Study Exercise Biology 17 - 20

Study exercise Biology 17 20
1. Describe the organization of the membranes of a chloroplast.

How does this organization differ from that of mitochondria
CHLOROPHYLL
green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plants, algae, and cyanobacteria

is an extremely important biomolecule, critical in photosynthesis, which allows plants to
absorb energy from light

absorbs light most strongly in the blue portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, followed
by the red portion. However, it is a poor absorber of green and near-green portions of the
spectrum, hence the green color of chlorophyll-containing tissues in plants.

broken down into three major compartments
o stroma the fluid space inside of the chloroplast where chloroplast DNA,
o
enzymes, and free ribosomes are found

Thylakoid
flat disks that function in light absorbtion and photosynthesis.
arranged in stacks called granum (plural: grana), are connected by
lamella, and have an interior space known as the lumen
inner and outer membranes.
SIMILARITIES WITH MITOCHONDRIA
Are ovoid or elliptical in shape
Are surrounded by an outer membrane and an inner membrane.

o
In the mitochondrion, the term cristae is applied to the folds of the inner
membrane.
Have membranes surrounded by fluid.

o
In the mitochondrion, the fluid matrix is inside the inner mitochondrial

membrane, and fluid in the intermembrane space is between the inner and outer
mitochondrial membranes.
In the chloroplast, the stroma surrounding the grana is a fluid, and fluid also
occupies the lumen of each thylakoid.
both contain an aqueous matrix containing enzymes and coenzymes, concerned with
dehydrogenations, electron transport and ATP exchange, but these enzymes and
coenzymes are used in different ways in chloroplasts and mitochondria.
both contain DNA and RNA, which are involved with the synthesis of the membrane and
enzyme proteins, when the organelles replicate during cell division.
both contain 70S type ribosomes (RNA) which may be free in the matrix or attached to
membranes.
DIFFERENCES WITH MITOCHONDRIA

Chloroplast
chloroplasts are shaped like minute biconvex
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are usually rod-shaped, about
lenses, 4-10 mm in diameter and 2-3 mm thick
1-2 mm long and 0.3-0.7 mm wide. (A few

species may have spherical or spiral shaped
mitochondria).
chloroplasts contain many double membranes

called lamellae. These form disc like structures
called thylakoids which are piled on top of each
other, making the structures known as grana. Grana
are joined to each other by intergranal lamellae.
The thylakoids contain many small and large
particles which can only be seen under the highest
powers of the electron microscope. These are the
quantosomes and house the photosystem systems
of pigments
The innermost membranes of mitochondria

are called christae and are extensions of the
inner membrane of the mitochondrial
envelope. The christae and inner membrane
are covered with thousands of small spherical
bodies called oxysomes which are attached to
the membranes by short stalks (oxysome +
stalk = stalked particle).
chloroplasts may contains temporary stores of

starch and lipids
chloroplasts contain the photosynthetic pigments,
chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, b-carotene and
sometimes xanthophyll. These are situated in the
quantosomes of the thylakoids and make up the
photosystems
mitochondria do not contains temporary

stores of starch and lipids
Mitochondria do not contain photosynthetic
pigments.
chloroplasts are concerned with the process of

photosynthesis only operates in light
mitochondria are concerned with aerobic

respiration operate all the
time, whether light or dark.
chloroplasts absorb carbon dioxide, for use in

photosynthesis during light periods, and release
oxygen
mitochondria continually absorb oxygen for

respiration and release carbon dioxide
it also absorb pyruvic acid, the final product
of glycolysis, which occurs
in the cytoplasm of cells.
the light dependent stage of photosynthesis (light

reaction) occurs in the quantosomes of the
thylakoids. The small and large quantosomes
are thought to house the pigment systems of
photosystem I and photosystem II respectively.
Cyclic photophosphorylation involves only
photosystem I but non-cyclic photophosphorylation
involves both photosystems I and II.. The light
independent stage of photosynthesis (dark reaction
or Calvin pathway) occurs in the stroma of the
chloroplast and uses ATP and NADPH, generated
by the light reaction, to fix carbon dioxide onto the
acceptor, ribulose bisphosphate. This results in the
synthesis of sugars.
The enzymes of the Link Reaction and Krebs

