Assesment statements from Pearson

Baccalaureate HL Biology

Chapter 2
Cells

Betty

Chapter 2.1: Cell theory

(Taken from the assessment statements)

2. 1. 1. Outline the cell theory

Formulated by Mathias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.
1. All organisms are made up of cells.
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.

2. 1. 2. Discuss the evidence for the cell theory

Robert Hooke described cells in 1665 (using his microscope to look at cork). He did not
know what they are yet, though.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek observed animacula (likely some paramecia) some years
later using his microscope.
Mathias Schleiden stated that plants consist of independent, separate beings called
cells in 1838.
In 1839, Theodor Schwann said the same for animals.

We havent found any non-cellular organism fitting the characteristics of life yet.

Louis Pasteurs experiment in the 1860s where he made chicken broth, boiled it (to kill
all that lived in it) and then let the broth in an enclosed, partially enclosed and fully
open bottle. He observed that the enclosed liquid remained pure, the partially enclosed
grew cloudy slowly and the fully open one grew cloudy very soon. That is how he
concluded that cells cannot just magically appear in an environment they need to
come from pre-existing cells introduced into it.

2. 1. 3. State that unicellular organisms carry out all the functions of life.
All organisms carry out al the functions of life, including unicellular organisms.
The functions of life are (as copied from the book):
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

REPRODUCTION (involves hereditary molecules that can be passed to offspring)

HOMEOSTASIS (refers to maintaining a constant internal environment)
GROWTH (may be limited but is always evident in one way or another)
METABOLISM (includes all the chemical reactions that occur within an organism)
RESPONSE (to the environment is imperative to the survival of the organism)
NUTRITION (all about providing a source of compounds with many chemical bonds
which can be broken to provide the organism with the energy and the nutrients
necessary to maintain life.

2. 1. 4. Compare the relative sizes of molecules, cell membrane thickness,

viruses, bacteria, organelles and cells.
atom
molecule
cell membrane thickness
virus
bacterium
organelle
eukaryotic cell

10-10 m
10-9 m
10-8 m
10-7 m
10-6 m
10-5 m
10-4 m

1
1 nm
10 nm
100 nm
1 - 5 m
10 m
100 m

2. 1. 5. Calculate the linear magnifi cation of drawings and the actual cell
size of specimens in images of known magnifi cation.

Mnemonic: SS goes underground!

2. 1. 6. Explain the importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a

factor limiting cell size.
It is necessary for cells to have a large surface area for membrane transport of nutrients,
wastes, water and other molecules.
Most cells are roughly spherical. The volume of a sphere can be calculated as
whereas the surface area is

. Cubic functions have a faster growing slope than

quadratic ones and so we can see that with growing radius, the volume of a cell will grow
faster than its surface area. This means that the
ratio
between its volume and
surface
area will grow, making the
cell less
and less capable of efficient
membrane transport.
The relationship between
and surface area is

volume

2. 1. 7. State that multicellular organisms show emergent properties.

An emergent property is a behavior that emerges from an interaction between many smaller
parts. It is often argued that cognitive functions are an emergent property of neurons.

2. 1. 8. Explain that cells in multicellular organisms diff erentiate to carry out

specialized functions by expressing some of their genes but not others.
In multicellular organisms, it is not necessary for all cells to handle all tasks equally well for
example it is possible for some cells to focus more on immunity (leucocytes), for others on
movement (muscle cells) etc. This grants the organism a higher efficiency on the larger scale.
In the morula (first developmental stage, far before an embryo the baby is still only a
uniform ball of cells), all cells are multipotent embryonic stem cells, with the ability to
differentiate into any of the three germ layers (endoderm, mesoderm and ectoderm) and later
into any of the cells of the given germ layer. This occurs through signaling molecules such as
hormones often acting as transcription factors. This means that these molecules can either
inhibit or promote the expression of some genes. It results in different cells having different
traits, for example the liver cells having lots of smooth endoplasmic reticula. This varying
expression of different genes (smooth ER gene in liver cells is expressed heavily there, but
little in retina cells) will cause cell differentiation and the ability to carry out specialized
functions.

2. 1. 9. State that stem cells retain the capacity to divide and have the
ability to diff erentiate along diff erent pathways.
Stem cells can be either embryonic (naturally occurring, retained their ability to divide and
differentiate into many different cells) or induced. Embryonic stem cells are generally
pluripotent.
unipotent
multipotent
pluripotent

Can create only 1 type of cell

Can differentiate into any of the 3 germ
layers
Can differentiate into any cell (of that
organism)

The meristema tissue in plants is an example of pluripotent stem cells.

2. 1. 10. Outline one therapeutic use of stem cells.

