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c = /4
Impulse response
c
n=0
,
h(n) = sin n
c
c
n , n0
c
Causality Considerations
PaleyWiener Theorem
The necessary and sufficient condition forH ()to be the amplitude
response for a realizable causal filter is
lnH ()
d<
1+
Conditions for causality :
(a) H () can be zero at a finite set of frequencies
but not over a range of frequencies
(b) H () cannot be constant over a range of frequencies
(c) H () cannot have any abrupt change
Realizable Filters
Realizable filters can be represented as LTI systems
N
M 1
k =1
k =0
y (n) = a k y (nk ) +
bk x (nk )
b k e j k
H () =
k =0
N
1+ a k e j k
k =1
FIR Example
An averaging filter
n=0, 1, 2
h(n) = 1,
0,
otherwise
systemoutput equation
Frequency response
2
H () = h(n)e
n=0
j
jn
= 1+e
= e ( e j +1+e j )
= ( 1+2 cos ) e j
the magnitude
M () = H () =1+2 cos
and linear phase
() =
j2
+e
Averaging Filter
the magnitude
M () = H () =1+2 cos
and linear phase
() =
bk x(nk )
k =0
in terms of the convolution of the system impulse response with the input
M 1
y (n) =
h( k ) x (nk )
k =0
therefore
bk = h(k ) , k =0,1, , M 1
the FIR system function is
M 1
H ( z) =
h(k ) zk
k =0
the M 1 roots of the system function are the zeros of the filter
FIR filter has linear phase if
h(n) = h(M 1n) , n=0,1, ,( M /2)1, M even
n=0,1, ,( M 1)/ 2, M odd
Then
M 1
H ( z) =
h(k ) zk
k =0
( M 1)/ 2
{(
M 1
h
+
2
(M /2)1
=z
( M 1)/ 2
( M 3)/ 2
k =0
k =0
M odd
M even
( M 3)/ 2
n=0
( M )/ 21
=2
h(n)cos
n=0
M 1
h(n)cos
n ,
2
M 1
n ,
2
M 1
,
if H r ()>0
2
() =
M 1
+ , if H r ()<0
2
(
(
)
)
M odd
M even
H d () = hd (n)e j n
n=0
where
1
h d (n) =
H d () e j n d
2
truncate h d (n) with a windowing function
for example the rectangular window is
w (n) = 1, n=0,1, , M 1
0, otherwise
the FIR filter is
h (n) , n=0,1, , M 1
h(n) = hd (n) w (n) = d
0,
otherwise
W () =
w (n)e j n
n=0
1
H () =
H d ( )W () d
1
2n
1 cos
2
M 1
))
2 n
M 1
))
2n
4n
+ 0.8 cos
M 1
M 1
))
Window Type
Transition
Width
Peak sidelobe
(dB)
Rectangular
4/M
-13
Bartlett
8/M
-25
Hanning
8/M
-31
Hamming
8/M
-41
Blackman
12/M
-57
1, k =0, 1, 2, 3
2k
Hr
= 0.4, k =4
15
0, k =5, 6, 7
( )
( M 3)/ 2
n=0
M 1
h(n)cos
n
2
{(
M 1
,
k =0
2
a (k ) =
M 1
M 1
2h
k , k =1, 2, ,
2
2
h
then
(M 1)/ 2
H r () =
k =0
a (k )cos k
Case 1
Case 2
Case 3
Case 4
P () = ( k )cos k
k =0
where
( M 1)/ 2
L = ( M /2)1
( M 3)/ 2
Case 1
Case 2 and 4
Case 3
[ [
dr () (k )cos k
min[ (k )] max S W () H
k =0
] ]
P () = ( k )cos k
k =0
dr () in S
to be the best weighted Chebyshev approximation to H
is that E ()have L+2 extremal frequencies in S
then
E (i ) = E (i +1 ) where 1 < 2 < < L+ 2
and
E (i )=max S E () i=1, 2, , L+2
Example 10.2.4
remez (n , f , a , w)
n=60 ;
f =[0, 0.2, 0.3, 1] ;
a=[1, 1, 0, 0] ;
w=[1, 10];
k s k
H a (s) =
B (s) k =0
= N
A(s)
k s
k =0
H a (s) = h(t ) e
st
dt
first derivative
1z1
s=
T
also can show
1
1z
2
s =
T
)/ T
k =
therefore
H () = F s
H ( T ) =
H a [( f k ) F s ]
k =
1
T
H a [(2 k ) F s ]
k =
Ha
2k
T
H ( z)| z=e
sT
1
=
T
k =
H a s j
2k
T
Example 10.3.3
Convert
s+0.1
0.5
0.5
=
+
2
s+0.1 j3 s+0.1+ j3
(s+0.1) +9
into a IIR filter with impulse invariant method.
Solution
0.5
0.5
H ( z) =
+
1+ e 0.1T e j3 T z 1 1+e 0.1 T e j3T z1
1(e0.1 T cos 3 T ) z1
=
0.1 T
1
0.2 T 2
1(2 e
cos 3 T ) z +e
z
H a (s) =
Example 10.3.3
Example 10.3.4
Convert analog filter
s+0.1
H a (s) =
2
(s+0.1) +16
with resonant frequency r =4
to a digital filter with resonant frequency r = / 2
Solution
from frequency wraping
2
1
= tan
T=
T
2
2
and
1z1
s=4
1
1+ z
yielding
1
2
0.125+0.0061 z 0.1189 z
H ( z) =
2
1+0.9512 z
j / 2
filter poles at p 1,2 = 0.987 e
zeros at z 1,2 = 1, 0.95
( )