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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

CHAPTER ONE
Structure of Telecommunication Systems
1.0 Introduction
Communication is the transfer of information from one place to another. This
should be done as efficiently as possible, with as much fidelity/reliability as
possible and as securely as possible. The word Telecommunication is a
combination of two words... Tele + Communication.The word Tele in Latin
means Distance. Hence Telecommunication is Distance Communication. The
necessity of communication begun as early as the existence of mankind on
this earth. Communication has become the vital tool for mankind to strife
prosperously in this world.
Evolution of the Communication System:
Primitive Sign Language
Pounding Drum
Smoke Signal
Fire Signals
Modern Telegraph
Telephone
Wireless communication
Satellite Communication
The requirements for a complete communication system are:
The Source of the Messages: Messages are the signals you wish to send.
The message itself can be voice, computer data, music, video movie,
temperature reading or alarm information. All these can be considered as
Messages. The Sources of messages can come in many forms. It can be your
mouth, a cassette tape player, a video tape player, a computer, a thermometer
or a security system. These messages are normally converted to electrical
signals and is known as intelligence, information, audio signal or base band
signal, depending on the message itself.
The Modulator and the transmitter: For a message to be able to reach the
required destination is has to be sent out through a transmitter. The message
is converted into electrical signals and is modulator. The process of
modulation is required as the original message or signal is generally of a low
frequency waveform, and therefore has low energy. Thus modulation is the
process of translating the original signal to a higher frequency signals
representing the original. The modulation process is done inside a device

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

called a Transmitter, whose function is to convert the source signals to signals


suitable for sending out.
The channel: The modulated signal has to be transferred from the transmitter
to the receiver through a medium. The medium is also called the channel. In
communication, channel means a long transmission path. The various
channels available today is cables, radio waves and light waves.
The receiver and the demodulator: Receives the transmitter signal. Selects
the desired signal from many signals (mixed when passing through channel)
and demodulates the signal to obtain a reproduction of the original signal.
The destination of the messages: The signal must arrive at an appropriate
destination. As an example, a computer signal received by your ear is not very
useful. A picture received by a thermometer does not make sense. The
destination device must also decide what to do with the signals, i.e. to just
receive live, to store them or to perhaps re-transmit them to yet another
destination. Successful communication has taken place when the original has
arrived at the destination correctly.
1.1 Historical Background
1.1.1 Telegraph
1844, Samuel Morse, What hath God wrought transmitted by Morse's
electric telegraph Washington D.C ~ Baltimore, Maryland
Morse code: variable-length code (a dot, a dash, a letter space, a word space)
1.1.2 Radio
1864, James Clerk Maxwell Formulated the electromagnetic theory of light,
Predicted the existence of radio waves
1887, Heinrich Hertz- The existence of radio waves was confirmed
experimentally
1894, Oliver Lodge - Demo : wireless communication over a relatively short
distance (150 yards)
1901, Guglielmo Marconi- Demo : wireless communication over a long
distance (1700 miles)
1906, Reginald Fessenden- Conducting the first radio broascast
1918, Edwin H. Armstrong -Invented the superheterodyne radio receiver
1933, Edwin H. Armstrong -Demonstrated another modulation scheme (
Frequency nodulation)
1.1.3 Telephone

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

1875, Alexander Graham Bell Invented the telephone


1897, A. B. Strowger Devised the autiomatic step-by-step switch
1.1.4 Electronics
1904, John AbbroseEleming Invented the vacuum-tube diode
1906, Lee de Forest Invented the vacuum-tube triode
1948, Walter H. Brattain, William Shockley (Bell Lab.) Invented the transistor
1958, Robert Noyce- The first silicon integrated circuit (IC) produce
1.1.5 Television
1928, Philo T. Farnsworth- First all-electronic television system
1929, Vladimir K. Zworykin -all-electronic television system
1939, BBC - Broadcasting television service on a commercial basis
1.1.6 Digital Communications
1928, Harry Nyquist -The theory of signal transmission in telegraphy
1937, Alex Reeves -Invent pulse-code modulation
1958, (Bell Lab.) -First call through a stored-program system
1960, (Morris, Illinois) -The first commercial telephone service with digital
switching begin.
1962, (Bell Lab.) -The first T-1 carrier system transmission was installed
1943, D. O. North -Matched filter for the optimum detection of a unknown
signal in a additive white noise
1948, Claude Shannon -The theoretical foundation of digital communications
were laid
1.1.7 Computer Networks
1943~1946, (Moore School of Electrical Engineering of the Univ. of
Pennsylvania) -ENIAC : first electronic digital computer
1950s -Computers and terminals started communicating with each other
1965, Robert Lucky -Idea of adaptive equalization
1982, G. Ungerboeck -Efficient modulation techniques
1950~1970 -Various studies were made on computer networks
1971 -Advanced Research Project Agency Network (APRANET) first put into
service
1985 -APRANET was renamed the Internet
1990, Tim Berners-Lee Proposed a hypermedia software interface to internet
(World Wide Web)
1.1.8 Satellite Communications

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

1945, C. Clark -Studied the use of satellite for communications


1955, John R. Pierce Proposed the use of satellite for communications
1957, (Soviet Union) -Launched Sputnik I
1958, (United States) -Launched Explorer I
1962, (Bell Lab.) -Launched Telstar I
1.1.9 Optical Communications
1966, K.C. Kao, G. A. Hockham Proposed the use of a clad glass fiber as a
dielectric waveguide
1959~1960 -The laser had been invented and developed
1.2 Significance of Human Communication
Communication is the process of exchanging information. The main barriers
are language and distance. Contemporary society's emphasis is now the
accumulation, packaging, and exchange of information.
The methods of Communication are;
1.
Face to face
2.
Signals
3.
Written word (letters)
4.
Electrical innovations: Telegraph, Telephone, Radio, Television,
Internet (computer)
1.3 Modern Electronic Communication Types
Most modern electronic communication methods are instantaneous and
affordable. Electronic communication dates back to the telegraph that used
Morse code to send messages long distances over wires. After that, the
electronics industry added the wired telephone, the wireless radio and
television. Since then, the industry has exploded; consumers now share
information with each other anywhere, anytime and in ways that are as varied
as we are.
Web Pages: World Wide Web users post content on websites for others to
view. The content may be simple text, but it might also contain multimedia files
including images, sounds, videos or streaming content. Unlike many other
forms of electronic communication, most Web content is pulled from the Web
by users who are seeking information, rather than pushed to subscribers.
While not as permanent as traditional media like paper, Web pages can
archive information for extended periods.
Email: Email is a method originally intended to imitate physical mail.

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Messages are delivered from one specific address to one or more specific
addresses. Users are alerted to the presence of new messages in their
inboxes by email clients that display the content and offer an opportunity to
reply. Messages are primarily text but may include file attachments of various
types including images and short movies. Unlike instant messages, emails
are generally not expected to be read immediately upon receipt. Most email
readers keep track of conversations that include multiple people through the
use of threads. Thus email is ideally suited for long, involved conversations
between two people or among small groups of people.
Forums: Conversations that go on indefinitely, involve large numbers of
people or need to be archived are not well suited to email. Forums, often
hosted on the Web, provide an alternative that combines many of the aspects
of email and Web pages. They involve discussions around a single, limited
topic but can take place over months or years and involve dozens or even
hundreds of participants. Most use a treelike structure that allows participants
to jump in at whatever level their comments are most appropriate.
Text and Instant Messaging: Text messaging uses cellular airwaves and
protocols to deliver textual messages from one cellular phone to another or
from one phone to a group of other phones. Text messaging is usually
intended as near-instant communication and can be quicker than a phone call
because the sender doesn't have to wait for the recipient to answer before
delivering a message. Because text messaging is informal and easy, it's
sometimes called chatting. Text messaging can also facilitate private
discussions when there is a chance that a phone call could be overheard.
Instant messaging is similar to text messaging but is carried over the Internet
rather than over cell phone airwaves.
Social Networking: Social networking sites facilitate communication among
people with common interests or affiliations. Sites such as Facebook and
Linked in provide places for people to interact, sometimes in real time. Micro
blogging services like Twitter, allow short textual messages of no more than
140 characters to be broadcast to a large audience. Unlike text messages,
which are delivered to only small groups, micro blog posts are intended to be
seen by all of a user's followers. Micro blog users can repost messages that
they want to share with their own followers, so a micro blog post can spread
quickly. A widely reposted message is called a viral post.
Video Chat: Like instant messaging, most video chatting is conducted over