HOW:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

extract and grow stem cells

treat with appropriate hormones, nutrients etc.
inject into patients body (along with some of the hormones etc.)
suppress the immune response of the patient
monitor patient for cancer

RETINA TRANSPLANT:
Stem cells (either pluripotent or unipotent for retina) can be injected into the eye with
the right hormones and other signalling molecules for development of retina cells and
they will divide to form a new retina (or repair his old one) for the patient.

Chapter 2.2: Prokaryotic cells

(Taken from the assessment statements)

2. 2. 1. Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of Escherichia coli as

an example of a prokaryote
&
2. 2. 2. Annotate the diagram with functions of each named structure.

2. 2. 3. Identify structures from 2. 2. 1. in electron micrographs of E. coli

dots either granules or ribosomes (write ribosomes, thats more likely theyll ask you)
blobt in the middle nucleoid DNA
plasmids remember, circular!

2. 2. 4. State that prokaryotic cells divide by binary fi ssion

see binary fission picture .

Chapter 2.3: Eukaryotic cells

(Taken from the assessment statements)

2. 3. 1. Draw and label a diagram of the ultrastructure of a liver cell as an

example of an animal cell.
&
2. 3. 2. Annotate the diagram with the functions of each named structure
Liver cells have a lot of smooth endoplasmic reticula.
(photo taken from textbook, page 20)

cytoplasm - consists of cytosol (gooey water-based solute) and everything between

the nuclear envelope/membrane and plasma membrane
endoplasmic reticulum network of tubes and channels, always connected to the
nucleus and may extend over all of the cell. Generally used for manufacture, storage
and partially for transport of cellular products.
o smooth produces phospholipids, hormones, detoxifies, allows transport of
lipid-based compounds, aids the release of glucose into the bloodstream by the
liver

sarcoplasmic in muscles, stores and releases K+ used in muscle

contractions
o rough has ribozomes on its surface that produce proteins, inside the RER the
proteins are folded and further put together (basically the ribosomes produce a
polypeptide, which the RER makes into a proper protein). Also involved in
transport of proteins. Closer to nucleus than SER.
ribosomes involved in translation, a process in which a polypeptide chain is
synthesized based on a mRNA blueprint. Made up of rRNA and protein.
lysozomes vacuoles filled with digestive enzymes, acidic content. Involved in
phagocytosis.
Golgi apparatus consists of flat sacs called cisternae. Involved in modification,
transport and distribution of materials inside the cell. Material enters from the ER onto
its cis side, then migrates between cisternae and then leaves in a vacuole from the
trans side. Theres a lot of Golgi apparatuses in cells which secrete a lot (such as in
cells of the pancreas).
mitochondria The endosymbiotic theory states that they have probably come from
phagocyted bacteria that have proven to be beneficial for the cell and it therefore did
not digest the bacterium. One proof for this is that mitochondria have their own
prokaryotic DNA, 70S ribosomes and that there is a double membrane between the
cytosol and mitochondrion (one from the mitochondrion, one from the cell), theyre also
capable of binary fission independently of the cell. Mitochondria allow aerobic
respiration, which provides the cell with multiple times more ATP than anaerobic
respiration. The space inside the mitochondrion is called the matrix, the creases are
called cristae.
nucleus is enclosed by a porous nucleus envelope/membrane. This is porous so that
mRNA and rRNA can leave the nucleus. The nucleus contains nucleoplasm, which is
composed of a cytosol-like substance and chromatin. Chromatin is uncoiled DNA (DNA
only takes the form of visible chromosomes during cell division) and the associated
nucleosomes (which consist of 8 histones). DNA is wrapped around 8 histone proteins
and secured by a 9th histone protein like strand would be around a spool. Animal cells
tend to have a central nucleus, while plant cells have it pushed to the side by the
vacuole. Most cells have a nucleus, but for example human erythrocytes lack it, while in
the fungal reproductive cycle, some cells have 2 nuclei. Without a nucleus, cells cannot
reproduce. A nucleolus is a densely packed area inside the nucleus (without a
membrane) which produces rRNA.
chloroplasts plastids. The endosymbiotic theory applies. Contains grana, which are
stacks of disk-like thylakoid. The light reactions of photosynthesis occur on the
thylakoid membrane. The dark reactions occur in the stroma, the cytosol of the
chloroplast, which contains the necessary enzymes.
centrosomes a pair of centrioles at right angles to each other. Involved in
assembling microtubules for the cytoskeleton. Involved greatly in cell division
vacuole membrane bounds sacks
o plant central vacuoles contain water, wastes and regulate the turgor
(cellular pressure)
o endocytosis/exocytosis vacuoles contain material taken in (ie. by
phagocytosis) or out of the cell (via Golgi)

