CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 General
2.5 Billion Global population do not have access to proper sanitation system and 783 million
global population dont have access to proper drinking water. Every year 20 million people
die due to thirst. In India, where about more than half of the total population are laboured to
go for open defecation system and 30% of it do not get access to water in summers. To solve
both the problem of water and sanitation DRDO Biodigester sanitary system is being selected
by

GITAM

University

student

of

Hyderabad.

DRDO Biodigester is a decentralized waste treatment which offers an option for

proper disposal of faecal matter at every level ensuring better sanitation to the world. It is a
consortium of an anaerobic bacteria which has been formulated an adopted to work at
temperature lower than 5 C .This is the component which acts as inoculums to the
biodigester

and converts then

organic

waste into methane and carbon dioxide. The

anaerobic process inactivates the pathogens responsible for water born diseases.
Biodigesters serves as reaction vessel for bio methnation and provides anaerobic condition
required.
The complete system comprises of toilet cabin with a pan and the bio digester tank with
accessories. The students of GITAM University has done extensive research on various
sanitary system to find the best suitable technology which can be adopted at GITAM
University to find the solution of both sanitation and water. The different types of sanitary
system for domestic uses are as follows.
1.2 Simple Pit Latrine
Simple Pit Latrine On-site sanitation systems are more widely employed in low income and
rural areas of the world. Numerous forms have been developed ranging in both price and
complexity. Depending on the types of latrine adopted, the cost to the householder may be
(relatively) much less than with off-site systems and would generally be covered in one lump
sum for the construction of the facility (although the cost of emptying can be large in some
cases). Each latrine type will provide both advantages and disadvantages, and are generally
more appropriate for rural areas. Odor, flies and the need for emptying are the most important
considerations associated with on-site systems. In reality, the variance in the standard of these
facilities can be great. The simplest form of pit latrine is a hand-dug pit that is unlined and

covered with a series of wooden logs strapped together allowing the user to defecate into the
pit.
Table 1.2:
Advantage

Disadvantage

Construction costs are low

(householders can perform a large part

is not completely lined

of the work themselves)

Technology is simple and

Not easy to construct in rocky or

unstable Ground

understandable

Possible ground water contamination if the pit

Fly and smell nuisance

Do not require water to operate

1.3 Ventilated Improved Pit (VIP) Latrines

During the 1980s, the VIP latrine was developed in Zimbabwe. The main drivers for design
were to eliminate two unpleasant aspects of using on-site sanitation systems, flies and smell.
Furthermore, the reduction of flies can also reduce the transmission of disease. Put simply, the
technology facilitates the flow of air through the system. One important aspect is that the
inside of the toilet should remain dark as means of attracting flies up a vent pipe where they
will eventually die and fall back into the latrine.
Table 1.3:
Advantages

Construction

Disadvantages
costs

are

low

Possible

groundwater

(householders can perform a large

contamination if the pit is

part of the work themselves)

not completely lined

Do not require water to operate

Does not control mosquitoes

Vent pipe increases costs and can

make construction more complicated

Controls smells and flies

Need to keep inside of latrine dark

Increased odor outside

Not easy to construct in rocky or

unstable

1.4 Pour-Flush Latrines

Where water is more widely available, or traditionally used for anal cleansing, a pour flush
latrine may be appropriate and can bring a number of further benefits on top of simple or VIP
latrines. A water seal is created by a plastic u-bend, which prevents bad odor, and flies
affecting the user (this system is less susceptible to building errors than the VIP system). The
system only requires a few liters of water and so should not put a strain on resources and
could be provided by grey water from the kitchen.
Table 1.4:
Advantages

Disadvantages

The system effectively reduces levels

the system

of flies, mosquitoes and odor

Requires a supply of water to operate

The system can incorporate an offset

pit and so can be installed inside a

More expensive than simpler types

The plastic

household

The installations are easy to keep

clean

They

work

easily

i.e.

pan requires

increased skill to produce

the

construction is not as complicated as

a VIP latrine

1.5 Aqua-Privy
An aqua-privy functions in a similar manner to a septic tank whilst avoiding the need for a
consistent water supply to operate a flush toilet. The water will drain off the top and the
sludge needs to be emptied on a regular basis. An advantage of the aqua privy is that it
reduces odors. However, regular emptying could become an onerous requirement.
Table 1.5:
Advantages

Disadvantages

Does not require a piped water supply

as a user can defecate directly into

smells

the tank

maintained

The system can fail to reduce

Water

if the water seal is not

must

plentiful

It is a cheaper form of a septic tank

be

available

and

Requires emptying

Permeable land is needed to drain

effluent

1.6 EM Toilets
Maple EM. 1 (Effective Microorganism) is a liquid concentrate made by collecting and
growing natural microorganisms. Maple EM. 1 converts a degraded ecosystem to one that is
productive and contains useful microorganisms. It is scientifically produced in local
conditions, from the cultivation of multi-strained microorganism. The microorganisms are
chiefly Lactobacillus, photosynthetic bacteria and yeast. The technology was developed at the
University of Ryukus, Okinawa, Japan in the early 1980s by a distinguished professor of
horticulture, Dr. Teruo Higa.
Maple EM. 1 is being used in over 125 countries worldwide including Japan, southeast Asia,
uas and Europe. Maple EM. 1 is now readily available in India. Maple Orgtech (India) Ltd. is
manufacturing it. At their factory in Kolkata, from microorganism, this is, neither imported
nor genetically engineered but collected from natural environment.
Maple EM.1 has been used worldwide for more than 20 yrs. Its spectacular performance in
curbing population and treatment of effluent has made it the natural choice for
environmentalists, municipalities, agriculture and industry alike. It includes both aerobic and
anaerobic species of microorganism. The microorganisms are harmless to humans, animals,
plant and aquatic life.

Disadvantages
It is difficult to maintain

1.7 DRDO Bio-Digester

A decentralized waste treatment which offer an option for proper disposal of fecal matter at
every level ensuring better sanitation to the world
It is a consortium of an aerobic bacteria which has been formulated an adopted to work at
temperature lower than 5 C .This is the component which acts as inoculums to the BANKA
BIOLOO and converts then organic waste into methane and carbon dioxide. The anaerobic
process inactivates the pathogens responsible for water born diseases.

BIOLOO TANK serves as reaction vessel for bio meth nation and provides anaerobic
condition required temperature for bacteria.
The complete system comprises of Toilet cabin with a pan, and the Bioloo-tank with
accessories.
Advantages
1. Maintenance free
2. No recurring cost involved
3. Sludge formation is minimal
4. Wide applicability under different climatic condition
5. Minimizes water consumption by avoiding P trap
6. Recycling of effluent water can be done
7. Dosage of inoculum only once in life time
8. More than 99% pathogen reduction
9. Reduction in organic waste by 99%
10. The size of Banka Bioloo bugs Tank is approximately 1/3rd of conventional septic tank
11. Design and construction very simple
12. Can be customized as per space and need
13. Better effluent quality
14. Widely used technology by our Indian soilders
15. Simple and eco friendly product

1.8 Soilet
The soilet comprises of three parts i.e., commode, drainage pit containing earthworms
followed by filtration system (rocks, gravel, and sand). The worm helps to remove bad odor
and slowly convert the solid waste into compost. The Soilet does not require a sewer system
for disposal of its wastes. The human wastes in soilet breakdown into smaller particles
followed by filtration and drain out from an underground outlet without affecting the ground
water system. This system can be used in places with limited access to water.
Soilet is somewhat similar to DRDO bio-digester. In Soilets instead of bacteria, earthworms
are used to decompose the faeces and convert it into manure.

Table 1.8:
Advantages

Disadvantages

No
requirement of septic tank.

Earthworms
cannot survive in high temperature.

Manure

can

If acid or some
other substance falls into the pit, the

be produced.

earthworm will die.

1.9 Septic Tanks latrine

A septic tank is a watertight tank that typically receives waste from a flush
toilet. They are useful in areas with a high water table (due to the sealed nature
contamination of the water table is less likely) and when a reliable water
supply is present. The system provides some level of treatment to the waste
through the separation of solids.
The tank should be emptied routinely to ensure effluent does not contain unsafe
levels of pathogens and that the sludge does not occupy too high a proportion of
the tank. Ideally the effluent from the septic tank should be attached to a
sewerage system, however in many cases the outlet is connected to a drainage
field (if this is the case the ground should be permeable enough to prevent
ponding). This liquid effluent will not be completely clear of contaminants
hence the requirement to avoid ponding.
Table 1.9:
Advantages

Disadvantages
The system comes at a high cost

The system reduces the level of odor

including the cost of land

Water

and flies

is

required

(both

in

quantity and reliability)

Permeable
The user has the convenience of a

soil

is

required

drainage
Requires regular emptying

WC which can be located indoors

for

1.10 Vaccum toilets

Evac offers vacuum collecting units for all types of vessels, from yachts to cruise liners and
naval installations. Evac vacuum collecting units create a powerful vacuum and are
optimized for each application. The units have been designed to work reliably under heavy
duty conditions and to bring energy saving benefits. They are designed for installation as part
of the chain that makes up the wastewater collection and treatment system onboard vessels.
Evac offers a variety of vacuum toilets for different applications. Typical features include a
water-saving flush, elegant design, reliability and low sound level in use. Toilets are available
in porcelain and in robust stainless steel, and the range includes shock tested navy and
squatting toilets. Interface valves are available to connect gravity lines to the vacuum piping
system.
Disadvantages
It requires a generator to be used
It is costly
Requires high Maintenance
1.11 Portable toilets
Portable toilets are simple portable enclosures containing a chemical toilet, which are
typically used as a temporary toilet for construction sites or sanitation facilities in crowded
areas, markets etc because of their durability and convenience. Most portable toilets have
black open-front U-shaped toilet seats with a cover. They are often constructed out of
lightweight molded plastic. These can withstand harsh climatic conditions and are usually
made out of high-density polyethylene.
Disadvantages
It is not economical.
Use deodorizer in order to reduce the smell.
There stability is maintained by the weight of wastewater tank.
Advantages
Can be used in crowded areas.
Can be used in harsh climatic conditions.

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 The World Health Organization states that:
"Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of
human urine and feces. Inadequate sanitation is a major cause of disease world-wide and
improving sanitation is known to have a significant beneficial impact on health both in
households and across communities. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of
hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal.
The term sanitation is applied to a wide range of subjects such as:

Improved sanitation - refers to the management of human faeces at the household

level. This terminology is the indicator used to describe the target of the Millennium
Development Goal on sanitation, by the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for
Water Supply and Sanitation.

On-site sanitation - the collection and treatment of waste is done where it is deposited.
Examples are the use of pit latrines, septic tanks, and Imhoff tanks.

Food sanitation - refers to the hygienic measures for ensuring food safety

Environmental sanitation - the control of environmental factors that form links in

disease transmission. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water
and wastewater treatment,industrial waste treatment and noise and pollution control.

Ecological sanitation - an approach that tries to emulate nature through the recycling
of nutrients and water from human and animal wastes in a hygienically safe manner

2.2 History
The earliest evidence of urban sanitation was seen in Harappa, Mohenjo-daro and the recently
discovered Rakhigarhi of Indus Valley civilization. This urban plan included the world's first
urban sanitation systems. Within the city, individual homes or groups of homes obtained
water from wells. From a room that appears to have been set aside for bathing, waste water
was directed to covered drains, which lined the major streets.

Roman cities and Roman villas had elements of sanitation systems, delivering water in the
streets of towns such as Pompeii, and building stone and wooden drains to collect and remove
wastewater from populated areas - see for instance the Cloaca Maxima into the River Tiber in
Rome. But there is little record of other sanitation in most of Europe until the High Middle
Ages.