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Internet protocols that stream images from one device to another. At times,
nothing beats a face-to-face conversation. Video chats provide immediacy to
a conversation. Because a person's tone is often easier to read when you can
see his face, businesses often use videoconferencing to aid in virtual
meetings.
1.4 Standardization in Telecommunications
Standardization is vital in telecommunications. It allows worldwide
communication because we all speak a standard language.There are
international, regional, and national standardization agencies. There are at
least two international agencies that impact telecommunications. The most
encompassing is the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) based in
Geneva, Switzerland, which has produced more than 1000 standards.
Another is the International Standardization Organization (ISO), which has
issued a number of important data communication standards. Unlike other
standardization entities, the ITU is a treaty organization with more treaty
signatories than the United Nations. Its General Secretariat produces the
Radio Regulations. This document set is the only one that is legally binding on
the nations that have signed the treaty. In addition, two of the ITU's subsidiary
organizations prepare and disseminate documents that are
recommendations, reports, or opinions, and are not legally binding on treaty
signatories. However they serve as worldwide standards. The ITU went
through a reorganization on January 1, 1993. Prior to that the two important
branches were the CCITT, standing for International Consultive Committee
for Telephone and Telegraph, and the CCIR, standing for International
Consultive Committee for Radio. After the reorganization, the CCITT became
the Telecommunication Standardization Sector of the ITU, and the CCIR
became the ITU Radio communication Sector. The former produces ITU-T
Recommendations and the latter produces ITUR Recommendations. The ITU
Radio communications Sector essentially prepares the Radio Regulations for
the General Secretariat.
We note one important regional organization, ETSI, the European
Telecommunication Standardization Institute. For example, it is responsible
for a principal cellular radio Specification GSM or Ground System Mobile (in
the French). Prior to the 1990s, ETSI was the Conference European Post and
Telegraph or CEPT. CEPT produced the European version of digital network
PCM, previously called CEPT30+2 and now called E-1. There are numerous
national standardization organizations. There is the American National
Standards Institute based in New York City that produces a wide range of
standards.

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

The Electronics Industries Association (EIA) and the Telecommunication


Industry Association (TIA), are both based in Washington, DC, and are
associated one with the other. Both are prolific preparers of
telecommunication standards. The Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (IEEE) produces the 802 series specifications, which are of
particular interest to enterprise networks. There are the Advanced Television
Systems Committee (ATSC) standards for video compression and the
Society of Cable Telecommunication Engineers that produce CATV (cable
television) standards. Another important group is the Alliance for
Telecommunication Industry Solutions. This group prepares standards
dealing with the North American digital network. Bellcore (Bell
Communications Research) is an excellent source for standards with a North
American flavor.These standards were especially developed for the Regional
Bell Operating Companies (RBOCs). There are also a number of forums. A
forum, in this context, is a group of manufacturers and users that band
together to formulate standards. For example, there is the Frame Relay
Forum, the ATM Forum, and so on. Often these ad hoc industrial standards
are adopted by CCITT, ANSI, and the ISO, among others.
1.5The Fundamental Model of Communication.
The fundamental model of communications is portrayed in Figure 1.0a. In this
fundamental model, each message-bearing signal, exemplified by s(t), is
analog and is a function of time. A system operates on zero, one, or several
signals to produce more signals or to simply absorb them (Figure1.0b). In
electrical engineering, we represent a system as a box, receiving input signals
(usually coming from the left) and producing from them new output signals.
This graphical representation is known as a block diagram. We denote input
signals by lines having arrows pointing into the box, output signals by arrows
pointing away. As typified by the communications model, how information
flows, how it is corrupted and manipulated, and how it is ultimately received is
summarized by interconnecting block diagrams: The outputs of one or more
systems serve as the inputs to others.
s(t)
Source

x(t)
Transmitter

message

r(t)
Channel

modulated
message

s(t)
Receiver

corrupted
modulated
message

Sink

demodulated
message

(a) The Fundamental Model of Communication.

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

x(t)

System

y(t)

(a) Definition of a system


Figure 1.0 Communication System Model
In the communications model, the source produces a signal that will be
absorbed by the sink. Examples of time-domain signals produced by a source
are music, speech, and characters typed on a keyboard. Signals can also be
functions of two variables, an image is a signal that depends on two spatial
variables, television pictures (video signals) are functions of two spatial
variables and time. Thus, information sources produce signals. In physical
systems, each signal corresponds to an electrical voltage or current. To be
able to design systems, we must understand electrical science and
technology. However, we first need to understand the big picture to appreciate
the context in which the electrical engineer works.
In communication systems, messages signals produced by sources must be
recast for transmission. The block diagram has the message s(t) passing
through a block labeled transmitter that produces the signal x(t). In the case of
a radio transmitter, it accepts an input audio signal and produces a signal that
physically is an electromagnetic wave radiated by an antenna and
propagating as Maxwell's equations predict. In the case of a computer
network, typed characters are encapsulated in packets, attached with a
destination address, and launched into the Internet. From the communication
systems big picture perspective, the same block diagram applies although
the systems can be very different. In any case, the transmitter should not
operate in such a way that the message s(t) cannot be recovered from x(t). In
the mathematical sense, the inverse system must exist, else the
communication system cannot be considered reliable. (It is ridiculous to
transmit a signal in such a way that no one can recover the original. However,
clever systems exist that transmit signals so that only the in crowd can
recover them. Such cryptographic systems underlie secret communications.)
Transmitted signals next pass through the next stage, the evil channel.
Nothing good happens to a signal in a channel: It can become corrupted by
noise, distorted, and attenuated among many possibilities. The channel
cannot be escaped (the real world is cruel), and transmitter design and
receiver design focus on how best to jointly fend off the channel's effects on
signals. The channel is another system in our block diagram, and produces
r(t), the signal received by the receiver. If the channel were benign (good luck

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

finding such a channel in the real world), the receiver would serve as the
inverse system to the transmitter, and yield the message with no distortion.
However, because of the channel, the receiver must do its best to produce a
received message s(t) that resembles s(t) as much as possible. Shannon
showed in his 1948 paper that reliable for the moment, takes this word to
mean error-freedigital communication was possible over arbitrarily noisy
channels. It is this result that modern communications systems exploit, and
why many communications systems are going digital. The module on
Information Communication details Shannon's theory of information, and
there we learn of Shannon's result and how to use it.
Finally, the received message is passed to the information sink that somehow
makes use of the message. In the communications model, the source is a
system having no input but producing an output; a sink has an input and no
output.
Understanding signal generation and how systems work amounts to
understanding signals, the nature of the information they represent, how
information is transformed between analog and digital forms, and how
information can be processed by systems operating on information-bearing
signals.
1.6 Telecommunication System Requirements
The first requirement is for the original information energy (such as that of the
human voice, or music, or a telegraph signal) to be converted into electrical
form to produce an electronic information signal. This is achieved by a suitable
transducer, which is a general term given to any device that converts energy
from one form to another when required.
+

+
Line link
originator of
information

Transducer

Amplifier

Amplifier

Transducer

Receiver of
information

Figure 1.1 Basic requirements for a one-way line telecommunication


channel
In a line telecommunication system (Figure 1.1), the electronic signal is
passed to the destination by a wire or cable link, with the energy traveling at a
speed of up to 60 % that of light. At the destination, a second transducer
converts the electronic signal back into the original energy form. The
amplifiers do not change the signal but to increase the power level of signals to
compensate for losses encountered.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

originator of

Transducer

Amplifier

information

Radio

Radio

transmitter

receiver

Amplifier

Transducer

Receiver of
information

Figure 1.2 Basic requirements for one-way radio telecommunication


channel
For a radio system (Figure 1.2), a transmitter is required at the source to send
the signal over the radio link, and a receiver is needed at the destination to
recover the signal before applying it to the transducer.
1.7 Components of a Communication System
The basic components of a communication system are;
Transmitter
Channel or medium
Receiver
It should be noted that noise degrades or interferes with the transmitted
information.The general model of a communication system is shown in figure
1.3.
Free space (radio),
wire, fiber-optic cable, etc.
Information
or
intelligence
(audio, video,
computer data, etc.)

Transmitter
(TX)

Communications
channel or medium

Receiver
(RX)
Recovered
information and
intelligence

Noise
Figure 1.3 General Component of all communication systems.
Transmitter: The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and
circuits that converts the electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission
over a given medium. Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers,
tuned circuits and filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency
synthesizers, and other circuits.
Communication Channel: The communication channel is the medium by
which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another. Types of media
include

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Electrical conductors
Optical media
Free space
System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for sonar).
Receivers: A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits
that accepts the transmitted message from the channel and converts it back
into a form understandable by humans. Receivers contain amplifiers,
oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector
that recovers the original intelligence signal from the modulated carrier.
Transceivers: A transceiver is an electronic unit that incorporates circuits that
both send and receive signals.
Examples are: Telephones, Fax machines, Handheld CB radios, Cell
phones, Computer modems etc.
Attenuation: Signal attenuation, or degradation, exists in all media of
wireless transmission. It is proportional to the square of the distance between
the transmitter and receiver.
Noise: Noise is random, undesirable electronic energy that enters the
communication system via the communicating medium and interferes with the
transmitted message.
1.7.1 Communication System Component Sub-units
From the general model in figure 1.3, all communication systems contain
three main sub systems: Transmitter, Channel and the Receiver. The model is
sub-divided into more units as shown in figure 1.4.
Noise n(t)
Information
input m(t)
Signal
processing

Carrier
circuits

s(t)

Transmission
medium
(channel)

r(t)

