1 s2.0 S0375674203001912 Main

Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193 219
www.elsevier.com/locate/jgeoexp
New insights into the origin and migration of brines in deep

Devonian aquifers, Alberta, Canada
Karsten Michael a,*, Hans G. Machel b, Stefan Bachu a
b
a
Alberta Geological Survey, 4999-98 Avenue, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6B 2X3
Department of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada T6G 2E3
Received 15 December 2001; received in revised form 10 August 2002; accepted 25 December 2002
Abstract
Analysis of hydraulic heads and chemical compositions of Devonian formation waters in the west central part of the Alberta
Basin, Canada, characterizes the origin of formation waters and migration of brines. The Devonian succession in the study area
lies 2000 5000 m below the ground surface, and has an approximate total thickness of 1000 m and an average slope of 15 m/
km. Four Devonian aquifers are present in the study area, which form two aquifer systems [i.e., a Middle Upper Devonian
aquifer system (MUDAS) consisting of the Elk Point and Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifers, and an Upper Devonian aquifer
system (UDAS) consisting of the Winterburn and Wabamun aquifers]. The Ireton is an effective aquitard between these two
systems in the eastern parts of the study area. The entire Devonian succession is confined below by efficient aquitards of the
underlying Cambrian shales and/or the Precambrian basement, and above by overlying Carboniferous shales of the Exshaw and
Lower Banff Formations.
The formation water chemistry shows that the Devonian succession contains two distinct brine types: a heavy brine, located
updip, defined approximately by TDS >200 g/l, and a light brine with TDS < 200 g/l. Hydraulic head distributions suggest that,
presently, the light brine attempts to flow updip, thereby pushing the heavy brine ahead. The interface between the two brines
is lobate and forms large-scale tongues that are due to channeled flow along high-permeability pathways. Geological and
hydrogeochemical data suggest that the following processes determined the present composition of the light and heavy brines:
original seawater, evaporation beyond gypsum but below halite saturation, dolomitization, clay dehydration, gypsum dewatering,
thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR), and halite dissolution. The influx of meteoric (from the south) and metamorphic (from
the west) waters can be recognized only in the light brine. Albitization can be unequivocally identified only in the heavy brine.
The heavy brine may be residual Middle Devonian evaporitic brine from the Williston Basin or the Elk Point Basin, or it may
have originated from partial dissolution of thick, laterally extensive Middle Devonian evaporite deposits to the east of the study
area. The light brine most probably originated from dilution of heavy brine in post-Laramide times.
D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Brines; Hydraulic heads; Chemical composition; Devonian; Alberta
1. Introduction
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +1-780-427-4197; fax: +1-780422-1459.
E-mail address: Karsten.Michael@eub.gov.ab.ca (K. Michael).
The Alberta Basin, spanning from f 48jN to

f 61jN and from f 109jW to the Rocky Mountains
(Fig. 1a), consists of a northeasterly tapering wedge of
0375-6742/03/$ - see front matter D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0375-6742(03)00191-2
194
K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219
Fig. 1. Location of the study area (shaded) and relevant previous studies in the Alberta Basin (a) in plan view and (b) in cross-section. Regionalscale hydrogeological studies that are referenced in this paper were performed in the Peace River Arch (Hitchon et al., 1990) and Red Earth
(Toth, 1978) areas. Main basin-scale flow systems in Devonian aquifers identified previously (Bachu, 1995a, 1997, 1999; Anfort et al., 2001)
are shown by the arrows in plan view. Line of cross-section A AVrefers to Fig. 2.
sedimentary rocks that varies in thickness from >6000

m in the west at the thrust-and-fold belt of the Rocky
Mountains to zero in the east at the exposed Precambrian Shield. Erosion since the Eocene has created a
relatively mild topographic relief, which ranges in the
undeformed part of the Alberta Basin between >1400
m above sea level (a.s.l.) in the west southwest and
f 200 m a.s.l. at the Great Slave Lake in the north
northeast. The basin has been the target of intense
hydrocarbon exploration for well over 50 years, and
thousands of well data are available.
The earliest interpretation of the present flow patterns in the Alberta Basin suggests a basin-wide,
topography-driven flow system that recharges in the
Rocky Mountain foothills in the southwest, is channeled updip mainly along Devonian carbonate aquifers, and discharges in the northeast along the feather
edge of the basin (Hitchon, 1969, 1984). This interpretation was used to explain the Pine Point MVT Pb
Zn and the Athabasca oil sand deposits in the Alberta
Basin. A relatively high permeability was assumed for
the Upper Devonian carbonates, which were interpreted to be the main aquifers for regional fluid flow
(Hitchon, 1984; Garven, 1985, 1989). One implication
of this hydrogeological interpretation is that the basinscale flow system should have flushed the connate
brines from the deep Devonian aquifers, as simulated
by numerical models of topography-driven flow
(Deming and Nunn, 1991; Adams et al., 2000). The
presence of high-salinity brines with nonmeteoric
isotope signatures (see below) in the Paleozoic formations indicates, however, that the basin has not been
flushed by meteoric water, and that a single, basinscale topography-driven flow system, as described
above, is not active in the Alberta Basin. Subsequent
studies have shown that the driving mechanisms for
flow and fluid origins vary both vertically and laterally
within the basin. Toth (1978) and Hitchon et al. (1990)
divided the stratigraphic succession in the Red Earth
Region and in the Peace River Arch area, to the
northeast and north of the current study area (Fig.
1a), respectively, into three main hydrogeological
groups: (I) Lower Paleozoic, (II) Upper Paleozoic
Lower Mesozoic, and (III) Upper Mesozoic Cenozoic, separated from each other by regional-scale competent aquitards. The Devonian carbonate aquifers lie
within the upper portion of Group I and bottom of
Group II. According to Toths (1978) and Hitchon et
195
al.s (1990) interpretations, Groups II and III have

developed intermediate- and local-scale flow systems
that are driven by and equilibrated to the present and
sub-Recent ground surface topography. On the other
hand, the above authors suggested that the present flow
in Group I is maintained by relict energy differences
that originated in the Pliocene, and that this flow is in a
transient process of equilibrating to the present-day
ground surface (Toth, 1978; Hitchon et al., 1990).
Three major flow systems appear to be present
within the Devonian aquifers in different areas of the
Alberta Basin (Fig. 1a). In the northern part, flow
appears to be driven northeastward by ground surface
topography, with recharge in the thrust-and-fold belt of
the Rocky Mountains and discharge at the Great Slave
Lake, where the Devonian formations subcrop beneath
the Quaternary cover (Bachu, 1997). In the southern
and central parts of the basin, the general flow direction is northward, driven also by topography, with
recharge occurring in areas of Devonian outcrops at
high elevations in Montana and discharge at outcrops
in the north along the Peace River (Bachu, 1995a,
1999; Anfort et al., 2001). The salinity of formation
waters in these two flow systems increases from < 50
g/l near the respective recharge areas to approximately
250 g/l in the basin centre, along the flow path (Bachu,
1997; Anfort et al., 2001). Salinity is again relatively
low ( < 50 g/l) along the Devonian subcrop edge in the
northeast as a result of influx of meteoric water from
the Precambrian Shield. A third flow system is characterized by elevated hydraulic heads in the Devonian
aquifers in the west central part of the basin, indicating
east northeastward flow from the Rocky Mountain
deformation front (Hitchon et al., 1990; hollow arrow
heads in Fig. 1a). On the other hand, relatively high
formation water salinities suggest that flow in the
Devonian aquifers is disconnected from any meteoric
recharge (Bachu, 1995a). Past tectonic compression
was proposed as the mechanism that drives the flow in
this system (Bachu, 1995a, 1999), but strontium isotope studies suggest that fluids expelled by this mechanism migrated only approximately 100 150 km from
the deformation front (Machel and Cavell, 1999;
Buschkuehle and Machel, 2001, 2002). In addition,
numerical modeling studies indicate that excess pressures generated by tectonic loading would have occurred in pulses and dissipated after several million
years (Ge and Garven, 1989, 1994).
196
Interpreting the distribution of major ions and the