cycle, for metabolizing pyruvic acid, (and the
enzymes for the b-oxidation of fatty acids),
are present in the matrix of the mitochondria.
The bases of the stalked particles house the
coenzymes of the respiratory chain, including
the electron transport chain. The spherical
heads of the stalked particles contain the
enzymes, such as ATPase, which link the
respiratory chain to oxidative
phosphorylation, which occurs in the
spherical heads. ATP is thus generated in the
spherical heads.
the coenzyme used for hydrogen transfer in the

process of photosynthesis, in the chloroplasts, is
NADP (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate)
The initial coenzyme used for hydrogen

transfer in the process of respiration, in the
mitochondria, is NAD (nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide).
2. In what ways is photosynthesis the reverse of respiration

Photosynthesis
Production of ATP:
Reactants:
Requirement of sunlight:
Equation:
Process:
Yes
6CO2 and 12H2O and light
energy
Can occur only in presence
of sunlight
6CO2 + 12H2O + light -->
C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H20
The production of organic
carbon (glucose and starch)
from inorganic carbon
(carbon dioxide) with the use
of ATP and NADPH
produced in the light
dependent reaction
Respiration
Yes; theoretical yield is 38 ATP
molecules per glucose but actual
yield is only about 30-32.
C6H12O6 and 6O2
Occurs at all times.
6O2 + C6H12O6 --> 6CO2 +6H2O +
energy
The production of ATP from the
oxidation of organic sugar
compounds.
Fate of oxygen and

carbon dioxide:
Carbon dioxide is absorbed

and oxygen is released.
Oxygen is absorbed and carbon

dioxide is released.
Energy required or
released?:
Requires energy
Releases energy in a step wise

manner as ATP molecules
Main function:
Chemical reaction:
Stages:
What powers ATP

synthase:
Production of food. Energy

Capture.
Carbon dioxide and water
combine in presence of
sunlight to produce glucose
and oxygen.
2 stages: The light dependent
reaction, light independent
reaction. (AKA light cycle &
calvin cycle)
H+ gradient across thylakoid
membrane into stroma. High
H+ concentration in the
thylakoid lumen
Breakdown of food. Energy release.

Glucose is broken down into water
and carbon dioxide (and energy).
4 stages Glycolysis, Linking
Reaction(pyruvate oxidation), Krebs
cycle, Electron Transport Chain
(oxidative phosphorylation).
H+ gradient across the inner
mitochondria membrane into matrix.
High H+ concentration in the
intermembrane space
Products:
C6 H12 O6 (or G3P) and

6O2 and 6H20
6CO2 and 6H2O and energy(ATP)
What pumps protons

across the membrane:
Electron transport chain
electrochemical gradient created

energy that the protons use to flow
passively synthesizing atp
Occurs in which
organelle?:
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria Glycolysis (cytoplasm)
Final electron receptor:

Occurs in which
organisms?:
Electron source:
Catalyst - A substance
that increases the rate of a
chemical reaction:
High electron potential
energy:
NADP+ (forms NADPH )

Occurs in plants, protista
(algae), and some bacteria.
Oxidation H2O at PSII
O2 (Oxygen gas)
Occurs in all living organisms (plants
and animals).
Glucose, NADH + , FADH2
Reaction takes places in

presence of chlorophyll.
No catalyst is required for respiration

reaction.
From light photons.
From breaking bonds
3. Describe the flow of electrons during the light-dependent