To information
sink m(t) (user)
Carrier
circuits

Signal
processing

Figure 1.4
Transmitter: The signal-processing block is used for more efficient
transmission.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Examples: In an analog system, the signal processor may be an analog lowpass filter to restrict the bandwidth of m(t).In a hybrid system, the signal
processor may be an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to produce digital
signals that represent samples of the analog input signal. The transmitter
carrier circuit converts the processed base band signal into a frequency band
that is appropriate for the transmission medium of the channel.
Example: An amplitude modulated (AM) broadcasting station with an
assigned frequency of 850 kHz has a carrier frequency fc=850 kHz. The
mapping of the base band input information waveform m (t) into the band pass
signal s(t) is called modulation. It will be shown that any band pass signal has
the form
s(t) = R(t) cos (ct + (t)
Where = 2f
If R(t)=1 and (t) = 0, s(t) would be a pure sinusoid of frequency f=fc with zero
bandwidth.
Channel: A channel represents the path in which signals travel from
transmitter to receiver. Very general classifications of channels are:
Wire: Twisted-pair telephone line, coaxial cable, waveguide, and fiber-optic
cables.
Wireless: Air vacuum, and seawater.
In general, the channel medium attenuates the signal so that the delivered
information m (t)deteriorated from that of the source. The channel noise may
arise from natural electrical disturbances or from artificial sources.
Receiver: The receiver takes the corrupted signal at the channel output and
converts it to be a base band signal that can be handled by the receiver's base
band processor.
The base band processor cleans up this signal and delivers an estimate of the
source information m(t) to the communication system output. In digital
systems, the measure of signal deterioration is usually taken to be the
probability of bit error P(e) also called Bit Error Rate (BER) of the delivered
data m(t).
In analog systems, the performance measure is usually taken to be the
Signal-to-noise Ratio (SNR) at the receiver output.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

The basic communication system is always represented using figure 1.5


below with explanations following.
Information
Source and
Input

Transmitter

Channel

Receiver

Output
Transducer

Transducer

Figure 1.5Communications System Diagram


The Information Source can be audio, image, text, data and the input
Transducer Converts source to electric signal using;
Microphone
Camera
Keyboard etc.
Transmitter: Converts electrical signal into form suitable for channel
Modulator
Amplifier
Channel: Medium used to transfer signal from transmitter to receiver. Point to
point or Broadcast
Wire lines
Fiber optic cable
Atmosphere
Often adds noise / weakens & distorts signal
Output Transducer: Converts electric signal to useable form
Speaker
Monitor
1.8 Types of Electronic Communication
Electronic communications are classified according to whether they are
One-way (simplex) or two-way (full duplex or half duplex) transmissions
Analog or digital signals.
Simplex: The simplest method of electronic communication is referred to as
simplex.This type of communication is one-way. Examples are:
Radio
TV broadcasting
Beeper (personal receiver)

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Half Duplex: The form of two-way communication in which only one party
transmits at a time is known as half duplex. Examples are:
Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
Citizen band (CB)
Family radio
Amateur radio
Full Duplex: Most electronic communication is two-way and is referred to as
duplex. When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full duplex.
The telephone is an example of this type of communication.
1.9 Analogue and Digital
Data (Information) can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to
information that is continuous; digital data refers to information that has
discrete states. Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data take on
discrete values.
Data can be analog or digital, analog data are continuous and take continuous
values while digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.
Signals can be analog or digital, analog signals can have an infinite number of
values in a range; digital signals can have only a limited number of values. See
figure 1.6.
Value

Value

Time

Time

a. Analog signal
b. Digital signal
Figure 1.6 Comparison of analog and digital signals
Analog Signals: An analog signal shown in figure 1.7 is a smoothly and
continuously varying voltage or current. Examples are:
Sine wave
Voice
Video (TV)

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

(a)

(b)

Sync pulse
Sync pulse
Light variation
along one
scan line
of video

Figure 1.7 Analog signals


(a) Sine wave tone. (b) Voice. (c) Video (TV) signal.
(c)

Digital Signals: Digital signals change in steps or in discrete increments. See


figure 1.8.Most digital signals use binary or two-state codes. Examples are:
Telegraph (Morse code)
Continuous wave (CW) code
Serial binary code (used in computers)

Mark

Mark

Mark
Space

Space

Mark = on; Space = off

(a)
Dot

Dot

Dash

The letter R

(b)
+5 V
0V

Figure 1.8 Digital


signals

(a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave (CW) code. (c) Serial
binary code.
Digital Signals: Many transmissions are of signals that originate in digital
form but must be converted to analog form to match the transmission medium.
Example; Digital data over the telephone network.
Analog signals: are first digitized with an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.
The data can then be transmitted and processed by computers and other
digital circuits.
1.10 Periodic analog signals and non-periodic
In communication systems, we commonly use periodic analog signals and
non-periodic digital signals.
Periodic Analog Signals: Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

or composite. A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be


decomposed into simpler signals. A composite periodic analog signal is
composed of multiple sine waves. The Sine Wave is shown in figure 1.9.

Value

Figure 1.9 The Sine wave

Time

1.10.1 Signal Representation


Signals can be represented using their phase, amplitude and frequency.
Figure 1.10 shows two signals having different amplitudes but same phase
and frequency.

Amplitude
Peak amplitude

Time

a. A signal with high peak amplitude

Amplitude

Peak amplitude

Figure 1.10 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
b. A signal with low peak amplitude
but different amplitudes
Time

The frequency and period are the inverse of each other.


f = 1/T and T = 1/f
The frequency and period relationship can be illustrated in table 1.0 below;
Table 1.0 Units of period and frequency

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Equivalent

Unit

Equivalent

Unit
Seconds (s)

1s

Hertz (Hz)

1 Hz

Milliseconds (ms)

10-3 S

Kilohertz (kHz)

103 Hz

Microseconds (s)

10-6 S

Megahertz (MHz)

106 Hz

Nanoseconds (ns)

10-9 S

Gigahertz (GHz)

109 Hz

10-12 Swith respect


Terahertz
(THz) Change in
10
Hz
Picoseconds
(ps)rate of change
Frequency
is the
to time.
a short
span of
time means high frequency. Change over a long span of time means low
frequency. See figure 1.11
12

Amplitude
12 periods in 1 s

Frequency is 12 Hz
1s

Time
1
Period:12

(a) signal with a frequency of 12 Hz


Amplitude
6 periods in 1 s

Frequency is 6 Hz
1s

Time
T

Period: 61 s

Figure 1.11 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
(b) signal with a frequency of 6 Hz
but different frequencies
Example1: If the period of a signal is 100ms. Calculate its frequency in
kilohertz?
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from
3
the period (1 Hz = 10 kHz).
-3
100ms = 100 x 10 s
-1
= 10
F = 1/T

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

= 1/10-1 Hz
= 10Hz
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a signal changes
instantaneously, its frequency is infinite. The Phase describes the position of
the waveform relative to time 0. See figure 1.12.

Time

a. 0 degrees

1/4 T

Time

b. 90 degrees
0
Time
1 2T
Figure
1.12 Three sine waves with the same
amplitude and c.
frequency,
but different phases
180 degrees

Example 2:A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its
phase in degrees and radians?
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
1/6 x 360 = 60o
= 60 x 2/360 rad
= /3 rad
= 1.046 rad
A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single
spike in the frequency domain. See figure 1.13.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering


Amplitude
Frequency: 6 Hz
Peak value: 5 V

Time
(s)

a. A sine wave in the time domain


(peak value: 5 V, frequency: 6 Hz)
Amplitude
Peak value: 5 V

Frequency
(Hz)

9 10 11 12 13 14

b. The same sine wave in the frequency domain


Figure 1.13The time-domain and frequency-domain plots of a sine wave
(peak value: 5 V, frequency: 6 Hz)
A signal with different frequencies can be represented by figure 1.14 below

Frequency
domain

Time
domain
5

5
1s

Time

Frequency

a. A signal with frequency 0


5

5
8

Time

Frequency

1s

b. A signal with frequency 8


5

5
Time

16

Frequency

1s

Figure 1.14 Differentc. signals


the
time and
A signal in
with
frequency
16frequency domains
The frequency domain is more compact and useful when we are dealing with
more than one sine wave. For example, figure 1.15 shows three sine waves,

20

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

each with different amplitude and frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.

Amplitude
Amplitude
15
10

15
10
5

5
Time

0
1s

16

Frequency

b. Frequency-domain representation of

a. Time-domain
of three
Figure
1.15 The representation
time domain
and frequencythedomain
of three sine waves
same three signals
sine waves with frequencies 0.8, and 16

A single-frequency sine wave is not useful in communication systems; we


need to send a composite signal, a signal made of many simple sine waves.
Figure 1.16shows a nonperiodic composite signal. It can be the signal created
by a microphone or a telephone set when a word or two is pronounced. In this
case, the composite signal cannot be periodic; because that implies that we
are repeating the same word or words with exactly the same tone.