isotope geochemistry of formation waters in central
Alberta, Connolly et al. (1990a,b) distinguished between three groups of waters in the Alberta Basin:
evaporated sea water that has been subsequently diluted by meteoric water in (I) dominantly carbonate
aquifers (Devonian Mississippian) and in (II) dominantly sandstone aquifers (Permian Lower Cretaceous), and (III) dilute meteoric water (Upper
Cretaceous to Recent). Previously, Hitchon et al.
(1971) had suggested that membrane filtration of
Devonian seawater and dissolution of evaporites were
the major causes for the high salinity in the Devonian
brines. In contrast, Spencer (1987) and Connolly et al.
(1990a,b) suggested that evaporation of seawater beyond halite saturation and subsequent water rock
interaction were the main mechanisms for brine production. Furthermore, the massive, replacive dolomitization of limestones in the Devonian succession
indicates that large amounts of fluids must have flowed
through these rocks (e.g., Wendte et al., 1998; Mountjoy et al., 1999), which must have significantly influenced the formation water chemistry.
This brief summary shows that the origin(s) and
flow-driving mechanism(s) of the brines in Devonian
aquifers in the west central part of the Alberta Basin are
not well understood. This study addresses on a local to

regional scale the flow and chemistry of formation of
waters in the deep parts of the Devonian succession in
the west central part of the Alberta Basin, in an attempt
to answer some of the remaining questions. Specifically, this study intends to: (a) identify the flow patterns,
(b) characterize the chemical evolution and source(s) of
solutes in the brines, (c) investigate the possibility of
brine displacement, and (d) identify the flow-driving
mechanisms. Elucidation of these issues is important
for characterizing the (hydro)geological processes that
led to the current fluid distribution and hydrodynamics
in the study area, which had a major impact on
hydrocarbon migration and some mineralization processes (such as MVT) in the Alberta Basin. The
location of the study area (Fig. 1) was specifically
chosen to investigate the hydrogeology in an area likely
to have been influenced by tectonic fluid expulsion
(Bachu, 1995a; Machel and Cavell, 1999). It is located
between southern Alberta and the Peace River Arch
area, each one characterized by different flow systems
and water chemistry (Hitchon et al., 1990; Anfort et al.,
2001). The Devonian section in our study area has been
a hydrocarbon exploration target since the 1950s and is
known to contain prolific oil pools updip and gas pools
(many of them sour) downdip.
Fig. 2. Structural dip cross-section A AVperpendicular to the deformation front, showing general lithology of the Devonian and adjacent
successions (see Fig. 1a for line of cross-section).
2. Geology and hydrostratigraphy

The Alberta Basin was initiated by the rifting of the
North American craton during the late Proterozoic,
followed by thermal contraction that led to the transgressive onlap of dominantly shallow water carbonates
and evaporites from Middle Cambrian to Middle
Jurassic time (Porter et al., 1982; Ricketts, 1989). This
sedimentary succession represents the passive margin
stage of basin development. From the Late Jurassic to
the Early Tertiary, accretion of allochthonous terranes
along the western margin of the proto-North American
continent during the Columbian and Laramide orogenies caused the thrusting and folding of sedimentary
197
strata to form the Rocky Mountains. Jurassic to Devonian strata now subcrop from west to east at the subCretaceous unconformity as a result of basement tilting
and significant pre-Cretaceous erosion. Deposition in
the foreland basin is dominated by syn-orogenic clastics derived from the emerging Cordillera. Tertiary-toRecent erosion has removed an estimated 3800 m
(proximal) to 2000 m (distal) of sediments since the
peak of the Laramide orogeny about 65 60 Ma
(Nurkowski, 1984; Bustin, 1991) and produced the
present-day topographic relief and drainage pattern. As
a result, the elevation of the ground surface in the study
area drops from >1200 m along the deformation front
to < 700 m in the north.
Fig. 3. General lithology and hydrostratigraphy of the Devonian and adjacent successions in the study area.
198
The sedimentary succession in the study area can be

subdivided into three major hydrostratigraphic groups
(Michael and Bachu, 2001, 2002): (I) Tertiary Cretaceous, (II) Jurassic Mississippian, and (III) Devonian Cambrian (Fig. 1b), separated from each other by
the intervening thick, laterally continuous shale aquitards of the Jurassic Fernie Group and the Mississippian Lower Banff Exshaw Formations, respectively.
Group III is equivalent to Group I as defined by
Hitchon et al. (1989, 1990). The crystalline Precambrian basement forms the lower boundary for the entire
stratigraphic succession, and is considered to act as a
basin-wide aquiclude (Toth, 1978; Hitchon et al.,
1990; Bachu, 1995a). The first sediments deposited
on the Precambrian basement were Middle Cambrian
sandstones, which form the Basal Sandstone aquifer
(Figs. 2 and 3) (Bachu et al., 1986). This aquifer is
confined at the top by the Middle Upper Cambrian
aquitard, consisting of interbedded shales, siltstones,
and carbonates. The Cambrian is absent in the northwestern corner of the study area (Fig. 4a) due to
nondeposition or erosion, and here Devonian sediments directly overlie the crystalline basement.
The Devonian succession in the study area consists
mainly of marine carbonates and shales that were
deposited during the passive margin stage of basin
evolution. The Devonian is comprised, in ascending
order, of the following stratigraphic groups: Elk Point,

Beaverhill Lake, Woodbend, Winterburn, and Wabamun (Fig. 3). Mixed near-shore clastics of the Elk
Point Group, derived from the Peace River Arch and
Western Alberta Ridge landmasses, and a thin succession of carbonates at the top of the underlying Cambrian form the so-called Elk Point aquifer. It is overlain
by the platform and reef carbonates of the Beaverhill
Lake Group and the Cooking Lake and Leduc Formations of the Woodbend Group, which form the
Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifer. On a regional
scale, the Elk Point and Woodbend Beaverhill Lake
aquifers represent one contiguous aquifer system
(Middle Upper Devonian, MUDAS; see Figs. 2 and
3) within the study area. Along some platform edges
(Fig. 4b), however, the thin intervening Watt Mountain
and Waterways shales form local aquitards at the top of
the Elk Point and within the Woodbend Beaverhill
Lake aquifers, respectively.
The Woodbend Ireton shales constitute the major
aquitard in the study area, separating the MUDAS
from the overlying Upper Devonian aquifer system
(UDAS), consisting of the Winterburn and Wabamun
Groups. The Ireton aquitard thins considerably over
many of the Woodbend Leduc reefs (Fig. 5), and crossformational flow at such locations has been identified
in other parts of the Alberta Basin (Bachu and Under-
Fig. 4. Various boundaries of Cambrian Devonian strata in the study area: (a) erosional limits of the Cambrian and the Elk Point Group, and (b)
extent of carbonate platforms in the Beaverhill Lake and Woodbend Groups (modified from Oldale and Munday, 1994; Switzer et al., 1994).
199
Fig. 5. (Hydro)Stratigraphic cross-section parallel to the deformation front showing breaches in the Ireton aquitard and thinning of the
Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifer between Leduc reef built-ups (stratigraphic correlations from Buschkuehle and Machel, 2001, 2002). Well
locations noted along the top of the section are in the Dominion Land Survey format (see Fig. 4b for line of cross-section).
schultz, 1993; Hearn, 1996; Rostron and Toth, 1997;

