Assesment statements from Pearson

Baccalaureate HL Chemistry

Chapter 2
Atomic structure

Betty

Chapter 2.1: The atom

(Taken from the assessment statements)

2. 1. 1. State the position of protons, neutron and electrons in the atom

&
2. 1. 2. State the relative masses and relative charges of protons, neutrons and electrons.
electron
proton
neutron

position
electron shell
nucleus
nucleus

relative mass
1/1836
1
1

relative charge
-1
+1
0

2. 1. 3. Define the terms mass number (A), atomic number (Z) and isotopes of an element.
The mass number (A) is defined as the number of protons plus the number of neutrons in the atom.
The atomic number (Z) is defined as the number of protons in the nucleus.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different mass numbers.

2. 1. 4. Deduce the symbol for an isotope given its mass number and atomic number.

2. 1. 5. Calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons in atoms and ions from the
mass number, atomic number and charge.
Number of protons = Z
Number of neutrons = A-Z
Number of electrons in atom = Z ; for ions add x electrons for x charge and add y electrons for +y charge

2. 1. 6. Compare the properties of the isotopes of an element.

The chemical properties of isotopes of an element will stay exactly the same, as chemical properties are mostly
influenced by the electron configuration of the element. All isotopes have the same electron configuration (in
unionized ground state) and will therefore react in exactly the same way.
The physical properties of isotopes of an element will change, as the different mass number will result in different
mass. It will also result in a different half-life of the element (see 2. 1. 7.),

2. 1. 7. Discuss the uses of radioisotopes.

Some isotopes undergo radioactive decay, that is that after some time the fall apart into different elements and
give off either alpha, beta or gamma particles.
Alpha particles are emitted by nuclei with too many protons. Composed of He nuclei (2p+, 2n0).
Beta particles are emitted by nuclei with too many neutrons. Composed of an electron ejected from the
nucleus due to neutron decay.
Gamma rays are a high energy electromagnetic radiation (photons).
A half-life is how long it takes for half the amount of substance to undergo radioactive decay.
Carbon-14 dating

The most stable isotope is C-12.

C-14 decays into N-14 and e-.
Living organisms take up C-14 just the same as C-12.
After death, no more C is being absorbed.
After many years, we can measure the relative abundances of C-12 and C-14 and see how much the ratio
between these has changed due to radioactive decay of C-14.
The half-life of C-14 is 5730 years and can be thus used to date organic matter thousands of years old.

Cobalt-60 in radiotherapy

Co-60 emits very penetrating gamma radiation and can be used as a source of this.
Gamma radiation is ionizing, which damages DNA of cancer cells.
Healthy cells also experience damage, but are more likely to recover than cancer cells.

Iodine-131 as a medical tracer

I-131 emits beta and gamma rays which allow it to be easily detectable.
As it has the same function in the body as the stable isotope, it can be used to trace the function of the
thyroid gland.
Its short half-life of 8 days means that the body can dispose of it quickly.

Iodine-125 in radiotherapy

Source of beta radiation.

Pellets implanted into the tumor (often used in prostate cancer) and can act locally.
Half-life of 80 days means it can stay long enough in the body to work over an extended period of time and
does not need replacing.

Chapter 2.2: The mass spectrometer

(Taken from the assessment statements)

2. 2. 1. Describe and explain the operation of a mass spe ctrometer.

The mass spectrometer is an instrument used to measure the masses and relative abundances of atoms and
molecules.

(http://images.tutorvista.com/cms/images/46/mass-spectrometer1.png)

1. A vaporized sample is injected into the mass spectrometer (so that individual particles can be analyzed).
Measurements are done in strict vacuum.
2. An electron gun (cathode rays) ionizes the sample, giving each particle the same (usually single) positive
charge.
3. The cations are attracted toward negatively charged plates. They are accelerated by an electric field and
pass through a thin hole in the plates (this also makes the beam of particles thinner).
4. A magnetic field generated by the electromagnet deflects the particles trajectory. The particles with a
smaller mass/charge ratio (m/z) are deflected more. The field is made stronger gradually to detect particles
with growing m/z ratios.
5. A detector detects the particles through sensing a change in charge when the positive particles hit the
detector. The recorder records how many particles have been detected a particular m/z ratio.