Unsanitary

conditions

throughout Europe and Asia during

and
the Middle

overcrowding
Ages,

were

resulting

widespread

periodically

in

cataclysmic pandemics such as the Plague of Justinian(541-42) and the Black Death (1347
1351), which killed tens of millions of people and radically altered societies.
Very high infant and child mortality prevailed in Europe throughout medieval times, due not
only to deficiencies in sanitation but to an insufficient food supply for a population which had
expanded faster than agriculture. This was further complicated by frequent warfare and
exploitation of civilians by autocratic rulers.
Sanitation refers to the safe disposal of human excreta (Mara, Lane and Scott and Trouba,1).
This entails the hygienic disposal and treatment of human waste to avoid affecting the health
of people. Sanitation is an essential part of the Millennium Development Goals. The most
affected countries are in the developing world (Zawahri, Sowers, and Weinthal 1153).
Population increase in the developing world has posed challenges in the improvement of
sanitation (Konteh 69). According to Zawari, Sowers, and Weinthal (1154), lack of provisions
of basic sanitation is estimated to have contributed to the deaths of approximately 3.5 million
people annually from water borne diseases.

2.3 Wastewater
2.3.1 Wastewater collection
The standard sanitation technology in urban areas is the collection of wastewater in sewers, its
treatment in wastewater treatment plants for reuse or disposal in rivers, lakes or the sea.
Sewers are either combined with storm drains or separated from them as sanitary
sewers. Combined sewers are usually found in the central, older parts or urban areas.
Heavy rainfall and inadequate maintenance can lead to combined sewer overflows or sanitary
sewer overflows, i.e. more or less diluted raw sewage being discharged into the environment.
Industries often discharge wastewater into municipal sewers, which can complicate
wastewater treatment unless industries pre-treat their discharges.

The high investment cost of conventional wastewater collection systems are difficult to afford
for many developing countries. Some countries have therefore promoted alternative
wastewater collection systems such as condominial sewerage, which uses smaller diameter
pipes at lower depth with different network layouts from conventional sewerage.
2.3.2 Wastewater treatment
In developed countries treatment of municipal wastewater is now widespread, but not yet
universal. In developing countries most wastewater is still discharged untreated into the
environment. For example, in Latin America only about 15% of collected sewerage is being
treated.
2.3.3 Health Impacts of Sanitation
For any social and economic development, adequate sanitation in conjunction with good
hygiene and safe water are essential to good health (Mara, Lane and Scott and Trouba). Lack
of proper sanitation causes diseases. Most of the diseases resulting from sanitation have a
direct relation to poverty. The lack of clean water and poor sanitation has caused many
diseases and the spread of diseases. Sanitation is very important in order to keep good
health.One of the most significant diseases that arise from poor sanitation is diarrhea. Deaths
resulting from diarrhea are estimated to be between 1.6 and 2.5 million deaths every year
(Mara, Lane and Scott and Trouba ). Most of the affected are young children below the ages
of five. Other diseases that are caused by poor sanitation include schistosomiasis, trachoma,
and soil transmitted Helminthiases.
Poor sanitation accounts for almost 50 percent of underweight child since it has a direct link
to diarrhea. Children suffering for diarrhea are more vulnerable to become underweight.
According to Mara, Lane, and Scott and Trouba , about 26 percent acute respiratory infections
occur in children who are malnourished, which has a direct link to diarrhea. Sanitation is a
serious issue that is affecting most parts of the world especially the developing countries. On
a global scale, the most affected are children who in most cases lose their lives due to diseases
caused by poor sanitation. Major initiatives need to be set up if the MDG goal on sanitation is
to be achieved by 2015.
2.3.4 On-site treatment
In many suburban and rural areas households are not connected to sewers. They discharge
their wastewater into septic tanks or other types of on-site sanitation. On-site systems

10

include drain fields, which require significant area of land. This makes septic systems
unsuitable for most cities.
2.3.5 Reuse of wastewater
The reuse of untreated wastewater in irrigated agriculture is common in developing countries.
The reuse of treated wastewater in landscaping, especially on golf courses, irrigated
agriculture and for industrial use is becoming increasingly widespread.
2.3.6 Ecological sanitation
Ecological sanitation is sometimes presented as a radical alternative to conventional sanitation
systems. Ecological sanitation is based on composting or vermicomposting toilets where an
extra separation of urine and feces at the source for sanitization and recycling has been done.
It thus eliminates the creation of blackwater and eliminates fecal pathogens. If ecological
sanitation is practiced municipal wastewater consists only of greywater, which can be
recycled for gardening. However, in most cases greywater continues to be discharged to
sewers.
2.3.7 Sanitation and public health
The importance of the isolation of waste lies in an effort to prevent diseases which can
be transmitted through human waste, which afflict both developed countries as well
as developing countries to differing degrees. It is estimated that up to 5 million people die
each year from preventable water-borne diseases, as a result of inadequate sanitation and
hygiene practices. The effects of sanitation has impacted the society of people throughout
history. Sanitation is a necessity for a heathly life. The results of studies published in Griffins
Public Sanitation show that better sanitation produces an enhanced feeling of wellbeing.
Relevant disease include:

Waterborne diseases, which can contaminate drinking water

Diseases transmitted by the fecal-oral route

Hookworm, where eggs can survive in the soil

There continues to be many countries that are struggling with diseases due to unhealthy living
conditions and unfiltered water all in the name of bad sanitation.

11

2.3.8 Global access to improved sanitation

The Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation of WHO and UNICEF has
defined improved sanitation as follows:

Flush toilet

Connection to a piped sewer system

Connection to a septic system

Flush / pour-flush to a pit latrine

Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine

Pit latrine with slab

Composting toilet

Some special cases

The JMP publishes a report of updated estimates every two years on the use of various types
of drinking-water sources and sanitation facilities at the national, regional and global levels.
In March 2012, the JMP released its latest updates. According to the definition above, 1.8
billion more people used improved sanitation in 2010 than in 1990, bringing the percentage of
people using improved sanitation to 63% globally. However, the world remains off track for
the sanitation target of the Millennium Development Goals. 2.5 billion lack improved
sanitation. According to the JMP, if current trends continue, in 2015 2.4 billion people will
lack access to improved sanitation facilities. 15 per cent of the population still practise open
defecation, defined as defecation in fields, forests, bushes, bodies of water or other open
spaces. This represents 1.1 billion people. Though the proportion of people practising open
defecation is decreasing, the absolute number has remained at over one billion for several
years, due to population growth. In 2011 the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation launched
the Reinvent the Toilet Challenge to promote safer, more effective ways to treat human waste.
The program is aimed at developing technologies that might help bridge the global sanitation
gap.
This outcome presents substantial public health risks as the waste could contaminate drinking
water and cause life threatening forms of diarrhea to infants. Most cities can neither afford a
sewage drainage system, nor a sewage treatment system, as Sunita Narain spelled out in the
magazine D+C Development and Cooperation. Improved sanitation, including hand
washing and water purification, could save the lives of 1.5 million children who die from
diarrheal diseases each year.

12

2.4 Solid waste disposal

Disposal

of solid

waste is

most

commonly

conducted

in landfills,

but

incineration, recycling, composting and conversion to biofuels are also avenues. In the case of
landfills, advanced countries typically have rigid protocols for daily cover with topsoil,
where underdeveloped countries customarily rely upon less stringent protocols. The
importance of daily cover lies in the reduction of vector contact and spreading of pathogens.
Daily cover also minimises odor emissions and reduces windblown litter. Likewise,
developed countries typically have requirements for perimeter sealing of the landfill with
clay-type soils to minimize migration of leachate that could contaminate groundwater (and
hence jeopardize some drinking water supplies).
For incineration options, the release of air pollutants, including certain toxic components is an
attendant adverse outcome. Recycling and biofuel conversion are the sustainable options that
generally have superior life cycle costs, particularly when total ecological consequences are
considered. Composting value will ultimately be limited by the market demand for compost
product.

2.5 Food preparation

Sanitation within the food industry means the adequate treatment of food-contact surfaces by
a process that is effective in destroying vegetative cells of microorganisms of public
health significance,

and

in

substantially

reducing

numbers

of

other

undesirable

microorganisms, but without adversely affecting the food or its safety for the
consumer. Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures are mandatory for food industries
in United States, which are regulated by 9 CFR part 416 in conjunction with 21 CFR part
178.1010. Similarly, in Japan, food hygiene has to be achieved through compliance with food
sanitation law.
Additionally, in the food and biopharmaceutical industries, the term sanitary equipment
means equipment that is fully cleanable using clean-in-place(CIP) and sterilization-in-place
(SIP) procedures: that is fully drainable from cleaning solutions and other liquids. The design
should have a minimum amount of deadleg or areas where the turbulence during cleaning is
insufficient to remove product deposits. In general, to improve cleanability, this equipment is
made from Stainless Steel 316L, (an alloy containing small amounts of molybdenum). The

13

surface is usually electropolished to an effective surface roughness of less than

0.5 micrometre to reduce the possibility of bacterial adhesion.

2.6 Improving access

The United Nations Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) include a target to reduce by
half the proportion of people without access to basic sanitation by 2015. In December 2006,
the United Nations General Assembly declared 2008 'The International Year of Sanitation', in
recognition of the slow progress being made towards the MDGs sanitation target. The year
aimed to develop awareness and action to meet the target. Particular concerns are:

Removing the stigma around sanitation, so that the importance of sanitation can be
more easily and publicly discussed.

Highlighting the poverty reduction, health and other benefits that flow from better
hygiene, household sanitation arrangements and wastewater treatment.

Research from the Overseas Development Institute suggests that sanitation and hygiene
promotion needs to be better 'mainstreamed' in development, if the MDG on sanitation is to be
met. At present, promotion of sanitation and hygiene is mainly carried out through water
institutions. The research argues that there are, in fact, many institutions that should carry out
activities to develop better sanitation and hygiene in developing countries. For example,
educational institutions can teach on hygiene, and health institutions can dedicate resources to
preventative works (to avoid, for example, outbreaks of cholera). There are also civil society
organisations providing the necessary infrastructure where national governments cannot do
that on their own. In Ghana, there is an umbrella organisation for those programmes, called
CONIWAS (Coalition of NGOs in Water and Sanitation) as reported in the magazine D+C
Development and Cooperation.
The Institute of Development Studies (IDS) coordinated research programme on communityled total sanitation (CLTS) is a radically different approach to rural sanitation in developing
countries and has shown promising successes where traditional rural sanitation programmes
have failed. CLTS is an unsubsidized approach to rural sanitation that facilitates communities
to recognize the problem of open defecation and take collective action to clean up and become
open defecation free. It uses community-led methods such as participatory mapping and
analysing pathways between feces and mouth as a means of galvanizing communities into

14

action. An IDS 'In Focus' Policy Brief suggests that in many countries the Millennium
development goal for sanitation is off track and asks how CLTS can be adopted and spread on
a large scale in the many countries and regions where open defecation still prevails.

The Sustainable Water Fund is a new fund established by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to
improve water security and water safety in developing countries. This policy framework sets
out the guiding principles for assessing applications for grants under this framework. Together
with the model application form, it is also to be used as a guide for drawing up grant
applications for 2012.

In developing countries, water for households, energy, agriculture, industry and the
conservation of ecosystems is usually in short supply and of poor quality. People, economic
sectors and infrastructure are increasingly vulnerable to major riverine and coastal flooding.
Because water is an important public resource, government plays a major role in water-related
interventions. Nevertheless, there is considerable potential value in actively involving other
parties too, such as businesses, NGOs and research institutions in the search for trade-offs or
innovative solutions in situations where there are shared interests. Each of these parties can
bring specific added value to the table. Pooling their added value by forming partnerships
creates synergy that can be used to deal with problems that are beyond the capacity of an
individual party on its own. The private sector adds value in terms of operational efficiency,
knowledge, technical innovation and the ability to identify market opportunities. From the
perspective of International Corporate Social Responsibility (ICSR), the business community
is taking the initiative with increasing frequency when it comes to ensuring reliable access to
water. NGOs contribute by focusing on vulnerable groups, developing innovative approaches
to engage the target group and drawing attention to transparency and accountability. Research
institutions have research capacity, access to knowledge and knowledge networks. Publicprivate partnerships (PPPs) are an effective instrument for mobilising the expertise, resources
and networks of the parties involved and deploying them to achieve a common goal such as
water safety and water security.
The Sustainable Water Fund builds on previous experiences with water-related PPPs acquired
with the Call for Ideas (2003), the Schokland Fund (2007) and the PPP Facility for WASH

15

(2008). These funds made an important contribution to efforts to generate external private
resources and stimulate innovation and cooperation between various parties in the water
sector. The goal of the new Sustainable Water Fund is to improve water safety and security in
developing countries through public-private partnerships. This will contribute to sustainable
economic growth and poverty reduction. Reaching marginalised groups and ecological
sustainability are key objectives. The Dutch water sector was closely involved in bringing
about the Sustainable Water Fund. As a result, the conditions formulated maximise use of the
sectors added value in new interventions financed by the Fund.
The Sustainable Water Fund fills a gap in the existing set of instruments by creating
opportunities for new partnership configurations (public, private and NGO or research
institution) each making its own contribution (knowledge, entrepreneurship, networks,
financial resources). PPPs can address issues that are beyond the capacity of an individual
organisation (as opposed to, for example, the Private Sector Investment Programme or
Emerging Markets Fund). In contrast to, say, the ORIO programme, innovative technological
interventions can also be financed from the Fund. Due to the scope of the programmes that
will qualify for grants, the innovations can be elevated above the level of pilot projects; as a
result the Fund will be supplementary to the interministerial Partners for Water Programme,
for example.

