALS.
Shoolbred,
Prof.
Robert
A.
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No.
73.
COMPANY'S
By
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CHEMICAL
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No.
NOSTRAND
VAN
D.
EARTH.
THE
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FIGURE
By
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Roberts,
HOUSES.
By
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Glenn
Brown.
No.
81.
Delivery,
82.
83.
84.
By
meters.
ACCURACY,
nedy,
KenWorthington,
Rous
E.
BY
Browne.
THE
USE
OF
ANTI-
C.E.
Boulton,
Bagster
OF
the
TIMBER
OF
Samuel
By
INTEGRATORS.
MECHANICAL
By
Prof.
Henry
S.
H.
C.E.
Shaw,
No.
Hesse
and
TESTS
of
features
PRESERVATION
THE
septics.
No.
Distinctive
etc.
Siemens,
No.
COMPARATIVE
METERS:
WATER
Sewers,
No.
85.
THE
No.
86.
HANDBOOK
scription,
States.
IN
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With
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By
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J.
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Flynn,
9ni.
Minerals
Fifth
Found
edition,
OON-
C.E.
De
Volson
DETERMINATION,
of
Foye.
P.
By
MINERALOGY:
Classification
Prof.
By
^THER.
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CHANNELS,
OPEN
Tables.
in
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Wood.
DEthe
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VAN
D.
Ho.
THE
X03.
With
chanical
No.
of
Power
W.
C.
from
GraphicEU
La
Rue.
108.
With
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Statics,
Naval
THE
log.
tridal
Numerous
No.
CURVES.
Rules
G.
Walter
No.
Rules
No.
By
ZZ3.
PRIMER
M.
Am.
Soc.
No.
114.
Z15.
TRAVERSE
from
F.
for
structing
Con-
Bankson,
Folding
B.S."
Plates.
CURRENTS.
Eleo-
Swinburne.
Meters
Edited,
With
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Plate
Folding
Degrees
Seribner's
for
and
Engineers,
Transition
out
taining
Con-
Curves.
By
E.
Hints
Gerhard,
C.E.
THE
CALCULUS,
edition,
and
Assistant
THE
at
for
Showing
Between
Distances
Between
Pocket
Table
Gas
Degree
Book.)
E.
and
Their
of
By
and
00
Gould,
By
Second
F.
A.
Bour-
ed.
Halsey,
of
corrected.
Difference
and
for
Third
Sherman
Solution.
the
Gas
enlarged.
Hospital
edition,
and
Consumers.
By
revised
RULE.
Third
TABLE.
Advantages
to
Bellevue
SLIDE
Machinist."
Specifications
the
on
PROBLEMS
Departure
Field-book
Useful
Third
ON
C.
OF
"American
Quarter
Notes
Paul
Wm.
MANUAL
the
and
Lloyd
GAS-FITTING.
and
Heating,
formerly
gougnon,
No.
Method
Wordingham.
Laying
AND
PHYSICAL
ZZ3.
for
Gas-piping.
and
edition.
No.
Theonr
Benjamin
C.E.
Fox,
for
Cooking
Tables
and
GAS-LIGHTING
zzz.
French
Martin.
Ordinary
General
Illustrations.
TRANSITION
zio.
H.
C.
By
Commerford
in
By
James
By
Prof.
BRIDGES.
the
Navy.
By
Stresses
ELECTRIC
OF
Energy.
T.
by
S.
By
Distribution
Air.
Plates.
By
U.
Instruments.
Electrical
the
on
Diagrams.
of
edition.
SWING
MEASUREMENT
Preface,
Third
Folding
Constructor,
Measuring
for
Compressed
DIAGRAMS.
Slide-valve
No.
by
Analysis
with
System.)
and
IdeU.
of
of,
Transmission
(Popp's
Introduction
an
Study
the
upon
FOR
Graphical
Ea^
SLIDE-VALVE
Assistant
E.
METHOD
Bridges.
of
F.
ME-
Miller.
Transmission
Stations
by
GRAPHICAL
and
Swing
No.
Central
Edited
Unwm.
Rational
AND
Plympton.
the
A.
Paris.
The
Kennedy.
W.
B.
Z07.
Experiments
Air
W.
to
G.
edition.
aVIL
Geo.
Prof.
POTABLE
Second
FOR
Prof.
By
AIR.
Compressed
by
Prof.
Rafter.
Introduction
Applications.
COMPRESSED
106.
OF
W.
by
An
and
Power
No.
Compiled
DETERMINANTS.
Z05.
Geo.
By
TABLE-BOOK
Engineers.
Examples
No.
EXAMINATION
Diagrams.
NOSTRAND'S
VAN
Z04.
COMPANY'S
MICROSCOPICAL
Water.
No.
NOSTRAND
100
and
Degrees.
of
for
Latitude
Angles
(Reprinted
to
SaENTIFIC
No.
1x6.
WORM
PUBLICATIONS.
AND
SPIRAL
Machinist."
GEARING.
F.
By
revised
Second
Halsey.
A.
can
"Ameri-
from
Reprinted
and
enlai^ged
edition.
No.
PRACTICAL
17.
mulas.
HYDROSTATICS.
With
Examples.
No.
xi8.
OF
and
and
Diagrams
with
SEWAGE,
Rafter.
W.
LAY-OUT
19.
Plates
FigureB
SEPTIC
OF
Geo.
By
FOR-
Numerical
and
Gould
Sherman
TREATMENT
Figures.
No.
E.
By
HYDROSTATIC
AND
Ulustrauve
Ntmierous
GEARS.
VALVE
CORLISS
Dia"ramfl.
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Sanfoid
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With
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Moss,
Foldhig
printed
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Fh.D
,
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No.
Second
ART
120.
OF
Coombs.
No.
of
No.
122.
123.
Methods.
William
GEAR
Figures,
the
OF
in
SHAFT
Wallace
Christie.
A.
W.
By
ITS
Reference
Handy
of
Sanford
DRAFT:
A
A.
Plates.
Folding
DESIGN.
ENGINE
Course
GOVERNORS.
FURNACE
Howard
By
printed
Re-
Machinist."
GAS
By
1902.
TEETH.
and
Diagrams
''."nerican
accompanying
Notes
University
No.
GENERATING
ELEMENTS
Z3I.
and
rsYisions
edition.
With
from
with
Machinist/'
American
Reprint
Moss.
Trinks
Book,
Illustrated.
at
Set
Cornell
Illustrated.
and
PRODUCTION
C.
BY
with
of
delivered
Lectures
figures
Housom.
lustrated.
Il-
MECHANICAL
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By

