Chapter-One

Introduction
1.1 Overview:
The irrigation system is defined as a system that distributes water to targeted
area. Basically, it is meant for agriculture purposes. The efficiency of the
irrigation is based on the system used. Since antiquity, the human life is
based on agriculture and the irrigation system is one of the tools that boost
agriculture. There are many other types of irrigation system all over the world
but these irrigations are encountering many problems. In fact, there are few
modern systems but they mostly fail in one way to another. The automation
plays an important role in the world economy; therefore, engineers struggle to
come out with combined automatic devices in order to create complex
systems that help human in its activities so that the system automatically
processes itself without any human intervention. So we would like to develop
an automatic irrigation system. Basically, the paper consists of electrical part
and mechanical part. The electrical part consists of photovoltaic, which is
meant to generate power and the power is stored in the rechargeable battery.
The mechanical part consists of pump to pump out the water from the water
source. There are two solenoid valves that are used to control the water flow.
Additionally, Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) is interfaced with
SCADA (Supervisory Control Data Acquisition) system developed in a
personal computer (PC) using LABVIEW. SCADA system is used for
controlling the automation system via computer so there is a need to develop
HMI human-machine interface employed to communicate with automation
device like PLCs and other computers, like water computers. Water is
recognized as a source of human life, as well as plants and animals.
Therefore, the water needs to be managed properly without any waste. The
proper management of any liquid is very significant, especially in our case of
water management of the irrigation system. The best liquid management is
provided by SCADA.

1.2 Irrigation systems:

Is the artificial application of water to the land or soil. It is used to assist in
the growing of agricultural crops, maintenance of landscapes, and
revegetation of disturbed soils in dry areas and during periods of inadequate
rainfall. Additionally, irrigation also has a few other uses in crop production,
which include protecting plants against frost, [1] suppressing weed growth in
grain fields [2] and preventing soil consolidation. [3] In contrast, agriculture
that relies only on direct rainfall is referred to as rain-fed or dry land farming.
Irrigation systems are also used for dust suppression, disposal of sewage, and
in mining. Irrigation is often studied together with drainage, which is the
natural or artificial removal of surface and sub-surface water from a given
area. Irrigation has been a central feature of agriculture for over 5000 years,
and was the basis of the economy and society of numerous societies, ranging
from Asia to Arizona.

1.3 History

Fig. 1.1: Animal-powered irrigation, Upper Egypt, ca. 1840

Fig1.2: Inside a karez tunnel at Turpan, Uyghurstan

Archaeological investigation has identified evidence of irrigation where the
natural rainfall was insufficient to support crops. Perennial irrigation was
practiced in the Mesopotamian plain whereby crops were regularly watered
throughout the growing season by coaxing water through a matrix of small
channels formed in the field.[4]
Ancient Egyptians practiced Basin irrigation using the flooding of the Nile to
inundate land plots which had been surrounded by dykes. The flood water
was held until the fertile sediment had settled before the surplus was returned
to the watercourse.[5] There is evidence of the ancient Egyptian pharaoh
Amenemhet III in the twelfth dynasty (about 1800 BCE) using the natural
lake of the Faiyum Oasis as a reservoir to store surpluses of water for use
during the dry seasons, the lake swelled annually from flooding of the Nile.
[6]
The Ancient Nubians developed a form of irrigation by using a waterwheellike device called a sakia. Irrigation began in Nubia some time between the
third and second millennium BCE. [7] It largely depended upon the flood

waters that would flow through the Nile River and other rivers in what is now
the Sudan. [8]
In sub-Saharan Africa irrigation reached the Niger River region cultures and
civilizations by the first or second millennium BCE and was based on wet
season flooding and water harvesting. [9] [10]
Terrace irrigation is evidenced in pre-Columbian America, early Syria, India,
and China. [5] In the Zana Valley of the Andes Mountains in Peru,
archaeologists found remains of three irrigation canals radiocarbon dated
from the 4th millennium BCE, the 3rd millennium BCE and the 9th century
CE. These canals are the earliest record of irrigation in the New World.
Traces of a canal possibly dating from the 5th millennium BCE were found
under the 4th millennium canal. [11] Sophisticated irrigation and storage
systems were developed by the Indus Valley Civilization in present-day
Pakistan and North India, including the reservoirs at Girnar in 3000 BCE and
an early canal irrigation system from circa 2600 BCE. [12][13] Large scale
agriculture was practiced and an extensive network of canals was used for the
purpose of irrigation.
Ancient Persia (modern day Iran) as far back as the 6th millennium BCE,
where barley was grown in areas where the natural rainfall was insufficient to
support such a crop. [14] The Qanats, developed in ancient Persia in about
800 BCE, are among the oldest known irrigation methods still in use today.
They are now found in Asia, the Middle East and North Africa. The system
comprises a network of vertical wells and gently sloping tunnels driven into
the sides of cliffs and steep hills to tap groundwater. [15] The noria, a water
wheel with clay pots around the rim powered by the flow of the stream (or by
animals where the water source was still), was first brought into use at about

this time, by Roman settlers in North Africa. By 150 BCE the pots were fitted
with valves to allow smoother filling as they were forced into the water. [16]
The irrigation works of ancient Sri Lanka, the earliest dating from about 300
BCE, in the reign of King Pandukabhaya and under continuous development
for the next thousand years, were one of the most complex irrigation systems
of the ancient world. In addition to underground canals, the Sinhalese were
the first to build completely artificial reservoirs to store water. Due to their
engineering superiority in this sector, they were often called 'masters of
irrigation'. Most of these irrigation systems still exist undamaged up to now,
in Anuradhapura and Polonnaruwa, because of the advanced and precise
engineering. The system was extensively restored and further extended
during the reign of King Parakrama Bahu

1.4 Before according about power Crisis

Crisis of power is one of the major problems in Bangladesh. Day by day the
gap between demand and production is increasing. Moreover, most of the
power plants are gas based which will be phased out in future. Misuse,
system loss and corruption in power sector are the main issue regarding this
crisis. It is possible to control load demand by using compact fluorescent
lamp (CFL), transformation of holiday, proper load management,
encouraging Independent Power Producers (IPP) and reducing transmission
loss. Priority should be given to control misuse and corruption in power
sector than generation of power. Proper utilization of renewable energy is the
up most choice for solving the power crisis in Bangladesh because it requires
low cost and less risk. Initiative should be taken to develop skilled manpower
required for the power sector considering renewable energy sources. By
incorporating IPP and local Government (GOV), central GOV may take the

responsibility to increase the power generation and ensure its proper use in
Bangladesh.
Bangladesh managed to achieve an effective power generation capacity of
3500MW till 2009 and three and half years since then present government
added 3300MW new power. Without fuel constraint the total generation
could be 6800MW. Some persons may not like the way the new power
generation has been added but all must appreciate that in a country like
Bangladesh it is no mean achievement. But government failed to anticipate
impacts of price increase of liquid fuel in volatile world energy market
requiring huge subsidy obligation. Government failed to initiate exploration
of own sweet coal , government failed to advance traditional fuel based major
power plant installation. Fuel constraints restrict power generation to about
5200-5500MW against an increased demand of 7500MW. Consequent deficit
does not make visible of positive impacts of new power generation as load
shedding continues and people criticize.
Every power plant in the private sector whatever is its size large, medium or
small is a rental plant. For private sector power plants Bangladesh has
required policies. Liquid fuel based contingency plants, peaking plants should
be categorized under small IPP. If liquid fuel based Barge Mounted plant at
Khulna could be categorized as IPP why not the liquid fuel based small

Fig 1.3: Power Distribution Line

6

contingency plants be called small IPP. Somebody somewhere someday

called these Quick Rental plants and now everyone has found it a favorite
pastime to talk about it in Bangladesh.
When the present government came to state power there was a power deficit
of 2000MW at generation level. The coincident peak demand was about 5500
MW and the generation was 3500 MW. In three and half years about
2000MW new demand has been created for various reasons ranging from
more and more people acquiring power consuming new electronic gazettes
[freezes, televisions, air conditioners, personal computers], new power
connections, easy bikes etc. Government theoretically added about 3300 MW
new power. Hence raising power generation from 3500MW to 6800MW
[Although for fuel supply crisis effective generation is 5200-5500MW] and
demand increased to 7500MW. Consequently the deficit of 2000MW
continues to remain creating massive load shedding. One can easily imagine
the consequences if no new power could be added and government continued
on a business as usual like its predecessors.

1.5 Water Problem

The water resources of Bangladesh are facing different problems including
Quality hazards in many areas where the exposure to pollution from
agriculture,
Urban areas and industrial sites as well as arsenic contamination in shallower
Groundwater aquifers makes the water unfit for human consumption and in
some Cases even for irrigation purposes. It has been estimated that the
population of 61 Districts has been suffering from arsenic contamination
(dphe, 2001)to protect the population from water-borne diseases, primarily
from the consumption of polluted and dirty surface water, effort has been
made throughout the country during the past two decades to replace drinking
7

water supplies from surface water with groundwater and millions of shallow
tube wells (<100m deep) have been installed in the shallower part of the
unconfined/leaky aquifers. since the early 1990s, after the discovery of
arsenic contamination in shallow groundwater, deeper tube wells have been
installed (100- 250m depth) in an attempt to find safe groundwater for
drinking water supplies. most of these tube wells have little or no arsenic, but
the wells often contain high concentrations of iron and high salinit. below this
level good quality groundwater can be found if confining clay bed separates
the upper aquifer from deeper aquifer like many areas of lower.