2.6.1 Enhanced policy focus and country profiles

The Sustainable Water Fund was announced on 9 January 2012 in the letter to parliament on
Water for Development and is in line with the new policy for development cooperation set out
in the letter to the House of Representatives outlining development cooperation policy (26
November 2010) and the letter to the House of Representatives presenting the spearheads of
development cooperation policy (18 March 2011). The new policy concentrates on
sustainable economic growth, self-reliance and global issues. The Fund focuses on three
subthemes within the water policy priority:

The Sustainable Water Fund country list is based on the list of countries (autumn 2011) to
which all private sector instruments are open. Proposals for the 15 partner countries will be
given extra points in the assessment.

16

2.6.2 Sustainable Water Fund policy principles

2.6.2.1 Aim and policy themes

The objective of the PPP Facility for Water is: to improve water safety and security in
developing countries through public-private partnerships. In developing countries, water for
households, energy, agriculture, industry and the conservation of ecosystems is usually in
short supply and of poor quality. People, economic sectors and infrastructure are increasingly
susceptible to major riverine and coastal flooding. In accordance with the letter to the House
of Representatives presenting the spearheads of development cooperation policy.Both urban
and rural interventions qualify. Proposals will be assessed against local need and demand.

Fund programmes will be expected to effectively integrate the crosscutting themes of

environment, climate, good governance and gender. This will count heavily in the assessment
(by NL Agency, advised by the independent committee and the embassies) of proposals and
will be a criterion used in evaluating the implementation. During the application phase,
partnerships can obtain information through NL Agency on incorporating these themes into
their proposal.

2.6.2.2 Public-private partnerships

The Ministry of Foreign Affairs defines a PPP as follows: A PPP is a collaboration
betweenpublic-sector and private-sector entities, frequently joined by NGOs, trade unions
and/or research institutions, in which risks, responsibilities, resources and competences are
shared in order to attain a common goal or perform a specific task. This definition is a
guideline for the Sustainable Water Fund, but more specific requirements apply to the
composition of the partnership.
The fund is aimed at solving problems and utilising opportunities where public-private
partnerships can offer clear added value. The focus is on activities that can lead to structural
improvements in water safety and water security in developing countries in order to benefit
the target group (primarily the very poorest and local productive sectors). Examples include
developing and facilitating strategic collaborations between interested parties in the area of
Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) and water security or knowledge sharing
and innovation, such as developing and cofinancing business models for urban water supply,

17

sanitation and solid waste management. Upscaling applications of technological innovations

in drinking water supply, sanitation and irrigation is another possibility.
If the PPP focuses on problem solving, it is essential to explain why the issue concerned is a
genuine problem (legitimacy), what the best strategy is for tackling the problem, which parties
should, can and want to do so, how and when it will be done and what result can be expected.
If the PPP focuses on utilising economic and other opportunities, this will be translated into
an intervention based on a revenue model because private business is involved. Within that
model there is scope for empowering the target group so that it can make its own choices with
respect to products and services and for encouraging the local private sector to participate. A
PPP of this nature must be based on a business model demonstrating its financial
sustainability. Such PPPs can also address issues that impede the utilisation of commercial
opportunities. Both types of PPPs must contribute to the long-term objectives of development
cooperation policy, namely sustainable economic growth and poverty reduction.
2.6.2.3 Who and what are the grants for?
Partnerships applying for grants under this facility must consist of at least one public
institution and one company. Involvement of an NGO or research institution is also required.
At least one of the parties must be based in the Netherlands and at least one in the country for
which the activity is being established.One of the parties applies for a grant on behalf of the
partnership. Any of the parties, Dutch or foreign, may take on this role of lead party for the
partnership.

18

2.6.2.4 Financial
A minimum grant of 500,000 applies for the full duration of the PPP. The maximum is 15
million. A Sustainable Water Fund grant constitutes a contribution towards the costs directly
associated with the implementation of the project.
The following costs are eligible for grants:
Cost of durable capital goods (hardware) used in the production process, with the exception of
existing buildings and land;
Cost of technical assistance, such as project management, training, advice and certification.

Under article 9 of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Grants Decree, a grant will be refused if it is
submitted after the activities have started. For the record, it should be noted that if activities
are carried out in preparation for the project before submission of the application, this will not
lead to refusal to award a grant, but the costs will not be covered the grant. The application
form contains more information about eligible and non-eligible costs.

A partnership applying for a grant is required to make a minimum contribution of 50% of the
total budget. The minimum mandatory contribution for programmes in partner countries is
40%. Extra points are given for activities in partner countries. Higher contributions by
applicants are encouraged. The price-quality ratio is weighed in the assessment.
Half of the grant applicants own contribution may consist of grants from other sources than
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and funds from not-for-profit organisations.
Minimum of 20% of the total programme budget for activities in partner countries must come
from companies. The minimum contribution for activities in other countries is 25%.
The facility provides grants for, among other things, projects that can ultimately lead to
competitive economic activity (e.g. developing and implementing a revenue model for
collecting, processing and reusing latrine waste). To achieve this, private sector knowledge
and expertise are essential. The facility does not finance commercial investments by
companies, but rather offers support where the market falls short because the risk is

19

considered too high (in accordance with OECD-DAC, ODA criteria). This is assessed in
advance.
2.7 Monitoring and evaluation
The requirements concerning monitoring and evaluation are incorporated in the assessment
criteria.

2.7.1 Assessment procedure

2.7.1.1 Assessment criteria

To be eligible for grants from the Sustainable Water Fund, partnerships and proposals must
meet certain criteria. There are three types of criteria:
1. Threshold criteria: criteria which all applications must meet. If an application does not meet all
of the threshold criteria, it will be rejected.
2. Criteria relating to the quality of the programme proposal (limited programme check,
extensive programme check).
3. Criteria relating to the capacity and added value of the partnership (limited partnership check,
extensive partnership check).

2.8 Guiding principles

The provisions of the General Administrative Law Act, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Grants
Decree and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs Grant Regulations 2006 are fully applicable to the
assessment of applications and the award of grants. Applications will be assessed in
accordance with the above legislation and pursuant to the requirements set out in these.
The administrative rules laid down in the Standard Framework for Development
Cooperation5 also apply. If the administrative rules applying to the Sustainable Water Fund
deviate from the Standard Framework for Development Cooperation, the former will
prevail.The assessment of grant applications and the award and allocation of the available
funds will take place by means of a call for proposals: the quality of all applications that meet
the requirements set out in these administrative rules will be assessed according to the same
20

criteria. The applications that best meet the criteria will be given priority in the award of
grants. The Minister will award grants in accordance with this ranking.

2.9 Checks and the allocation of available resources

The assessment of applications for Sustainable Water Fund grants will take place in stages,
resulting in a decision on the allocation of resources to the applicants. NL Agency will
process the applications.
In the first stage, applicants submit a concept note, which is tested against the threshold
criteria. The concept notes that comply with the threshold criteria are then subjected to limited
programme and partnership checks. In the second stage, only proposals that meet the
threshold criteria and satisfy the limited programme and partnership checks are assessed. In
the second stage, the applicants submit a detailed proposal, which is again assessed against
the threshold criteria and subjected to the programme and partnership checks.
2.9.1 Checks in stage 1
The threshold criteria are criteria that applications for Sustainable Water Fund grants must
meet. No points are awarded; applications that fail to meet all of the threshold criteria are
rejected and not assessed further. Order of the Minister for European Affairs and International
Cooperation no. DJZ/BR/0874-10 of 1 December 2010 adopting administrative rules
containing general provisions for grants awarded for development cooperation activities
(Standard Framework for Development Cooperation), Government Gazette 2010, no. 19701.
The limited programme check is carried out on the basis of criteria relating to the quality of
the programme proposal. Programmes whose quality is judged to be deficient are rejected
and not assessed further. The limited partnership check is carried out on the basis of criteria
relating to the quality and efficiency of the partnership applying for a grant. Applications
submitted by partnerships whose quality is judged to be deficient are rejected and not
processed further.Only applicants whose proposals attain satisfactory scores on all checks will
be invited to elaborate on their concept note by drawing up a comprehensive programme
proposal.

21

2.9.2 Checks in stage 2

In the second stage, the comprehensive programme proposal is assessed against the threshold
criteria. If the comprehensive proposal fails to meet all the threshold criteria, it will not be
eligible for a grant.If this new assessment does not lead to rejection of the application, the
quality of the programme proposal and of the partnership will be assessed in stage 2. If the
quality of the programme and the partnership is judged to be deficient, the application will not
qualify for a Sustainable Water Fund grant.

2.9.3 Allocation of available resources

The allocation of available resources takes place at the end of stage 2, and is therefore based
on the outcome of the checks referred to above. In order to qualify for a Sustainable Water
Fund grant, applications must satisfy the criteria set out in this policy framework. See 4.7 for
the details of the assessment scoring system.If insufficient resources are available for all
satisfactory applications to receive a full grant, these applications will be ranked according to
their results in the programme and partnership check, taking into account any extra points
awarded in relation to the target country. The size of the grant they receive will depend on
how well they meet the criteria. It is therefore possible for a project to attain a satisfactory
score, but still be rejected because the budget available for that round is insufficient.

2.10 Application procedure

Grant applications must be complete and submitted in writing (one original and three copies)
to NL Agency as specified on the application form.6 At the same time, an electronic copy
must be submitted on a digital storage device with a USB port (USB stick). Applications must
be submitted on time. The submission deadline for the first assessment round is 7 May 2012
(15.00 Dutch time). Applications should be posted to:

Address for visitors

Postal address

NL Agency

NL Agency
Sustainable Water

Sustainable Water Fund

Fund

22

Prinses Beatrixlaan 2

Postbus 93144

The Hague

2509 AC Den Haag

Applications should be submitted in English. The form must state the name of the lead party
and be signed by a representative of the lead party with signatory power. In addition to the
lead party, the other parties must sign the project proposal too.
2.11 Procedure prior to decision-making
In stage 1 and stage 2, NL Agency presents its recommendations on the project proposals to
the Sustainable Water Fund independent advisory committee established by the Minister
for European Affairs and International Cooperation. The committee will bring together
expertise on development cooperation, the water sector, revenue models, partnerships and
crosscutting themes. The committee will advise the Minister regarding NL Agencys
assessment of Sustainable Water Fund grant applications. Under the mandate of the Minister
for European Affairs and International Cooperation, NL Agency will decide on the grant
applications.The embassies will be invited to advise on the programme proposals and the
local partners involved in the partnerships both in stage 1 and stage 2. Their opinions will
weigh heavily. If in exceptional cases their advice is not followed, reasons will be stated. NL
Agency may opt to submit a proposal to an external expert for advice during the procedure.
During the concept note submission phase, all interested parties will be given the opportunity
to attend an information meeting convened by NL Agency. NL Agency will organise a second
information meeting for all the parties invited to participate in stage 2.NL Agency will inform
partnerships whose applications are rejected of the reasons why.Decisions on whether
applications will be admitted to the second round (stage 2) will be taken within 13 weeks of
the submission deadline for the first assessment round (stage 1). Decisions on applications
admitted to stage 2 will be taken within 22 weeks of the submission deadline for the second
assessment round (stage 2).