Anfort et al., 2001). The facies distribution in the lower
part of the Winterburn Group ranges from isolated reef
and restricted platform carbonates to argillaceous
basinfill sediments (Switzer et al., 1994). In contrast,
the upper part of the Winterburn Group consists mostly
of silty dolostones and siltstones of the Graminia
Formation, which form a thin aquitard at the top of
the Winterburn Group. Overlying the Graminia Formation are massive, partly dolomitized limestones of
the Wabamun Group (Saller and Yaremko, 1994). The
diverse lithology and the large amount of fine-grained
sediments in the Winterburn Group suggest a rather
heterogeneous permeability distribution at least in the
lower half of the UDAS.
All shaly aquitards within the Devonian succession, from the Watt Mountain to Graminia, thin out
southwestward near the deformation front. Here the
entire Devonian succession forms one contiguous,
stacked aquifer system (Skilliter, 1999; Buschkuehle
and Machel, 2001, 2002). The Carboniferous shales of
the Exshaw and Lower Banff Formations form a
thick, continuous aquitard at the top of the entire

Devonian hydrostratigraphic group.
3. Hydrogeological patterns
TDS data of formation waters and drill stem tests
(Table 1) were used to interpret the flow of brines in
Table 1
Number of chemical analyses and drillstem tests in the hydrogeological analysis, along with ranges of salinity and hydraulic
heads in the four Devonian aquifers
Aquifer
Chemistry
number
TDS (g/l)
DST
number
H0 (m) for
q0 = 1090
kg/m3
Elk Point
Woodbend
Beaverhill Lake
Winterburn
Wabamun
Total
37
211
178 300
120 262
24
97
605 775
600 750
46
25
319
130 265
116 265
54
36
211
450 750
480 810
200
Fig. 6. Pressure variation with (a) depth and (b) elevation in all four Devonian aquifers.
Fig. 7. Distributions of (a) hydraulic heads (50 m contour interval, except for the addition of the 625-m contour line), and (b) salinity (25 g/l
contour interval) in the Elk Point aquifer.
the four Devonian aquifers in the study area. The data

used in this study are public domain and available
from the Alberta Energy and Utilities Board (EUB). In
this section, the four Devonian aquifers are considered
individually, although they can be grouped into two
systems, MUDAS and UDAS (see Section 2). The
significance of this procedure will become apparent
later.
The data were examined for erroneous analyses
and tests, including production influence (see Appendix A for methodology of data processing and culling). Distribution maps of salinity aided in the
interpretation of the hydrogeological patterns. The
density of the formation waters was found to vary
between approximately 1040 and 1130 kg/m3, calculated using empirical relations (Rowe and Chou,
1970; Kestin et al., 1981) on the basis of salinity
variations in the 100 300 g/l range (Table 1) and
geothermal gradients around 30j C (Bachu and Burwash, 1991). Hydraulic heads H0, calculated with an
average water density of 1090 kg/m3, were used in the
hydrodynamic analysis, in order to minimize possible
201
errors introduced by the use of freshwater hydraulic

heads in the study of variable-density flow in sloping
aquifers (Bachu, 1995b; Bachu and Michael, 2002).
The distribution of pressure data from all Devonian
aquifers versus depth (Fig. 6a) shows that they are
generally hydrostatically to subhydrostatically pressured. In the pressure-versus-elevation plot (Fig. 6b),
pressure data follow a straight line representative of an
average brine gradient of 10.7 kPa/m, which approximately corresponds to the pressure gradient in a static
column of brine with a density of 1100 kg/m3.
3.1. Elk Point aquifer
Hydraulic heads in the Elk Point aquifer decrease
from >750 m in the southeast to < 625 m in the
northeastern corner of the study area (Fig. 7a). High
hydraulic gradients can be observed from 670 m in a
S N-trending tongue in the centre of the northeastern
corner of the study area to 605 m at the eastern
boundary. Relatively constant hydraulic head values
around 650 m indicate sluggish flow conditions in the
Fig. 8. Distributions of (a) hydraulic heads (50 m contour interval), and (b) salinity (25 g/l contour interval) in the Woodbend Beaverhill Lake
aquifer. Areas with hydraulic heads < 700 m are shaded in grey for better visualization. Lines of cross-sections B BVand C CVrefer to Figs. 5
and 12, respectively.
202
northern part of the study area. The salinity of formation waters in the Elk Point aquifer generally increases
northward, in the direction of decreasing hydraulic
heads, from 180 to 300 g/l, with a relatively steep
increase from 200 to 250 g/l along 54.25jN in the
centre of the study area (Fig. 7b).
east. The salinity of formation waters generally

increases north northwestward in the direction of
decreasing hydraulic heads from 120 to 260 g/l, with
a relatively steep increase from 175 to 250 g/l (Fig.
8b) approximately along the edge of the tongues of
high hydraulic heads (Fig. 8a).
3.2. Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifer
3.3. Winterburn aquifer
Hydraulic heads in the Woodbend Beaverhill

Lake aquifer generally decrease from >750 m along
the deformation front to less than 650 m along the
eastern boundary of the study area (Fig. 8a), similar to
the Elk Point aquifer. Tongues of relatively high
hydraulic heads (>700 m) and steep hydraulic gradients extend northeastward from the deeper parts of
the aquifer, approximately 150 km away from and
subperpendicular to the deformation front. Except for
the steep hydraulic gradients near the high hydraulic
head tongues, the generally low hydraulic gradients
suggest stagnant or sluggish flow towards the north-
In the Winterburn aquifer, hydraulic heads generally

decrease from >700 m along the deformation front to
less than 550 m in the northeastern corner of the study
area (Fig. 9a). A tongue of relatively high hydraulic
heads (>700 m) and steep hydraulic gradient extends
from the deeper parts of the aquifer northward, approximately along 117jW. Hydraulic heads decrease in
a radiating manner away from this high hydraulic head
tongue. The salinity generally increases north northwestward, from 130 to 265 g/l, with a relatively steep
increase from 175 to 200 g/l (Fig. 9b) along the edge of
the high hydraulic head tongue (Fig. 9a).
Fig. 9. Distributions of (a) hydraulic heads (50 m contour interval), and (b) salinity (25 g/l contour interval) in the Winterburn aquifer. Areas
with hydraulic heads < 700 m are shaded in grey for better visualization. Lines of cross-sections B BVand C CVrefer to Figs. 5 and 12,
respectively.
3.4. Wabamun aquifer

Hydraulic heads in the Wabamun aquifer generally
decrease north northeastward from >800 to < 500 m
(Fig. 10a). A steep hydraulic gradient is present in the
east central part of the study area, where hydraulic
heads drop by approximately 200 m from 800 to 600 m
northward over a 20-km distance. In contrast, in the
northern half of the study area, hydraulic heads decrease eastward with a relatively constant hydraulic
gradient of approximately 10 m/km. The salinity of
formation waters in the Wabamun aquifer increases
northward in the direction of decreasing hydraulic
heads from 115 to 265 g/l (Fig. 10b).
3.5. Interpretation of flow patterns
The pressure/depth plot (Fig. 6a) shows that the
aquifers in the study area are approximately hydrostatically pressured. In contrast, parts of the overlying
Mesozoic aquifers are significantly underpressured or
overpressured (Michael and Bachu, 2001). This
implies that the intervening Banff Exshaw Formation
203
is indeed an effective regional-scale aquitard. The fact

that the data cluster tightly around a linear regression
line in the pressure/elevation plot (Fig. 6b) indicates
that all Devonian aquifers are regionally in good
hydraulic communication and/or are controlled by
similar boundary conditions to flow (local variation
will become apparent later). This observation is consistent with the geology that shows a stacking of all four
Devonian aquifers near the deformation front (Skilliter,
1999; Buschkuehle and Machel, 2001, 2002).
The relatively abrupt change in the salinity observed
in each Devonian aquifer suggests that it is possible to
distinguish between a light brine and a heavy brine,
defined by approximately 200 g/l TDS, whereby the
heavy brine is located generally updip from the light
brine (Fig. 11). Furthermore, hydraulic gradients generally are high along the boundary between the light
brine and the heavy brine (Figs. 7 10), suggesting a
decrease in permeability or transmissivity across that
boundary. However, in the area that contains the heavy
brine, small differences in hydraulic head suggest
stagnant flow and/or sluggish movement. On a regional
scale, the potential for updip, northeastward, and/or
Fig. 10. Distributions of (a) hydraulic heads (50 m contour interval) and (b) salinity (25 g/l contour interval) in the Wabamun aquifer. Areas with
hydraulic heads < 700 m are shaded in grey for better visualization.
204
Fig. 11. Distributions of light brine and heavy brine and inferred flow directions in the four Devonian aquifers.
northward flow can be inferred from areas of high