2. 3. 3. Identify structures from 2. 3. 1. in electron micrographs of liver cells.

lysozomes take up a lot of dye => very dark blobts

mitochondria have strongly pronounced cristae
the nucleus is a circular, quite large and darker region roughly in the middle
the nucleolus is a darker, round region within the nucleus

golgi apparatuses are oblong blobts bent away from the nucleus
endoplasmic reticula are similar to golgi, but not bent uniformly. Rough ER have
dots (ribozomes) on them
vacuoles look like lysozomes, but lighter
centrioles are made up of microtubules and look like a circular tube made up of
circular tubes. Theres 2 of them, perpendicular to each other

2. 3 .4. Compare prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

PROKARYOTE
no membrane-enclosed nucleus
no membrane-bound organelles
DNA circular
1 circular chromosome
no histones (archaea have histone-like
proteins, but still not histones)
no introns in DNA
plasmids
no cytoskeleton
70S ribozomes
reproduce through binary fission and
horizontal gene transfer (conjugation)
~1 m in size

EUKARYOTE
membrane-enclosed nucleus
membrane-bound organelles
(compartmentalization)
DNA linear
many rod-like chromosomes
histones
introns in DNA
no plasmids
cytoskeleton
80S ribozomes
reproduce through mitosis and meiosis
~100 m in size

2. 3. 5. State three diff erences between plant and animal cells.

PLANT
cell wall
plastids (chloroplasts, chromoplasts, )
lytic vacuoles
no centrosomes
store starch
permanent water vacuole
no centrioles in centrosome area

ANIMAL
no cell wall, but extracellular matrix
no plastids
lysozomes
centrosomes
dont store starch
no permanent vacuoles
centrioles in centrosome area

2. 3. 6. Outline two roles of extracellular components.

bacteria cell wall of peptideglycan murein, flagella, pili and capsule

fungi chitinous cell wall
plants cellulose primary cell wall, may have secondary cell wall of lignin
yeast glucan and mannan cell wall
animal extracellular matrix made up of collagen and glycoproteins

Ch 2.4 Membranes
2. 4. 1. Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of a membrane

2. 4. 2. Explain how the hydrophobic and hydrophilic properties of the

phospholipids help to maintain the structure of cell membranes.

The hydrophilic heads are exposed to the water, while the hydrophobic tails group together.
Because of this, the membrane always arranges as a bilayer.
The weak attraction between the fatty acid tails cause the membrane to be quite fluid and
flexible.
Cholesterol in the membrane allow a greater fluidity (without cholesterol, our membranes
would be quite rigid). Plants do not have it.
Transmembrane proteins can be either integral (go through the membrane => must have
a hydrophobic central region and hydrophilic ends) or peripheral (only on one side of the
membrane => hydrophilic).

2. 4. 3. List the functions of membrane proteins.

Transport
Receptors

Anchoring
Cell recognition / antigenic function (MHC Major Histocompatibility Complex)
Intercellular junctions
Enzymatic activity

/2. 4. 4. Defi ne diff usion and osmosis.

Diffusion is the passive movement of particles down their concentration gradient (ie. from a
place where there is a lot of them to a place where there is a few of them). It occurs because
of the natural tendency for entropy to grow.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water over a semi-permeable membrane. It occurs down its
concentration gradient / against the concentration gradient of the solute.

2. 4. 5. Explain passive transport across membranes by simple diff usion and

facilitated diff usion.
Simple diffusion happens simply across the
bilayer. It is only possible for small, nonpolar
molecules (because of the nonpolar nature of the
middle of the membrane).

Note on entropy

Entropy is a measure of the

disorganization of matter.
A homogenous substance has
a very high entropy, while a
Facilitated diffusion happens through proteins,
heterogeneous substance has
but is still passive no ATP invested. The protein
a very low entropy.
channels are usually specific to the substance they
There is a natural tendency in
can carry. Large, polar (sugars,) or charged
the universe for entropy to
molecules / ions cannot pass freely through the
grow.
bilayer and thus they diffuse across their channel
Think of it like this:
proteins.
o You clean your room =>
entropy is decreased,
Water can travel both through simple and
but you had to invest
facilitated diffusion (it is polar, but so small that it is
energy.
not SUCH a problem). The membrane proteins for
o
Your room then again
water diffusion are called aquaporins.
gets messy after a few
days, without you
actively investing
2. 4. 6. Explain the role of protein pumps
energy.
and ATP in active transport across
o (this is not exactly how it
membranes.
works, but it will help
you imagine it)
Active transport is defined by investment of
Life can be thought of as a
energy, usually in the form of ATP. It involves the
constant struggle to
movement of substances against their
decrease entropy.
concentration gradient (=> decrease of
There are predictions, that as
entropy). It allows to have different concentrations of some molecules inside the cell than
outside. An example of this is the thyroid gland, whose cells need to have a lot of iodine
inside, while there is only a little iodine outside they need to actively pump all the iodine
available inside.
Membrane proteins have to be involved in active transport.