23

2.12 Assessment of applications

2.12.1 Threshold criteria

Applications that fail to meet all the criteria below will be rejected and will not be assessed
further. These criteria are listed below and explained where necessary.
The programme consists of activities in at least one of the countries listed in Appendix 1.
All the parties involved in the partnership have legal personality.
With respect to development, the programme is aimed at structural poverty reduction,
sustainable economic growth and self-reliance.
The programme focuses on at least one of the water-related themes specified.
The partnership consists of at least one public institution, one company and one NGO or
research institution. At least one of the parties must be based in the Netherlands and at least
one in the country for which the activity is being established.
The programme demonstrates that the partnership will be able to meet the requirement to
contribute 40%/50% of the total budget for the duration of the activities. The partnerships
contribution may not come from other grants awarded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. At
least 25%/20% of the total budget must be contributed by the private party/parties from their
own resources.In derogation from the Standard Framework for Development Cooperation,
parties other than not-for-profit civil society organisations that operate internationally are
eligible for grants.
The minimum grant is 500,000 and the maximum is 15 million (this corresponds to a total
project budget of between 1 million and 30 million).
The grant is valid for a maximum term of 7 years.
The programme does not involve initiatives aimed wholly or partly at proselytisation.
The participating company declares that it is aware that it is required by the grant provider to
rule out the use of child and forced labour in its trade and investment chain and to comply
with the OECD Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises with respect to CSR, the ILO
Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work and the UN Convention on
Biological Diversity. An ISO 26000 self-assessment is an option.

24

2.12.2 Limited programme check

Problem analysis: The problem or opportunity related to the applicable water-relatedthemes
is clearly described and arguments explaining why a PPP is the right instrument for solving
the problem or utilising the opportunity are persuasive.
Intervention strategy: The way in which the intended activities and outputs will contribute to
structural poverty reduction, sustainable economic growth and self-reliance is clearly
described.
Financial sustainability: The strategy for attaining financial sustainability is clearly
described. A clear explanation is given as to why the project is not commercially feasible
within the period concerned.
Climate and environment: The proposal sufficiently minimises the risks to climate and
environment.
2.12.3 Limited partnership check
It is clear who the partners are and what experience they have working in partnerships;
preference will be given to partnerships comprised of parties who have collaborated in a PPP
context before.
The parties are working towards a common goal.
The extent to which and the manner in which the partners complement each other in their
pursuit of the common goal.
The extent to which the goal of the partnership is aligned with the core business of the
partners involved.

2.12.4 Programme check

The programme check assesses the quality of the programme. This is done on the basis of the
following criteria:
Policy relevance: the policy relevance of the programme is assessed in this phase on the basis
of the following factors.
o The proposal provides a clear analysis of the social, economic and political factors in the
target country and offers a logical response to that analysis.

25

o For partner countries: the extent to which the activities are connected with or supplementary
to the bilateral programmes in those countries.
o The extent to which the proposal has been coordinated with the target group and is relevant
to its existing needs/preferences. This means that the target group should be involved and
attention should be given to vulnerable groups in society.
Intervention strategy: The programme must be based on a detailed business case or theory of
change.
Price-quality ratio: The project budget must be proportionate to the envisaged results.
Revenue model: The programme is not commercially viable within the programme period,
but is able to generate sufficient cash flow (consisting of the grant and the partnerships own
contribution) within the life cycle to cover the costs of management and maintenance and
financing costs (interest and repayment of the principal) of the investment. Both of these
elements are demonstrated using a standard calculation model. In the case of proposals aimed
at solving problems (theory of change), the assessment will include an examination of how
the intervention can endure without a Sustainable Water Fund grant.
Details of envisaged outcomes, outputs, activities and resources in accordance with SMART
principles: the extent to which the programme provides a detailed description of outcomes,
outputs, proposed activities and resources, and a clear link has been established between the
outputs to be achieved and the resources necessary to do so. The quality of the description of
the envisaged outcomes, outputs and resources will alsobe assessed in accordance with the
SMART system: the extent to which the envisaged outcomes, outputs and resources are
specific, measurable, acceptable, realistic andtime-related.
Risks, monitoring and corrective action:
oThe project proposal must contain a realistic analysis of the risks and mitigating measures.
ICSR elements are included in the risk analysis on the basis of the IFC risk categories and in
accordance with OECD guidelines. On the basis of the risk analysis, conditions can be
attached to the awarding of a grant. These conditions will then be incorporated in the system
for monitoring and corrective action.
oThe proposal must include a satisfactory system for monitoring and corrective action.
oThe proposal must guarantee the partnerships own contribution towards the implementation
of the programme.

26

oThe proposal must make it clear that the programme will not lead to market distortions in the
country of implementation or in Europe.
oA minimum of 2% of the programme budget is reserved for monitoring and evaluation
(M&E).
oProgrammes exceeding 5 million must be evaluated by an independent party.
Sustainability: Sustainability is assessed in accordance with the FIETS principle. In other
words, the programme must be financially, institutionally, ecologically, technically and
socially sustainable. Sustainability must be incorporated in the system for monitoring and
corrective action.
Innovativeness: the extent to which the proposal is innovative in the target country.
Innovation could be achieved through innovative processes or products.
Scale: The programme should have a significant one-off impact or the potential to reach a
larger group of beneficiaries in the long run.
Attention for crosscutting themes: gender, good governance, climate and environment.

2.12.5 Partnership check

The partnership will be assessed in order to increase the chances of a successful PPP. The
partnership check consists of an assessment of the partnerships capacity and added value.
The capacity of the partnership
The capacity of the partnership is assessed by examining the capacity of the individual parties.
The partnership must have at its disposal sufficient expertise (on cooperation, the theme and
the context in which it will be operating).
The partnership must have at its disposal sufficient capacity in the areas of internal
management, policy implementation and management in order to successfully carry out the
programme and account for its performance. The check therefore involves an examination of
the parties track record, planning, monitoring and evaluation, and financial and
administrative management.
o Track record over the past three years: The parties performance over the past three years
shows that they are capable of achieving planned outcomes and outputs, of obtaining the

27

contributions from third parties necessary for the implementation of the programmes and of
ensuring the sustainability of programmes vis--vis the ultimate target group.
o Planning, monitoring and evaluation (PME): The PME system is sufficient for monitoring
progress in terms of outcomes, outputs and sustainability at programme and organisational
level. The organisations periodically commission independent evaluations of programmes,
programme components and their own functioning. The organisations have a sound quality
management system in place for their primary processes.
o Financial and administrative management: The parties policy on the financial supervision
of organisations with which they have a funding relationship is satisfactory; they use a
satisfactory method for assessing the quality of partner organisations with which they have a
financial relationship; they have a financial monitoring system that enables them to identify
shortfalls (or potential shortfalls) or surpluses at an early stage and take adequate measures to
anticipate these contingencies; they also have a broad donor base.
The partnership is based on a feasibility analysis. This analysis examines at any rate: the
success and risk factors and/or the partnerships strengths and weaknesses. The feasibility
analysis identifies risks and contains concrete measures aimed at controlling them.
The parties must set out their collaboration in a written partnership agreement (Memorandum
of Understanding). This MOU shows the extent to which arrangements, the governance of the
partnership and the spreading of costs and risks have been agreed. If during the course of the
programme it turns out that arrangements need to be adjusted, this can be done after
consultation with the grant provider.
The participating company will submit a document setting out its ICSR policy (in accordance
with OECD guidelines) with the grant application or will draft one in the near future.
The added value of the partnership
It is important for the parties to demonstrate that they will be implementing the programme
together. The proposal should explain why and how the partnership has more value for the
substantive goal of the programme than individual applicants would have.
The partnership has strategic added value (for the development objectives). The strategic
added value of the partnership may lie in various factors, including synergy (thematic
specialisation), efficiency gains (internal functioning of the partnership) or product/process
innovation.

28

The extent to which the partnership is crucial to achieving the envisaged goals; why wouldnt
the different parties be able to achieve the goals independently?

2.13 Partnership and programme check points system

A total of 100 points can be scored in the partnership and programme checks. Points are
awarded as follows.
Table 2.13
Total number of points

100

Programme check

60

Partnership check

40

There are minimum scores for both checks. Proposals that do not attain the minimum scores
will be rejected. Within the programme check, there are minimum scores for policy relevance,
sustainability and crosscutting themes. Proposals that do not attain minimum scores in these
areas will be rejected.Minimum number of points
Programme check (total)

40

Policy relevance

Sustainability

Partnership check

30

In addition to the 100 points that can be awarded for the programme and partnership
checks, five extra points will be awarded for proposals for activities in one of the
development partner countries.

Appendix I Country list

29

Table2.13.1
AFRICA (20)

Benin*

Ghana*

Senegal

Burkina Faso

Kenya*

South Africa**

Burundi*

Malawi

South Sudan*

Republic of Cape Verde

Mali*

Tanzania

Democratic Rep. Congo

Morocco

Uganda*

Egypt

Mozambique*

Zambia

Ethiopia*

Rwanda*

ASIA (11)

Afghanistan*

Pakistan

Thailand

Bangladesh*

The Palestinian Territories*

Vietnam**

Indonesia*

Philippines

Yemen*

Mongolia

Sri Lanka

LATIN AMERICA
(6)

Bolivia

Guatemala

Peru

30

Colombia**

Nicaragua

Suriname

Albania

Georgia

Moldova

Armenia

Kosovo

Bosnia Herzegovina

Former Yugoslav Republic of

EUROPE (7)

Macedonia

*partner country, ** transition country, bold font indicates global water or water
development of country.

2.14 Factsheet - November 2008

DAC Members occasionally request the Secretariats view as to whether a particular
expenditure should be reported as official development assistance (ODA). This paper outlines
the reasoning the Secretariat uses to answer such enquiries, and discusses some specific cases.
It should not be taken as a definitive guide to ODA eligibility, since only the DAC may
determine such eligibility. Further details are provided in the Statistical Reporting
Directives.Official development assistance is defined as those flows to countries and
territories on the DAC List of ODA Recipients and to multilateral development institutions
which are:
i.provided by official agencies, including state and local governments, or by their executive
agencies; and
ii.each transaction of which:
a.is administered with the promotion of the economic development and welfare of developing
countries as its main objective; and
b.is concessional in character and conveys a grant element of at least 25 per cent (calculated at
a rate of discount of 10 per cent).
31

2.15 Economic Development and Wellfare

This is often the decisive criterion for determining ODA eligibility. In the final analysis it is a
matter of intention. But in order to reduce the scope for subjective interpretations and promote
comparable reporting, Members have agreed to limits on ODA reporting, e.g.:
a)Exclusion of military aid - The supply of military equipment and services, and the
forgiveness of debts incurred for military purposes, are not reportable as ODA. On the other
hand, additional costs incurred for the use of the donors military forces to deliver
humanitarian aid or perform development services are ODA-eligible.
1 This calculation helps determine whether a loan is concessional. If the loan satisfies the
ODA criteria, then the whole amount is reported as ODA. The grant element itself is not
reportable as a flow. Reporting is on a cash (nominal) basis, except for Paris Club debt service
reduction.
b)Peacekeeping - The enforcement aspects of peacekeeping are not reportable as ODA.
However, ODA does include the net bilateral costs to donors of carrying out the following
activities within UN-administered or UN-approved peace operations: human rights, election
monitoring, rehabilitation of demobilised soldiers and of national infrastructure, monitoring
and training of administrators, including customs and police officers, advice on economic
stabilisation, repatriation and demobilisation of soldiers, weapons disposal and mine removal.
(Net bilateral costs means the extra costs of assigning personnel to these activities, net of the
costs of stationing them at home, and of any compensation received from the UN.) Similar
activities conducted for developmental reasons outside UN peace operations are also
reportable as ODA, but not recorded against the peacekeeping code. Activities carried out
for non-developmental reasons, e.g. mine clearance to allow military training, are not
reportable as ODA.
c)Civil police work - Expenditure on police training is reportable as ODA, unless the training
relates to paramilitary functions such as counter-insurgency work or intelligence gathering on
terrorism. The supply of the donors police services to control civil disobedience is not
reportable.
d)Social and cultural programmes - As with police work, a distinction is drawn between
building developing countries capacity (ODA-eligible) and one-off interventions (not ODAeligible). Thus, the promotion of museums, libraries, art and music schools, and sports
training facilities and venues counts as ODA, whereas sponsoring concert tours or athletes

32

travel costs does not. Cultural programmes in developing countries whose main purpose is to
promote the culture or values of the donor are not reportable as ODA.
e)Assistance to refugees - Assistance to refugees in developing countries is reportable as
ODA. Temporary assistance to refugees from developing countries arriving in donor countries
is reportable as ODA during the first 12 months of stay, and all costs associated with eventual
repatriation to the developing country of origin are also reportable.
f)Nuclear energy - The peaceful use of nuclear energy, including construction of nuclear
power plants, nuclear safety and the medical use of radioisotopes, is ODA-eligible. Military
applications of nuclear energy and nuclear non-proliferation activities are not.
g)Research - Only research directly and primarily relevant to the problems of developing
countries may be counted as ODA. This includes research into tropical diseases and
developing crops designed for developing country conditions. The costs may still be counted
as ODA if the research is carried out in a developed country.
g)Anti-Terrorism - Activities combatting terrorism are not reportable as ODA, as they
generally target perceived threats to donor, as much as to recipient countries, rather than
focusing on the economic and social development of the recipient.