reactions of photosynthesis.
When a photon of light strikes the reaction center of photostem II, it excites an electron.
Two water molecules bind to an enzyme at the reaction center this enzyme splits the
water and uses the electrons from the water to replace the electrons removed from the
reaction center to produce oxygen
The primary electron acceptor for the light-energized electrons leaving photosystem II
plastozuinone (fq).
The reduced plastoquinone passes the excited electrons to a proton pump embedded in
the membrane called the b6-f-complex.
Arrival of the energetic electrons causes the complex to pump protons from the stoma
into the thylakoid space, thereby generating a proton gradient across the membrane.
When photostem I absorbs a photon of light, its reaction center passes high-energy
electrons to ferredoxin (fd).
The enzyme NADP reductase then transfers the electrons to NADP to from NADPH
Electrons lost from photosystem I are replaced by electrons generated from photosystem
II a small protein called plastocyanin (pC) then carries the electrons from the b6-f
complex to photosystem I
Because thylakoid membrane is impermeable to protons, the protons in the stoma must
pass thorugh the channels provided by ATP synthase. As the proton pass through, ADP is
phosphorylated to ATP and released into the stoma phostophosphorylation.
4. In general terms, how do the light-independent reactions

differ from the light dependent reactions? What are the
primary products of the two types of reactions
refers to the use of light energy from photosynthesis to ultimately provide the energy to
convert ADP to ATP, thus replenishing the universal energy currency in living things.
In the simplest systems in prokaryotes, photosynthesis is used just for the production of
energy, and not for the building of any biological molecules. In these systems there is a
process called cyclic photophosphorylation accomplishes the ADP to ATP process for
immediate energy for these cells.

In the process called noncyclic photophosphorylation, a plant must accomplish the
splitting of water, the conversion of ADP to ATP, and the provision of the reduced
coenzyme NADPH to power the synthesis of energy storage molecules.

NON-CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
consists of two sets of pigments to excite.

PS1, or photosystem 1 P- 700
PS2, or photosystem 2 P- 680.
Process
Energy enters the system when PS2 becomes excited by light.
Electrons are shed by the excited PS2 (oxidation), which grabs electrons from
water, producing a molecule of oxygen gas for every two waters split.
The electron then travels from the excited reaction center of PS 2 to
plastoquinone (Q), to the b6-f complex, to plastocyanine (pc) and finally to the
reaction center of PS 1
This electron transport system generates a proton motive force that is used to
produce ATP
When photosystem I absorb a photon of light, it ejects a high-energy electron.
The energy from this light absorption is used to generate reducing powder in the
form of NADPH
The ejected electron is replaced by an electron from photosystem II
CYCLIC PHOTOPHOSPHORYLATION
Process
Light of the photons is captured by the antenna complex and transferred to the
Photosystem I reaction center, which contributes two high energy electrons to the
primary electron receptor.

Electrons are passed to ferrodoxin (Fd), an iron containing protein which acts as
an electron carrier.
A second electron carrier plastoquinone (Pq) carries the electrons to a complex of
two cytochromes.
In the process, energy is provided to produce a proton gradient across the
membrane which can be used for the ADP to ATP conversion.
The electrons are returned by plastocyanin (Pc) to the P700 pigment in the
reaction center to complete the cycle.
5. How does the proton gradient lead to the formation of ATP?

Chemiosmosis
is the process of using Proton movement to join ADP and Pi
accomplished by enzymes called ATP synthases or ATPases as protons pass through
this enzyme ADP and Pi are joined to make ATP. The movement of the Protons through
this enzyme provides the Energy needed to make ATP.
6. Describe the basic plan of the Calvin cycle, indicating the

reactions that require energy input. Why is it described as a
cycle?
The Calvin cycle is a series of reactions that results in conversion of carbon dioxide
into the organic molecules needed to build new cells.
Occurs in the stoma, which is the area of the chloroplast surrounding the thylakoid
membrane.
Process
o
During the Calvin cycle, CO2 is added to a 5-carbon molecule called RuBP.
Resulting 6-cabon molecule is unstable and quickly splits into two 3carbon molecule called 3 phosphoglycerate
Using energy from ATP and reducing from NADPH, which are products of
the light reactions, the pair of 3-phosphoglycerates move through a series of
reactions and are converted into 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
When several of these glyceraldehyde-3phostphate molecules have been

produced some are used to make glucose while others are reused in the
calving cycle.
To generate glucose turn several time one atom of C is added from