Amplitude

Amplitude
Amplitude for sine
wave of frequency f

4 kHz

Time
Figure1.16 Time and frequency
domains of a nonperiodic signal
b. Frequency domain
a. Time domain
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest
and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal. See figure 1.17

Amplitude

Amplitude

1000

Frequency

Bandwidth = 5000 - 1000 = 4000 Hz

5000 Frequency

1000

Bandwidth = 5000 - 1000 = 4000 Hz

5000 Frequency

Figure1.17 Bandwidth of periodic and nonperiodic composite signals


b. Bandwidth of a nonperiodic signal
a. Bandwidth of a periodic signal
According to Fourier analysis, any composite signal is a combination of simple
sine waves with different frequencies, amplitudes, and phases. If the

21

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

composite signal is periodic, the decomposition gives a series of signals with


discrete frequencies; if the composite signal is nonperiodic, the
decomposition gives a combination of sine waves with continuous
frequencies. A digital signal is a composite signal with an infinite bandwidth.
Example 3: If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with
frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz, what is its bandwidth? Draw
the spectrum, assuming all components have maximum amplitude of 10 V.
Solution
Let fhbe the highest frequency, fl the lowest frequency, and B the
bandwidth. Then
B = fhfl = 900 100 = 800 Hz
The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz shown in
the figure below

Amplitude

10v

300

500

700

900

Frequency

100
An example of a nonperiodic
composite signal is the signal propagated by an
Bandwidth = 900- 100 = 800Hz
AM radio station. Each AM radio
station is assigned a 10-kHz bandwidth. The
total bandwidth dedicated to AM radio ranges from 530 to 1700 kHz. Another
example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the signal propagated by an FM
radio station. Each FM radio station is assigned a 200-kHz bandwidth. The
total bandwidth dedicated to FM radio ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.
There are many kinds of information sources, which can be categorized into
two distinct message categories, analog and digital.
An analog communication system should deliver this waveform with a
specified degree of fidelity. A digital communication system should deliver
data with a specified degree of accuracy in a specified amount of time.

1.10.2 Comparisons of Digital and Analog Communication Systems


Table 1.2 compares the analogue with digital communication systems.
Table 1.2 Comparing Analogue and Digital Communication Systems.

22

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Analog Communication System

Digital Communication System

Disadvantages:

Advantage:
o

inexpensive digital circuits

privacy preserved (data encryption)

expensive analog component: L&C

can merge different data (voice, video and


data) and transmit over a common digital
transmission system

o
o

no privacy
can not merge data from diff. source

no error correction capability

error correction by coding


Advantages:

Disadvantages:
o

o smaller bandwidth

larger bandwidth

synchronization problem is relatively

synchronization problem is relatively


difficult

easier

10

11

12

13

14

X-rays
Gamma rays

Ultraviolet

Visible light

Inrrared

Millimeter
waves,
telemetry

Microwaves
radio

Television
FM radio

AM Radio

Short wave
radio

1.11 The Electromagnetic Spectrum


The electromagnetic (EM) spectrum is the range of all types of EM radiation.
Radiation is energy that travels and spreads out as it goes the visible light
that comes from a lamp in your house and the radio waves that come from a
radio station are two types of electromagnetic radiation. The other types of EM
radiation that make up the electromagnetic spectrum are microwaves,
infrared light, ultraviolet light, X-rays and gamma-rays. See figure 1.18

15

16

17

18

10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Hz
High frequency
Short wavelength
High quantum energy

Low frequency
Long wavelength
Low quantum energy

c = V

Also commonly
written V = f

Speed of light

8
m/s
x10
c=3
Figure 1.18 The Frequency Spectrum

velocity = frequency X wavelength

The reader should complete the table below;

23

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

10 10

\
Figure

10 10

10

10

10 10

11

12

13

10 10 10

14

X-rays
Gamma rays

Ultraviolet

Visible light

Inrrared

Millimeter
waves,
telemetry

Microwaves
radio

Television
FM radio

AM Radio

Short wave
radio

Today, virtually the entire frequency spectrum between approximately 30 kHz


and 300 MHz has been spoken for. There is tremendous competition for these
frequencies, between companies, individuals, and government services in
individual carriers and between the different nations of the world.
The electromagnetic spectrum is one of our most precious natural resources.
Communication engineering is devoted to making the best use of that finite
spectrum. Great effort goes into developing communication techniques that
minimize the bandwidth required to transmit given information and thus
conserve spectrum space. This provides more room for additional
communication channels and gives other services or users an opportunity to
take advantage of it. See figure 1.19.

15

16

17

10 10 10

10

18

Hz

Wavelength Wavelength Wavelength


Wavelength
Wavelengths
about 3 m
is about
about 3 cm
about
or 10 feet
400-700 nm 30 x diameter
3 football
or 1 inch
long.
fieldsThe
long. Electromagnetic
long. Spectrum Showing
1.19
wave
of hydrogen
atom

lengths

1.11.1 AM Radio Band


The Amplitude Modulated (AM) radio carrier frequencies are in the frequency
range 535-1605 kHz. The frequencies 30-535 kHz are used for maritime
communication and navigation and for aircraft navigation. Carrier frequencies
of 540 to 1600 kHz are assigned at 10 kHz intervals.

24

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Frequencies: 500-1500 kHz


Wavelengths: 600 - 200 m
1.11.2
Short
Wave2 - 6 x 10-9eV
Quantum
energies:
The frequencies from the top end of the AM band to the bottom of the VHF
television band are generally called the "short wave" range, a historical term.
They are part of the general range referred to as "radio frequencies" or RF.
The range from 1605 kHz to 54 MHz has multiple communication uses.
1,605 kHz - 30 MHZ Amateur radio, government radio, international
shortwave broadcast, fixed and mobile communications.
30-50 MHZ Government and non-government, fixed and mobile. Includes
police, fire, forestry, highway, and railroad services.
50-54 MHZ Amate
The RF frequency range around 40-50 MHz is important as the proton
resonance frequency range used in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
Frequencies: 1.605 - 54 MHZ
Wavelengths: 187 - 5.55 m
Quantum energies: .66 x 10-8 - .22 x 10-6 eV
1.11.3
TV and FM Radio Band
The carrier frequencies for VHF television Channels 2-4 cover the frequency
range 54 to 72 MHz. There is a band from 72-76 MHZ which is reserved for
government and non-government services, including a standard aeronautical
beacon at 75 MHz. VHF TV channels 5 and 6 are between 76 and 88 MHz.
The FM radio band is from 88 to 108 MHz between VHF television Channels 6
and 7.Above the FM is a range 108-122 MHz for aeronautical navigation
including localizers, radio ranging and airport control. From 122 to 174 MHz is
another general service band for both government and non-government
signals. It includes fixed and mobile units and amateur broadcast. Channels 7
through 13 span the frequency range 174-216 MHz. 216-470 MHz includes a
number of fixed and mobile communication modes, including some
aeronautical navigation and citizens radio. 470-890 MHz includes UHF
television channels 14 to 83. Frequencies 890-3000 MHz include a variety of

25

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

aeronautical and amateur uses, studio-transmitter relays, etc. There are radar
bands 1,300-1,600 MHZ.
The FM stations are assigned center frequencies at 200 kHz separation
starting at 88.1 MHz, for a maximum of 100 stations. These FM stations have
a 75 kHz maximum deviation from the center frequency, which leaves 25 kHz
upper and lower "gaurd bands" to minimize interaction with the adjacent
frequency band. Television channels have 5 MHz separation.
The frequency range for mobile cellular telephones is listed as 824.040 848.970 MHZ.
Frequencies: 54-1600 MHZ
Wavelengths: 5.55 m - 0.187 m
Quantum energies: 0.22 x 10-6 - 0.66 x 10-5 eV
1.11.4 L-Band for Satellite Communication
The range 390-1550 MHz in the ultrahigh radio frequency range is designated
as the L-Band and is used for a variety of satellite communication purposes.
For example, the Global Positioning System uses two carrier frequencies in
this band for broadcasting navigation data.
1.11.5 Microwaves, Radar
While there are some radar bands from 1,300 to 1,600 MHz, most microwave
applications fall in the range 3,000 to 30,000 MHz (3-30 GHz). Current
microwave ovens operate at a nominal frequency of 2450 MHz, a band
assigned by the FCC. There are also some amateur and radio navigation uses
of the 3-30 GHz range. In interactions with matter, microwave radiation
primarily acts to produce molecular rotation and torsion, and microwave
absorption manifests itself by heat. Molecular structure information can be
obtained from the analysis of molecular rotational spectra, the most precise
way to determine bond lengths and angles of molecules. Microwave radiation
is also used in electron spin resonance spectroscopy.
For microwave ovens and some radar applications, the microwaves are
produced by magnetrons.
Of great astrophysical significance is the 3K background radiation in the
universe, which is in the microwave region. It has recently been mapped with
great precision by the WMAP probe.
Frequencies: 1.6-30 Ghz
Wavelengths: 187 - 10 mm