Chapter-Two
Agriculture of Bangladesh
2.1 Agriculture of Bangladesh
Bangladesh has a primarily agrarian economy. Agriculture is the single
largest producing sector of the economy since it comprises about 18.6% (data
released on November, 2010) of the country's GDP and employs around 45%
of the total labor force. [1] The performance of this sector has an
overwhelming impact on major macroeconomic objectives like employment
generation, poverty alleviation, human resources development and food
security.

Fig-2.1 Primary Irrigation System

As watercourses such as canals, both natural and manmade, and rivers
contribute as the vital source of irrigation, their spread across the country is
attributed as key factor for the economic and geographic extent of agriculture
in Bangladesh. Photographed is a process of irrigation underway in Comilla,
enabled by a pump that is extracting water from the Gumti seen in the
background.
A plurality of Bangladeshis earn their living from agriculture. Although rice
and jute are the primary crops, wheat is assuming greater importance. Tea is
grown in the northeast. Because of Bangladesh's fertile soil and normally
9

ample water supply, rice can be grown and harvested three times a year in
many areas. Due to a number of factors, Bangladesh's labor-intensive
agriculture has achieved steady increases in food grain production despite the
often unfavorable weather conditions. These include better flood control and
irrigation, a generally more efficient use of fertilizers, and the establishment
of better distribution and rural credit networks. With 35.8 million metric tons
produced in 2000, rice is Bangladesh's principal crop. National sales of the
classes of insecticide used on rice, including granular carbofuran, synthetic
pyrethroids, and malathion exceeded 13,000 tons of formulated product in
2003. The insecticides not only represent an environmental threat, but are a
significant expenditure to poor rice farmers. The Bangladesh Rice Research
Institute is working with various NGOs and international organizations to
reduce insecticide use in rice.
In comparison to rice, wheat output in 1999 was 1.9 million metric tons.
Population pressure continues to place a severe burden on productive
capacity, creating a food deficit, especially of wheat. Foreign assistance and
commercial imports fill the gap. Underemployment remains a serious
problem, and a growing concern for Bangladesh's agricultural sector will be
its ability to absorb additional manpower. Finding alternative sources of
employment will continue to be a daunting problem for future governments,
particularly with the increasing numbers of landless peasants who already
account for about half the rural labor force.

2.2 Food Crops

Although Rice, Wheat, Mango and jute are the primary crops, assuming
greater importance.[5] Due to the expansion of irrigation networks, some
wheat producers have switched to cultivation of maize which is used mostly
as poultry feed.[5] Tea is grown in the northeast.[5] Because of Bangladesh's
10

fertile soil and normally ample water supply, rice can be grown and harvested
three times a year in many areas.[5] Due to a number of factors, Bangladesh's
labor-intensive agriculture has achieved steady increases in food grain
production despite the often unfavorable weather conditions. These include
better flood control and irrigation, a generally more efficient use of fertilizers,
and the establishment of better distribution and rural credit networks.[5]
With 28.8 million metric tons produced in 2005-2006 (JulyJune), rice is
Bangladesh's principal crop. By comparison, wheat output in 2005-2006 was
9 million metric tons. Population pressure continues to place a severe burden
on productive capacity, creating a food deficit, especially of wheat. Foreign
assistance and commercial imports fill the gap. Underemployment remains a
serious problem, and a growing concern for Bangladesh's agricultural sector
will be its ability to absorb additional manpower.
Bangladesh is the fourth largest rice producing country in the world. National
sales of the classes of insecticide used on rice, including granular carbofuran,
synthetic pyrethroids, and malathion exceeded 13,000 tons of formulated
product in 2003 [1] [2]. The insecticides not only represent an environmental
threat, but are a significant expenditure to poor rice farmers. The Bangladesh
Rice Research Institute is working with various NGOs and international
organizations to reduce insecticide use in rice.
Wheat is not a traditional crop in Bangladesh, and in the late 1980s little was
consumed in rural areas. During the 1960s and early 1970s, however, it was
the only commodity for which local consumption increased because external
food aid was most often provided in the form of wheat. In the first half of the
1980s, domestic wheat production rose to more than 1 million tons per year
but was still only 7 to 9 percent of total food grain production. Record
production of nearly 1.5 million tons was achieved in FY 1985, but the
following year saw a decrease to just over 1 million tons. About half the
11

wheat is grown on irrigated land. The proportion of land devoted to wheat

remained essentially unchanged between 1980 and 1986, at a little less than 6
percent of total planted area.
Wheat also accounts for the great bulk of imported food grains, exceeding 1
million tons annually and going higher than 1.8 million tons in FY 1984, FY
1985, and FY 1987. The great bulk of the imported wheat is financed under
aid programs of the United States, the European Economic Community, and
the World Food Programme.
Food grains are cultivated primarily for subsistence. Only a small percentage
of total production makes its way into commercial channels. Other
Bangladeshi food crops, however, are grown chiefly for the domestic market.
They include potatoes and sweet potatoes, with a combined record production
of 1.9 million tons in FY 1984; oilseeds, with an annual average production
of 250,000 tons; and fruits such as bananas, jackfruit, mangoes, and
pineapples. Estimates of sugarcane production put annual production at more
than 7 million tons per year, most of it processed into a coarse, unrefined
sugar known as gur, and sold domestically.

2.2.1 Boro Rice

Rice is the main staple food in Bangladesh. Rice can be cultivated throughout
the year since the country is endowed with favorable climate and soils. Most
of the cultivated rice varieties are high yielding. The area and production of
rice were 11.59 lakh hectare and 319.75 lakh metric tons, respectively with
an average yield of 2.40 t/ha (BBS 2010). A little difference existed among
costs and returns for producing Boro rice am ong farms but among locations
significant difference existed. Per hectare total costs were Tk. 96,839, Tk.
96,080. Tk. 90,378, Tk. 87,883 and Tk. 86,583 in Rajshai, Pabna, Bogra,
12

Rangpur and Dinajpur, respectively. The per hectare yield were 5.819 t/ha,
6.483 t/ha, 6.395 t/ha, 6.125 t/ha and 6.192 t/ha in Rajshai, Pabna, Bogra,
Rangpur and Dinajpur, respectively and their BCR were 1.11, 1.16, 1.18,
1.18 and 1.27. Small farms earned higher net return than large and medium
farms. Sale price of Boro rice varied among locations which ranged from Tk
15,400/ton to Tk 16,800/ton

2.2.2 Wheat
Now a days, wheat is the second important cereal crop (both production and
consumption) of Bangladesh. It is cultivated almost all over the country
during the winter season. In 2009 10, the total area and production of wheat
were 376.42 thousand hectares and 901.49 thousand tons, respectively with
an average yield of 2.40 t/ha (BBS 2010). Per hectare yield of wheat
cultivation were greater in Pabna, Rangpur and Dinajpur areas than in
Rajshahi area. In Bogra locations farmers did not grew what due to high
valued vegetables crops. Per hectare net returns varied from Tk. 10, 653 to
Tk. 17, 774 and BCR from 1.23 to 1.49.The results of analysis suggest that
the economic gains were higher for the production of wheat compared Boro.
This was due to less costs of production for wheat. Sale price of wheat was
almost similar among farms and locations(Table 4.13). The Agricultural
Economics Division of BARI (Anon 2004-2009) reported that wheat
cultivation was more profitable than rice cultivation. During 2009, per
hectare production, return and BCR for wheat cultivation were 2.65 t/ha, Tk.
43,636 and 1.48, respectively.

13

2.2.3 Potato
Potato is a cash incentive crop in Bangladesh. It can be used as food as well
as vegetable by all the classes of people. Potato cultivation was not reported
by Rajshahi and Pabnas farmers. Per hectare total cost for producing potato
was Tk. 1,08,511, Tk. 1,13,045 and Tk. 1,07, 074 in Bogra, Ranpur and
Dinajpur areas, respectively, which was almost similar but BCR varied from
1.16 to 1.35. In general yields and gross return were better in Bogra area
(Table 4.14).The results of analysis suggest that the economic gains were
higher for the production of potato compared to Boro (Tables 4.12 and 4.14).
Haque et al. (2005) estimated the profitability of potato cultivation under
integrated crop management (ICM) and farmers production practice (FPP) in
Bogra, Comilla, Munshiganj and Rajshahi districts. The net returns received
by the farmers ranged from Tk. 65,600 to Tk. 1,05,363 for ICM and Tk.
12,845 to Tk. 74,271 for FPP. The BCRs ranged from 1.85 to 2.77 for ICM
and 1.15 to 2.16 for FPP. The other economic studies conducted (Parvin,
2010; Azimuddin et al. 2009; and Hossain et al. 2008) during the period from
2008 to 2010 revealed that the cultivation of potato at farm level was
profitable to the farmers ranged from Tk. 83, 145 to 1,74,319 and the BCRs
ranged from 1.58 to 2.40.