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6

simple orifices under

simple orifices under

dry saturated, superheated

theoretically perfect cold-vapor

perfect cold-vapor engine

(English units) corresponding

kg. [lb.]; the

"specific liquid weight";

kg. [lb.] of liquid, of

similarly starting with

df; conversely, superheated

general expression, therefore,

preceding formulas, for, in

log (fta^) and

~|= (ifc26log a)a^+

[212" F.]; here

table, for i-0"

piston position ^3,

presented, empirical, formulas

corresponding specific volume

61662 (Fig. 1), the

following investigations, therefore,

quantities together give

supply the heat

kg. [lb.]of liquid, then

(Fig. 2), is, according

equation (22) by -Ap,

(19) gives the

equations, [equations (22),

represents the value

i;he quantities considered

equation (35) directly

equation, particularly for equation (23)

generally permissible step

quite recently, although

present treatise, the following

liquid (p. 22),

general investigations and

liquid; and, utilizing

only presented in order

gives, for the change

(see p. 21) and

weight (entropy, according

equation gives directly

particular problems which

investigations. [For English

[491.4] (Fig. 56);

Fig. 56) lying

(Fig. 56) represent

[32^ F.], i.e.,to

cylinder during adiabatic

Fig. 56, i.e.,when

(t- 32") -0.000184

("- 32") -0.0000731

will result, and

practical calculations, however,

get in this way

finally only liquid

only liquid present

get for the

kg. [433.26 lb.]; corresponding

kg. [2116.3 lb.]. Corresponding

get, for the