hydraulic head (>700 m) along the deformation front in
all four aquifers. The exception is the northern half of
the Wabamun aquifer, where a relatively constant
hydraulic gradient of 100 m/75 km along 54.5jN
suggests eastward flow (arrows in Fig. 11).
Hydraulic head values in the Wabamun and Winterburn aquifers decrease to approximately 500 m, whereas hydraulic head values in the Elk Point and
Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifers decrease to approximately 625 m from the southwest to the northeast. In addition, the light brine advanced farther
updip in the UDAS than in the MUDAS (Fig. 11). This
further supports that the Ireton shales form an effective
aquitard in the northeast between these two aquifer
systems.
Interestingly, the heavy brine is not moving downdip, as one might expect. Rather, the light brine
205
appears to push the heavy brine updip. Apart from

this general feature, the flow patterns are different in the
various Devonian aquifers, probably caused by thickening of the intervening shale aquitards and/or variations in permeability within each aquifer. These
patterns can be characterized by analysis of the competence of intervening aquitards, delineation and characterization of preferential flow paths, and investigation of fluid origin and flow-driving mechanisms, as
follows.
The crystalline Precambrian basement is commonly
assumed to act as an aquiclude (Hitchon et al., 1990;
Bachu, 1995a, 1999), and there is no evidence for the
presence of formation waters in the basement in the
study area. The nearest occurrences of waters in the
crystalline basement are Ca Cl brines that have been
reported from the Precambrian Shield >500 km to the
northeast (Fritz and Frape, 1982). On the other hand,
Fig. 12. (Hydro)Stratigraphic cross-section perpendicular to the deformation front showing a single Devonian aquifer in the south, which
contains only thin and largely ineffective aquitards. Farther to the north, the Ireton aquifer thickens considerably, dividing the strata in the
MUDAS and UDAS. Well locations noted along at the top of the section are in the Dominion Land Survey format (see figure for line of crosssection).
206
studies of Sr isotopes from carbonate cements in Upper

Devonian reefs in the area of cross-section B BV(Fig.
4b) suggest that basement fluids may have migrated
upwards via faults, which influenced the diagenetic
history in the deep parts of the study area (Machel and
Cavell, 1999; Mountjoy et al., 1999; Buschkuehle and
Machel, 2001, 2002). Therefore, conduits for fluid
flow in or from the crystalline basement might exist,
but they are most probably restricted to faults and
shear zones (Bachu, 1999).
The hydraulic head distribution in the Elk Point
aquifer (Fig. 7a) suggests relatively stagnant flow
conditions in the northeastern corner of the study area,
which is filled with the heavy brine. There appears to
be a tongue of fresher formation water coming from
the south (Fig. 7b), which is deflected towards the
eastern boundary of the study area. The intervening
Watt Mountain aquitard is very thin or absent in this
area, and the heavy brine appears to continue in the
overlying Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifer. These
phenomena justify grouping the Elk Point and Woodbend Beaverhill Lake Groups into the MUDAS.
Flow in the Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifer
appears to be preferentially channeled along the platform margins, which probably is a major cause for the
differential advancement of the light brine in tongues.
These flow conduits are due to enhanced porosity and
permeability that are associated with the high-energy
reef margin facies (Wendte and Stokes, 1982; Wendte
et al., 1998; Machel and Mountjoy, 1987; Oldale and
Munday, 1994). The tongues of light brine terminate
along the northeastern limit of the Cooking Lake or
Swann Hills platforms. An updip hydrostratigraphic
cross-section (Fig. 12) through this part of the study
area (C CV in Fig. 13) shows how the Woodbend
Beaverhill Lake aquifer thins abruptly in this area,
permitting formation water flow to be forced upwards
through windows in the Ireton shales into the Winterburn aquifer.
Along the same line of cross-section C CV, a large
tongue of light brine in the Winterburn aquifer
extends farther to the north (Figs. 9 and 11), representing a sublateral continuation of the tongue of light
brine in the Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifer. This
flow pattern in the Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifer is probably caused by higher permeability in the
Leduc reef carbonates, as the high hydraulic head
tongues coincide with the locations of the Leduc reef
Fig. 13. Correlation between salinity and facies distribution in the

Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifer. Geological boundaries are
modified from Switzer et al. (1994) and Oldale and Munday (1994).
Lines of cross-sections B BV and C CV refer to Figs. 5 and 14,
respectively.
buildups (compare Figs. 5 and 8). Apparently, flow in

the Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifer is governed
by a combination of the lateral changes of permeability
and transmissivity, controlled by depositional facies
distribution and aquifer thickness, and by hydraulic
communication with the overlying Winterburn aquifer
at selected locations where the intervening Ireton
aquitard is thin or absent.
The hydrogeological patterns in the Wabamun
aquifer suggest that the permeability distribution is
more homogeneous than in the Winterburn and Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifers. The limestones in the
Wabamun aquifer generally have a fairly low porosity
and permeability, except for significantly increased
values in the dolomitized parts (Saller and Yaremko,
1994). Unfortunately, the hydrogeological data resolution in the Wabamun aquifer is relatively poor, and
the dolomite content can only be averaged over the
entire aquifer thickness (using Halbertsma, 1994).
Nevertheless, a general correlation between the degree
of dolomitization and salinity distribution appears to
be present. The light brine may have displaced the
heavy brine from those parts of the aquifer that have
a high dolomite content, whereas the less permeable

limestones impede lateral flow (Fig. 14).
Generally, there is good agreement between hydraulic head and salinity distributions in the Wabamun
and Winterburn aquifers, which suggests that the
intervening Graminia siltstone is a relatively inefficient aquitard. The only noteworthy difference between these two aquifers can be observed in the area
of the high hydraulic head tongue in the Winterburn
aquifer, along longitude 117jW (Fig. 9). Hydraulic
heads near the deformation front in the Wabamun
aquifer start out at higher values (>800 m) than in
the Winterburn aquifer (f 750 m), which implies an
effective subhorizontal barrier to flow near the deformation front. At approximately 53.75jW, hydraulic
heads in both aquifers are at f 750 m, but hydraulic
heads in the Wabamun aquifer drop rapidly northward
to f 650 m, while they stay constant in the Winterburn aquifer. According to the hydrostratigraphy, there
are no shale aquitards along the deformation front that
could significantly impede vertical hydraulic communication between the Winterburn and Wabamun aquifers. One possible explanation for the observed
hydraulic head distribution would be a low-permeabil-
Fig. 14. Correlation between salinity and average regional-scale

dolomite distribution in the Wabamun aquifer (dolomite % distribution after Halbertsma, 1994).
207
ity layer in this part of the Wabamun Group due to a

low degree of dolomitization. Another possibility is
that the two pressure data point resulting in H0>800 m
were measured in relatively isolated reservoirs. More
data than currently available are needed to address this
issue of hydraulic continuity (or absence thereof)
between and within the Winterburn and Wabamun
aquifers.
4. Brine origin and evolution