2.3 Water distribution for Irrigation Systems in Bangladesh

Irrigated agriculture has been playing a vital role for the growth in crop
production in Bangladesh. Minor irrigation comprising of shallow tubewells
(STWs), deep tubewells (DTWs), hand tubewells (HTWs) and low-lift pumps
(LLPs) is a major irrigation system in the country. Poor performance of
irrigation is an issue for the expansion of irrigated area. The present study
was carried out to examine the conveyance efficiency and rate of irrigation
water loss in DTW schemes in Bogra, Thakurgaon and Godagari zones of
14

Barind Management Development Authority. There were various types of

water distribution identified in these schemes with including Poly Venyl
Chloride (PVC) buried pipe, cement concrete (CC) rectangular, Ferro
trapezoidal, Ferro semicircular and rectangular earth drain. The average
conveyance efficiency of PVC buried pipe for Bogra, Thakurgaon and
Godagari zones ranged from 94.46% to 95.37% and rate of water loss ranged
from 5.45% to 9.55% in three study zones. Average conveyance efficiency of
CC rectangular for Bogra and Godagari zone ranged from 91.20% and rate of
water loss from 6.58% to 9.93%. Average conveyance efficiency of Ferro
trapezoid for Bogra and Godagari zone ranged from 87.80% to 90.06% and
rate of water loss ranged from 9.94% to 12.21%. Average conveyance
efficiency of Ferro semicircle for Bogra and Godagari zone ranged between
88.13% and 86.82% and rate of water loss between 11.59% and 11.68%.
Average conveyance efficiency and rate of water loss of rectangular earth
drain Godagari zone was 58.66% and 42.29% respectively. About 80%
farmers recommended buried pipe irrigation system and about 20% semicircular channel. The study suggests that the improved water distribution
system as developed by BMDA is sustainable to increase productivity of
irrigation systems in Bangladesh.

15

Chapter-Three
Power Distribution of Bangladesh
3.1 Power Distribution of Bangladesh
Bangladesh, with its 160 million people in a land mass of 147,570sq km is an
emerging economy of South Asia successfully maintaining sustained
economic growth of least 6% since last decade resulted a considerable high
electricity demand each year. However, the demand could never been met
due to inadequate generation addition in the past. Load shedding had been
increased. Moreover, outstripping electricity demand-supply gap has been
constraining further economic progress as required to move ahead middle
class economy. Recognizing this fact the present government has prioritized
this sector right from the election manifesto. As per election manifesto of the
present government electricity generation in the country would be 7000 MW
by the year 2013, 8000 MW by 2015 and 20,000 MW by the year 2021. The
government has already declared its vision for power sector which has gone
far beyond that. In order to fulfill the vision the government has planned to
generate additional 15,000 MW electricity within 2016 under short, medium
and long term which is even much higher than the target set in the election
manifesto. In the government's Road Map due importance was given on the
renewable energy.
Power generation in Bangladesh was mono-fuel dependent, i.e. indigenous
natural gas since 2009 considering its apparent huge availability. About 89%
of generated power comes from natural gas and the rest is from liquid fuel,
coal and hydropower. The present share of renewable energy is only 0.5%.
However, in recent years, it was evident that actual scenario is other way
round and adequate supply of natural gas has been at stake due to depleting
16

existing gas reserves and non-exploration of new gas reserves. The

uncertainty has been constraining development of further gas based power
generation expansion program. Taking this into cognizance the government
has diversified the fuel mix and under the new generation expansion plan
substantial proportion is from liquid and coal based. In that case the above
scenario will be drastically changed. Development of renewable energy is
one of the important strategies adopted as part of Fuel Diversification
Program
Under the existing generation scenario renewable energy has a very small
share to the total generation. However, under the changed perspective
renewable energy would have a significant contribution given the global
climate change scenario and carbon trading prospect.

3.2 Renewable Energy Expansion Initiative

Government of Bangladesh has taken a systematic approach towards
renewable energy development. The initiative includes development of
relevant policy and institutional development.

3.2.1 Renewable Energy Policy

Renewable Energy Policy has been approved in 2008. Through this policy the
government is committed to facilitate both public and private sector
investment in renewable energy projects to substitute indigenous nonrenewable energy supplies and scale up contributions of existing renewable
energy based electricity productions.
The Policy envisions 5% of total generation from renewable sources by 2015
and 10% of the same by 2020.

17

3.2.2 Institutional development

Government Power Utilities like Bangladesh Power Development Board
(BPDB), Rural Electrification Board (REB), Local Government Agency like
Local Government Engineering Directorate (LGED) and a significant number
of Private Sector agencies including NGOs are involved in renewable energy
development. Noted Public Universities and their affiliated Institutes are
involved in research and development of Renewable Energy Applications.
Establishment of a nodal agency, i.e. Sustainable Energy Development
Authority (SEDA) as envisioned in the Renewable Energy Policy is
underway. For the interim period and to carry ahead initial formation
activities of SEDA, a wing under leadership of an Additional Secretary of the
Government has been set up. The wing has distinct units of Renewable
Energy and Energy Efficiency headed by two Deputy Secretaries of the
Government. There is new wing on Sustainable Energy has been set up under
Power Cell, the technical unit of Power Division. The wing comprises of one
Director and one Deputy Director is extending technical support to the
Renewable Energy Wing of Power Division in formulation of relevant
program and policy.
Establishment of separate directorates among the public utilities can carry
forward research and development of Renewable Energy Technologies. With
this purview, independent renewable energy directorates have been set up
under BPDB and REB. The directorates are functioning at full extent. With
the above governmental institutional support it is envisaged that Renewable
Energy development Program will gain momentum to reach the expected
target,

18

3.2.3 Renewable Energy Potential in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is hoped to have enormous potentiality in renewable energy
development. Some of the areas like solar PV, the potential of development is
already proven. Bangladesh has fitting geographical condition for solar
power. Bangladesh receives an average daily solar radiation of 4-6.5
kWh/m2. Solar photovoltaic(PV) are gaining acceptance for providing
electricity to households and small businesses in rural areas. Development of
off-grid solar home solutions has achieved international benchmark.
According to a survey, there is an existing market size of 1 million
households for Solar Home Systems (SHS) on a fee-for-service basis in the
off-grid areas of Bangladesh. At present the national grid is serving only 50%
of the nearly 10,000 rural markets and commercial centres in the country
which are excellent market for centralized solar photovoltaic plants.
Throughout the country, different government administrative offices, NGO
offices, Health Centers, Schools, banks, police stations etc are functioning. In
the off-grid locations, these offices are either using traditional means (lantern,
candles, kerosene wick lamps etc.) or operating their own diesel gensets.
However, potential of other renewable resources is still at the exploration
stage. Potential of Wind Energy is mainly in coastal areas and offshore
islands and to determine extent of potential wind resource mapping project is
in process. Some of the development partners and companies come forward
for wind mapping in different parts of the country.
Bangladesh has strong potential for biomass gasification based electricity.
More common biomass resources available in the country are rice husk, crop
residue, wood, jute stick, animal waste, municipal waste, sugarcane biogases
etc. Exploration of these resources for electricity generation is still at
19

preliminary stage. Potentials for utilizing biogas technologies derived mainly

from animal, kitchen and municipal wastes may be one of the promising
renewable energy resources for Bangladesh.
Micro hydro and mini hydro have limited potential in Bangladesh with
exception of Chittagong Hill Tracts. Hydropower assessments have identified
some possible sites from 10 kW to 5 MW implementation of which is still at
large.
Other renewable energy sources include bio-fuels, gasohol, geothermal, river
current, wave and tidal energy. Potentialities of these resources are yet to be
explored.
Table-3.1: Solar Economic
Resources
Solar

Potential
Enormous

Wind

Resource mapping
Public sectors
required
Limited potential for Mainly public entities
micro or mini hydro
(max. 5 MW).
Est. hydro potential:
approx. 500 MW

Hydro

Entities Involved
Public
and Private
sectors

Domestic Biogas system 8.6 Million Cubic Meter

of Biogas
Rice
Husk
Based 300 MW considering 2
Biomass
gasification kg of husk consumption
Power Plant
per kWh
Cattle waste based 350 MW considering
Biogas power plants
0.752 m3 of biogas
consumption per kWh.

Public
and
private
sector
Mainly public entities

Mainly public entities

Other renewable energy sources include bio-fuels, gasohol, geothermal, river

current, wave and tidal energy.

20

3.2.4 Achievement in Renewable Energy Development in Bangladesh

Government utilities are involved in large scale grid connected renewable
energy based power project development. On the other hand, private sector is
involved with off-grid home-based renewable energy solutions.