2.16 ODA eligibility for NGOs

Annex 2 o ND NGOS the Statistical Reporting Directives lists those international agencies
contributions to which are reportable as ODA. ODA coefficients are provided for United
Nations agencies which conduct part of their activities in favour of development. These
coefficients are revised every few years in consultation with the agencies concerned.United
Nations agencies have established many specific-purpose funds. These are too numerous, and
arise and disappear too quickly, to be listed in the Directives. The same applies to
national non-governmental organisations. In both cases, Members must use their judgement as
to whether contributions have an ODA character.2 When in doubt, they may consult the
Secretariat, providing details of the fund in question.The Directives also list the main
international non-governmental organisations (INGOs) contributions to which are reportable
as ODA. These are increasingly numerous. Where Members have contributed to INGOs not
on this list, they should assess their ODA character in the light of the INGOs aims,
programmes and membership. If they believe the contribution should be counted as ODA,

33

they should inform the Secretariat so that Members can consider the INGO in the annual
review of Annex 2.
2.17 Official Agencies
Official flows comprise transactions undertaken by the official sector (i.e. Government) at
their own risk and responsibility, regardless of the source of funds (taxation of or borrowing
from the private sector). Official agencies include federal, state and local departments and
agencies. Themarket-based transactions of central monetary authorities, however, do not enter
into the statistics. The coefficient established for an agency partly active in development does
not normally apply tospecific-purpose funds it sets up, the ODA character of which should be
assessed individually. For example, 70 per cent of contributions to WHOs core budget are
reportable as ODA. But contributions to WHOs bilharzia programme are 100 per cent ODAreportable, while contributions to its International Agency for Research on Cancer are
not ODA-reportable.
Sometimes one official agency subsidises another. Since the subsidy is internal to the official
sector of the donor country, it is not reported as a flow. Rather, the transaction recorded is that
between the subsidised agency and the developing country. If this transaction meets the other
ODA criteria described in this paper, it is recorded as ODA.Official subsidies to private firms
may be recorded as other official flows (OOF). They are not considered to meet the tests of
ODA, since by definition they support activities with a primarily commercial
objective.Official

subsidies

private not-for-profit organisations (non-

to

governmental organisations) that are active in development are reportable as ODA.

2.18 Flows
Flows are transfers of resources, either in cash or in the form of commodities or services.
Since DAC statistics concentrate on transactions likely to have a development impact, loans
for one year or less are not counted. Repayments of the principal of ODA loans count as
negative flows, and are deducted to arrive at net ODA, so that by the time a loan is repaid, the
net flow over the period of the loan is zero. Interest is recorded, but is not counted in the net
flow statistics. Where official equity investments in a developing country are reported as
ODA because of their development intention, proceeds from their later sale are recorded as
negative flows, regardless of whether the purchaser is in a developed or a developing
country.Disbursements are measured on a cash basis, not an accruals basis, except that:

34

wherever contributions to multilateral development banks and funds are made in the form of
promissory notes, the full amount of the note is recorded at the time of deposit; and
the net present value of debt relief provided by implementing a Paris Club debt
reorganisation through debt service reduction is reportable as an ODA grant in the year of the
reorganisation.
Some transactions not recorded as transfers in balance of payments statistics are nevertheless
eligible to be recorded as ODA, since they represent an effort by the official sector in favour
of development. These include the costs of developmentally relevant secondary and tertiary
education and vocational training (including stipends and travel) provided to developing
country nationals in the donor country, the administrative costs of ODA programmes,
subsidies to non- governmental organisations, in donor refugee costs and programmes to raise
development awareness in donor countries.
Capital investment in the donor country is not regarded as a flow and is therefore not eligible
to be reported as ODA. This applies even to the construction and equipment of training and
research facilities related to development issues. The running costs of such facilities may,
however, be counted as ODA.
2.19 Concessional in character
From the earliest discussions of the concept of ODA, Members agreed that it should represent
an effort in favour of developing countries by the official sector. Loans at market terms were
excluded. When in the early 1970s interest rates began rising sharply, it was further specified
that loans could only be reported as ODA if they had a grant element of at least 25 per cent,
calculated against a notional reference rate of 10 per cent per annum.These elements remain
today. In recent years, long-term interest rates in most OECD Member countries have fallen
well below 10 per cent, so the 25 per cent grant element level has become easier to attain. But
to qualify as ODA, loans must still be concessional in character, i.e. below market interest
rates.
Where concessional and non-concessional financing are combined in so-called associated
financing packages, the official and concessional elements may be reported as ODA,
provided they have a grant element of at least 25 per cent. Such contributions must also meet
the special concessionality tests for associated financing, which are based on market interest
rates and set out in the Arrangement on Guidelines for Officially Supported Export Credits.

35

CHAPTER- 3

MATERIAL & METHODS

3.1 Material
DRDO-Biodigester sanitary system consists of brick structure. The construction of the
biodigester includes a rectangular biodigester. The biodigeater is of length 6m and breadth of
4.199 m. The rectangular tank is fragmented into three units. The first unit has width of 2.285
m and the second unit has a width of 1.57 m. The third unit is further divided into one more
unit. The fourth unit is the last unit where water is being stored. The water from the fourth
unit is being transferred into a soakpit of 2m by 2m. The brick structured with plastered.

3.2 Construction of DRDO-Biodigester

DRDO-Biodigester sanitary system consists of brick structure. The construction of the
biodigester includes a rectangular biodigester. The biodigeater is of length 6m and breadth of
4.199 m. The rectangular tank is fragmented into three units. The first unit has width of 2.285
m and the second unit has a width of 1.57 m. The third unit is further divided into one more
unit. The fourth unit is the last unit where water is being stored. The water from the fourth
unit is being transferred into a soakpit of 2m by 2m.

3.3 Bacterial
3.3.1 Preparation of Bacterial Consortia
To prepare successful microbial consortium, bacterial cultures must be compatible with each
other in order to concomitantly produce all these enzymes required for the degradation of
kitchen wastes. 15 different consortia were prepared and incubated overnight at 37 oC in 120
rpm. The compatibility of the bacterial strains within the consortia was checked by gram
staining. Microbial consortium was prepared by inoculating 5 over night grown bacterial
strains in 20ml of nutrient.

3.3.2 Media Optimisation

Modified Czapek-mineral salt broth per litre supplemented with 0.5% starch, tributyrin and
milk powder each was used.1% of each successfully compatible consortium was inoculated
separately in 250 ml of specialized media and incubated at 37C in 120 rpm till 5 days. After

36

every 24 hours, 5 ml of each consortium was taken out to check the production of amylase,
protease, lipase and cellulase that are responsible for the degradation of kitchen wastes.

3.3.3. Different Enzymatic Essay of Consortia

For enzymatic assays the bacterial consortia were centrifuged at 10,000 rpm for 10 min. The
supernatant was used for enzymatic assay. The experiments were carried out in duplicates and
standard error was calculated.
Lipase assay: Lipase activity was assayed titrimetrically at H 8.0 with a standard tributyrin as
substrate. 1ml tributyrin was mixed with 3ml of Tris HCl (pH 8.0) to form emulsion. 1ml of
the enzyme was added to the emulsion. The mixture was incubated at 50C for 30 min. The
liberated fatty acids were titrated with 50mM NaOH. One unit of activity was defined as the
amount of enzyme which liberated 1M butyric acid per min under standard
conditions.Protease assay: The enzyme extract suitably diluted,was mixed with 50mM glycine
- NaOH buffer (pH 9) to make 1 ml volume. 1ml of 1% casein (substrate) was added and
incubated for 10 min at 60C. The reaction was stopped by addition of 0.5 ml TCA (20%,
w/v). The mixture was allowed to stand at room temperature for 30 min and filtered.1 ml of
the filtrate was mixed with 5 ml of 0.5M Na2CO3 solution. 0.5 ml of Folin & Ciocalteus
(phenol reagent) reagent was added and kept in dark to develop the blue color.
It was estimated spectrophotometrically at 660nm against tyrosine as standard. One unit of
protease activity was defined as the amount of enzyme required to liberate1 g tyrosine per
milliliter in 1 min under the experimental conditions used.Amylase assay (DNSA 3, 5 dinitro
salicylic acid methods):One ml of 1% starch was incubated with different dilutions of the
enzyme extract and 1ml of citrate-phosphate buffer (pH 6.0) and was incubated at 50C for 30
min. The reaction was stopped by adding 2 ml of DNS and kept in boiling water bath for 10
min and absorbance was recorded at 540nm against glucose as the standard. One unit of
enzyme activity is defined as the amount of enzyme, which releases 1mole of reducing sugar
as glucose per minute, under the assay conditions (U/ml/min).

3.3.4. Determination of Food Waste Degradation (LabTrial)

The consortia capable of producing all these enzymes concomitantly were further selected for
laboratory trials.Laboratory trials were carried out in 5 kg small heaps of kitchen wastes
collected from Amity Universitys different canteen. Each heaps were inoculated with 5% of
consortium by evenly mixing the inoculum with the wastes and kept under natural condition

37

for 15 days to observe the visual rate of degradation. The heaps were periodically altered and
water was sprinkled for proper aeration and moisture.

3.3.5. Lab Trials with 25kg of the kitchen waste

After the successful degradation of kitchen wastes in lab trials by the bacterial consortia large
scale trials were also set up in closed container with their mouth partially open for adequate
aeration and moisture. Each container was 2/3 filled with 25 kg of kitchen wastes and was
inoculated with 5% consortia by evenly mixing the inoculam with the wastes.It was kept
under natural condition for 25 - 30 days to observe the visual rate of degradation by gradual
decrease in the volume of the waste pile. The heaps were periodically altered and water was
sprinkled for proper aeration and moisture.