CO2, in each turn
7. List a few of the functions of the extracellular matrix in animal

tissues
For cells ECM provides:

o
mechanical support
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a biochemical barrier
a medium for:
extracellular communication that is assisted by CAMs
the stable positioning of cells in tissues through cell matrix adhesion
the repositioning of cells by cell migration during cell development and

wound repair
ECM provides:
o
tensile strength for tendons
compressive strength for cartilage
hydraulic protection for many types of cells
elasticity to the walls of blood vessels
ADDITIONAL NOTES
Glycocalyx (cell coat) - mediates cell-cell & cell-substratum interactions;

mechanical protection for cells; barrier to particles moving toward plasma
membrane
Made of short sugar chains (oligosaccharides); project outward from

virtually all integral proteins & some lipids in plasma membrane; closely
applied to outer surface of plasma membrane
Also contains additional extracellular materials secreted by cell into

external space, where they stay closely associated with cell surface
Very prominent in some types of cells like epithelial cells lining

mammalian digestive tract
Extracellular matrix (ECM) - organized network of extracellular materials

found beyond the immediate vicinity of membrane
More than inert packing material or nonspecific glue that holds cells together;
it plays a key regulatory role in determining cell shape & activities
Experiment: digest ECM surrounding cultured cartilage or mammary

gland epithelial cells with enzymes > get decrease in secretory &
synthetic activities of cells
Add back ECM materials into culture > restores differentiated state &
cells produce usual products
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B. May consist of ill-defined, amorphous associations of proteins &

polysaccharides (like loose connective tissue) or may be in the form of a
distinct structure
ECM takes diverse forms in different tissues & organisms, but is composed
of similar proteins
Most proteins in cells are compact & globular; those of extracellular space
are extended & fibrous
Among their diverse functions, ECM proteins serve as scaffolds, girders,

mortar & wire
Alterations in amino acid sequence of extracellular proteins can lead to

serious disorders
ECM very prominent in connective tissues (cartilage, bones, tendons, corneal

stroma)
In connective tissue, cells occupy a small fraction of tissue volume
ECM, not cells, gives tissues their identifiable properties: bone matrix
hardness, cartilage matrix toughness & flexibility, tendon matrix tensile
strength, corneal stroma matrix transparency
Components of the ECM - members of a small number of molecular families
Collagens one of most important & ubiquitous ECM molecules; fibrous

glycoprotein family Functions only as part of ECM & only found there
Proteoglycans - protein-polysaccharide complex
Fibronectin, Laminin, ECM Proteins
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The Extracellular Space: Basement Membrane as an Example of ECM
Basement membrane (basal lamina); a continuous ~50 - 200 nm thick

sheet; one of best defined examples; found in the following places:
It surrounds muscle & fat cells
It underlies basal surface of epithelial tissues (skin epidermis, digestive

& respiratory tract linings)
It underlies the inner endothelial lining of blood vessels
Functions of basement membrane
Provides mechanical support for the attached cells
Generates signals that maintain cell survival
Maintains epithelial cell polarity
Serves as a substratum for cell migration & determines cell migration

path
Separates adjacent tissues within an organ (compartmentalization)
Acts as barrier to passage of macromolecules & errant cancer cells prevents passage of proteins out of blood as it flows through porouswalled body capillaries (kidney good example)
Kidney glomerulus - blood filtered under high pressure through

double-layered basal lamina separating glomerular capillaries
from kidney tubule wall
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Basal lamina around glomeruli may thicken abnormally in

long-term diabetics > kidney failure
Components of the Extracellular Matrix: Collagens
Comprise a fibrous glycoprotein family; present only in ECMs; found

throughout animal kingdom
Noted for high tensile strength (resistance to pulling forces); it

is estimated that a 1 mm dia collagen fiber can suspend a 10 kg
[22 lb] weight without breaking
It is the single most abundant protein in human body