26

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering


-5

-3

Quantum energies: 0.66 x 10 - 0.12 x 10 eV


1.11.6
Millimeter Waves, Telemetry
The range 30-300 GHz is used for a variety of experimental, government and
amateur purposes in communication.
Frequencies: 30-300 GHz
Wavelengths: 10 - 1 mm
Quantum energies: 0.12 x 10-3 - 0.12 x 10-2 eV
1.11.7 Infrared
The term "infrared" refers to a broad range of frequencies, beginning at the top
end of those frequencies used for communication and extending up the low
frequency (red) end of the visible spectrum. The wavelength range is from
about 1 millimeter down to 750 nm. The range adjacent to the visible spectrum
is called the "near infrared" and the longer wavelength part is called "far
infrared". In , infrared primarily acts to set molecules into vibration. Infrared
spectrometers are widely used to study the vibrational spectra of molecules.
Infrared does not penetrate the atmosphere well, but astronomy in the infrared
is carried out with the Spitzer Space Telescope.
Frequencies: .003 - 4 x 1014 Hz
Wavelengths: 1 mm - 750 nm
Quantum energies: 0.0012 - 1.65 eV
1.11.8 Visible Light
The narrow visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum corresponds to the
wavelengths near the maximum of the Sun's radiation curve. In interactions
with matter, visible light primarily acts to elevate electrons to higher energy
levels.
14

Frequencies: 4 - 7.5 x 10 Hz
Wavelengths: 750 - 400 nm
Quantum energies: 1.65 - 3.1 eV
White light may be separated into its spectral colors by dispersion in a prism.
See figure 1.20

27

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Radio

Far IR,
Micro- IR
wave

UV

x-ray

Y-ray
Visible
Spectrum

Slit

750 nm
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
400 nm

Prism
White light

Figure 1.20 Visible Light


source

1.11.9 Ultraviolet
The region just below the visible in wavelength is called the near ultraviolet. It
is absorbed very strongly by most solid substances, and even absorbed
appreciably by air. The shorter wavelengths reach the ionization energy for
many molecules, so the far ultraviolet has some of the dangers attendant to
other ionizing radiation. The tissue effects of ultraviolet include sunburn, but
can have some therapeutic effects as well. The sun is a strong source of
ultraviolet radiation, but atmospheric absorption eliminates most of the
shorter wavelengths. The eyes are quite susceptible to damage from
ultraviolet radiation. Welders must wear protective eye shields because of the
uv content of welding arcs can inflame the eyes. Snow-blindness is another
example of uvinflamation; the snow reflects uv while most other substances
absorb it strongly.
14

16

Frequencies: 7.5 x 10 - 3 x 10 Hz
Wavelengths: 400 nm - 10 nm
Quantum energies: 3.1 - 124 eV
1.11.10 X-Rays
X-ray was the name given to the highly penetrating rays which emanated
when high energy electrons struck a metal target. Within a short time of their
discovery, they were being used in medical facilities to image broken bones.
We now know that they are high frequency electromagnetic rays which are
produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated - these rays are called
bremsstrahlung radiation, or "braking radiation". X-rays are also produced
when electrons make transitions between lower atomic energy levels in heavy
elements. X-rays produced in this way have definite energies just like other
line spectra from atomic electrons. They are called characteristic x-rays since
they have energies determined by the atomic energy levels.
In interactions with matter, x-rays are ionizing radiation and produce

28

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of nonionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.
Astronomical observations in the X-ray region of the spectrum are obtained
with the Chandra X-ray Observatory. X-rays are part of the Electromagnetic
spectrum

Frequencies: 3 x 1016 Hz upward


Wavelengths: 10 nm - > downward
Quantum energies: 124 eV -> upward
1.11.11 Gamma-Rays
The term gamma ray is used to denote electromagnetic radiation from the
nucleus as a part of a radioactive process. The energy of nuclear radiation is
extremely high because such radiation is born in the intense conflict between
the nuclear strong force and the electromagnetic force, the two strongest
basic forces. The gamma ray photon may in fact be identical to an x-ray, since
both are electromagnetic rays; the terms x-ray and gamma rays are
statements about origin rather than implying different kinds of radiation. In ,
gamma rays are ionizing radiation and produce physiological effects which
are not observed with any exposure of non-ionizing radiation, such as the risk
of mutations or cancer in tissue.
20

Frequencies: typically >10 Hz


-12
Wavelengths: typically < 10 m
-12
Wavelengths: typically < 10 m
1.12 Radio System Characteristic
When a radio frequency current flows into a transmitting antenna ( aerial ) ,
power is radiated in a number of directions in what is called an electromagnetic wave. The radiated energy (figure1.21) will reach the receiving
station by one or more of five different modes : Surface wave
Sky wave
Space wave
Satellite
Scatter

29

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering


Communication
satellite

Ionnosphere
Sky wave
Space wave
Surface wave
Figure 1.21Radio propagation methods
Transmitter
aerial

Earth

Receiver
aerial

The surface wave is supported at its lower edge by the surface of the earth and
is able to follow the curvature of the earth as it travels. The surface wave is
used for world-wide communications in the low-frequency bands and for
broadcasting in the medium frequency (MF) band.
The sky wave is directed upwards from the earth into the ionosphere ( 100 km
or more above ground level ) whence, if certain conditions are satisfied, it will
be returned to earth for reception at the required locality. The sky wave is used
for high frequency radio communications systems, including long-distance
radio-telephony and sound broadcasting.
The space wave generally has two components, one of which travels in a very
nearly straight line between the transmitting and receiving locations, and the
other travels by means of a single reflection from the earth. The space wave is
used for sound and tv broadcasting, for multi-channel telephony systems, and
for various mobile systems, operating in the VHF , UHF ,SHF and higher
bands.
Satellite propagation is a technique that utilizes the ability of a
communications satellite orbiting the earth to receive a signal, amplify, and
then transmit it at a different frequency back towards the earth.
Communication satellites are used to carry multi-channel telephony systems,
television signals, and data, utilizing UHF and SHF bands.
Scatter propagation could be said to be the UHF / SHF equivalent of using sky
wave transmission for long-distance HF radio links. (See figure 1.22). The
radio energy is directed towards part of the troposphere which forwardscatters the signal towards the receiver. (The scattering region of the
troposphere is about 10 km above ground level). Scatter systems operate in
the UHF and SHF bands to provide multi-channel telephony links.

30

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

High power main


beam

Ionosphere
Low-power forward
scattered beam
Troposphere
Earth
Figure 1.22 Scatter
propagation

1.12.1
Radio Frequency Spectrum
Radio waves are measured in units called Hertz (Hz). One cycle of electric
current is equal to one complete radio wave. How many of these waves are
generated in one second determines its frequency. The radio frequency
spectrum has been subdivided into a number of frequency bands; these are
given below:-

Frequency band
Classification
Abbreviation
Below 300 Hz
Extremely low
ELF
300 Hz-3 kHz
Infra low
ILF
3 kHz-30 kHz
Very low
VLF
30 kHz-300 kHz
Low
LF
300 kHz-3 MHz
Medium
MF
3 MHz-30 MHz
High
HF
30 MHz-300 MHz
Very high
VHF
300 MHz-3 GHz
Ultra high
UHF
3 GHz-30 GHz
Super high
SHF
30 GHz-300
GHz representation
Extremely high
EHF
1.12.2
Information
Information
as discussed
in chapter one
can be
transmitted in a transmission
300 GHz-3000
GHz Tremendously
high
THF
medium as a representation of passing information to the receiver. The
transmission medium can be one of the following:
Telephone wire used by telephone set
Air used by radio transmitter
Optical fiber used as a backbone for various low speed local area networks

31

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Coaxial cable for closed circuit television

The signal relies on the variation of physical property such as the voltage level
and current value. These varying physical properties can mathematically be
represented as a function of time. Using Fourier transformation, any
reasonably behaved periodic function can be represented as a summation of
Sines and Cosines.
Where t stands for time,
f = 1/T is the fundamental frequency shown in figure for the waveform being
analyzed,
th
an and bn are the sine and cosine amplitudes of the n harmonic,
g(t) is the original waveform, and
C/2 is the average value of original signal.
The information such as digital data between your PC and modem is a
periodic signal where the period depends on the modem speed. Can you
figure out the transmission period for 2400 bps?
The advantages offered by using Fourier series include:
Any complex real-time signal bandwidth, which is difficult to understand, can
be identified and analyzed in frequency domain in terms of bandwidth, signal
amplitude, frequency and phase.
Signal distortion against frequency spectrum could be shown in frequency
domain. This provides a clear picture against the signal characteristic.
Signal amplification against frequency spectrum could also be analyzed.
1.12.3 Signal analysis
Any Sin or Cos waveforms as given in figure can be measured by three
physical quantities namely Amplitude, Phase, and Frequency:
Amplitude: Absolute measure of the height of the wave in voltage or Peak-toPeak value.
Wavelength: It is a measure of a distance for a periodic cycle.
Phase: Relative measure of the difference in time between waves. The unit is
in either degree or radian.
Frequency: Absolute measure of the number of times a wave repeats per unit
time.
The velocity V of a wave traveling is determined by frequency and wavelength
as given as;
V = fl

32

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

where l is the wave length and f is the frequency.