In addition to TDS, compositional data available
from the EUB can be used to characterize the origin
and evolution of the brines in the study area. Table 2
lists the data that have survived the culling procedure
outlined in Appendix A, and are plotted in the
following diagrams in Section 4.2.
4.1. Hydrogeochemical framework
The Cambrian to Devonian sediments were deposited in marine environments; hence, the formation
waters started out as seawater. There are major salt
deposits in the Devonian Elk Point Group north and
east of the study area (Meijer Drees, 1994), which
suggests that parts of the original seawater in the
Middle Devonian succession may be residual brines
that had been evaporated beyond the point of halite
saturation. Within the study area, evaporite deposits
are restricted to thin beds of primary gypsum and/or
anhydrite that occur in the Winterburn and Wabamun
(Switzer et al., 1994; Halbertsma, 1994), indicating
only short episodes and much less severe degrees of
evaporation. All primary gypsums in the study area
are now present as anhydrite (Switzer et al., 1994);
hence, gypsum dehydration must have contributed
H2O to the formation waters, as did clay dehydration
during progressive burial (Longstaffe, 1989). Diagenetic water from the dehydration of clays must have
been added to the formation waters relatively early in
the burial history, at depths of 1 3 km, where the
most relevant clay transformations (smectites to illite)
take place, and the volume of water released was
relatively small (Osborne and Swarbrick, 1997). Furthermore, dolomitization affected all the Devonian
strata in the study area (Mountjoy et al., 1999), and
thermochemical sulfate reduction (TSR) was common
208
Table 2
Chemical analyses used in the interpretation of brine origin and evolution
Well location
TDS
(mg/l)
Cl
(mg/l)
Na
(mg/l)
K
(mg/l)
SO4
(mg/l)
Mg
(mg/l)
Ca
(mg/l)
HCO3
(mg/l)
Caex
Nadf
Na/Cl
(mEq/l)
Aquifer
0655172406000
0695192602000
0635262812000
0675243116000
0525150706000
0525161306000
0465170306000
0465170306000
0665151602000
0435150406000
0665151616000
0665150513000
0695261810000
0675243116000
0696051107000
0635260109000
0675233006000
0675222106000
0595243507000
0695220111000
0685221414002
0675231208000
0625263305000
0665252115000
0645190405000
0655152909000
0635192312000
0465173402000
0575151201000
0625262609000
0525141808000
0685211416000
230,037
220,572
246,848
215,334
144,324
158,086
130,674
144,657
148,967
137,054
157,787
186,212
191,507
214,594
253,687
242,983
242,322
241,137
229,921
206,888
215,601
246,826
240,862
172,321
165,913
166,174
244,032
178,745
209,086
229,858
184,706
245,866
142,178
136,100
153,000
134,100
86,500
95,000
78,460
87,300
90,900
83,465
93,800
114,000
117,500
133,300
157,100
150,000
149,700
150,000
142,500
129,090
134,000
153,500
147,700
104,500
103,000
102,000
151,000
110,300
128,455
140,590
113,700
151,500
64,873
57,964
63,641
53,437
50,954
55,873
46,089
50,356
51,785
46,673
51,931
57,129
50,220
52,819
67,184
64,017
62,967
62,154
58,771
49,591
53,892
60,062
53,998
61,199
50,602
43,625
62,540
44,401
63,044
64,888
51,403
67,645
4680
4251
4055
3750
2350
2890
2813
3853
1672
3700
1920
3225
3860
3782
3880
4190
3771
3314
4742
3550
3660
3989
4389
1220
1420
2736
4150
10,950
2500
4100
4300
3206
44
570
317
737
762
690
914
636
1827
19
970
646
340
724
432
286
776
436
329
232
258
430
317
1072
364
1282
392
193
373
3325
572
815
2169
2357
3183
4641
457
437
304
323
1348
197
914
1700
2890
3912
2897
2420
2965
4374
2469
3360
3110
3523
4735
1337
1287
1944
2440
2090
1390
1779
1677
2138
17,926
20,780
24,020
20,060
3411
3604
2869
3437
3984
4379
5920
10,610
16,100
21,380
23,710
23,300
23,420
22,020
23,000
23,972
22,000
26,830
26,750
3403
11,590
15,620
25,000
14,930
14,285
19,462
14,770
21,860
185
604
608
307
1739
1586
776
686
176
292
763
464
170
471
159
1000
554
407
122
300
377
266
761
183
527
185
438
793
134
602
106
39
744
892
1036
859
78
79
60
79
102
130
196
408
679
925
1016
1003
1010
940
996
888
955
1176
1178
59
469
671
1087
628
576
822
616
930
617
771
933
919
124
133
107
79
54
11
10
272
658
927
878
844
882
925
890
794
897
1100
1224
134
290
570
932
737
365
578
514
722
0.704
0.657
0.641
0.614
0.908
0.907
0.906
0.889
0.878
0.862
0.854
0.773
0.659
0.611
0.659
0.658
0.649
0.639
0.636
0.627
0.620
0.603
0.564
0.903
0.758
0.659
0.639
0.621
0.757
0.712
0.697
0.688
Wabamun
Wabamun
Wabamun
Wabamun
Winterburn
Winterburn
Winterburn
Winterburn
Winterburn
Winterburn
Winterburn
Winterburn
Winterburn
Winterburn
Woodbend
Woodbend
Woodbend
Woodbend
Woodbend
Woodbend
Woodbend
Woodbend
Woodbend
Beaverhill Lake
Beaverhill Lake
Beaverhill Lake
Beaverhill Lake
Beaverhill Lake
Elk Point
Elk Point
Elk Point
Elk Point
Well location in Dominion Land Survey coordinates: TTTMMRRSSLLxxxx (Township, Meridian, Range, Section, LSD). Concentrations of
total dissolved solids (TDS) and major ions are in milligrams per liter. See text for the definition of Caex and Nadf values. The Na/Cl ratio was
calculated with the respective ion concentrations in milliequivalents per liter.
in the deeper parts of the succession, which contain

sour gas (Hutcheon et al., 1994; Machel, 2001; Yang
et al., 2001). Strontium isotope studies have shown
that metamorphic water was injected in the deepest
parts of the Devonian section from the deformed belt
and/or the Precambrian basement (Machel and Cavell,
1999; Buschkuehle and Machel, 2001, 2002). In
addition, Spencer (1987) suggested, on the basis of
geochemical arguments, that albitization significantly
modified the formation waters in the Devonian section. This is a reasonable suggestion, considering that
feldspars are relatively common in the clastic parts of
the succession, although we do not know of a relevant
mineralogical/diagenetic study within the limits of our

study area. On the other hand, there is no tangible
evidence for large-scale influx of meteoric water into
the Devonian strata into the study area relatively soon
after deposition (lack of karstification), but previous
studies have interpreted the incursion of meteoric
water in post-Laramide times in the southern part of
the basin (Bachu, 1995a, 1999). Similarly, there is no
direct evidence for large-scale dissolution of evaporites in the study area, although several studies have
argued for some degree of evaporite dissolution in the
Alberta Basin (Hitchon et al., 1971; Connolly et al.,
1990a).
These considerations show that the following processes are known to have taken place in the study area
or nearby, and thus provide a framework for the
interpretation of the origin(s) and evolution of the
brines in the Devonian aquifers in the study area:

original seawater
evaporation to gypsum (within the study area) and/
or halite saturation (to the east)
dolomitization
clay dehydration
gypsum dehydration
thermochemical sulfate reduction
influx of metamorphic water
albitization (?)
influx of meteoric water (?)
dissolution of evaporites (?).
4.2. Hydrogeochemical interpretation