(constitutes >25% of all protein); reflects widespread
occurrence of extracellular materials
Collagen molecules provide the insoluble framework that

determines many ECM mechanical properties
Made mostly by fibroblasts (found in various connective

tissue types), smooth muscle & epithelial cells
>20 distinct types identified; each restricted to

particular sites in body; 2 or more can be present
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together in same ECM; get functional complexity by

mixing several types in same fiber (heterotypic)
Heterotypic fibers are biological equivalent of metal

alloys
Different structural & mechanical properties result from

different mixtures of collagens in fibers
Many differences among collagen family members, but all

share 2 important structural features:
All collagen molecules are trimers consisting of 3

polypeptide [] chains - may be identical or 2 or 3 different
chains
Along at least part of length, the 3 chains wind around each

other; form unique, rodlike triple helix
Some are fibrillar collagens (I, II, II) - assemble into rigid,
cable-like fibrils; then into thicker fibers visible in light
microscope
Individual collagen molecules of a fibril are not in

register but are staggered ~1/4 length relative to their
neighbors
The staggered arrangement adds to the mechanical

strength of the complex & causes banding patterns
characteristic of collagen fibers
Fibrils are strengthened further by covalent cross-links

between lysine & hydroxylysine residues on adjacent
collagen molecules - if disrupted weakened
Cross-linking process continues through life
May contribute to decreased skin elasticity & increased

brittleness of bones among elderly
Collagen provides insoluble framework that determines

many of the ECM mechanical properties & 3D
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organization of collagen molecules often correlates with

properties of tissue in which it is found
Tendons (connect muscles to bones) must resist large

pulling forces during muscle contraction collagen
fibers aligned parallel to long axis of tendon &
parallel to direction of pulling force
Cornea serves as durable, transparent (so light can

pass through), protective layer at eyeball surface
Stroma (thick middle layer) fibrils are

relatively short, in orthogonal layers (fibers in
layer are parallel to each other, but
perpendicular to those in adjoining layers) like
plywood (gives strength)
Fiber size uniformity & ordered packing

promote transparency (minimizes light
scattering)
Basement membrane (very thin, mechanically

supportive sheets); type IV collagen (only seen here)
Type IV collagen is nonfibrillar collagen & is

organized in flattened network; it provides
mechanical support & serves as a lattice for
deposition of other ECM material
Type IV collagen trimer has some interspersed

nonhelical segments, not a long, uninterrupted
triple helix like Type I (gives flexibility)
Given their abundance & widespread distribution, serious

disorders can be caused by abnormalities in fibrillar collagen
formation
Burns or traumatic injuries to internal organs can cause scar

tissue buildup (largely fibrillar collagen)
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Type I collagen mutations - osteogenesis imperfecta,

potentially lethal condition characterized by extremely fragile
bones, thin skin & weak tendons
Type II collagen mutations - alter cartilage properties; causes

dwarfism & skeletal deformities
A number of collagen gene mutations - cause various distinct

but related collagen matrix structure defects (Ehler-Danlos
syndromes) one causes hyperextendable joints & highly
extensible skin
Type IV collagen gene mutations - Alport syndrome, an

inherited kidney disease in which the glomerular basement
membrane is disrupted
Components of the Extracellular Matrix: Proteoglycans
Basement membranes & other ECMs contain large amounts of distinctive

type of protein-polysaccharide complex called a proteoglycan
Consist of core protein to which glycosaminoglycan (GAG) chains are

covalently attached
GAGs - repeating disaccharides (2 different sugars; -A-B-A-B-); very

acidic due to both carboxyl & sulfate groups on their component sugar
rings
ECM proteoglycans may assemble into gigantic complexes by linking

core proteins to hyaluronic acid (a nonsulfated GAG); can occupy very
large volumes (equivalent to that of bacterial cell)
Due to sulfated GAG negative charges, proteoglycans bind large numbers

of cations, which, in turn, attract lots of H2O
They form porous hydrated gel; that fills extracellular space & acts
like packing material to resist crushing (compression) forces
This complements adjacent collagens, which resist pulling forces &

provide scaffold for proteoglycans
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Together they give cartilage & other ECMs strength & resistance to
deformation (wiggle your ears)
The ECM of bone is also made of collagen & proteoglycans but it is

hardened by impregnation with calcium phosphate salts
Components of the Extracellular Matrix: Fibronectin, Laminin & Other ECM