3.4 Advantage of DRDO Biodigester

DRDO-Biodigester sanitary system is a maintenance free technology.
It has No recurring cost involved. Sludge formation is minimal.
It is Wide applicability under different climatic condition.
It produces water. Recycling of effluent water can be done.
Dosage of inoculums is only once in life time.
More than 99% pathogen reduction.
Reduction in organic waste by 99%.
The size of the Tank is approximately 1/3rd of conventional septic tank. Design

38

CHAPTER 4

RESULT & DISCUSSION

4.1 General
The Defence Research & Development Organisation (DRDO) works under the India
Department of Defence Research and Development in the Ministry of Defence. DRDO is
dedicated to enhancing self-reliance in defence systems and undertakes the design and
development of world class weapons and equipment. DRDO works in various areas of
military technology, including aeronautics, armaments, combat vehicles, electronics,
instrumentation engineering systems, missiles, materials, naval systems, advanced
computing, simulation and life sciences. But DRDO also provides ample spinoff benefits to
society thereby contributing towards nation-building.
The Indian Armed Forces are deployed in vast and diverse geographical areas and face
different and difficult combat conditions. These situations demand research and development
in the life sciences to meet the health requirements of the troops. The DRDO, besides doing
research and development on weapon systems, has a group of life sciences laboratories. This
group covers research in high altitude agriculture, food technology, human physiology,
psychology, nuclear medicine, disease diagnostics and management. Life Science Labs at
DRDO are engaged in the development of appropriate technologies for unique food and
health requirements for military personnel under unusual environments. Technologies
developed by these laboratories have a wide range of civil applications. Overview of Areas of
DRDO Contributions for Societal Development
Education Enhancing vocational skills
Providing training for higher education and research
Conducting training at grassroots level to villagers
Improve Health Hygiene; access to health-care systems
Systems Repellents- DEET & DEPA
Malaria control
Ophthalmic lasers
Nutritional security
Anti-leucoderma ointment
Anti- eczema ointment

39

 Anti-toothache herbal solution (Dardhar)

ELISA Kit for identification of food pathogens
Eradicating Extreme Increased agricultural productivity by developed agro-Poverty & Hunger
practices for 78 types of vegetables and 30 types of high altitude medicinal and aromatic
plants Vegetable production in green houses Commercialized Seabuckthorn products
Mushroom production technology Agrotech: fresh foods Hydroponics, aeroponics
technologies TransgenicVegetables; resistance to cold Osmotin gene integration Processed
foods Adapted germplasm for dairy cattle for wholesome milk .Increased income generation
Cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants Upgradation of local breeds of cows for boosting
milk production Upgradation of Zanskar ponies for transportation Germplasm Centre of
German Angora Rabbit Pisciculture technology
Ensuring Environment Land and water management Sustainability Green cover increases at
Leh and Chandipore Establishment of a prototype National Germplasm Repository at
Changla, Leh-Ladakh Use of earthworms for vermi-composting (Vermi compost from
different organic wastes) Pollution control Energy Security Reduce dependence on oil;
alternate energy from solar, wind, fuel cells, etc. Drip irrigation technology to conserve water
Bio-diesel from Jatropha farming Solar based greenhouses Installation of a biogas plant at
high altitude Sanitation and Waste Increase access to sanitation; waste management Disaster
Management Disaster preparedness systems Multi-purpose foldable cot Relief operations for
victims of flash floods in Leh Orissa cyclone relief operations A desalination plant at
tsunami-hit Nagapattinam Relief operations during earthquake at Latur and Bhuj, super
cyclone in Orissa and Andhra Pradesh Establishment of meteorological observatories
Rugged and portable telemedicine systems
Avalanche victim detectors (AVD)
Sanjeevani (a life detecting device)
Technology for the extension of shelf-life(s) of fresh fruits & vegetables
Ready to eat foods: quick cooking foods
Freeze dried foods and drinks, ration packs
Management and treatment; bio-toilets for 1,000 gram panchayats
Provision of portable water
Water desalination plants
Iron removal unit
Water testing
Infection imaging
40

Bio-digester integrated into Railway coaches

commissioned in Lakshadweep
Contributions by the Defence Institute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR)
The Defence Institute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR), in Leh City, develops high
altitude agro-animal technologies. Low cost agro-animal technologies developed by the
institute have also found wide acceptance among local farmers. The laboratory, through its
R&D efforts, has created a perceptible change in agriculture and animal husbandry which has
resulted in a revolution in food production in Ladakh. For example, 30-40 years ago there was
only handful of vegetables at Leh city: today you will find a huge quantity of large, fresh
vegetables like cauliflower, onions, cucumbers, garlic, brinjal, and pumpkins available
because of DRDO's contribution. Adoption of these technologies has boosted fresh food
availability and helped lift the socio-economic status of the people. By developing new
research technologies in agriculture, horticulture, floriculture, animal husbandry, and poultry,
DRDO enhances the local farming communitys economy and farmer .
Biogas, which is generated from organic digestion under anaerobic conditions by mixed
population of microorganisms, is an alternative energy source, that is now being utilized both
in rural and industrial areas. Biogas technology offers an attractive route to utilize certain
categories of biomass for meeting partial energy needs. Unlike other forms of renewable
energy, biogas does not have any geo- graphical limitations and required technology for
producing energy and it is neither complex nor monopolistic. Spearheading the effort to tap
alternate sources of energy in remote areas, the Defence Institute of High Altitude Research
(DIHAR), a constituent laboratory of the Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO), has com- missioned Indias highest biogas plant at Leh-Ladakh at an altitude of
3500 m amsl. It has been set up in collaboration with the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
(BARC), Mumbai for various R&D purposes. It is also the worlds second highest biogas
plant; the worlds highest biogas plant has been established by Nepal at Langtang Valley at
3850 m msl.
The basic design of the plant is based on a dual process employing partial aerobic digestion
followed by anaerobic digestion. It produces biogas and organic manure (soil conditioner)
based on the process of biomethanation. The organically rich biodegradable portion of solid
waste is mixed with recycled water to form a slurry. The slurry is then aerobically digested in
a predigester, where organic matter is converted to organic acids. The predigestion is
accentuated by the addition of hot water and intermittent aeration. Predigestion reactions are
exo- thermic and the temperature rises to 40C. Hot water obtained using solar energy is
41

added to raise this temperature to 50C. The predigested slurry is further digested under
anaerobic conditions for about 15 days. The process of methanogenesis of the acidified slurry
takes place in this digester. The plant is fed with cattle dung, horse and poultry manure
generated at the DIHAR farm.
The capacity of the biogas plant is 0.5 t/day and will generate about 35 50 m3 of biogas per
day during the processing of biodegradable waste. This can be either fed to a gas engine
alternator set of 25 kVA capacity to generate elec- tricity for a period of 45 h everyday or
can be used for cooking/boiler purposes [1.52.1 m3 of biogas (depending on the methane
content of 5065%) is equivalent to 1 litre of diesel in terms of heat output.] Not only is
biogas a fuel for producing green energy, but it also reduces greenhouse gases and may qualify for green credits. About 25 40 kg/day (on weight basis) high quality organic manure will
be available from the plant which is rich in nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and iron and
devoid of any heavy metals and weed seed. There- fore, the generated organic manure can be
utilized in agricultural fields to improve soil fertility as well as productivity.

4.2 Role of Integrated Watershed Management Programme in controlling erosion and

reclaming wastelands in India
India has about 55.27 million hectares (m ha) of wasteland. These are not suit- able for any
purpose and are exposed to the vagaries of nature like weathering, gully erosion, etc. The
Department of Land Resources of the Ministry of Rural Development has been implementing
three area development programmes since 1995, viz. Integrated Watershed Development
Programme, Drought Prone Areas Programme and Desert Development Programme on
watershed basis. These programmes have been merged into a single programme called the
Inte- grated Watershed Management Programme (IWMP) since 2006 and above
38.2 m ha of wasteland has been developed into cultivable land.
Watershed or a drainage basin is a unit draining run-off water to a common point.
Watershed management is the process of guiding and organizing the use of land and other
resources in a watershed to provide goods and services desired without adversely affecting the
soil and water resources. So far as water resources in India are concerned, only 35% of
rainfall is captured and the rest flows as runoff.Almost 60% of the captured precipitation is
lost again in evaporative transpiration due to open storage. The need of the hour is to
regenerate the natural resources that have degraded through land mismanagement in the last
50 years or so. India today has about 18% of the worlds population and 15% of livestock

42

population to be supported from only 2% of the worlds geographi- cal area and 1.5% of
forest pasture land and 4% of water resources.
A micro-watershed is the basic unit of development, whose average area is around 500 ha.
With the objective of water and soil conservation different structures such as contour bunds,
contour trenching, minor pit, gully plugging, lose boulder check dams, and check dams are
implemented in the micro-watershed.

4.3 Correspondence
Storage of rainwater after implementation of IWMP in the field. b, Minor pit for conservation
of run-off water in the field for recharge to groundwater.
The IWMP has showed encouraging results in the drought-prone NawapadaKalahandi
Bargarh districts of the western Orissa. These districts suffer from long, dry spells in summer
and are located in the rain-shadow region. The study area is part of the KBK (Kalahandi
BolangirKoraput) districts, which are drought-prone. The area presents conspicuous
geomorphic variations comprising moderately high hills, isolated hillocks, undulating plains,
intermontane valleys, etc. Out of the average annual rainfall of 1378 mm, a major part goes
as run-off and groundwater recharge is less. To enhance groundwater recharge, watershed
development is important at themicrolevel. The Bhoomijal Samvar- dhana Puraskar for East
Zone in 2007
was awarded to Chilnala Watershed Association, Kurumpuri Gram Panchayat, Nawapada
District, Orissa. The association has treated 612.29 ha of land through watershed development
work. The implementation of different conservation structures has checked soil erosion, and
has results in the improvement of soil moisture, soil quality and vegetation, enhancement of
groundwater recharge, etc. Earlier the dug wells were dry in March, but now people in the region are able to harvest crops in the rabi season also. Due to improvement in soil moisture
there is increase in plant growth and increase in crop yield. Check in soil erosion leads to land
reclamation. As a result, people are involved in pisciculture in their ponds, vegetable
cultivation andimproved agriculture in their fields.

4.4 Congress Grass

The fact that the earliest record of the existence of Parthenium hysterophorusL. (Asterceae) in
India was revealed way back in 1814 by Roxburgh is not widely known both to several
scientists and lay persons. Paul1 deserves the gratitude of all. It was a victim of its allergic ef-

43

fects when I visited Pune in the early 1960s. I had constant sneezing, cough and fever. A
physician prescribed an anti-allergic tablet, and advised me to cover my nose with a
handkerchief when I came across the weed to avoid inhaling the minute allergic particles
floating in the air. Since then, the Congress government decided to import wheat seeds under
the USA PL-480 scheme which contained the seeds of the offending weed, it was derisively
called Congress grass.anisms, is an alternative energy source.
Found in the uninhabitable climes of Antarctica, psychrotrophic bacteria could be the
answer to Indias sanitation problems. After successful experimentation in high altitude
toilets used by defence personnel, the Defence Research and Development Organisation
(DRDO) plans to use the bacteria to tackle the problem caused by open defecation in the
country. It will also be put to use in Indian Railways. India is home to 60 per cent of the
worlds population that defecates in the open. This has serious health implications and is
consequently a big economic burden. Open defecation causes numerous waterborne diseases like diarrhoea, which kills 500,000 children every year. The treatment
process in septic tanks attached to toilets also does not break down the waste
completely, adds Lokendra Singh, director of life sciences division at DRDO. Thus,
sulphuric acid is produced which causes foul smell. Only 33 per cent of toilets in the
urban areas are connected to the sewerage system; sewage from the rest flows in open
drains, causing river contamination, as per 2011 Census.