The speed is close to light speed in the air and is roughly half the speed for
electronics traveling in copper wire.
You need to find out the distance between these two locations and use the
simple formula time = distance/velocity if you require time.
1.13 Bandwidth
Bandwidth (BW) is that portion of the electromagnetic spectrum occupied by a
signal.
Channel bandwidth refers to the range of frequencies required to transmit the
desired information.

In electronic communication, bandwidth is the range of frequencies that


an electronic signal uses on a given transmission medium. This range is also
referred to as the band and bandwidth literally describes the difference
between the highest-frequency signal component and the lowest-frequency
signal component. Since the frequency of a signal is measured in hertz (the
number of cycles of change per second), a given bandwidth is the difference in
hertz between the highest frequency the signal uses and the lowest frequency
it uses. This meaning is the origin of the word bandwidth.

In computer networks, bandwidth is used as a synonym for data


transfer rate, the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another
in a given time period (usually a second). In this usage, bandwidth refers to the
data rate that is supported by the network connection or the interfaces that
connect to the network. This meaning of bandwidth is usually expressed in
bits (of data) per second (bps). In general, a communication link with high
bandwidth is one that may be able to carry enough information to sustain the
succession of images in a video presentation without jitter or buffering caused
by latency. It should be remembered that a communications path usually
consists of a succession of links, each with its own bandwidth. If one link in the
path is much slower than the rest, it is said to be a bottleneck.

When someone talks about how to calculate bandwidth with a


bandwidth test, they are most likely discussing how to determine the highest
possible reliable transmission rate for data transfer. This rate, which may also
be called throughput, can be determined by measuring the time required for a
file to leave its point of origin and successfully download at its destination.

In business, bandwidth is sometimes used as a synonym for capacity or


ability. In this usage, bandwidth may include such things as budget, time,

33

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

staffing or knowledge.
Any analogue signal is not formed by a single frequency if it is expanded in
terms of Fourier series. In fact, the waveform such as voice produced by
human being consists of waveforms of many different frequencies. The
bandwidth as shown in figure is defined by the difference between the points:
Bandwidth = fh - fl
where fh is the highest frequency and fl is the lowest frequency. Bandwidth
is characterized by medium.
Signal outside the bandwidth will be distorted by the transmission medium.
This explains why digital signals generated by computer output port cannot be
directly sent out across a telephone network, as the network will chop off the
signals over 3400 Hz, which is the upper frequency limit produced by human
being.
Based on the conversion to frequency spectrum, any periodic time varying
signal can be viewed as a series of frequency signals with limited bandwidth.
The bandwidth for a copper signal is around 10 KHz, 350 MHz for coaxial
cable, and 550MHz for single mode optical fiber. Also note that coaxial cable
can carry video signal while telephone wire can support voice and low speed
data.
1.13.1 Communication Channel and Bandwidth
Any communication channel has to be able to transmit information from one
location to another. The method might be analogue such as radio or it might be
digital such as a computer network. Bandwidth is a measure that quantifies
the capability of a communication channel to transmit information.
In the analogue domain, it is measured in 'Hertz' or Cycles Per Second. For
instance a typical PAL television channel has a bandwidth of 8 Megahertz.
Which means all the video and audio signals for a TV channel resides in this
set of frequencies.
In theory you could define the bandwidth of a digital system in terms of
frequency, but it is far more useful to describe bandwidth in terms of bits per
second. After all, you are not particularly interested in the shape of the digital
signal but rather how much information can the network handle. So, digital
networks are measured in Bits Per Second or bps. Generally the wider the
bandwidth the faster it is. It is important to note that it is 'bits' per second not
'byte' which of course is 8 bits Bandwidth and uses.
The reason that bandwidth is so important is that it determines what you can

34

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

do in terms of real-time services;


If you only want to send text-only email then a very slow link is fine. For
example a 56 Kbps dial-up modem is more than adequate. Indeed,
before broadband became prevalent that is all people had available.
The internet was very much a text-based experience.
If you want to receive a large file such as a high quality 10 Megabyte
image, then 56kbps is far too slow. It would take 1428 seconds or 23
minutes to download (10 million x 8) / 56000
A broadband link is typically around 2 Mbps therefore the same picture file
would only take 40 seconds to download. Having a high bandwidth link makes
it possible to use multimedia services such as
Video: viewing streaming video in real time without hesitation
Audio: such as using VoIP telephone or listening to streamed music.
If the bandwidth is too low for such services, then the only option is to
download the complete audio or video file then play it back offline.
Copper cable: One of the key things that determine bandwidth is the physical
nature of the cable being used.A signal becomes weaker the longer it travels
along a cable, eventually becoming so weak that it is no longer detectable
above natural noise. Therefore the length of cable determines the bandwidth
of the link. For instance the bandwidth of broadband to the home is
determined by the length of copper cable between the house and the nearest
telephone exchange. This consists of a solid copper core surrounded by
insulation which is then surrounded by a copper shielding and finally covered
with a plastic sheath. Coaxial cable is widely used for television wiring as it has
enough bandwidth to handle a television signal over a typical run from
antenna to television.
Twisted pair: In order to gain enough bandwidth another form of copper cable
is used; Namely twisted pair cables. There are 8 colour-coded wires with each
related pair twisted around one another. Twisting it in this way reduces signal
loss over any given length of cable. Notice that there is no copper shielding
surrounding the wires and so this is called 'Unshielded Twisted Pair' or UTP
cable for short. UTP cable is widely used in 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps networks. In
order to guarantee the performance of the cable, standards have been
created such as CAT 5e and CAT 6. A 'Cat 5e' UTP cable is sufficient for
bandwidths up to 1 Gbps for reasonable run lengths. For networks needing to
run up to 10 Gbps then a Cat 6 cable should be used. Of course, this is more

35

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

expensive so cable selection should be based on what bandwidth is actually


required.
Shielded Twisted Pair Cable: In order to improve performance even more,
shielded twisted pair cable (STP) has copper shielding wrapped around each
twisted pair and another shield wrapped around the whole cable. This reduces
electrical interference and so allows the bandwidth to be higher for any given
length.
Fibre-optic cable: Copper cable is adequate for network cable runs for up to a
100 metres, but above that the signal becomes too weak, therefore an
alternative technology is needed. Fibre-optic cable has an astounding
bandwidth, it is limited more by the electronics either side of the cable than the
bandwidth of the cable itself. For instance in recent experiment, a 160 km
length of high performance fibre-optic cable carried up to 14 Tera bits per
second! Fibre optic cable uses light to transmit information rather than
electrical signals. Unlike copper cable it is not prone to electrical interference.
Fibre optic cable works by a light signal being 'launched' at one end of the
glass thread core. The light is reflected internally down the fibre until it reaches
the other end. Light sensitive electronics then pick up the signal. The
downside of fibre is the cost, it is more expensive that ordinary UTP network
cable therefore it is only cost-effective if there is a very high bandwidth
requirement or if the network has very long cable runs.
Wireless Network: An alternative to setting up a network with copper or fibre
cable is Wireless. Connection between computer and router is achieved using
radio waves. This has the strong advantage of not requiring cables to be laid
through a building. On the other hand radio is very prone to being weakened
by walls and other objects. The bandwidth of a wireless network is lower than
a physical network.
1.14 Baseband and Broadband Transmission
Signals are usually grouped into broadband or baseband depending on the
signal characteristics. Baseband transmission refers to sending the digital
data along the transmission channel by means of voltage fluctuation such as
IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.4 and Broadband transmission refers to the
sending of data by modulating with high-frequency carrier wave such as AM or
FM radio.
1.15 Channel capacity

36

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Channel capacity refers to the maximum data rate for a finite bandwidth
transmission medium in the presence of random noise. It is concerned about
the quality of a specific communications channel and was identified by
Shannon. The relation is governed by:
Maximum data rate = W x log2(1 + S/N)
Where W is the bandwidth of transmission medium
S/N is the signal to noise power ratio
Maximum data rate is measured in bits/second
Practically, this limit is seldom reached. To increase the transmission rate, the
designer should either increase the signal power or use alternative medium
with higher bandwidth.
The bandwidth for a telephone network is usually restricted between 300Hz to
3400Hz by telephone exchange. As a result, signal that is out of this range
cannot be transmitted over the PSTN. That is to say, if you inject a signal of
10K Hz over the speaker, the remote cannot hear it. For a theoretical
noiseless channel, the maximum data rate that a channel can carry is nW
symbols/per second. A symbol can be n multiple digital levels instead of 0 or 1.
1.16 Decibel
As the signal to power ratio is usually quite significant, a better representation
in communications is used to express the ratio of two values in logarithmic
format. The values can be power, voltage or current. It is not an absolute unit,
just a relative Figure and is expressed in:
dB = 10 log10 P1/P2
Where dB number of decibels
P1 the first value of the power
P2 the second value of the power
It is often used to measure the ratio of signal to noise in a communications
channel due to large quantity of signal power. For example, if the signal power
is 1K Watt and the noise power is 1m Watt, there is no point to have a ratio
written in 1000,000.
Self-Test 1.0
1. Give & explain radio frequency spectrum used for various
communications.
2. Distinguish between analogue and digital signals.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

3. Describe the role of medium in a communication system. What is the main


consideration in the selection of medium?
4. What is a communication system? Give a block diagram of communication
system and explain it.
5. Identify the parts X and Y in the following block diagram of a generalised
communication system?