Proteins
Matrix implies a structure made up of a network of interacting components;

this is apt for ECM
It contains a number of proteins, in addition to collagen &

proteoglycans that interact with one another in highly specific ways
Many ECM proteins occur in families (more than 1 form; each formed
by alternate mRNA splicing)
Different family members made in different tissues & at

different times during development
Different protein forms may have different properties

(characteristics may not apply to all forms)
Fibronectin (fibrous) - one of best studied ECM proteins; has features

common to most other matrix components & ECM proteins; consists of
linear array of distinct building blocks (a modular construction)
Each fibronectin polypeptide is constructed from a sequence of ~30

independently folding Fn modules of 3 distinct types (FnI, FnII & FnIII)
Fn modules were first found in fibronectin, but they are part of many other
proteins.
Found in proteins from blood clotting factors to membrane receptors & other
ECM proteins
Each of the two polypeptide chains making up fibronectin contains:
Binding sites for other ECM components (collagen, proteoglycans,

etc.); link these molecules into stable, interconnected networks
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Binding sites for cell surface receptors (form stable ECM-cell

attachments); endothelial cell will adopt shape unlike it does in body
when it spreads over a square surface coated with fibronectin
Fibronectin & other ECM proteins are important when tissues are
involved in dynamic activities (embryonic development)
Development involves waves of cell migration over pathways

containing ECM proteins; different cells follow different routes from
one part of embryo to another
Migrating cells guided by proteins like fibronectin contained in

landscape over which they pass
Neural crest cells follow fibronectin pathways from early nervous

system throughout embryo; antibodies to fibronectin bind & block
recognition sites on fibronectin > inhibit cell movements
Laminin also has specific domains family of extracellular glycoproteins;

consist of 3 different polypeptide chains linked by disulfide bonds; organized
into a cross with 3 short arms & 1 long arm
Extracellularly, it greatly influences cell's potential for migration,

growth & differentiation
Guides embryonic axon tips as grow outward from central

nervous system to distant targets
Critical role in primordial germ cell (PGC) migration PGCs

follow laminin paths from yolk sac (outside embryo) through
blood & embryonic tissues to developing gonad, become eggs
or sperm
During migration, PGCs traverse surfaces particularly

rich in laminin
Certain cells migrate over laminin-containing matrix that they

secrete (keratinocytes skin cells)
Isolate keratinocytes from mice genetically engineered
to lack genes for this type of laminin
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Also binds tightly to other laminins, proteoglycans,

basal lamina components, cell surface receptors
Basal lamina type IV collagens & laminin may form
separate, but interconnected, networks
These interwoven networks give basal lamina
both strength & flexibility
Basal lamina with this structure are not restricted
to vertebrates; seen throughout animal kingdom
8. List two characteristic that distinguish hemidesmosomes

from local adhesions
Interactions of Cells with Noncellular Substrates: Focal Adhesions & Hemidesmosomes
Focal contacts anchor cells to their substratum it is much easier to study cell adhesion
to a surface in vitro (in a culture dish) than with an extracellular matrix inside an animal
Much of our knowledge of cell-matrix interactions is derived from studies of

cells adhering to various substrates in vitro
Steps in cell adhesion to culture dish
Cell initially has rounded morphology like most animal cells suspended
in aqueous medium
As cell contacts substratum, it sends out projections that make

increasingly stable attachments
Over time, cell flattens & spreads itself out on substratum with
rearrangement of cytoskeleton (may be mediated by transmembrane
signaling)
Focal adhesions dynamic structures; can be rapidly disassembled if the

adherent cell is stimulated to move or enter mitosis
Integrin clusters (often V3) are seen in membrane focal adhesion

region; integrin cytoplasmic domains are connected by various adaptors
to actin filaments of cytoskeleton connect dish ECM & cytoskeleton
(actin); cytoskeleton attachment seems necessary for cell adhesion
Actin filaments along with myosin molecules are part of cell's contractile
machinery, which can create or respond to mechanical forces
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Focal adhesions form in cells grown in vitro, but similar types of adhesive contacts are
found in certain tissues, like muscle & tendon
In body, the tightest attachment between a cell & ECM is at epithelial cell basal surface
where they are anchored to underlying basement membrane by specialized adhesive
structure (hemidesmosome)
They contain dense plaque on membrane inner surface with filaments coursing outward
into cytoplasm
Filaments are thicker than actin of focal adhesions & made of keratin
(intermediate filaments)
Primarily supportive rather than contractile; keratin-containing filaments of