4.5 Mission biodigester toilets

Biodigester toilets can free us from these problems, says Singh. The zerowaste biodigester technology breaks down human excreta into usable water and gas
through anaerobic process. It does not have any geographical or temperature limitation
and also does away with the need to set up large sewerage networks. The experiments
to develop bio-toilets were started by DRDO around 20 years ago. We wanted to design
toilets for forces deployed at high altitudes as human excreta was becoming a big
problem there, says W Selvamurthy, chief controller of research and development
division at DRDO. In areas like Ladakh, deep pits are dug for defecation. Once the tank is
full it is emptied in fields. The waste has chances of mixing with melting snow that feed
rivers downstream. In freezing conditions, the waste is collected and then incinerated
which requires energy and labour. But no bacteria were functioning in cold conditions,
says Selvamurthy. DRDO then decided to send scientists to Antarctica under Indias 13th

44

Antarctic Mission in 1994 to look for microorganisms that can break down excreta.
After screening we found a variety of psychrotrophic bacteria like Clostridium and
Methanosarcina, he says. These bacteria can live in cold or hot climate and feed on
waste to survive.
The bacteria were then cultured in the DRDO lab in Gwalior and tested at various
altitudes and temperatures. They worked in temperatures ranging from 0C to 55C. To
use it in a toilet, a tank was fitted below the commode to collect the excreta. The tank
made of cement had sheets with bacteria embedded in it and free-floating bacteria. The
bacteria cannot move out of the sheets but can multiply. When human excreta comes in
contact with bacteria, it gets converted into methane and water through a series of steps
of anaerobic digestionhydrolysis, acidogenesis, acetogenesis and methanogenesis.
Faecal matter is composed of carbohydrates, protein and fats. In the first step, they are
converted into simple sugars, amino acids and fatty acids. In the next step, these break
to form carbonic acid, alcohols, hydrogen and water. In the third step, acetic acid,
hydrogen and carbon dioxide is formed. In the last step, methane, carbon dioxide and
water are formed. Methane can be used for cooking while water for irrigation, says
Singh. The best part is that once applied, the bacteria can work for a lifetime. The
first bio-toilet was set up in Ladakh in 1994. Since then, 159 more have been
constructed in high altitude regions like Ladakh and Siachen. We have enough evidence
to show they are working efficiently, says Singh. DRDO along with Federation of Indian
Chambers of Commerce and Industry has also set up six biodigester toilets at Dhamra
district in Odisha in June. Every day around 150 people use these toilets. In July, DRDO
and Union rural development ministry signed an MOU to build 100,000 biodigester
toilets in 300 gram panchayats

4.6 Tailored for specific use

To suit different geographical requirements, DRDO has also made various design
modifications in the biodigester toilets. For example, to avoid choking of toilets in railways
because of people throwing non-biodegradable plastics, like bottles, a special lid has been
constructed. On pushing the flush, the flap opens and the bottles fall on the track. The excreta
enters through a separate opening into the digester tank. The tank has several chambers to
provide more surface area to hasten biodegradation. The chambers increase retention time of
the waste in places where water table is high, like in Lakshwadeep or homes and offices

45

where people flush frequently. In glaciers where the temperature is as low as -40C, the toilet
is fitted with solar panels of 240 watt to keep the excreta warm for processing. Design
changes are also being worked for toilets in houseboats in Srinagar to avoid water
contamination. One biodigester toilet costs Rs 15,000. The cost will come down with increase
in scale.
4.7 Biogas production
Biogas production was measured during 5 week digestion. Average biogas and methane
yield in norm litre per kg of volatile solids (NI (kg VS) -1) with standard deviation from three
replicates per treatment during 5 week digestion.The lowest biogas yield was in case of
sample 1 (50% sugar beet + 50% maize), 428 NI kg VS-1 or 242 NI CH4 kg VS-1(standard
deviation of three replicates +38.8 NI biogas VS-1). The highest biogas and methane yield
was achieved in case of sample 2 (75% sugar beet + 25% maize). The highest biogas yield
was 493 NI kg VS-1 or 289 NI CH4 kg VS-1 (standard deviation of three replicates +70.2 NI
biogas VS-1). Sample 3 (25% sugar beet + 75% maize) has a biogas production of 455 NI
kg VS-1 or 282 NI CH4kg VS-1 (standard deviation of three replicates +85.7 NI biogasVS-1).
Biogas production of sample 1 (50% sugar beet + 50% maize) in norm litre per kg of
volatile solids (NI (kg VS)-1) during 5- week digestion is shown in Figure 5.
Most of the biogas is produced in the first week of the experiment, after twenty days the
anaerobic digestion is mostly finished. After 35 days the amount of biogas is very low.
Biogas production of sample 2 (75% sugar beet + 25% maize) in norm litre per kg of
volatile solids (NI (kg VS)-1) during 5- week digestion.
Biogas production of sample 3 (25% sugar beet + 75% maize) in norm litre per kg of
volatile solids (NI (kg VS)-1) during 5- week digestion.
4.8 Biogas quality
Biogas quality (CH4, CO2 and O2) was analysed 10 times in course of the 5 - week
digestion.
The biogas quality of sample 1 (50% sugar beet + 50% maize) where the methane content
ranged from 26.5 to 80.5% (mean: 56.4%, n = 30). The average content of CO2 was 35.5%
during 5 week digestion. The maximal level of CO2 was on the second day of the
experiment, 65%, and then decreases to 19% and stays stable. Oxygen content in the biogas
46

was under 1%. That means that the digestion was anaerobic. The biggestdifferences in biogas
quality occur in the first week of the digestion and then the gas content is more or less stable.
The biogas quality of sample 2 (75% sugar beet + 25% maize) where the methane content
ranged from 33.5 to 73.8% (mean: 59.1%, n = 30). The average content of CO2 was 26.6%
during 5 week digestion. The maximal level of CO2 was on the second day of the
experiment, 47.5%, and then decreases to 14.7% and stays stable. Oxygen content in the
biogas was under 1%. That means that the digestion was anaerobic. The biggest differences in
biogas quality occur in the first week of the digestion and then the gas content is more or less
stable.
The biogas quality of sample 3 (25% sugar beet + 75% maize) where the methane content
ranged from 52.2 to 69.2% (mean: 62.1%, n = 30). The average content of CO2 was 32.3%
during 5 week digestion. The maximal level of CO2 was on the second day of the
experiment, 46%, and then decreases to 27.2% and stays stable. Oxygen content in the biogas
was under 1%. That means that the digestion was anaerobic. After the first week of the
digestion the gas content is more or less stable.

The biogas production from agricultural biomass is of growing importance as it offers

considerable environmental benefits and is an additional source of income for farmers.
Economic efficiency of anaerobic digestion depends on the investment costs, on the costs for
operating the biogas plant and on the optimum methane production. The biogas is a renewable
source of energy and reduces CO2 emissions.
Plant biomass was treated anaerobically for 35 days, in order to generate biogas.
Firstly, the mini digester used for laboratory tests was built. The mini digester serves to
produce the biogas from various energy plants and other organic waste materials.
Measurements were conducted according to DIN 38 414. Four tests simultaneously with three
repetitions can be performed. Whole maize and sugar beet crops in certain ratio were
anaerobically digested and biogas yields and biogas composition were measured and
compared. Biogas quality (CH4, CO2, O2) was measured by gas detector Geotechnical
Instruments GA 45.
The lowest biogas yield was in case of sample 1, 428 NI kgVS-1 or 242 NI CH4 kg VS1 (standard deviation of three replicates +38.8 NI biogas VS-1). The highest biogas and
methane yield was 493 NI kg VS-1 or 289 NI CH4 kg VS-1 (standard deviation of three
replicates +70.2 NI biogas VS-1) in case of sample 2. Sample 3 has a biogas production of

47

455 NI kg VS-1 or 282 NI CH4 kg VS-1(standard deviation of three replicates +85.7 NI

biogas VS-1).
Biogas quality (CH4, CO2, O2) was analysed 10 times in course of the 5- week digestion.
Biogas quality was on average 56.4% of CH4, 35.5% of CO2, O2 content in the biogas was
under 1% in case of sample 1. In case of sample 2 the biogas quality was on average 59.1% of
CH4, 26.6% of CO2, O2 content was under 1%. In case of sample 3 the biogas quality was on
average 62.1% of CH4, 32.3% of CO2, O2 content in the biogas was under 1%. Oxygen is an
indicator of anaerobic fermentation and the level of oxygen must be under 1%.
O-isopropylmethyl fluorophosphonate is well known nerve agent sarin that is an acronyme
of scientist who first synthesized it: Schrader, Ambros, Rudiger, and van der Linde. The
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) encoded sarin as GB. In laboratory
temperature, it is a colourless and odourless liquid. Though sarin is able to chemically react
with multiple structures, the most important toxic effect, common for organophosphorus
insecticides and nerve agents, is targeted towards serine in active site of acetylcholinesterase
(AChE). The reaction has several steps; however, the first nucleophilic addition is the ratedetermining step followed by slower elimination of the fluoride ion1. Structure of AChE
inhibited by sarin is given in Fig. 1; the structure was completed according to Hornberg2, et
al.Another enzyme being inhibited in a similar way as AChE is butyrylchoinesterase
(BuChE)3. Even some studies propose BuChE as a scavenger when one is intoxicated with
sarin. There is also an effort to develop therapeutics for sarin intoxication treatment. The most
promising are compounds with oxime functional groups. Currently available are pralidoxime,
obidoxime, HI-6, HLO-7, and methoxime. Some novel pyridinium oximes seem to prove
equal or better efficacy than the currently available were referred in this way.
Several analytical methods were taken for approachable as sarin assay. Estimation of
intoxication could be based on measuring BuChE activity in collected serum. This way, only
appoint at misusing of organophosphate. Some more elaborative techniques could be used for
identification of misused organophosphate. Holland, et al. proposed refluoridation of nerve
agent, partial purification and its following assay by gas chromatography with MS detection.
The conventional detection systems are more extensive in amount of available techniques;
however, simple and inexpensive method allowing to detect toxicologically subliminal
amount of sarin and others organophosphates is still missing. We could introduce some
commercialised devices. Armies of the Warsaw Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and
Assistance were equipped by SovietCHP-71, GSP, and GSA detectors. Nowadays, more
instrumental devices such as mobile mass spectrometer Raid (Bruker Daltonics, MA, USA)
48

are available. There were also attempts to construct functional biosensors for several
organophosphates using AChE in a way as biorecognition component, i.e. element
responsible for analyte recognising.
Though AChE-based biosensors could be used for multiple organophosphates, including
nerve agents, detection, the current research is focused on pesticides assay as well. The AChE
biosensors use AChE as biorecognition component tightly connected with proper device
enabling to follow enzyme activity and evaluate concentration of organophosphate as range of
found inhibition. This study aims to develop electrochemical biosensor based on AChE being
able to detect sarin at low level. For this reason, some available AChEs from different
organisms, i.e. species differences are being tested, for independent assay because of different
affinity towards sarin and approachability of developed biosensors is being considered.
Sensor was performed in the described manner. In the first round, these were followed by
interference of organic solvent in the proposed assay. The achieved data indicates at strong
inhibition of used solvents. Monovalent alcohols, methanol and ethanol, inhibited about 30%
of AChE activity when presented in 5% concentration in the substrate. Propanol was found
interfering in assay due to redox reaction by given applied voltage. Dimethyl sulfoxide and
acetonitrile were found to be worse than ethanol, and methanol: the inhibition was about 40%
for acetonitrile and even more than 60% for dimethyl sulfoxide. The best for assay seems to
be isopropanol that proved inhibition less than 5% when compared to initial activity. In order
to avoid inhibition, isopropanol was used throughout experiments.
Three calibration curves: for human recombinant, electric eel and bovine erythrocytes
AChE as biorecognition component were constructed. The curves are shown in Figure 3.
Curves start at relatively high concentration of sarin: 1 mM. Calibration was carried out up
concentration of sarin that was not statistically different (t-test, P= 0.05) to signal achieved by
blank sample processing.
Though the activities of given AChE were adjusted to the same value, the curves were of
different shapes. Probably, the most common cholinesterase for biosensor construction is the
one from electric eel16 and some electric eel mutants. The presented data appoint at lower
steepness of curve obtained by electric eel AChE performance when compared with the other
two AChE species. Due to lower steepness, the limit of detection is highest from the tested
AChEs just for the electric eel one. On the other side, IC50 had the middle value. The
steepness of curves obtained by human recombinant and bovine erythrocytes AChEs proved
similar shape. However, limit of detection as well as IC50 was lower for human recombinant
AChE when compared with the one from bovine erythrocytes. Differences in the inhibition of
49

AChE. Such results were confirmed earlier by Gray and Dawson and Wiesner et al. are
concerned. As far as experimental data, AChE from bovine erythrocytes is typical for
construction of neither biosensor nor enzymatic assay for organophosphates detection. Some
works proposed following of bovine AChE activity as a marker of cattle intoxication20. We
should appoint at better analytical parameters when AChE from bovine erythrocytes is used
for sarin assay in comparison with that one from the electric eel. The best limit of detection
was obtained for performance of human recombinant AChE. Reached limit of detection was
0.4510 -8 mol/l for sarin solution. Though this enzyme has been marketed recently, some
studies appoint at feasibility of its performance.
Presented assay seems to be approachable for detection of nerve agent sarin. Simple
performance of electrochemical strip is very intriguing for diagnostic and pharmaceutical
studies as well. The assay of sarin represents two main advantages: (i) assay is quite cheap as
the total cost per assay are approximately slightly above one eurocent when only reagents are
considered; and (ii) assay allows detecting noxious agent represented by sarin within a very
short time. One measuring cycle would be completed within four minutes, consisting of two
minutes of signal stabilisation and another two minutes of sample and reagents manipulation.
This time interval could be considered as relatively long.
On the other hand, optimisation of time interval was not the primary aim of the present
study. The time interval could be improved in a multiple way.