2. 2. 2. Describe how the mass spectrometer may be used to de termine A r using the
scale.

12 C

As the mass spectrometer can be set up to produce only a single charge, the m/z ratio can be easily converted into
the relative atomic masses of the individual particles.
However, as the relative atomic mass is taking into account ALL THE ISOTOPES IN THEIR RELATIVE ABUNDANCES, the
calculation also needs to take this into account.
( )

Ch 2.3 Electron arrangement

2. 3. 1. Describe the electromagnetic spectrum.
Light is both a wave and a particle (photon) according to quantum theory.

(http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/physics/images/waves1.gif)

wavelength
c speed of light = 300 000 000 ms-1
f frequency

When white light is passed through a prism, a continuous spectrum is produced (no gaps).

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg)

2. 3. 2. Distinguish between a continuous spectrum and a line spectrum.

In a continuous spectrum, all wavelengths are present.
When white light is passed through hydrogen gas, a line spectrum is produced. This is the Hydrogen absorption
spectrum. If enough energy (electrical/light) is provided to the gas, it will shine out an emission line spectrum.
Line spectra are not continuous.

( http://www.astronomyknowhow.com/pics-res/hydrogen-spectra.jpg)

Notice how the absorption spectrum (light shone upon the material without the absorbed colours) lack those
colours that are present in the emission spectrum (light that the material gives off when provided with energy).

2. 3. 3. Explain how the lines in the emission spectrum of hydrogen are related to electron
energy levels.
When a ground-level electron is hit by a photon or otherwise provided with a quantum of energy, it becomes
excited. This means that it jumps to a higher energy level than it normally belongs to. It is, however, unstable there,
and therefore falls back down to its ground state. It gives off the appropriate quantum of energy (a photon).

h Planck constant; h = 6.626 x10-34 Js

The Plancks equation states that:

This equation allows us to determine the change in energy the electron has undergone based on the frequency of
light emitted (can be determined through colour). This is addressed by the Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series.

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Hydrogen_transitions.svg/400px-Hydrogen_transitions.svg.png)

2. 3. 4. Deduce the electron arrangement for atoms and ions up to Z = 20.

In IB, the electron arrangement refers to the number of electrons on each shell (do not bother with orbitals here).
Shell
1st
2nd
3rd
4th +

Maximal electron count

2
8
18
32

The number of electrons in an atom is equivalent to

the atoms atom number (proton count).
In ions, a charge of +1 means a loss of one electron
(and vice versa)!

Ch 12.1 Electron configuration

12. 1. 1. Explain how evidence from first ionization energies across periods accounts for the
existence of main energy levels and sub -levels in atoms.
The first ionization energy is the minimum energy needed to remove 1 mol of electrons from 1 mol of atoms. (It can
be worked out by calculating the energy needed for an atom to jump to a shell outside the Bohr radius.)
The second ionization energy is the minimum energy needed to remove 1 mol of electrons from 1 mol of ions with a
single positive charge.
Patterns in successive ionization energies are one of the proofs for the Bohr
model. It can be seen that within one electron shell, the successive ionization
energies of a given element grow quite linearly, but there are significant jumps
between levels (see image).

This shows us that it is more difficult to remove electrons closer to the nucleus
due to greater electromagnetic attraction between the negative electron and
positive nucleus. It also shows that within a level, there are no huge jumps, that
all electrons within a main energy level are very close in energy.
(http://fce-study.netdna-ssl.com/images/uploadflashcards/back/0/2/18620191_m.jpg)

When we take a closer look at successive ionization energies, we can see that
even within a level there are jumps.

The jumps within one level give us proof that there are not only main
energy levels, but also energy sub-levels (orbitals), which also differ in
energy.

((http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/properties

/moreies.html)

12. 1. 2. Explain how successive ionization energy data is related to the electron
configuration of an atom.

(http://chemlinks.beloit.edu/Stars/images/IEexpand.gif)

Notice how the first ionization energies of successive elements grow in a similar way as the successive ionization
energies of one element. That is because for each next element, one electron is added. Notice how there is always
growth within the row and then a fall between periods.
Notice that between K and Ga, there is little increase. This is where the first period of transition metals is found.
Little change in ionization energy occurs there, because the electrons added across the row are all found in the 3d
sub-level, but the electron removed in ionization comes from the 4s orbital. The inner 3d electron mostly nullifies
the pull of the additional 1 proton. Because of this, the ionization energies (as well as atomic radii) of transition
metals are very similar within one row.