The first significant PV-based rural electrification programme was the

Norshingdi project initiated with financial support from France. Since the
introduction of SHS in 1996 it has become now the biggest renewable energy
program in Bangladesh so far installed 900,000 units and ever increasing due
to an integrated program undertaken by the government through its financial
institution, IDCOL. IDCOL's program is considered as a successful model for
installation of SHSs in the world. Till now, national capacity of renewable
energy based power is approx. 50 MW as shown below:
Table 3.2 Solar Irrigation Category
Category
SHS

Achievement
45MW

Other Solar PV
Applications including
Solar Irrigation
Wind Energy
Biomass based electricity
Bioas based electricity
Total

1MW
1 MW
>1 MW
1 MW
50 MW

In a developing country like Bangladesh where meeting generation shortage

is the primary priority, least cost generation technologies always rule the
generation planning. Unfortunately, renewable energy cannot compete to
achieve grid parity at the moment. Government incentives like FiT can
enhance the development process, but it is always difficult to source fund for
such incentives especially under present tariff rationalization structure. Only

21

a comprehensive large scale program with support to buy-down the cost of

intervention can pave the way for Renewable Energy development.
3.2.5 Prevailing Renewable Energy Development Program
In line with the Government's Renewable Energy Policy, govt. has plan to
develop at least 500 MW power from renewable energy by 2015. Expected
Public Sector Participation in program is:
Table 3.3 Solar Irrigation Capacity
Total Capacity
25 MW
235 MW
260 MW

Solar
Wind
Total

Table 3.4: Expected Private Sector Participation (through IDCOL) is:

Solar
Home
System
Biogas Plant for
cooking gas
Soalr Mini Grid
Solar Irrigation
Pump
Biomass Based
Power Plant

Average Unit
Capacity
50W

Target

Total Capacity

3 Million

150 MW

2.6m3

100,000

40 MW

50KW
8 KW

10
750

1 MW
6

200 KW

12

3 MW
Total

206 MW

Recent Initiatives in Renewable Energy:

1.

PDB, REB and IDCOL are distributing Solar Home System (SHS) to
the people living in the off-grid areas. IDCOL through different NGO
has already distributed 1.0 million SHS throughout the country.

22

2.

PDB has already installed nearly 11 KW solar power to the CHT area,
nearly 230 W solar power in Angorpot and Dahagram Chitmahal Area
and installed 115W at their office building.

3.

Solar PV with capacity of 21.2 KW has been installed at the Hon'ble

Prime Minister's office as a demonstration programme.

4.

Nearly 10MW solar plant will be installed by PDB in Sarihabari (2-4

MW), Rigional Training Office, Rajshahi (1 MW), Rajabarihat,
Godagari (2-4 MW) in IPP model. Preparation of tender documents is
underway.

5.

Power plant in combination with 1MW solar hybrid system along with
5MW by diesel, will be set up in Hatia island. 5MW Solar PV plant
will be installed in Kaptai. Some roads of six City Corporation areas
will be replaced by Solar Street lights. Asian Development Bank
(ADB) is supporting these projects.

6.

REB has taken project for Solar Irrigation System. 40 irrigation pumps
will be brought under solar power under this project.

7.

PDB has undertaken a project in a remote area Sullah to provide

600kW solar power under Climate mitigation programme.

8.

100 MW of wind power will be generated in the off-shore area of

Anwara, Chittagong in IPP model. PQ has already been prepared
tendering is under process.

9.

Govt. has exempted income tax for next 5 years from commercial
production from RE.

Government has recently initiated 500MW Solar power programme with the
inspiration and support of ADB.
23

pumps will run without battery and inverter, maintenance will also be less
and easy. This one horse (746 W) power solar pump system will cost about
BDT. 112,000. The BUET designed pump was compared with the results of a
study9 of different types of solar pump done at Bangladesh Agricultural
Research Institute (BARI), Dhaka and is shown in Table 4.
Benefit cost ratio for solar irrigated tomato and brinjal (egg apple) by drip
and furrow irrigation were 3.45, 3.71 and 1.57, 1.37 respectively. At present,
rice cultivation by solar water pump is not economically viable.
Table 3.5: Comparisons of different types of solar pumps.

Make and model

BUET,
Bangladesh

Designed by
Made in
Made in
Dhaka
Made in USA
Australia
China
University
(DU)
BARI,
DU,
Honeywell,
Mono Pumps, Lorentz,
Bangladesh Bangladesh USA
Australia
Germany

Pump type

Centrifugal

Centrifugal Centrifugal

Centrifugal

Submersible

Submersible

Motor type

dc

dc

dc

dc

dc

Suitability

Surface water Surface

water

Surface water Surface water Surface and

ground water

Surface and
ground water

Suction and
delivery pipe
diameter, mm
Motor capacity, W

38(1.5")

38(1.5")

25(1.0")

38(1.5")

25(1.0")

38(1.5")

746

800

373

373

373

1640

Motor rpm (max.)

3000

2800

2900

2800

3200

3200

Voltage, V

12

48

220

58

180

90

Total panel power,

W
Average discharge,
I/ruin
Price of pump set
with controller(BD
Taka)
Price of solar panels
(BDT)
Total cost of solar
pump, BDT*

900

900

675

600

600

1050

56

60

34

100

90

120

22000

25000

75000

150000

150000

200000

90000

90000

67500

60000

60000

105000

112,000

115,000

142,500

210,000

210,000

305,000

Specification
/features

Designed by
BUET

Designed
by BARI

ac

*US$ 1=BDT 83

24

3.3 Sources of Energy

Bangladesh's energy infrastructure is quite small, insufficient and poorly
managed. The per capita energy consumption in Bangladesh is one of the
lowest (321 kWH) in the world. Noncommercial energy sources, such as
wood fuel, animal waste, and crop residues, are estimated to account for over
half of the country's energy consumption. Bangladesh has small reserves of
oil and coal, but very large natural gas resources. Commercial energy
consumption is mostly natural gas (around 66%), followed by oil,
hydropower and coal.
Electricity is the major source of power for most of the country's economic
activities. Bangladesh's installed electric generation capacity was 10289 MW
in January, 2014; only three-fourth of which is considered to be available.
Only 62% of the population has access to electricity with a per capita
availability of 321 kWh per annum. Problems in the Bangladesh's electric
power sector include corruption in administration, high system losses, delays
in completion of new plants, low plant efficiencies, erratic power supply,
electricity theft, blackouts, and shortages of funds for power plant
maintenance. Overall, the country's generation plants have been unable to
meet system demand over the past decade
As of 2011, 79 natural gas wells are present in the 23 operational gas fields
which produce over 2000 millions of cubic feet of gas per day (MMCFD). It
is well short of over 2500 MMCFD that is demanded, a number which is
growing by around 7% each year. In fact, more than three-quarters of the
nations commercial energy demand is being met by natural gas. This
influential sector caters for around 40% of the power plant feedstock, 17% of
industries, 15% captive power, 11% for domestic and household usage,

25

another 11% for fertilizers, 5% in Compressed natural gas (CNG) activities

and 1% for commercial and agricultural uses.
Efforts to develop an open-pit coal mine in Phulbari, Dinajpur District, have
met with large, violent protests in 2006 because of feared environmental
effects, and six people were killed and hundreds injured.[3] At the time, the
government closed the project, for which it was working with Asia Energy
(now Global Coal Resources). It was encouraged in December 2009 to reopen it by the United States ambassador in private communication.[4] In
October 2010 protesters make a week-long march from Phulbari to Dhaka
against the mine; a coalition of other groups protested at a Global Coal
Resources meeting in London.[5]

3.4 Plan of the government

In spite of financial constraints and gas supply shortages, the government
designed a strategy to overcome the crisis and at the same time meet the ever
increasing demand for power. It launched immediate, short, medium and long
term programs to increase power supply through introduction of fuel mix
(gas, coal, liquid fuel, nuclear energy and renewable), demand side
management, energy efficiency and conservation. After assessing the latest
demand, the government has revised its targets for increasing power
generation. The year-wise details of the additional power generation
programs, both in public and private, are listed below:

26

Table-3.6: Plants Commissioned During 2009 September 2013

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

TOTAL

(MW)

(MW)

(MW)

(MW)

(MW)

(MW)

Public

255

800

607

587

2249

Private 356

270

125

44

795

250

838

300

1388

775

1763

951

YEAR

Q.
Rental
Total

356

587

4432

Table-3.7 : Calendar Year Wise Generation Addition program (From

2013 to 2018) In MW
TOTAL

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

(MW)

(MW)

(MW)

(MW)

(MW)

(MW)

(MW)

Public

662

604

1837

1510

00

1320

5933

Private

692

1366

1097

638

1271

00

5064

YEAR

Power
Import
Total

500
1854

500
1970

2934

2138

1271

1320

11,497

Bangladesh, with its 152 million people in a land mass of 147,570 sq km,
has shown tremendous growth in recent years. A booming economic
growth, rapid urbanization and increased industrialization and development
has increased the country's demand for electricity. Presently, 62% of the total
27

population (including renewable energy) has access to electricity and per

capita generation is 321 kWH, which is very low compared to other
developing countries.

Recognizing the fact the present government has prioritized the power sector
right from its election manifesto. As per the manifesto, electricity generation
in the country was supposed to be 5000 MW by the year 2011 and 7000 MW
by 2013. The government has been successful in meeting these targets and
has even been able to achieve higher level of precedents. The government
aims to generate an additional 15,000 MW electricity, within 2016 under
short, medium and long term plan. This target is much higher than the one
stated in the election manifesto.