6. By what percentage will the transmission rang of a T V tower be affected


when
of the tower is increased
Y by 21 %. Receiver
X the height Transmitter
7. Explain Sky wave, space wave and ground wave propagation with suitable
example.
8. State the advantages of the digital transmission, as compared to the
analogue transmission, of information.
9. Describe, using block diagrams, the principles of the transmission and
reception of digital signals.
10.Explain the significance of the number of bits and the bit-rate on the
production of a transmitted signal.
11. Describe what is meant by time-division multiplexing.
12. What is analogue-to-digital conversion?
13. Describe the consequences of digital communication and multiplexing on
worldwide communications.
14. Mention the significance of spread spectrum modulation.
15. Explain the following terms;
I. Packet Switching,
ii. Spread Spectrum for Communications,
iii. Distributed Antenna Systems and
iv. Voice over Internet Protocol.
16. Explain briefly types transmission modes.
17. Explain the following;
i. Information representation
ii. Signal analysis
iii. Bandwidth
iv. Channel capacity
v. Decibel

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

vi. Coding Data in Signals


18. (i) How many dB greater than 4 watts is 64 watts?
(ii)
How many dB greater than 10 watts is 1000 watts?
(iii) How many dB greater than 1 watt is 80 watts?
(iv) How many dB less than 1 watt is 1 milliwatt (0.001 watts)?
(v)
How many dB less than 1 watt is 4 milliwatts (0.004 watts)?
19.

A periodic signal has a bandwidth of 20 Hz. The highest frequency is 60


Hz. What is the lowest frequency? Draw the spectrum if the signal
contains all frequencies of the same amplitude.

20.

A nonperiodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz, with a


middle frequency of 140 kHz and peak amplitude of 20 V. The two
extreme frequencies have an amplitude of 0. Draw the frequency
domain of the signal.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

40

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

CHAPTER TWO
Transducers
2.0 Introduction
A transducer is a device that is used to convert a physical quantity into its
corresponding electrical signal. When using transducers to sense changes in
the physical environment, it's very helpful to convert the physical variable
being measured into a corresponding electrical signal. This is because there
is sophisticated technology available to amplify, filter and digitize electrical
signals. Similarly, when attempting to create a stimulus in the physical
environment, it's optimal to process an electrical signal (typically in digital
form, via software) in the desired fashion prior to converting the signal into
energy of a different physical form. For maximum flexibility and capability it's
typically best to sense the environment using the desired input transducer,
then employ an amplifier/conditioner to direct the electrical signal from the
transducer to an analog to digital converter. Once digitized the signal can be
subject to whatever software-based processing. When attempting to
influence the environment, via some type of physical stimulus, it's optimal to
employ software to establish the nature of the stimulus signal and then use a
digital to analog converter to transform the digital -software produced- signal
back into an electrical signal form. Finally, an output transducer can be used
to transform the electrical signal into the desired physical signal.
In most of the electrical systems, the input signal will not be an electrical
signal, but a non-electrical signal. This will have to be converted into its
corresponding electrical signal if its value is to be measured using electrical
methods. The block diagram of a transducer is given in figure 2.0.
INPUT

SENSING ELEMENT

INPUT - Resistance, Capacitance, Inductance, Stress,


Strain, Heat

TRANSDUCTION
ELEMENT

OUTPUT

OUTPUT - Force, Displacement, Pressure, Sound,


Magnetic Flux, Voltage, Current

Figure 2.0 Transducer Block Diagram


A transducer will have basically two main components. They are
Sensing Element: The physical quantity or its rate of change is sensed and
responded to by this part of the transistor.
Transduction Element: The output of the sensing element is passed on to the

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transduction element. This element is responsible for converting the nonelectrical signal into its proportional electrical signal. There may be cases
when the transduction element performs the action of both transduction and
sensing. The best example of such a transducer is a thermocouple. A
thermocouple is used to generate a voltage corresponding to the heat that is
generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals.
2.1

Transducer Selection and Classification

Selection of Transducer: Selection of a transducer is one of the most


important factors which help in obtaining accurate results. Some of the main
parameters are given below.

Selection depends on the physical quantity to be measured.

Depends on the best transducer principle for the given physical input.

Depends on the order of accuracy to be obtained.

Transducer Classification: Some of the common methods of classifying


transducers are given below.

Based on their application.

Based on the method of converting the non-electric signal into electric


signal.

Based on the output electrical quantity to be produced.

Based on the electrical phenomenon or parameter that may be


changed due to the whole process. Some of the most commonly
electrical quantities in a transducer are resistance, capacitance,
voltage, current or inductance. Thus, during transduction, there may be
changes in resistance, capacitance and induction, which in turn change
the output voltage or current.

Based on whether the transducer is active or passive.

2.2 Input and Output Transducers


A transducer is a physical device which transforms one kind of energy into
another. Most commonly, and in regards to the field of Electrical Engineering,
an input transducer is used to convert various kinds of physical energy (such
as related to pressure, temperature, force, sound and acceleration) into
electrical energy (such as related to electrical current or voltage). An output
transducer operates in reverse, namely it will convert electrical signal energy

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into energy in a different physical domain.


An example of an input transducer is a microphone. A microphone will convert
received sound pressure waves (acoustical energy) into proportional
electrical energy in the form of a changing potential. An example of an output
transducer is a speaker. A speaker converts a varying electrical current into a
proportionally changing sound pressure wave.
2.3 Active and Passive Transducers
Input transducers, also known as sensors, come in two basic types - active
and passive. An active sensor simply converts the ambient physical variable
monitored directly to a corresponding electrical signal. Examples here
include solar cells, piezo-electric devices and thermocouples. Solar cells or
photo-voltaic devices directly convert absorbed photons to electrons. Piezoelectric sensors convert physical strain directly to electrical charge.
Thermocouples convert heat differentials directly to voltage differentials. A
passive sensor does not directly convert physical energy into electrical
energy. Instead, passive sensors convert the ambient physical variable
monitored into a variable impedance, such as capacitance, inductance or
resistance. In order to produce a corresponding electrical signal, these circuit
elements require activation as part of a energized network. This signal
voltage can be then be amplified and converted into a digital form.
Output transducers, common types including speakers, actuators, LEDs and
Piezo devices, operate by converting electrical signals into corresponding
physical changes. Many output transducers are considered to be passive,
because the driving electrical signal can incorporate sufficient energy to
produce the desired physical change. In the case of speakers, the electrical
signal is an electrical current. The electrical current creates a proportional
electromotive force, via a coil, that acts to push against the magnetic field
established by a permanent magnet. The coil is attached to a flexible
membrane, called a cone, and as the electrical current varies though the coil,
the membrane moves to produce audible sound pressure waves. Many
actuators behave similarly to the speaker. A supplied electrical current acts to
create an electromotive force, via a coil, to push against an existing magnetic
field to effect a physical motion. LEDs operate according to the principle of
electroluminescence whereby electrons are recombined with electron holes
and, in that process, photons are released. Piezo-electric output transducers
respond to the application of external voltage by expanding or contracting
along a specific crystal axis. As the applied voltage changes, the crystal will
physically distort in correspondence.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

2.4 Transducer Applications


The applications of transducers based on the electric parameter used and the
principle involved is given below.
2.4.1 Passive Type Transducers
Resistance Variation Type
Resistance Strain Gauge The change in value of resistance of metal
semi-conductor due to elongation or compression is known by the
measurement of torque, displacement or force.
Resistance Thermometer The change in resistance of metal wire due
to the change in temperature known by the measurement of
temperature.
Resistance Hygrometer The change in the resistance of conductive
strip due to the change of moisture content is known by the value of its
corresponding humidity.
Hot Wire Meter The change in resistance of a heating element due to
convection cooling of a flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas
flow or pressure.
Photoconductive Cell The change in resistance of a cell due to a
corresponding change in light flux is known by its corresponding light
intensity.
Thermistor The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a
negative co-efficient of resistance is known by its corresponding
measure of temperature.
Potentiometer Type The change in resistance of a potentiometer
reading due to the movement of the slider as a part of an external force
applied is known by its corresponding pressure or displacement.
Capacitance Variation Type
Variable Capacitance Pressure Gauge The change in capacitance
due to the change of distance between two parallel plates caused by an
external force is known by its corresponding displacement or pressure.
Dielectric Gauge The change in capacitance due to a change in the
dielectric is known by its corresponding liquid level or thickness.
Capacitor Microphone The change in capacitance due to the variation
in sound pressure on a movable diagram is known by its corresponding
sound.
Inductance Variation Type
Eddy Current Transducer The change in inductance of a coil due to

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

the proximity of an eddy current plate is known by its corresponding


displacement or thickness.
Variable Reluctance Type The variation in reluctance of a magnetic
circuit that occurs due to the change in position of the iron core or coil is
known by its corresponding displacement or pressure.
Proximity Inductance Type The inductance change of an alternating
current excited coil due to the change in the magnetic circuit is known
by its corresponding pressure or displacement.
Differential Transformer The change in differential voltage of 2
secondary windings of a transformer because of the change in position
of the magnetic core is known by its corresponding force, pressure or
displacement.
Magnetostrictive Transducer The change in magnetic properties due
to change in pressure and stress is known by its corresponding sound
value, pressure or force.