hemidesmosome are linked to ECM by membrane-spanning integrins (64)
Bullous pemphigoid rare autoimmune disease (people make antibodies against

hemidesmosome plaque proteins, bullous pemphigoid antigens); demonstrates
importance of hemidesmosomes
Autoimmune disorders are caused by production of antibodies (autoantibodies)

directed against one's own tissues; responsible for a wide variety of conditions
Presence of autoantibodies causes lower epidermal layer to lose attachment to

underlying basement membrane & thus to underlying connective tissue layer of
dermis
Causes severe blistering of skin when fluid leaks into space under epidermis
Epidermolysis bullosa (a similar inherited blistering disease) - found in patients with

genetic alterations in any one of a number of hemidesmosomal proteins (6 or 4 integrin
subunit or laminin)
Other epithelia in body (gastrointestinal & urinary tract linings) may also be
affected
9. Describe the 4 types of an intercellular junctional complex (cell

junctions)
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TIGHT JUNCTION
also referred to as a zonula occludens
is a site where the membranes of two cells come very
close together.
often occur in a belt completely encircling the cell
material cannot pass from one side of the sheet to the
other by squeezing between cells. Instead, it must go
through a cell, and hence the cell can regulate its
passage. Such an arrangement is found in the gut, to regulate absorption of digested
nutrients.
FUNCTIONS
o They prevent the passage of molecules and ions through the space between cells.
So materials must actually enter the cells (by diffusion or active transport) in
order to pass through the tissue. This pathway provides control over what
o
substances are allowed through.

They block the movement of integral membrane proteins (red and green ovals)
between the apical and basolateral surfaces of the cell. Thus the special functions
of each surface, for example receptor-mediated endocytosis at the apical
surface and exocytosis at the basolateral surface can be preserved.
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GAP JUNCTION
there is a channel between the membranes of contacting cells in the gap junction so that
the cytoplasm of the two is connected

The basic building block of each gap junction is the connexin subunit lipid bilayers
are penetrated by protein assemblies called connexons. Two connexons join across the
intercellular space to form a continuous aqueous channel that links the two cells
Because ions can flow through them, gap junctions permit changes in membrane potential
to pass from cell to cell.
Function
o The action potential in heart (cardiac) muscle flows from cell to cell through the
o
heart providing the rhythmic contraction of the heartbeat.

At some so-called electrical synapses in the brain, gap junctions permit the
arrival of an action potential at the synaptic terminals to be transmitted across to
the postsynaptic cell without the delay needed for release of a neurotransmitter.
As the time of birth approaches, gap junctions between the smooth muscle cells
of the uterus enable coordinated, powerful contractions to begin.

Several inherited disorders of humans such as certain congenital heart defects
and certain cases of congenital deafnes have been found to be caused by mutant
genes encoding connexins.
ADHERENS JUNCTIONS AND FOCAL CONTACTS
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sometimes called zonula adherens
are found at sites of cell-cell interaction.
Focal contacts mediate association of cells with the extracellular matrix.
Both associate with the actin cytoskeleton and both are involved in adhesion (sticking
cells together or sticking cells to surfaces).
Focal contacts possess specific transmembrane receptors of the integrin family that link
the cell to the extracellular matrix on the outside of the cell and the microfilament system
on the inside. Conversely, members of a family of calcium ion-dependent cell adhesion
molecules, called cadherins, mediate attachment between cells at adherens junctions.
Adherens junctions and focal contacts not only tether cells together or to the extracellular
matrix, but they also transduce signals into and out of the cell, influencing a variety of
cellular behaviors including proliferation, migration, and differentiation. In fact some
protein components of these junctions can shuttle to and from the nucleus where they are
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thought to play a role in regulating gene expression.
DESMOSOMES AND HEMIDESMOSOMES
Desmosomes (the macula adherens) and hemidesmosomes are distinguished by their