Assessing the current state of electricity in Bangladesh, this web page

disseminates on how to develop and communicate various strategies and
plans and implement moderate growth in demand through increased
efficiency. It also investigates on how to combine environmental goals into
planning and operation and tries to find ways on how to ensure sufficient
supply wherever and whenever it is required, as well as on how to handle
various other challenges in the power sector.

The government has further extended its vision targeting the upcoming years
up to 2030 and prepared the Power System Master Plan 2010 (PSMP). This
plan states that in 2030 the demand of power would be around 34,000 MW
while the generation capacity would be about 39,000 MW. Presently, the
generation capacity is nearly 9,713 MW(September,2013) which implies that
much endeavor is required to achieve the goal. Considering the countrys
future energy security, the government has rightly given due importance on
renewable energy, energy efficiency as well as energy conservation.
28

Chapter-Four
Solar PV systems
4.1 Solar Panel
A solar panel is a set of solar photovoltaic modules electrically connected and
mounted on a supporting structure. A photovoltaic module is a packaged,
connected assembly of solar cells. The solar panel can be used as a
component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity
in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC
output power under standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from
100 to 320 watts. The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module
given the same rated output - an 8% efficient 230 watt module will have
twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt module. A single solar module can
produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple
modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes a panel or an array of solar
modules, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and
interconnection wiring.

Fig: 4.1: Irrigation of Solar Panel

29

A solar panel is a set of solar photovoltaic modules electrically connected and

mounted on a supporting structure. A photovoltaic module is a packaged,
connected assembly of solar cells. The solar panel can be used as a
component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity
in commercial and residential applications. Each module is rated by its DC
output power under standard test conditions (STC), and typically ranges from
100 to 320 watts. The efficiency of a module determines the area of a module
given the same rated output - an 8% efficient 230 watt module will have
twice the area of a 16% efficient 230 watt module. A single solar module can
produce only a limited amount of power; most installations contain multiple
modules. A photovoltaic system typically includes a panel or an array of solar
modules, an inverter, and sometimes a battery and/or solar tracker and
interconnection wiring.

4.2 Theory and construction

Fig: 4.2: Polycrystalline PV cells connected in a solar module.

Solar modules use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity
through the photovoltaic effect. The majority of modules use wafer-based
crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or
30

silicon. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the
top layer or the back layer. Cells must also be protected from mechanical
damage and moisture. Most solar modules are rigid, but semi-flexible ones
are available, based on thin-film cells. These early solar modules were first
used in space in 1958.
Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage
and/or in parallel to provide a desired current capability. The conducting
wires that take the current off the modules may contain silver, copper or other
non-magnetic conductive transition metals. The cells must be connected
electrically to one another and to the rest of the system. Externally, popular
terrestrial usage photovoltaic modules use MC3 (older) or MC4 connectors to
facilitate easy weatherproof connections to the rest of the system.
Bypass diodes may be incorporated or used externally, in case of partial
module shading, to maximize the output of module sections still illuminated.
Some recent solar module designs include concentrators in which light is
focused by lenses or mirrors onto an array of smaller cells. This enables the
use of cells with a high cost per unit area (such as gallium arsenide) in a costeffective way. [citation needed]

4.3 Efficiencies
Depending on construction, photovoltaic modules can produce electricity
from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar
range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence
much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar modules, and they
can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light.
Therefore, another design concept is to split the light into different
wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those
31

ranges.[citation needed] This has been projected to be capable of raising

efficiency by 50%.
Currently the best achieved sunlight conversion rate (solar module efficiency)
is around 21.5% in new commercial products [1] typically lower than the
efficiencies of their cells in isolation. The most efficient mass-produced solar
modules [disputed-discuss] have energy density values of up to 175 W/m2
(16.22 W/ft2). [2] A research by Imperial College, London has shown that the
efficiency of a solar panel can be improved by studding the light-receiving
semiconductor surface with aluminum nanocylinders similar to the ridges on
Lego blocks. The scattered light then travels along a longer path in the
semiconductor which meant that more photons could be absorbed and
converted into current. Although these nanocylinders were used previously in
which aluminum was preceded by gold and silver, the light scattering
occurred in the near infrared region and visible light was absorbed strongly.
Aluminum was found to have absorbed ultraviolet part of the spectrum and
the visible and near infrared parts of the spectrum were found to be scattered
by the aluminum surface. This, the research argued, could bring down the
cost significantly and improve the efficiency as aluminum is more abundant
and less costly than gold and silver. The research also noted that the increase
in current makes thinner film solar panels technically feasible without
"compromising power conversion efficiencies, thus reducing material
consumption
Micro-inverted solar panels are wired in parallel which produces more output
than normal panels which are wired in series with the output of the series
determined by the lowest performing panel (this is known as the "Christmas
light effect"). Micro-inverters work independently so each panel contributes
its maximum possible output given the available sunlight

32

4.3.1 Crystalline silicon modules

Most solar modules are currently produced from silicon photovoltaic cells.
These are typically categorized as monocrystalline or polycrystalline
modules.

4.3.2 Thin-film modules

Main articles: Thin film solar cell and Third generation solar cell Third
generation solar cells are advanced thin-film cells. They produce a relatively
high-efficiency conversion for the low cost compared to other solar
technologies.

4.3.3 Rigid thin-film modules

In rigid thin film modules, the cell and the module are manufactured in the
same production line. The cell is created on a glass substrate or superstrate,
and the electrical connections are created in situ, a so-called "monolithic
integration". The substrate or superstrate is laminated with an encapsulant to
a front or back sheet, usually another sheet of glass.
The main cell technologies in this category are CdTe, or a-Si, or a-Si+uc-Si
tandem, or CIGS (or variant). Amorphous silicon has a sunlight conversion
rate of 6-12%.

4.3.4 Flexible thin-film modules

Flexible thin film cells and modules are created on the same production line
by depositing the photoactive layer and other necessary layers on a flexible
substrate.

33

If the substrate is an insulator (e.g. polyester or polyimide film) then

monolithic integration can be used. If it is a conductor then another technique
for electrical connection must be used.
The cells are assembled into modules by laminating them to a transparent
colourless fluoropolymer on the front side (typically ETFE or FEP) and a
polymer suitable for bonding to the final substrate on the other side. The only
commercially available (in MW quantities) flexible module uses amorphous
silicon triple junction (from Unisolar).
So-called inverted metamorphic (IMM) multijunction solar cells made on
compound-semiconductor technology are just becoming commercialized in
July 2008. The University of Michigan's solar car that won the North
American Solar Challenge in July 2008 used IMM thin-film flexible solar
cells.
The requirements for residential and commercial are different in that the
residential needs are simple and can be packaged so that as solar cell
technology progresses, the other base line equipment such as the battery,
inverter and voltage sensing transfer switch still need to be compacted and
unitized for residential use. Commercial use, depending on the size of the
service will be limited in the photovoltaic cell arena, and more complex
parabolic reflectors and solar concentrators are becoming the dominant
technology
Flexible thin-film panels are optimal for portable applications as they are
much more resistant to breakage than regular crystalline cells, but can be
broken by bending them into a sharp angle. They are also much lighter per
square foot than standard rigid solar panels.

34

The global flexible and thin-film photovoltaic (PV) market, despite caution in
the overall PV industry, is expected to experience a CAGR of over 35% to
2019, surpassing 32 GW according to a major new study by IntertechPira

4.4 Smart solar modules

Several companies have begun embedding electronics into PV modules. This
enables performing maximum power point tracking (MPPT) for each module
individually, and the measurement of performance data for monitoring and
fault detection at module level. Some of these solutions make use of power
optimizers, a DC-to-DC converter technology developed to maximize the
power harvest from solar photovoltaic systems. As of about 2010, such
electronics can also compensate for shading effects, wherein a shadow falling
across a section of a module causes the electrical output of one or more
strings of cells in the module to fall to zero, but not having the output of the
entire module fall to zero.

4.5 Recycling
Most parts of a solar module can be recycled including up to 97% of certain
semiconductor materials or the glass as well as large amounts of ferrous and
non-ferrous metals. Some private companies and non-profit organizations are
currently engaged in take-back and recycling operations for end-of-life
modules.

4.5.1 Recycling possibilities depend on the kind of technology used

in the modules:

Silicon based modules: aluminum frames and junction boxes are

dismantled manually at the beginning of the process. The module is
then crushed in a mill and the different fractions are separated - glass,
35

plastics and metals. It is possible to recover more than 80% of the

incoming weight. This process can be performed by flat glass recyclers
since morphology and composition of a PV module is similar to those
flat glasses used in the building and automotive industry. The
recovered glass for example is readily accepted by the glass foam and
glass insulation industry.
Non-silicon based modules: they require specific recycling technologies such
as the use of chemical baths in order to separate the different semiconductor
materials. For cadmium telluride modules, the recycling process begins by
crushing the module and subsequently separating the different fractions. This
recycling process is designed to recover up to 90% of the glass and 95% of
the semiconductor materials contained. Some commercial-scale recycling
facilities have been created in recent years by private companies

Top Ten Producers

The top ten solar module producers (by MW shipments) in 2010 were:
1. Suntech
2. First Solar
3. Sharp Solar
4. Yingli
5. Trina Solar
6. Canadian Solar
7. Hanwha Solarone
8. SunPower
9. Renewable Energy Corporation
10. SolarWorld

36

4.6 Mounting systems

This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this
article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be
challenged and removed.