12. 1. 3. State the relative energies of s, p, d and f orbitals in a single energy level.
s<p<d<f

12. 1. 4. State the maximum number of orbitals in a given energy level.

Shell
1st
2nd
3rd
4th +

Maximal electron count

2
8
18
32

Orbitals
1s
2s, 2p
3s, 3p, 3d
4s, 4p, 4d, 4f

12. 1. 5. Draw the shape of an s orbital and the shapes of p x , p y and p z orbitals.
The quantum theory has proposed that all particles can be both particles and waves. This gave us a new way of
looking at an atom and understanding energy sub-levels.

(http://www.clickandlearn.org/images/debroglie.jpg)
As electron shells can be expressed through wave function, the wave theory (by means of interference etc.) shown

us sub-levels as this:

(http://natickhighwebdesign.com/tyler/images/scrodingeratom.jpg)

Werner Heisenbergs Uncertainty principle is any of a variety of mathematical inequalities asserting a fundamental
limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle known as complementary variables,

such as position x and momentum p, can be known simultaneously (Wikipedia). For us it means that we cannot
know with 100% certainty where an electron lies within an atom.

Erwin Schrdinger calculated that there are areas within an atoms electron shell, in which an electron will be found
with 90% probability. We now call these orbitals and they correspond to the energy sub-levels we saw in ionization
energies.
ORBITALS
s orbitals
The s atom orbital has 0 nodes of symmetry and is therefore a sphere. It
can contain a maximum of 2 electrons.

p orbitals
The p sub-levels contain three degenerate (equal in energy) p atomic
orbitals, each of which can hold a maximum of 2 electrons (maximum of
6 electron all together). They have a dumbbell shape with different
orientations in space.

d orbitals
Have 5 degenerate d orbitals.

f orbitals
Have 7 degenerate f orbitals. The shape is virtually impossible to imagine.

12. 1. 6. Apply the Aufbau principle, Hunds rule and the Pauli exclusion principle to write
electron configurations for atoms and ions up to Z=54.

QUANTUM NUMBERS

Principal quantum number (n)

o main energy level (number of shell away from nucleus)
o n = 1, 2, 3, (but >7 was never found)
Azimuthal quantum number (l)
o defines rotational symmetry of an orbital => its shape
o l = <0; n-1>
o 0 means a sphere, 1 means a p orbital,
Magnetic quantum number (m)
o organization of orbital in space
o m = <-l; l>
o For p orbitals, m = -1, 0, 1. This shows the three degenerate orbitals!
Spin quantum number (s)
o Parametric angular momentum of an electron
o Two fermions (electrons are fermions) cannot have the same 4 characteristics and therefore 2
electrons within the same orbital must have opposite spin.
o

s=

The max number of electrons of an atom is 2n2.

The nth level of the Bohr atom is divided into n sub-levels!
Building an atom
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
Electrons occupy orbitals with the lowest energy first.
ORBITAL ENERGY ORDER

(http://staff.norman.k12.ok.us/~cyohn/index_files/activity8_files/image004.jpg)

HUNDS RULE (OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY)

Electrons occupying energetically degenerate orbitals fill them up with unpaired electrons having the same
spin first.
The empty bus rule

PAULIS EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE

no 2 fermions can have all 4 quantum numbers the same
=> electrons within the same orbital have an opposite spin

Electron configuration and stability of orbitals

S ELEMENTS: ns1-2
P ELEMENTS: ns2 np1-6
D ELEMENTS: ns2 (n-1)p6 (n-1)d1-10
F ELEMENTS: ns2 (n-1)p6 (n-2)d10 (n-2)f1-14

Orbitals are:

most stable when full

less stable when half-full
less stable when empty
least stable when partially filled

Because of this, some elements are an exception to the electron configuration rules.
How it seems:
`

29Cu:[18Ar]

4s2 3p9

How it is:
29Cu:[18Ar]

4s1 3p10