The variations of major cation concentrations (Na+,
Ca , and Mg2 +) and Br of Devonian formation waters
in the study area have been plotted against their
chloride contents and against the seawater evaporation dilution curve (Fig. 15). These plots show that the
Devonian formation waters are depleted with respect to
sodium, bromide, and magnesium, yet they have excess
calcium in comparison to evaporated seawater. For
comparison, the variations of major ions versus chloride in the overlying Mississippian aquifer (shaded in
Fig. 15 and in several subsequent figures; from Michael
and Bachu, 2002) is offset distinctively from most
Devonian data. The significance of this finding in the
present context is that the Mississippian and Devonian
aquifers are separated by an effective aquitard, formerly identified as the Exshaw Lower Banff shales.
Bromide and chloride concentrations are commonly
used as indicators for evaporation and halite dissolution
in formation waters (Carpenter, 1978). The Cl/Br
ratio remains constant during the evaporation of seawater until the point of halite saturation (Fig. 15b), after
which Cl is preferentially removed by halite precipitation, thereby causing a decrease in the Cl/Br ratio
(Carpenter, 1978). During halite dissolution, the Cl/
Br ratio increases, which causes data to plot to the
right of the seawater evaporation trajectory (Fig. 15b).
Dilution by meteoric water of a brine that was evaporated beyond the point of halite saturation causes the
2+
209
mixture to plot to the left of the seawater evaporation

trajectory (Fig. 15b). Following this rationale, Connolly et al. (1990a) plotted Cl versus Br for formation waters in central Alberta, eastward and updip from
our study area. All of their data fell on or to the left to
the seawater evaporation trajectory; hence, they concluded that those formation waters were derived from
seawater evaporation and/or from evaporation and subsequent dilution by freshwater. However, the data from
our study area plot on or to the right of the seawater
evaporation trajectory and between the points of gypsum and halite saturation (Fig. 15b and d). Hence, these
data suggest moderate degrees of evaporation (between
gypsum and halite saturation) followed by some halite
dissolution. This interpretation cannot fully explain the
Na+ data (Fig. 15a, further discussed below).
The depletion in magnesium with respect to the
seawater evaporation trajectory (Fig. 15c) probably is
caused mainly by the dolomitization of limestones.
The majority of the Devonian carbonates in the deep
parts of the Alberta Basin consist of burial dolostones, which probably formed from diagenetically
altered Devonian seawater (Machel et al., 1994;
Mountjoy et al., 1999). The process of replacive
dolomitization causes a concurrent increase in Ca2 +
in the fluid, which appears to be the case when
comparing Mg2 + and Ca2 + relative to Cl (Fig. 15c
and d). However, Mg and Ca show a positive correlation (Fig. 16a), indicating that an additional process to
dolomitization produced the high Ca2 + contents currently observed in the Devonian formation waters.
The Ca2 + concentration in these formation waters is
determined by an interplay of at least five processes: (a)
evaporation (removal of Ca2 + via calcite and gypsum/
anhydrite precipitation); (b) replacive dolomitization
(addition of Ca2 +); (c) subsurface gypsum and/or anhydrite dissolution (increase of Ca2 +); (d) TSR (removal
of Ca2 + via TSR calcite precipitation); and (e) albitization (addition of Ca2 +). All these processes are known
to have affected the Devonian strata in the study area.
Despite some scatter, there is a pronounced negative
correlation of Ca2 + and SO42 (Fig. 16b). The scatter in
Fig. 16b probably reflects variable degrees of TSR
(H2S contents vary between approximately 5% and
35%). The relative enrichment of Ca2 + may reflect the
relative paucity of TSR calcite formation (leaving Ca2 +
from gypsum/anhydrite dissolution in aqueous solution), or another process that added Ca2 + to the brines.
210
Fig. 15. Variation relative to chloride of (a) sodium, (b) bromide, (c) magnesium, and (d) calcium for formation waters in the study area from the
Devonian succession. Shaded areas represent data distribution in the overlying Mississippian aquifer. The black line on (a) (d) represents the
seawater evaporation curves experimentally determined by McCaffrey et al. (1986). In Fig. 11, the arrow for halite dissolution represents a
family of parallel vectors pointing to the right of the diagram. Similarly, the arrow for meteoric water dilution represents a family of vectors
parallel to the seawater evaporation line (Hanor, 1988).
Davisson and Criss (1996) introduced a mathematical formulation to determine quantitatively the Ca
excess and Na deficit relative to seawater, as follows:
Caexcess
Nadeficit

Ca
2
Cameas
Clmeas
Cl sw
40:08

Na
1
Clmeas Nameas
Cl sw
22:9
(concentrations in mg/l; meas = ions measured in

sample; sw = seawater; the numerical constants convert the results to mEq/l). Plotting Caexcess versus
Nadeficit values of more than 800 samples from various
basins and aquifer lithologies, Davisson and Criss
(1996) derived a regression line that they termed
basinal fluid line (BFL; see Fig. 17):
Caexcess 0:967Nadeficit 140:3:
211
Fig. 16. Scatter plots of calcium versus (a) magnesium and (b) sulfate, for formation waters in the study area from the Cambrian Devonian
succession and the overlying Mississippian aquifer (shaded; Michael and Bachu, 2002) for comparison. The evaporation trajectory is based on
data from McCaffrey et al. (1986). The dolomitization trajectory is based on a mole-by-mole replacement of Ca by Mg (Hanor, 1988).
Fig. 17. Plot of Caexcess Nadeficit for Devonian formation waters in the study area, showing trends for various processes that may have effected
the fluid composition. The circled numbers in the figure refer to the trends of (1) albitization of plagioclase, (2) evaporation of seawater, (3)
halite dissolution, and (4) dolomitization and gypsum dissolution. The basinal fluid line from Davisson and Criss (1996) is shown for reference.
The grey shading shows the distribution of overlying Mississippian data for comparison (Hanor, 1988).
212
They interpreted the (almost) unit slope to indicate

albitization of plagioclase (2Na+ for 1Ca2 + exchange
ratio), and that albitization is the predominant process
that controls the chemistry of deep formation waters
(arrow labeled 1 in Fig. 17). If unaltered seawater
was modified by albitization, the BFL would intersect
the origin of the diagram (S, zero intercept). Davisson
and Criss (1996) attributed the intercept of + 140.3
(HD in Fig. 17) of the BFL to the dissolution of halite
prior to albitization. This diagram can be used to
assess the relative importance of evaporation (2),
halite dissolution (3), and (4) dolomitization and/or
gypsum dissolution (numbered arrows in Fig. 17).
The data from our study area plot on or scatter
closely around the BFL defined by Davisson and Criss
(1996), indicating that all formation waters can be
explained by halite dissolution and variable degrees of
albitization. However, the small number of predomi-
nantly Winterburn data with negative Nadeficit values

(tight cluster of data above seawater origin in Fig. 17),
all of which are light brines as previously defined,
may not have experienced albitization. The same
argument can be made for the Mississippian data
(Michael and Bachu, 2002). Plotting Na+/Cl ratios
over TDS (Fig. 18) leads to the same interpretation,
thereby better illustrating which of the data are light
or heavy brines. The effect of dolomitization in our
data is masked in both diagrams.
The possible influx of meteoric water can be
assessed with the aid of D/O isotopes. According to
a study of oxygen and hydrogen isotopes in central
Alberta, the observed freshwater component in Devonian Jurassic formation waters has a post-Laramide
but pre-present-day age (Connolly et al., 1990b).
Connolly et al. (1990b), following Hitchon (1969,
1984) and Garven (1989), suggested that post-Lara-
Fig. 18. Distribution of Na/Cl ratios versus salinity in Devonian formation waters showing some processes that may have influenced the brines.
The shaded area (grey) shows the distribution of Mississippian data (Michael and Bachu, 2002) for comparison (Hanor, 1988).
mide meteoric recharge of the Devonian aquifers