4.7 Trackers

Fig: 4.2.3 Solar modules mounted on solar trackers

Solar trackers increase the amount of energy produced per module at a cost of
mechanical complexity and need for maintenance. They sense the direction of
the Sun and tilt the modules as needed for maximum exposure to the light.

4.8 Fixed racks

Fixed racks hold modules stationary as the sun moves across the sky. The
fixed rack sets the angle at which the module is held. Tilt angles equivalent to
an installation's latitude are common. Most of these fixed racks are set on
poles above ground.
37

4.9 Ground Mounted

Ground mounted solar power systems consist of solar modules held in place
by racks or frames that are attached to ground based mounting supports.

4.9.1 Ground based mounting supports include:

Pole mounts, which are driven directly into the ground or embedded in
concrete.

Foundation mounts, such as concrete slabs or poured footings

Ballasted footing mounts, such as concrete or steel bases that use

weight to secure the solar module system in position and do not require
ground penetration. This type of mounting system is well suited for
sites where excavation is not possible such as capped landfills and
simplifies decommissioning or relocation of solar module systems

4.9.2 PV Tracker Dual-Axis Agriculture Solar System

Dual-Axis trackersSolar System Type

1013.6 kW-DCTotal System Size

90Number of trackers

37' x 25'Tracker Dimensions

240Horiz. angle range

60Vertical angle range

56PV modules/per

Trackers with Schott 235WPV Modules types

Solectria 500kWInverters

2,000,000 kWhEstimated annual production (total)

38

4.9.3 Roof Mount Agriculture Solar System

Solar System TypeSolar System Type

15 kW-DCTotal System Size

85 GE 165WPV Modules types

SolectriaInverters

19,000 kWhEstimated annual production (total)

4.9.4 Solar Farm Agriculture Solar System

Leave No Trace Ground MountSolar System Type

1,200 kW-DCTotal System Size

17,500Total PV modules used

72WkW per module

240Horiz. angle range

60Vertical angle range

56PV modules/per

Schott 235WPV Modules types

Solectria 500kWInverters

2,000,000 kWhEstimated annual production (total)

4.10 System Description

A photovoltaic array comprised of two units of three modules each was used
to power the water pumping system used in this demonstration (Figure 3c).
The six photovoltaic modules had a photon responsive surface area of 3.17 m.
The three modules of each unit were connected end-to-end and reflectors,
constructed from sheet metal and aluminum foil tape, were attached to the
two long sides of each unit. The reflectors doubled the area of the array
structure normal to the sun and increased the short circuit amperage of the
units up to 33 percent overall. Thphotovoltaic array was attached to a one39

axis tracking mechanism. This system enabled the array to remain essentially
normal to the sun throughout the day so that the photovoltaic modules were
able to utilize a larger portion of the available sunlight. The tracking
mechanism was powered and controlled by two, small photovoltaic modules
which functioned independently from the six primary modules. Photovoltaic
cells have minimal current resistance when exposed to light, but when they
are shaded, all current flow through them is blocked. The tracking-control
photovoltaic modules on the photovoltaic system used in this demonstration
were placed on the east and west sides of the array. When both tracking
modules were in equal sunlight, the electricity produced by them flowed
between the two modules and the array remained stationary. When one of the
modules was shaded, the electricity produced by the module remaining in
sunlight flowed to the tracking motor which turned the array until both
tracking modules were again in equal sunlight. To match the maximum
power points of the photovoltaic array with the I-V load line of the DC
electric motor, the photovoltaic system used in this demonstration included
an electronic array reconfiguration controller (EARC) (Salameh et al.1989).
An EARC is an electronically controlled circuit which monitors the amperage
being generated by a module and connects the modules in series or parallel to
match the maximum power points of a photovoltaic system to the I-V curve
of the connected load over the widest possible range. To describe the
Pumping Water for Irrigation Using Solar Energy Page 4 function of the
EARC, assume a photovoltaic module Graph showing I-V curve of array at
given level of irradiance and a resistive load (top); variances in amperage
component (center); photovoltaic-powered water pumping system used in
here (bottom). of seven, 10 cm 2photovoltaic cells wired together in
parallel so that at maximum sunlight (1000 W/m the short circuit current
equals 1.00 amp and the open circuit voltage is 0.6 volts. At lower levels of
irradiance, the amperage falls proportionally, but the voltage remains
40

practically constant. If two, seven-cell modules are connected permanently in

parallel, their maximum power point at low irradiance values will match the
DC motor load line at low operational voltages (Figure 4b). In the same
manner, if these two modules are connected permanently in series, the
maximum power point at high irradiance values will match the load line at
high operational voltages The EARC used in this demonstration system
alternated the configuration of the two units of the photovoltaic array
between parallel and series in reference to the irradiance level. When the
irradiance level was low, the two units were electronically connected in
parallel to maintain an adequate amperage level for continued operation of
the motor at a low voltage. When the irradiance level was high, the two units
were electronically connected in series which increased the voltage output of
the array and produced an amperage and voltage power supply which closely
matched the amperage and voltage power demand of the attached load at the
higher level. In this manner, as the irradiance level varied, the motor utilized
the power available from the photovoltaic array more efficiently than if the
two units had been statically configured in a parallel or series connection.
The pumping system used in this demonstration included a 0.5 Hp, DC,
ermanent magnet motor and a single-stage centrifugal pump. The water was
pumped from a surface pond through 5-cm (2-in) diameter PVC pipe and
discharged at a height of 2.44m (8 ft). The photovoltaic system had an
average SOC peak watt (W rating of 374 watts at the solar irradiance level of
1000 watts/m.

4.11 Solar Irrigation System

The Solar Pumps for Irrigation System Powered Systems Method. Water
pumping has a long history with solar power; so many methods have been
developed to pump water with a minimum of effort and encorporate solar
41

energy. These have utilized a variety of power sources, namely solar for
energy power generation.
Town and City Water Supply
Livestock Watering
Irrigation

Fig: 4.2.4 Solar irrigation pump systems are used principally for three
applications:
A solar irrigation pump system methods needs to take account of the fact that
demand for irrigation system water will vary throughout the year. Peak
demand during the irrigation system seasons is often more than twice the
average demand. This means that solar pumps for irrigation are under-utilized
for most of the year. Attention should be paid to the system of irrigation
water distribution and application to the crops. The irrigation pump system
should minimize water losses, without imposing significant additional head
on the irrigation pumping system and be of low cost.
42

Fig: 4.2.5 Submerged multistage centrifugal motor irrigation pumpset.

This type is probably the most common type of solar pump used for town and
city water supply. The advantages of this configuration are that it is easy to
install, often with lay-flat flexible pipework and the motor irrigation pumpset
is submerged away from potential damage. Either ac or dc motors can be
incorporated into the irrigation pumpset although an inverter would be
needed for ac systems. If a brushed dc motor is used then the equipment will
need to be pulled up from the well (approximately every 2 years) to replace
brushes. Brushless dc pump motors would require electronic commutation.
The most commonly employed system consists of an ac irrigation pump and
inverter with a solar pv panel photovoltaic array.
This configuration was widely installed with turbine pumps. It gives easy
access to the pump motor for brush changing and other maintenance. The low
efficiency from power losses in the shaft bearings and the high cost of
installation has been disadvantages. In general this configuration is largely
being replaced by the submersible motor and irrigation pumpset.

43

Fig 4.2.6 : Reciprocating positive displacement irrigation pump

The reciprocating positive displacement pump (often known as the jack or
nodding donkey) is very suitable for high head, low flow applications. The
output is proportional to the speed of the irrigation pump. At high heads the
frictional forces are low compared to the hydrostatic forces often making
positive displacement pumps more efficient than centrifugal pumps for this
situation. Reciprocating positive displacement pumps create a cyclic load on
the motor which, for efficient operation, needs to be balanced. Thus, the
above ground components of the solar pump are often heavy and robust, and
power controllers for impedance matching often used.
Floating motor irrigation pump sets. The versatility of the floating unit set,
makes it ideal for irrigation pumping for canals and open wells. The pumpset
is easily portable and there is a negligible chance of the irrigation pump
running dry. Most of these types use a single stage submersed centrifugal
irrigation pump. The most common type utilizes a brushless (electronically
commutated) dc motor. Often the solar pv panel array support incorporates a
handle or 'wheel barrow' type trolley to enable transportation.
44

This type of irrigation pumpset is not recommended except where an operator

will always be in attendance. Although the use of primary chambers and nonreturn valves can prevent loss of prime, in practice self-start and priming
problems are experienced. It is impractical to have suction heads of more
than 8 meters.