association with the keratin -based cytoskeleton
Both are primarily involved in adhesion
The desmosome, like the adherens junction, possesses calcium ion-dependent cell
adhesion molecules that interact with similar molecules in the adjacent cell.
integrins at the core of the hemidesmosome mediate its interaction with the extracellular
matrix.
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The hemidesmosome and, most likely, the desmosome are also sites of signal
transduction
10. Describe the components that make up a plant cell wall and
the role of each in the walls structure and function
Function of cell wall
maintaining/determining cell shape (analogous to an external skeleton for every cell)
Support and mechanical strength (allows plants to get tall, hold out thin leaves to
obtain light)
prevents the cell membrane from bursting in a hypotonic medium (i.e., resists water
pressure)
controls the rate and direction of cell growth and regulates cell volume
ultimately responsible for the plant architectural design and controlling plant
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morphogenesis since the wall dictates that plants develop by cell addition (not cell
migration)
has a metabolic role (i.e., some of the proteins in the wall are enzymes for transport,
secretion)
physical barrier to: (a) pathogens; and (b) water in suberized cells. However, the
wall is very porous and allows the free passage of small molecules, including proteins up
to 60,000 MW.
carbohydrate storage - the components of the wall can be reused in other metabolic
processes (especially in seeds). Thus, in one sense the wall serves as a storage repository
for carbohydrates
signaling - fragments of wall, called oligosaccharins, act as hormones. recognition

responses - for example: (a) the wall of roots of legumes is important in the nitrogenfixing bacteria colonizing the root to form nodules; and (b) pollen-style interactions are
mediated by wall chemistry.
economic products - cell walls are important for products such as paper, wood, fiber,
energy, shelter, and even roughage in our diet.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
1. Hemicellulose
bind to cellulose microfibril surfaces, crosslinking them into a complex structural network
o
Cellulose
polymer of glucose typically

consisting of 1,000 to 10,000 betaD-glucose residues
27
major component of primary and secondary wall layers.
Cellulose polymers associate thro ugh H-bonds The H-bonding of

many cellulose molecules to each other results in the formation of
micro fibers and the micro fibers can interact to form fibers.
branching macromolecule contstructed of 5- and 6-carbon sugars
generally insoluble in pH 7 water, but more soluble in basic solutions
classified on the basis of their component sugars. Xylose, mannose, and galactose form
the hemicellulose backbone; arabinose, glucuronic acid, and galactose form the side
chains affect chemical characteristic of the hemicellulose
abundant in primary walls but is also found in secondary walls.
Functions
o
limit the stretchiness of the cell wall by linking adjacent microfibrils and
preventing them from sliding against each other for unlimited distances
involved in controlling cell enlargement
2. Pectin
a family of complex polysaccharides that all contain 1,4-linked -D-galacturonic

acid.
Form extensive, hydrated gel filling space between fibrous elements (attract H2O
like animal GAGs)
Function
28
o When plant is attacked by pathogens, pectin fragments released from wall

trigger defensive plant cell response
o When purified, pectin is used commercially to provide gel-like consistency of

jams & jellies
3. Structural Proteins
Strucural proteins are found in all layers of the plant cell wall but they are more abundant
in the primary wall layer
Functions
o they mediate dynamic activities
expansins facilitate cell growth; they cause localized relaxation of
cell wall, which allows the cell to elongate at that site in response to
turgor pressure generated within cell

Cell wall-associated protein kinases span the plasma membrane & are
thought to transmit signals from the cell wall to the cytoplasm
29

Study Exercise Biology 17 - 20

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Study Exercise Biology 17 - 20

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Study exercise Biology 17 20

1. Describe the organization of the membranes of a chloroplast.

green pigment found in the chloroplasts of plants, algae, and cyanobacteria

absorb energy from light

spectrum, hence the green color of chlorophyll-containing tissues in plants.

enzymes, and free ribosomes are found

SIMILARITIES WITH MITOCHONDRIA

Are ovoid or elliptical in shape

Are surrounded by an outer membrane and an inner membrane.