occurred through a gravity-driven flow system, with
recharge in the mountain ranges and penetration of
meteoric water down to the Precambrian basement.
However, considering the presence of highly saline
brines in the deep basin, this type of flow system is
very unlikely to have been effective, and according to
numerical simulations, such a flow system would have
flushed the Alberta Basin within 2 Ma (Adams et al.,
2000). In addition, D/O isotope data of formation
waters from the deepest parts of the study are inconsistent with a meteoric origin, but suggest evaporated
seawater modified by gypsum dehydration, clay dehydration, and/or injection of metamorphic water
(Machel et al., 2002; Buschkuehle, in preparation).
The available data do not permit an unequivocal
interpretation of the origin of the heavy versus the
light brine. Of all the data discussed, only the
Nadeficit versus Caexcess values and the D/O isotopes
differentiate between the two brine types. In the
deepest parts of the Devonian succession, close to
the deformation front, the data favour influx of metamorphic water (presumably tectonically expelled)
resulting in dilution of the heavy brine as the most
likely alternative for origin of the light brine. This
interpretation is further supported by Sr isotope data
from late-diagenetic, syn-Laramide, to post-Laramide
TSR calcites in the Woodbend Group (Machel and
Cavell, 1999; Buschkuehle and Machel, 2001, 2002).
Importantly, the metamorphic isotope signal is strongest close to the deformation front and disappears
about 100 150 km northeastward, approximately parallel to cross-section line B BV, which roughly coincides with the boundary between the light and
heavy brines (Figs. 4 and 12). While there undoubtedly is a metamorphic signature in the light brine in
the deepest parts of the basin, it seems unlikely that
the present-day flow pattern is the remnant of tectonic
expulsion. According to numerical modeling studies,
the excess pressures generated by tectonic loading
would have occurred in pulses and would have dissipated after only a few million years (Ge and Garven,
1989, 1994).
The relatively low salinity values, in conjunction
with low Na+/Cl ratios < 0.8 (Fig. 18), which are
predominant along the deformation front, suggest a
second possibility for the origin of the light brine in
this area, namely, meteoric recharge from the thrust-
213
and-fold belt of the Rocky Mountains. However, a

hydrogeological study of formation water flow between the deformed and undeformed parts of the
Devonian succession in southern Alberta suggests that
the present flow systems in the individual thrust sheet
are disconnected from each other and from the undeformed part of the Alberta Basin (Wilkinson, 1995).
On the other hand, freshwater is believed to have
infiltrated down to Mississippian aquifers via convoluted pathways in the overthrust fault systems (Underschultz and Bartlett, 1999), suggesting the possibility
of even deeper meteoric influx via faults. Unfortunately, maps with the exact locations of such freshwater
penetrations have not been published yet. More data
are needed to resolve this problem.
Away from the deformation front and farther south
(in the southeast and eastern parts of the study area,
with northerly or northwesterly flow directions; see
Fig. 11), mixing with tectonically expelled metamorphic water is less likely as an explanation for the origin
of the light brine. Rather, it appears more likely that
the heavy brine was diluted with meteoric water
derived from a long-range flow path originating in
areas of outcrops at topographic highs in Montana to
the south of the study area (Bachu, 1995a; Bachu and
Underschultz, 1995; Anfort et al., 2001). Mixing with
residual brine and/or water rock interaction along the
flow path of about 500 km strongly overprinted the
original meteoric signature.
Another mechanism capable of diluting high-salinity brines is TSR, which can produce freshwater. This
process is believed to cause the dilution of formation
waters by up to 50% locally and up to 30% on a
reservoir scale (Worden et al., 1996, 1998; Yang et al.,
2001). On the other hand, there might be other reactions involved in TSR, some of them consuming water,
and the amount of water produced is probably highly
variable and, at least in some cases, negligible and
should not affect the regional salinity distribution of
formation waters (Machel, 1998). Therefore, we do not
consider TSR to be significant as a factor of producing
the light brine.
These considerations imply that the light brine
originated from the combination of successive processes that affected the Devonian succession in the
study area [i.e., seawater evaporation below halite
saturation, dolomitization, clay dehydration, gypsum
dehydration, halite dissolution, TSR, influx of meta-
214
morphic water (only in the deepest part of the basin),

and influx of meteoric water (from the south)].
The heavy brine probably originated in one of the
following ways, or in a combination thereof: (a)
residual Middle Devonian evaporitic brine from the
Williston Basin more than 500 km to the southeast, or
from the much closer Elk Point Basin in eastern and
northern Alberta (Spencer, 1987; Chipley and Kyser,
1991); (b) partial dissolution of thick, laterally extensive Middle Devonian evaporite deposits to the east of
the study area (Meijer Drees, 1994; Grobe, 1999).
Most of the processes identified to have been involved
in the evolution of the light brine also affected the
heavy brine, except for incursion of metamorphic
and/or meteoric water, but with albitization as an
added component. In either case (a or b), movement
of the heavy brine must have been towards the west
and downdip, opposite to the present flow direction, at
least up to the Laramide orogeny, which reversed the
flow direction into the present updip direction. In the
first case (residual brine), the heavy brine displaced
the original formation waters in the Devonian succession (seawater or slightly evaporated seawater) in the
study area relatively early in the geological history,
probably as early as the Late Devonian or Carboniferous. In the second case (brine dissolution), downdip
movement of the heavy brine could have taken place
any time between the deposition of the salts and the
Laramide orogeny. A third alternative would be that
(c) the Devonian aquifer systems contained the light
brine until the Laramide orogeny or even later, and
that the heavy brine is younger and originated from
relatively recent updip salt dissolution. In this case,
the heavy brine would have migrated downdip and
displaced the light brine in response to its elevated
gravity. We consider this a remote, if not unlikely,
alternative considering that both brines are moving
updip at present. With our present understanding of
the hydrogeology in the basin, we cannot conceive of
a process that would have reversed the direction of
movement of the heavy brine in post-Laramide and/
or sub-Recent times.
Fig. 19. Hydrogeological cross-section perpendicular to the deformation front showing conceptually the differential advancement of the less
saline formation water displacement front against a high-saline connate brine in the Cambrian Devonian hydrostratigraphic group. The flow
arrows are dashed and extend over most of the length of the various aquifers to emphasise the overall sluggish movement of formation water in
this succession and the low resolution of differences in hydraulic heads due to the relatively large error associated with pressure data from DST
(see Fig. 1 for line of cross-section).
5. Summary and conclusions

On a regional scale, the Devonian succession

contains two brines types (i.e., a light brine with
TDS < 200 g/l and a heavy brine with TDS >200
g/l), and both brines move updip (Fig. 19).
The interface between the two brine types is lobate
and controlled by permeability variations, as
identified by a concurrent, steep change in
hydraulic heads, and salinity can be observed in
all Devonian aquifers, around the following
approximate values: H0 = 700 m, TDS = 200 g/l.
Hydraulic head values in the lower two aquifers,
Elk Point and Woodbend Beaverhill Lake (MUDAS), range from 625 to 750 m, whereas the heads
range from 500 to 800 m in the upper two aquifers,
Winterburn and Wabamun (UDAS). This implies
that the Ireton is an effective aquitard between the
lower two and the upper two aquifers in the eastern
parts of the study area (Fig. 19).
Geological and hydrogeochemical data suggest
that the following processes determined the present
composition of the light and heavy brines:
original seawater, evaporation beyond gypsum but
below halite saturation, dolomitization, clay dehydration, gypsum dewatering, TSR, and halite
dissolution.
Influx of meteoric (from the south) and metamorphic (from the west) waters can be recognized only
in the light brine.
Alibitization can be unequivocally identified only
in the heavy brine.
The heavy brine may be residual Middle Devonian evaporitic brine from the Williston Basin of the
Elk Point Basin, or it may have originated from
partial dissolution of thick, laterally extensive
Middle Devonian evaporite deposits to the east of
the study area.
The light brine most probably originated from
dilution of heavy brine in post-Laramide times.
Acknowledgements
This study was partially supported by the Alberta
Geological Survey and the Natural Science and
Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC).
The authors thank two anonymous reviewers for their
215
constructive comments, and editors Eric Hiatt and

Kurt Kyser for their patience.
Appendix A . Data sources and processing

Data used in this study were collected by the
upstream energy industry in Alberta, which have to
be submitted to the Alberta Energy and Utilities Board
and have become part of the public domain. The
chemical analyses of formation water were culled
and processed by aquifers using automatic and manual
methods (Hitchon and Brulotte, 1994). In this process,
analyses are sequentially rejected on criteria such as:
incomplete analysis, drilling mud contamination, poor
chemical analysis, sampling and production method,
and fluid recovery (Table 3). In addition, the analyses
were culled manually based on the regional hydrogeochemistry. As a result, 319 analyses (f 11% of the
original data set) of formation water were validated
and retained for the flow analysis.
In many standard industry chemical analyses, only
the concentrations of the major ions (e.g., Cl, SO42 ,
HCO3, CO32 , Mg2 +, and Ca2 +) are measured, and
Na+ is calculated by charge balance. The amount of
Table 3
Culling criteria for formation water analyses used in the automatic
culling procedure (from Hitchon and Brulotte, 1994)
Flag
Culling criteria
number
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Any of Ca, Mg, Cl, HCO3 (or alkalinity), or SO4 missing