Fig: 4.2.7 Surface suction irrigation pumpsets

Solar pumping technology methods continue to improve. In the early 1980s
the typical solar energy to hydraulic (pumped water) energy efficiency was
around 2% with the solar pv panel photovoltaic array being 6-8% efficient
and the motor pumpset typically 25% efficient. Today, an efficient solar
pump system has an average daily solar energy power to hydraulic efficiency
of more than 4%. Solar pv panel photovoltaic modules of the monocrystalline
type now have efficiencies in excess of 12% and more efficient motor and
irrigation pumpsets are available. A good sub-system (that is the motor, pump
and any power conditioning) should have an average daily energy throughput
efficiency of 30-40%.
The output of a solar pumping system is very dependent on good irrigation
system design derived from accurate site and demand data. It is therefore
essential that accurate assumptions are made regarding irrigation water
45

demand/pattern of use and irrigation water availability including well yield

and expected drawdown. Contact us to start your irrigation system design.

4.12 Solar Water Pumps

Solar water pumps are specially designed to lift water for irrigation, drinking
and other similar applications. Solar technology is very well suited to
pumping water. During the hot months, when water requirements are highest,
a solar pump will provide a reliable water source for a farm. There are two
basic types of solar-powered water pumping systems, battery-coupled and
direct-coupled. A variety of factors must be considered in determining the
optimum system for a particular application.

4.12.1 Battery-Coupled Solar Pumping Systems

Battery-coupled water pumping systems consist of photovoltaic (PV) panels,
charge control regulator, batteries, pump controller, pressure switch and tank
and DC water pump. The electric current produced by PV panels during
daylight hours charges the batteries, and the batteries in turn supply power to
the pump anytime water is needed. The use of batteries spreads the pumping
over a longer period of time by providing a steady operating voltage to the
DC motor of the pump. Thus, during the night and low light periods, the
system can still deliver a constant source of water for livestock.

46

Fig: 4.2.8 Battery-Coupled Solar Pumping Systems

4.12.2 Direct-Coupled Solar Pumping System

In direct-coupled pumping systems, electricity from the PV modules is sent
directly to the pump, which in turn pumps water through a pipe to where it is
needed. This system is designed to pump water only during the day. The
amount of water pumped is totally dependent on the amount of sunlight
hitting the PV panels and the type of pump. Because the intensity of the sun
and the angle at which it strikes the PV panel changes throughout the day, the
amount of water pumped by this system also changes throughout the day. To
compensate for these variable flow rates, a good match between the pump
and PV module(s) is necessary to achieve efficient operation of the system.
Direct-coupled pumping systems are sized to store extra water on sunny days

47

Fig: 4.2.9 Direct-Coupled Solar Pumping System

4.13 Solar Batteries

4.13.1 Deep Cycle Batteries are Required for Some Types of Solar Panel
Systems
Solar Batteries (Deep Cycle Batteries) are a key component in a stand-alone
renewable energy system. If you are installing a wind, solar panel or hydro
electric system that will be tied to your utility grid, you will still need deep
cycle batteries if you are trying to use power in the event of an outage.
Without deep cycle batteries, you can only use power at the time you produce
it (i.e. you will not have power when the sun isn't out if you don't have
batteries in your solar electric system).
In renewable energy systems, deep cycle batteries provide the energy storage
for your system. Unlike your car battery, deep cycle batteries that are used in
renewable energy applications are meant to be discharged and recharged
(cycled) repeatedly. To maintain healthy batteries and prolong battery life,
most manufacturers suggest limiting the depth of discharge to about 20%.
(That means the deep cycle batteries will be at 80% capacity or better.) At the
very least, do not allow the batteries to be discharged below 50% Depth of
Discharge (DOD). Often an inverter will have a Low Voltage Disconnect
48

feature that will disconnect loads at a given set point. Low voltage alarms can
provide audible warnings as well. Ammeters, Voltmeters, Battery Monitors
can help better maintain deep cycle battery health and provide statistics about
the overall health of the system.
4.13.2 Types of Solar Batteries
When selecting solar batteries (deep cycle batteries), you'll have the option
to use flooded lead acid (FLA) batteries or sealed batteries (AGM or Gel
cell). Keep in mind that FLA batteries require a bit of maintenance, however,
they generally last longer than their sealed counterparts. Water Miser Vent
Cap - Reduces Battery Watering can reduce the frequency that the deep cycle
batteries need watering. You'll need one vent cap for each 2 V cell.
4.14 Charge controller
A charge controller, charge regulator or battery regulator limits the rate
at which electric current is added to or drawn from electric batteries.[1] It
prevents overcharging and may protect against overvoltage, which can reduce
battery performance or lifespan, and may pose a safety risk. It may also
prevent completely draining ("deep discharging") a battery, or perform
controlled discharges, depending on the battery technology, to protect battery
life.[2][3] The terms "charge controller" or "charge regulator" may refer to
either a stand-alone device, or to control circuitry integrated within a battery
pack, battery-powered device, or battery recharger.[4]
4.14.1 Stand-alone charge controllers
Charge controllers are sold to consumers as separate devices, often in
conjunction with solar or wind power generators, for uses such as RV, boat,
and off-the-grid home battery storage systems.[1] In solar applications,
charge controllers may also be called solar regulators. Some
49

charge controllers / solar regulators have additional features, such as a low

voltage disconnect (LDV), a separate circuit which powers down the load
when the batteries become overly discharged (some battery chemistries are
such that over-discharge can ruin the battery).[5]
A series charge controller or series regulator disables further current flow into
batteries when they are full. A shunt charge controller or shunt regulator
diverts excess electricity to an auxiliary or "shunt" load, such as an electric
water heater, when batteries are full.[6]
Simple charge controllers stop charging a battery when they exceed a set high
voltage level, and re-enable charging when battery voltage drops back below
that level. Pulse width modulation (PWM) and maximum power point tracker
(MPPT) technologies are more electronically sophisticated, adjusting
charging rates depending on the battery's level, to allow charging closer to its
maximum capacity.
Charge controllers may also monitor battery temperature to prevent
overheating. Some charge controller systems also display data, transmit data
to remote displays, and data logging to track electric flow over time.
4.15 Solar inverter
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Fig: 4.2.10 Solar Inverter

50

Internal view of a solar inverter. Note the many large capacitors (blue
cylinders), used to store power briefly and improve the output waveform.
A solar inverter, or PV inverter, converts the variable direct current (DC)
output of a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel into a utility frequency alternating
current (AC) that can be fed into a commercial electrical grid or used by a
local, off-grid electrical network. It is a critical component in a photovoltaic
system, allowing the use of ordinary commercial appliances. Solar inverters
have special functions adapted for use with photovoltaic arrays, including
maximum power point tracking and anti-islanding protection.
4.16 Classification

Fig: 4.2.11 Solar Classification

Simplified schematics of a grid-connected residential photovoltaic power
system Solar inverters may be classified into three broad types:

Stand-alone inverters, used in isolated systems where the inverter

draws its DC energy from batteries charged by photovoltaic arrays.
Many stand-alone inverters also incorporate integral battery chargers to
replenish the battery from an AC source, when available. Normally

51

these do not interface in any way with the utility grid, and as such, are
not required to have anti-islanding protection.

Grid-tie inverters, which match phase with a utility-supplied sine

wave. Grid-tie inverters are designed to shut down automatically upon
loss of utility supply, for safety reasons. They do not provide backup
power during utility outages.

Battery backup inverters, are special inverters which are designed to

draw energy from a battery, manage the battery charge via an onboard
charger, and export excess energy to the utility grid. These inverters
are capable of supplying AC energy to selected loads during a utility
outage, and are required to have anti-islanding protection.

52

Chapter Five
Solar Irrigation of Bangladesh
5.1 Solar Irrigation System
Irrigation is the lifeline of agriculture in Bangladesh. Irrigation plays a vital
role in this country for half of the year when water scarcity seriously
handicaps farming operation. Farmer, now a days, cultivate irrigation based
different high value crops throughout the year. In advanced farming,
irrigation is no limited to one season only. At present irrigation system is
operated by conventional power system and diesel run irrigation pump. As
the country is facing acute power crisis a diesel running irrigation cost is
high. There is a good prospect for solar powered irrigation system in
Bangladesh. Existing state owned and private conventional power plants
generate only 4000 to 5000 MW of electricity a day, whereas the countrys
total demand is about 6000 to 7000 MW. The demand is growing by 500
MW a year due to increasing industrialization, other developments and
demands. During Boro season 120 million acre rice field in Bangladesh is
irrigated 1.33 million different types of water pumps among which 87% are
diesel operated which require 800 million liter diesel per year. It is estimated
that solar irrigation system can save 760 MW of electricity power and 800
million liter of diesel every year. Solar irrigation system can save all these
power to use in other development purpose for the government of
Bangladesh. Besides this we have plan to provide mini grid solar system in
village market, commercial and dense populated area and install low cost
solar home system in rural and semi urban area. This project will be
implemented with the help of Infrastructure Development Company Ltd.
(IDCOL).