SODIUM-POTASSIUM PUMP:
(in neurons, works to establish ion concentrations, which make the neuron charged)

/ (http://bio1100.nicerweb.com/Locked/media/ch04/04_ta15.jpg)

2. 4. 7. Explain how vesicles are used to transport materials within a cell

between the rough ER, Golgi apparatus and plasma membrane.
Endocytosis includes the taking up of material by the cell (ie. phagocytosis or
pinocytosis), while exocytosis is the excretion of material out of the cell (waste or
secretions).

(http://iws.collin.edu/biopage/faculty/mcculloch/1406/outlines/chapter%208/8-17.jpg)

Endocytosis and exocytosis are opposite processes.

EXOCYTOSIS:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Protein synthesis at the ribosomes of the RER.

Protein leaves RER in a vesicle.
Vesicle merges with Golgi apparatus cis side.
Protein travels between Golgis cisternae, is modified and folded.
Vesicle with protein leaves from Golgis trans side.
Vesicle merges with plasma membrane and protein is secreted.

/ENDOCYTOSIS

(http://iws.collin.edu/biopage/faculty/mcculloch/1406/outlines/chapter%208/8-17.jpg)

Vesicle formation see picture.

Vesicle then often merges with lysosome for
digestions.

2. 4. 8. Describe how the fl uidity of the membrane allows it to change shape,

break and reform during endo- and exocytosis.
The fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane describes the softness and flexibility of
the membrane you can imagine it as a sea of fat (phospholipids) with icebergs (proteins
etc.) floating in it. As the phospholipids are only held together by very weak Van der Waals
interactions, the membrane is quite free to break and reform. However, due to the
hydrophobic nature of fatty acid chains, a bilayer ball will always reform both in the case of
a vesicle and the cell membrane.
Proteins are also important in this, because they can help signal, whether the substance at
the outside of the cell is even supposed to be taken up by the cell ie. glucose will be taken
up only after it has been recognized by membrane proteins specialized to do this. Lysozomes
then also need to recognize the membrane proteins of the vesicle to know, whether to merge
and digest.

Chapter 2.4: Cell cycle

(Taken from the assessment statements)

2. 5. 1 Outline the stages in the cell cycle, including interphase (G1, S, G2),
mitosis and cytokinesis.

2. 5. 2. State that tumours (cancers) are the result of uncontrolled cell

division and that these can occur in any organ or tissue.
Tumorous growth is the result of the cell forgetting about the checkpoints in the cell cycle. It
does not stop because of any factors that would make a healthy cell stop dividing, such as a
high density of cells etc. This can be because it may have broken receptors for chemicals
telling it to stop etc.

2. 5. 3. State that interphase is an active period in the life of a cell when

many metabolic reactions occur, including protein synthesis, DNA replication
and an increase in the number of mitochondria and/or chloroplasts.
The cell spends most of its life in interphase and this is also the stage where most of the cells
life processes occur. No digestion, protein synthesis etc. can occur during mitosis, only in
interphase. On top of this, many cells leave the cell cycle to enter G0, so they are forever in
interphase.
Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA and divide independently of the cell cycle
they have their own cell cycle.

2. 5. 4. Describe the events that occur in the four phases of mitosis

(prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase).

2. 5. 5. Explain how mitosis produces two genetically identical nuclei.

After DNA is replicated, there are two identical sets of it.
DNA supercoiling results in chromatids appearing and
forming chromosomes. The chromatids of a chromosome are
called sister chromatids and contain the same genetic
information.
Since sister chromatids are separated in anaphase, each
daughter cell will get one sister chromatid for its genetic
information.
The only way of having variation through mitosis is due to
errors called mutations.

The contents of the cytoplasm (organelles, ) are not divided equally between the daughter
cells.

2. 5. 6. State that growth, embryonic development, tissue repair and asexual

reproduction involve mitosis.
Growth can occur either through increase of cell size or count.
Embryonic development occurs through division of the zygote into the many cells of the
embryo.
Tissue repair usually occurs through division of the appropriate stem cell, whose daughter
cell can replace the damaged or lost cell.
Asexual reproduction or cloning involves mitosis and the offspring is identical to the
parent.