Mg concentration > Ca concentration
10.0 < pH < 5.0
OH reported
CO3 reported
Calculated Na concentration < 0
Density < 1000 kg/m3
([cation] [anion])/([cation]+[anion]) > 0.15
No sample depth interval reported
Method of production from excluded class
Sampling point from excluded category
Analysis from multiple drillstem tests
Only fluids that are dominantly nonaqueous recovered
DST recovered fluids where the water-dominated fluid is
< 10% of the total recovery
KCl mud contamination, [K]/[Na] 1000 >threshold for
individual formation
Culled manually by hydrogeochemist (e.g., duplicate
chemistry, values out of range for individual formation in
given area, analytical problems, etc.)
216
total dissolved solids is calculated based on the calculated Na+ and the remainder of the major ions. These
calculations do not account for the K+ concentrations
in the formation waters, which in the study area
generally are less than 10% of the Na+ concentrations,
and therefore only introduce a small error in the TDS
calculation. Usually, the analytical errors in the chemical analyses are significantly smaller than errors
introduced by sampling techniques and potential dilution with drilling mud. To account for all potential
errors in the chemical analyses, a relatively coarse
contour interval of 25 g/l (8 25% of the actual TDS
values) was used for the mapping of salinity (TDS) in
the various aquifers. A subset of 32 chemical analyses
(Table 2) containing measured values for Na+ and K+
was used for the plotting of various ion relations in the
formation waters. For these 32 analyses, the Na+
concentration was recalculated by incorporating K+
in the charge balance, to at least partly account for the
relatively large analytical errors associated with Na+.
The transient pressure measurements taken at different times during DSTs were extrapolated to the
formation pressure by sources specialized in DST
interpretation using the Horner method. Based on the
built-up pressure, the industry qualifies the quality of a
DST, using flags in quality-descending order, such as
A, B, C, D, E, and F, which signify, respectively, best
quality, nearing stabilization, possible plugging, questionable, low permeability and low pressure, and low
permeability and high pressure. The accuracy as specified by various manufacturers ranges between 0.025%
and 0.25% of the full scale for newer pressure gauges
(1970 2000) and is as low as 0.5% for gauges from
the 1950s and 1960s (H. Reid, course manual for DST
interpretation). This translates to a maximum error of
approximately F 200 kPa (accepted pressure difference between first and second shut-in measurement for
a C-quality DST) or F 20 m of hydraulic head. On the
other hand, errors introduced by the mechanical procedure of the test are much larger, and empirically
determined errors in pressure measurements generally
increase with depth and range between 170 and 650
kPa (Bredehoeft, 1965; Dahlberg, 1995). Assuming
freshwater density, this translates to a hydraulic head
difference that varies approximately between 17 m for
shallow aquifers and a maximum of 65 m for deep
aquifers. This relatively large methodology error may
be reduced by only using DSTs of A, B, and C quality
and Horner-extrapolated pressures. Errors associated

with the depth measurement and the land surveying of
the kelly bushing (KB) elevation are comparably
small, but can only be estimated in the range of a
few metres. A contour interval of 50 m was therefore
chosen in most of the hydraulic head maps for representation and analysis, which is the contour interval
that typically has been used in many previous regionalscale hydrogeological studies, based on industry pressure data in the Alberta Basin (e.g., Toth, 1978; Bachu
and Underschultz, 1993; Rostron and Toth, 1997;
Rostron et al., 1997; Anfort et al., 2001). DSTs of
quality A, B, and C only were used in this study.
The calculated formation pressure of a DST may
not be the original, or virgin, pressure at that location if
it is influenced by induced drawdown from nearby
producing wells. The drawdown induced in a well by
pumping (production) in another well depends on the
distance (r) between the wells and on the time (t) since
the start of pumping, on production rates, and on
aquifer permeability and specific storage (Marsily,
1986). The drawdown can be calculated using the
complex Theis formula, which needs rock parameters most often not determined and is applied under
certain idealized conditions, assuming an infinite,
perfectly confined, homogeneous, and isotropic aquifer (Marsily, 1986). The Theis formula takes the
form of a logarithmic dependence on t/r2. Besides the
need for information that most often is not available,
the Theis method can be applied only manually,
thus becoming absolutely impractical for large databases. Based on the logarithmic Theis solution to
the drawdown problem, and by analogy to water
testing, Toth and Corbet (1987) assumed that, all other
factors being equal, the effect of production is directly
proportional to an interference index I defined as:
I logt=r2
For ease of use, t is measured in years and r in miles
or kilometers. Tests with a high interference index
from the nearest producing well were identified, individually examined, and, in most cases, eliminated from
the data set. In addition, other producing wells within
an increasing distance of up to 10 km from the well
with a DST were considered if they could have
possibly influenced the pressure at that location. The
respective DST was rejected if the pressure was
deemed to have been affected by production. This

procedure was applied on an aquifer-by-aquifer basis,
assuming that no drawdown effects propagate vertically across aquitards within the time frame since the
beginning of production. After the DST automatic
culling based on test quality and production-induced
drawdown (PID), remaining anomalous data on potentiometric maps and pressure elevation plots were
determined individually for their accuracy by examining the individual drill reports and pressure build-up
curves. As a result, 356 DSTs were culled from the
original data set, and 211 DSTs were retained for the
hydrogeological interpretations in this study.
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Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193 219

New insights into the origin and migration of brines in deep

The Alberta Basin, spanning from f 48jN to

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

sedimentary rocks that varies in thickness from >6000

al.s (1990) interpretations, Groups II and III have

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

Interpreting the distribution of major ions and the

not well understood. This study addresses on a local to

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

2. Geology and hydrostratigraphy

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

The sedimentary succession in the study area can be

order, of the following stratigraphic groups: Elk Point,

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

schultz, 1993; Hearn, 1996; Rostron and Toth, 1997;

thick, continuous aquitard at the top of the entire

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

the four Devonian aquifers in the study area. The data

errors introduced by the use of freshwater hydraulic

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

east. The salinity of formation waters generally

3.2. Woodbend Beaverhill Lake aquifer

3.3. Winterburn aquifer

Hydraulic heads in the Woodbend Beaverhill

In the Winterburn aquifer, hydraulic heads generally

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

3.4. Wabamun aquifer

is indeed an effective regional-scale aquitard. The fact

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

northward flow can be inferred from areas of high

appears to push the heavy brine updip. Apart from

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

studies of Sr isotopes from carbonate cements in Upper

Fig. 13. Correlation between salinity and facies distribution in the

buildups (compare Figs. 5 and 8). Apparently, flow in

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

a high dolomite content, whereas the less permeable

Fig. 14. Correlation between salinity and average regional-scale

ity layer in this part of the Wabamun Group due to a

4. Brine origin and evolution

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

in the deeper parts of the succession, which contain

mineralogical/diagenetic study within the limits of our

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

4.2. Hydrogeochemical interpretation

mixture to plot to the left of the seawater evaporation

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

(concentrations in mg/l; meas = ions measured in

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

They interpreted the (almost) unit slope to indicate

nantly Winterburn data with negative Nadeficit values

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

mide meteoric recharge of the Devonian aquifers

and-fold belt of the Rocky Mountains. However, a

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

morphic water (only in the deepest part of the basin),

K. Michael et al. / Journal of Geochemical Exploration 80 (2003) 193219

5. Summary and conclusions