53

Fig: 5.1 Solar Irrigation System

5.2 Rahimafrooz introduces solar-powered irrigation system
Farmers will no more need to wait for power or diesel for running their
irrigation pumps as Rahimafrooz Renewable Energy Ltd (RRE) has
introduced solar-powered irrigation system.
The system will also help save 760 mw power and 800 million litre diesel
every year if the conventional power and diesel run irrigation pumps are
converted to solar power, says a press release.
Rahimafrooz has introduced the system through converting a 10HP diesel run
irrigation pump to solar power, which is owned by farmer Shaheen Ahmed of
Kaishar Char under Savar in Dhaka.
Niaz Rahim, chairman of Rahimafrooz Renewable Energy Ltd, and Shaikh
Siraj, media personality and presenter of Channel Is popular Hridoye Mati
O Manush programme, formally launched the pump, which will supply
54

water for irrigation of 20 acres of BORO rice field. Dr Nazmul Hossain,

chairman of Bangladesh Agriculture Development Corporation (BADC),
witnessed the launch of the scheme, also senior advisor of German Technical
Co-operation (GTZ) Khurshid-ul-Islam and program coordinator of (GTZ)
Erich Otto Gomm were present there.
Its the largest installation of its kind in Bangladesh from Rahimafrooz. It is a
lifetime project with one single major investment as solar panels, the major
part of the system is warranted for 20 years.
Rahimafrooz launched solar PV project back in 1985 in Bangladesh. Due to
technological advancement, solar market has grown fast and efficiently for
the last few years.
Around 500,000 households are already enjoying the comfort solar home
systems designed by Rahimafrooz, among which, 70,000 are actually
supplied and monitored by the company. Besides, another 100kwp medium
and large scale solar installations are also supplied by Rahimafrooz.
The company introduced solar water pump in 2004, pioneering the service in
Bangladesh. Since then hundreds of beneficiaries are enjoying solar-based
water pumping service for drinking and irrigation water.
As continuation of ongoing services to the nation, Rahimafrooz installed and
commissioned this 11.9kwp solar-powered irrigation scheme.

55

5.3 IDCOL to install 1,500 solar-powered irrigation pumps by 2016

Fig: 5.2 IDCOL has installed this solar-powered irrigation pump in Dhamrai
recently.
The Infrastructure Development Company Ltd (IDCOL) plans to install 1,500
solar-powered irrigation pumps across Bangladesh by 2016, in a bid to
promote alternative energy and limit reliance on fossil fuels.
The new pumps will run on a combined 12 megawatts (MW) of power to be
generated by solar panels, projected to save the government nearly Tk 65
crore in fuel-subsidy costs spreading across 20 years.
The project will cost Tk 530 crore. IDCOL, a non-bank financial institution,
will finance Tk 370 crore: Tk 160 crore in soft loans and Tk 210 crore in
grants to be provided by the World Bank, KWF and other donor agencies.
The remaining Tk 160 crore will by provided by the equity participants.
IDCOL is currently working with Network for Universal Service and Rural
Advancement, Rural Communication Network and Services Ltd and

56

Grameen Shakti, to set up the solar irrigation pumps -- but it is open to

applications from interested parties.
IDCOL will review the proposals based on a number of criteria, such as
financial capability, technical know-how and viability of the project.
IDCOL has already installed seven solar irrigation pumps in as many
upazilas, with plans to set up another 50 pumps by the year-end.
We want to install more solar irrigation pumps across the country as it will
ensure a sustainable energy solution and reduce dependence on diesel- run
irrigation pumps, said Mahmood Malik, IDCOL's chief executive officer.
Bangladeshi farmers, at present, rely on some 266,000 electrically powered
water pumps which consume around 1,300MW to irrigate 1.7 million
hectares of land.
And during the peak growing season, a further 1.3 million diesel-run pumps,
using up 900,000 tonnes of fuel, are operated to irrigate the additional 3.4
million hectares of land, data from Bangladesh's power and energy ministry
revealed.
Currently, the government provides around Tk 24-26 per litre of diesel as
subsidy. Installation of solar irrigation pump will certainly help the country
to save a huge amount of foreign currency, Malik said.
Based on a number of criteria that includes the capability to produce at least
three crops a year, off-grid areas and immunity to floods, the company has
already selected 100 upazilas to set up the solar pumps.

57

The installation of a solar pump with a capacity to lift around 5 lakh litres of
water, sufficient to irrigate 15-20 acres, and other costs will require around
Tk 35 lakh.
The low maintenance costs, together with the 20 to 25 years of warranty,
make the solar irrigation pumps attractive to farmers, according to Malik.
A farmer has to pay Tk 1,000-Tk 3,000 for each bigha of land as irrigation
charge for a crop season.

5.4 Solar Irrigation System by REB:

Renewable Energy policy is adopted in 2008. The policy identifies the
following major renewable energy sources namely solar photo voltaic, solar
thermal power/concentrating solar power, wind energy, biomass, biogas,
micro hydro and minihydro. The objectives of the policy are to harness the
potential of RE, dissemination of RE technologies, facilitate both public and
private investment in this sector, increase energy supplies to substitute
indigenous non-renewable energy. To achieve the objective government has
set targets for developing renewable energy resources to 5% of total power
demand by 2015 and 10% by 2020.

5.5 Recent Initiatives on RE:

1. Present Solar Power Generation: 15-20 MW
2. PDB, REB and IDCOL are distributing Solar Home System (SHS)
to the people living in the off-grid areas. IDCOL through different
NGO has already distributed 4.5 lakhs SHS through out the country.
3. PDB has already installed nearly 11 KW solar power to the CHT
area, nearly 230 W solar power in Angorpot and Dahagram
chitmahal Aarea , installed 115 W in the WAPDA office building.
58

4. A Solar Panel with capacity of 21.2 KW is installed at the Honble

Prime Minister's office.
5. Nearly 10MW solar plant will be installed by PDB in Sarihabari (24 MW), Rigional Training Office, Rajshahi (1 MW), Rajabarihat,
Godagari (2-4 MW), Kaptai Power Plant (4-5 MW) in IPP model.
Preparation of tender documents is underway.
6. PDPP has been prepared to cover 4 isolated islands under solar and
wind power.
7. REB has taken project for Solar Irrigation System. 20 irrigation
pumps will be brought under solar power under this project.
8. Installed wind mill at Kutubdia and Feni: 2MW
9. PDPP has been prepared for wind mapping.
10.100 MW of wind power will be generated in the off-shore area of
Anwara, Chittagong in IPP model. PQ has already been prepared
,tendering is under process.
11.Govt. has exempted income tax for next 5 years from commercial
production from RE.

59

Chapter Six
Conclusion
6.1 Conclusion
Since the increase in price per increase in unit power output of a photovoltaic
system is greater than that for a diesel, gasoline, or electric system,
photovoltaic power is more cost competitive when the irrigation system with
which it operates has a low total dynamic head. For this reason, photovoltaic
power is more cost-competitive when used to power a micro irrigation system
as compared to an overhead sprinkler system. Photovoltaic power for
irrigation is cost-competitive with traditional energy sources for small,
remote applications, if the total system design and utilization timing is
carefully considered and organized to use the solar energy as efficiently as
possible. In the future, fossil fuels rise and the economic advantages of mass
production reduce the peak watt costof the photovoltaic cell, photovoltaic
power will become more cost-competitive and more.

60

REFERENCES
Upto-date Information of Power Sector, A Report by Power Cell, Ministry of
Energy, Mineral Resources and Power, Government of Bangladesh,
April, 2012.
2.M. A. Mazed, M. H. Rashid, M. M. Rahman, M. S. Islam and S. Borhan,
1987, "Performance evaluation of ARCO solar pump model CSB 50D in
Bangladesh", Bangladesh Journal of Agricultural Engineering, Vol-1(1), pp.
17-20.3.
W. H. Tietjen, J. Grande, P. J. Nitzsche, T. Manning and E. Dager, 2008,
"Solar pump drip irrigation for vegetable production", ASP
proceedings, Rutgers CES of Warren County, 165 County Road 519 South,
Belvidere, NJ 07823-1949.
4. K. R. Curtis, 2010, "Economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic irrigation
system use in great basin forage production", Research Report, Department
of Applied Economics, Utah State University.
5. N. C. Bhowmik, and others, 2009, "Development of solar water pumping
using indigenous technology for irrigation", Research Report, Renewable
Energy Research Centre,
Journal of Mechanical Engineering, Vol. ME 43, No. 2, December 20/3
Transaction of the Mechanical Engineering Division, The Institution of
Engineers, Bangladesh
"CIA - The World Factbook". Central Intelligence Agency. Archived from
the original on 29 June 2011. Retrieved 8 August 2011.
http://www.altestore.com/store/Deep-Cycle-Batteries/c434/#more
"Charge Controllers for Stand-Alone Systems" (Web page), part of A
Consumer's Guide to Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S.
Department of Energy. Retrieved on 2007-08-20.
Solar Cells and their Applications Second Edition, Lewis Fraas, Larry
Partain, Wiley, 2010, ISBN 978-0-470-44633-1 , Section10.2.
http://www.theindependent-bd.com/details.php?nid=146942
http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=251111
61