Table 4.8.Summary of IC50 and limits of detections (LOD) when different origin
AChE species are used for sarin assay based on electrochemical sensor
Human recombinant Electric eel
IC50 (mol/l)

(9.77 8.08)10 -6 (2.40 2.27)10 -7

LOD (mol/l)

0.4510 -8

0.9310 -8

Bovine erythrocytes
(5.37 4.52)10 -7
0.8810 -8

The manipulation with reagent and sample was not realised with intention
to minimise it as possible. Two minute of signal stabilisation was chosen to improve
experiments reproducibility. This time interval could be shortened when assay is performed
in field conditions. If a washing step is employed after measuring cycle, the strip could be
reused. This is an advantage if typical performance of biosensor with intercepted AChE is
considered. The most promising way to detect low amount of nerve agent sarin is through
sensor based on recognition capability of human recombinant AChE rather than the more
common electric eel one.
50

The total costs of assay per one measuring cycle seem to be low enough to be widely
used. Employed sensor could be reused after simple washing when no organophosphate is
positively detected. AChE is the most expensive reagent in pertinent assay. The estimated
costs of AChE needed per one measuring cycle are about one eurocent that would be taken for
assay budget. It should be emphasised that sarin was chosen as a model nerve agent. The
other nerve agents, e.g. soman, tabun, and VX could be assayed as well.

51

Fig3.2 PLAN OF THE BIO-DIGESTER FOR GITAM UNIVERSITY BOYS

HOSTEL

52

Fig3.2.1 SECTION X-X OF THE BIO-DIGESTER

53

Fig3.2.2 SECTION Y-Y OF BIO-DIGESTER

54

Fig1.7 BIO-DIGESTER FOR DOMESTIC USAGE

Fig1.7.1 CROSS SECTION OF DRDO BIO-DIGESTER FOR

DOMESTIC PURPOSE

55

Fig1.7.2 FRP TANK FOR BIO-DIGESTER

Fig1.7.3 WATER COMING OUT AS END PRODUCT

56

Fig1.2 SIMPLE PIT LATRINE

Fig1.3 VENTILATED IMPROVED PIT (VIP) LATRINE

57

Fig1.4 POUR FLUSH LATRINE

58

Fig1.5 AQUA PRIVY

59

Fig1.8 SOILET

Fig1.9 SEPTIC TANK LATRINE

60

Table 3.1: Estimation of biodigester at GITAM University boys hostel

Item description of
no. items
1 EARTHWORK IN
EXCAVATION

length(m)

breadth(m)

Height(m)

no.
1

6.9

5.1

1.483

52.18677

1x6.9x5.1x1

6.9

5.1

0.15

5.2785

1x6.9x5.1x0

L(SIDE
OF THE
TANK)
2

6.9

0.45

0.666

4.13586

2x6.9x0.45x

2nd footing

6.7

0.35

0.666

3.12354

2x6.7x0.35x

3rd footing

6.46

0.23

0.666

1.9790856
TOTAL 9.2384856

2x6.46x0.23

4 SHORT WALL LL(SIDE

OF THE
TANK)
1st footing
2

5.1

0.45

0.666

3.05694

2x5.1x0.45x

2 FLOORING
3 LONGWALL

1st footing

quantity

explanatory

2nd footing

4.9

0.35

0.666

2.28438

2x4.9x0.35x

3rd footing

4.66

0.23

0.666

1.4276376
TOTAL 6.7689576

2x4.66x0.23

5 INSIDE
PARTITION
WALL
Long wall

4.2

0.23

1.85

3.5742

2x4.2x0.23x

Short wall

1.685

0.23

1.85

0.7169675
TOTAL 4.2911675

1x1.685x0.2

6 C.C BED AT
BOTTOM
1st chamber

2.285

4.2

0.05

0.47985

1x2.285x4.2

61

2nd
chamber

1.57

4.2

0.05

0.3297

1x1.57x4.2x

3rd chamber

1.685

1.985

0.05

0.1672363

1x1.685x1.9

4th chamber

1.685

1.985

0.05

1x1.685x1.9

6.46

4.66

0.167236
TOTAL 1.1440223
0.1
3.01036

7 R.C.C SLAB
AT TOP

62

1x6.46x4.66

S.no
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Table 1.2:Estimation of pit latrines

Item
Dimensions
Ring
Dia=4ft
IWC Pan
Solid cement L=450mm
Breadth=200mm
concrete
block
Excavation
Doors
B=1m
Fine
aggregate
AC Sheet
L=4.5ft
B=4.5ft
Cement
Labour
Charge
TOTAL

Height=9inc
Height=150mm

H=1.8m

Quantity
9
1
60

1
1metric
ton
2 Bag
1 person
(4 Days)

Amount (Rs)
230*9=2070
600
60*28=1680

600
1500
525
150
250*2=500
200*4=800
8425

63

S.no
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Table 1.3:Estimation of Ventilated Improved Pit Latrines

Item
Dimensions
Ring
Dia=4ft
Height=9inc
IWC Pan
Solid cement L=450mm
Breadth=200mm
Height=150mm
concrete
block
Excavation
Doors
B=1m
H=1.8m
Fine
aggregate
AC Sheet
L=4.5ft
B=4.5ft
Cement
Labour
Charge
TOTAL

Quantity
9
1
60

1
1metric
ton
2 Bag
1 person
(4 Days)

Amount (Rs)
230*9=2070
600
60*28=1680

600
1500
525
150
250*2=500
200*4=800
8425

64

S.no
1.
2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.

Table 1.4:Estimation of Pour-Flush Latrines

Item
Dimensions
Ring
Dia=4ft
IWC Pan
Solid cement L=450mm
Breadth=200mm
concrete
block
Excavation
Doors
B=1m
Fine
aggregate
AC Sheet
L=4.5ft
B=4.5ft
Cement
Labour
Charge
Siphon
Pipe
Dia=3inc
L=1m
TOTAL

Height=9inc
Height=150mm

H=1.8m

Quantity
9
1
60

1
1metric
ton
2 Bag
1 person
(4 Days)
1
1

Amount (Rs)
230*9=2070
600
60*28=1680

600
1500
525
150
250*2=500
200*4=800
300
200
9025

65

S.no
1.

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.
11.

Table 1.5: Estimation of Aqua Privy

Item
Dimensions
Vent Pipe
Dia=3inc

IWC Pan
Solid cement L=450mm
concrete
block
Excavation
Doors
Fine
aggregate
AC Sheet
L=4.5ft
Cement
Labour
Charge
Drop pipe
Dia=(100150mm)
Outlet pipe
Dia=3inc
Exhaust pipe

H=2.3M

Quantity
1

Amount (Rs)
2.3*150=345

Breadth=200mm

Height=150mm

1
256

600
256*28=7168

B=1m

H=1.8m

1
2metric
ton

B=4.5ft

1m
L=1m

5 Bag
2 person
(7 Days)
1
1
1

TOTAL

1000
1500
1050
150
250*5=1250
400*7=2800
150
200
250
16463

66

S.no
1.

2.

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.

Table 1.7: Estimation of domestic DRDO Bio-digesters

Item
Dimensions
Ring 1
Dia=4ft
Height=9in
Ring 2
Dia= 2ft
IWC Pan or
Stainless
steel
Solid
L=450mm
cement
concrete
block
Bend
Doors
Fine
aggregate
AC Sheet
L=6ft
DRDO
Bacteria
Cement
Labour
Charge
Outlet pipe
Gas Pipe
Lighting
Flooring
cover

Breadth=200mm

B=1m

Quantity
4

Amount (Rs)
230*4=920

H=9in

4
1

110*4=440
2500

Height=150mm

100

100*28=2800

H=1.8m

B=6ft

4
400
1
1500
2 metric 1025
ton
560
2250
3 Bag
1person
(4 Days)

L=1m
Dia=0.5in
Dia=4ft

1
TOTAL

250*3=750
200*4=800
150
300
300
1000
15695

67

S.no

Table 1.8: Estimation of Soilet

Item

1.

Ring

2.
3.

IWC Pan
Solid cement L=450mm
concrete
block
Excavation
Doors
Fine
aggregate
AC Sheet
L=4.5ft
Earthworms
Cement
Labour
Charge

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
8.
9.
10.

Outlet pipe

Dimensions

Dia=4ft

Quantity
Height=9inc

Breadth=200mm

Height=150mm

1
60

B=1m

H=1.8m

600
1
1500
1metric ton 525

B=4.5ft
2 Bag
2person
(4 Days)

L=1m
TOTAL

68

Amount
(Rs)
230*9=207
0
600
60*28=168
0

150
3000
250*2=500
400*4=160
0
200
12425

8.
9.
10.

Table 1.9: Estimation of Septic Tank Latrines

Item
Dimensions
Ring
Dia=4ft
IWC Pan
Vent Pipe
Dia=3inc
Solid cement L=450mm
Breadth=200mm
concrete
block
Excavation
Doors
B=1m
Fine
aggregate
Outlet pipe
Dia=3inc
L=1m
Cement
Labour

11.

Charge
Siphon

S.no
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.

Height=9inc
H=2.3M
Height=150mm

H=1.8m

Quantity
9
1
1
260

1
7metric
ton
1
8Bag
4 person
(10 Days)
1 Nos

TOTAL

69

Amount (Rs)
230*9=2070
600
2.3*150=345
260*28=7280

1500
1500
3675
200
250*8=2000
800*10=8000

300
27470

CHAPTER 5

SOCIAL IMPACT OF DRDO BIODIGESTER

Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of
human urine and feces. Inadequate sanitation is a major cause of disease world-wide and
improving sanitation is known to have a significant beneficial impact on health both in
households and across communities. For any social and economic development, adequate
sanitation in conjunction with good hygiene and safe water are essential to good health. Lack
of proper sanitation causes diseases. Most of the diseases resulting from sanitation have a
direct relation to poverty. The lack of clean water and poor sanitation has caused many
diseases and the spread of diseases. Sanitation is very important in order to keep good health.
One of the most significant diseases that arise from poor sanitation is diarrhea. Most of the
affected are young children below the ages of five. Other diseases that are caused by poor
sanitation include schistosomiasis, trachoma, and soil transmitted Helminthiases.
Water is elixir in life, without water life in earth is impossible. Sanitation which is a provision
to facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and feces. The DRDO
Biodigester sanitary system which will solve both the problem of sanitation water will make a
disease free climate in the area. The life standerd of the people will change. The maintenance
part of the project will also generate few employment. With the increase of water table the dry
bore well will also slowly start working. This will reduse the consumption of water from
ground water table.

Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through prevention of human contact
with the hazards of wastes as well as the treatment and proper disposal of sewage wastewater.
Hazards can be either physical, microbiological, biological or chemical agents of disease.
Wastes that can cause health problems include human and animal feces, solid wastes,
domestic wastewater (sewage, sullage, greywater), industrial wastes and agricultural wastes.
Hygienic means of prevention can be by using engineering solutions (e.g. sewage
and wastewater treatment), simple technologies (e.g. latrines, septic tanks), or even by
personal hygiene practices (e.g. simple handwashing with soap).

70

CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSION
Water elexer in life. Without water life in earth is impossible. Today water, water everywhere
but not a single drop to drink. It has become our duty to recharge water into ground water
table in the same passion how it is withdrawn. DRDO Biodigester is the same technology by
which water is recharged in th same passion in which it is withdrawn. GITAM Hostel with
1400 capacity is absolutely perfect place for establishment of DRDO Biodigester. As this will
recharge the water being taken out in regular basis.
DRDO Biodigester at boyes hostel will not only solve the problem of sanitation alone but also
will solve the water crisis. The water coming out of DRDO Biodigester will help in gardening
the garden at hostel. Which will result in reducing of pumping of water of ground water table.
Moreover it will be a sustainable method of sanitary system. The system also do not require
maintenance. Which makes it a economic sanitary system as well.
DRDO Biodigester will also produce biogas as end product and this biogas at the end can be
utilized at the hostel mess as a fuel for cooking purpose. The biogas can be stored by balloon
method or can directly be connected from the collection tank to mess by pipeline. This biogas
will reduce the overall cost for cooking purpose and will make it cheap and economical.Thus
the bio-digester will contribute to sustainable development of GITAM university.

71

CHAPTER 7

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