Voltage and Current Type


Photo-emissive Cell Electron emission due to light incidence on
photo-emissive surface is known by its corresponding light flux value.
Hall Effect The voltage generated due to magnetic flux across a semiconductor plate with a movement of current through it is known by its
corresponding value of magnetic flux or current.
Ionization Chamber The electron flow variation due to the ionization of
gas caused by radio-active radiation is known by its corresponding
radiation value.
2.4.2 Active Type Transducers
Photo-voltaic Cell The voltage change that occurs across the p-n
junction due to light radiation is known by its corresponding solar cell
value or light intensity.

Thermopile The voltage change developed across a junction of two


dissimilar metals is known by its corresponding value of temperature,
heat or flow.
Piezoelectric Type When an external force is applied on to a quartz
crystal, there will be a change in the voltage generated across the
surface. This change is measured by its corresponding value of sound
or vibration.
Moving Coil Type The change in voltage generated in a magnetic field
can be measured using its corresponding value of vibration or velocity.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

2.5 Microphones and Speakers


Microphones and speakers appear to be very different kinds of devices; they
are in fact closely related. Speakers and microphones are both transducers
components which transform energy from one type to another. A speaker
turns electrical currents into sound waves; a microphone converts sound into
electrical energy. The main differences between them lie in the way audio
designers have optimized each to perform its particular task efficiently.
Similarities: The dynamic microphone and standard speaker both employ a
moving coil in a magnetic field, producing electrical currents from sound
vibrations or vice-versa. It is possible, although risky, to connect a dynamic
microphone to a speaker output and hear sound from the mic. As the
microphone is not designed to handle electrical inputs, a loud amp setting can
destroy the mic if used in this manner. In the same way, you can connect a
speaker to a microphone input, but because a speaker doesn't make an ideal
mike, you must yell into it to produce a detectable signal. Walkie-talkies and
room intercom systems use a single speaker-microphone device that
performs both functions moderately well.
Differences: Microphones produce a relatively weak output that requires preamplification to bring the signal to a standard line level. Because the signals
are weak, microphone cables have shielding that reduces electrical noise
picked up from fluorescent lights and appliances. A microphone picks up a
wide range of frequencies with great sensitivity. The loudspeaker's purpose is
to fill a room with high-fidelity sound. This means handling large amounts of
power from an amplifier up to several hundred watts for some types of
speakers. To manage the power, the speaker has a robust, heavy design. For
good fidelity, a single speaker cabinet may have two or more separate
speaker drivers, each suited to a particular frequency range; a single speaker
does not have the wide range that a microphone has.
2.5.1 Microphone
A microphone is a device that converts mechanical energy waves or sound
into electrical energy waves or a device that transforms sound pressure into
electrical energy. Speaking into a microphone excites (moves) a diaphragm
that is coupled to a device that creates an electrical current proportional to the
sound waves produced. Microphones are a part of everyday life. They are
used in telephones, transmitters for commercial radio and television
broadcast, amateur radio, baby monitors, tape recorders, motion pictures,
and public address systems. There are many different types of microphones,

46

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

the design depending upon the application. Sound recording, radio and
television, and motion picture studios use ribbon or condenser type
microphones because of their high quality reproduction of sound. Public
address systems, telephones, and two-way radio communications systems
can use carbon, ceramic, or dynamic microphones because of their versatility
and low cost.
A diaphragm in the microphone moves in and out in accordance with the
compression and rarefaction of the atmosphere caused by sound waves. The
diaphragm is connected to a device that causes current flow in proportion to
the instantaneous pressure delivered to it. In most types of microphone, the
sound pressure acts upon a thin plate or diaphragm, setting it into vibration
and this mechanical motion is then utilized to produce electrical effects. When
you speak or sing into a microphone, the sound waves of your voice produce
vibrations in a diaphragm inside the mike. The symbol used to represent a
microphone in a schematic diagram is shown in figure 2.1. The schematic
symbol identifies neither the type of microphone used nor its characteristics.

Figure 2.1 Microphone Schematic Symbol


The sensitivity or efficiency of a microphone is usually expressed in terms
of the electrical power level which the microphone delivers to a matchedimpedance load compared to the sound level being converted. The sensitivity
is rated in dB and must be as high as possible. A high microphone output
requires less gain in the amplifiers used with the microphone. This keeps the
effects of thermal noise, amplifier hum, and noise pickup at a minimum.
Although they have a variety of basic designs, the chief types are described
below. The various designs are also built to incorporate desired directional
pickup properties
Design
The dynamic or moving-coil microphone consists of a thin plastic diaphragm
attached to a voice coil. The voice coil consists of many turns of very small
diameter insulated copper wire wound on a bobbin. Surrounding the voice coil
is a permanent magnet. Sound causes the diaphragm to vibrate, which

47

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

causes the voice coil to move on its axis. This movement induces a voltage in
the coil and creates a varying electrical current proportional to the sound to
flow through the coil. This induced current is the audio signal.
The condenser or capacitor microphone consists of two metal plates spaced
slightly apart. These two plates act as a capacitor. A capacitor is a device that
stores an electrical charge. The front plate acts as a diaphragm. As the
diaphragm vibrates, an electrical current is induced to the attached wires
creating an electrical signal between the two plates.
A carbon microphone consists of lightly packed carbon granules in an
enclosure. Electrical contacts are placed on opposite sides of the enclosure. A
thin metal or plastic diaphragm is mounted on one side of the enclosure. As
sound waves hit the diaphragm they compress the carbon granules, changing
its resistance. By running a current through the carbon, the changing
resistance produced by the sound changes the amount of current that flows in
proportion to the sound waves.
The diaphragm of a ribbon microphone uses a thin corrugated aluminum
ribbon about 2 in (50 mm) in length and 0.5 in (2.5 mm) wide suspended in a
strong magnetic field. As sound pressure variations displace the ribbon, it cuts
across the magnetic field. This induces a voltage and produces a current that
is proportional to the sound striking it.
Carbon - Grain Microphone: One of the earliest microphones, and the type
still most generally used in telephone practice, depends for its action on the
fact that the electrical resistance between carbon granules in contact with
each other varies with the contact pressure. Figure 2.2 shows a simplified
sectional view of a single-cell or single-button carbon microphone, as is used
in some telephone sets.

Cathode
discs

Bridge
support
Carbon
granules

Diaphrag

Figure 2.2 Carbon-grain Microphone


A small brass cup contains two polished carbon discs, one fastened solidly in

48

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

the cup and the other attached to the diaphragm. The space between the
discs is partly filled with carbon granules, and as the diaphragm vibrates in
response to the sound waves striking it, the varying pressure on the granules
causes changes in the electrical resistance between the buttons. The
microphone circuit is shown in the same figure, and from this it is seen that
variation of microphone resistance will alter the current through the
transformer primary, and so will set up induced voltages in the secondary. By
proper choice of diaphragm stiffness and mass, the moving system can be
made to resonate near the m1ddle of the speech range of frequencies. When
this is done, the electrical output is large enough to operate a receiver over a
considerable length of line. Without requiring amplification the frequency
response is then not very uniform, although it is entirely adequate for speech
reproduction. By using a very light diaphragm, tightly stretched, the
frequency response is greatly improved, but at the expense of sensitivity.
Carbon microphones with this type of construction, and having two buttons, of
carbon cells, were used extensively in early broadcast.
Crystal Microphone: Another type of microphone, widely used in publicaddress systems, depends for its action on the piezoelectric effect possessed
by certain crystals, for example Rochelle salt. The term piezoelectric effect
refers to the fact that when pressure is applied on the crystal in the proper
direction, electrical potentials are produced between opposite faces of the
crystal. The sound-cell type of microphone contains an assemblage of small
crystals of this type, so connected that their piezoelectric potentials are in
series. The sound falls on the crystals and vibrates them directly. The
electrical output is quite small, but the frequency range and uniformity of
response are excellent. Since Rochelle salt has the largest voltage output for
a given mechanical stress, it is the most commonly used crystal in
microphones.
Crystal

Sound waves

Sound waves

Crystal

Diaphragm
Output
Voltage

Output
Voltage
Electrodes

Electrodes

Directly actuated type

Diaphragm type

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.3 Crystal microphones.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Figure 2.3a is a crystal microphone in which the crystal is mounted so that the
sound waves strike it directly. Figure 1.4b has a diaphragm that is
mechanically linked to the crystal so that the sound waves are indirectly
coupled to the crystal. The crystal microphone has high output impedance,
making it well suited to direct connection to amplifiers.
Dynamic or Moving-Coil Microphone: Several types of microphones
depend for their action upon the voltage induced in a conductor moving in a
magnetic field. The dynamic or moving-coil micro- phone contains a small coil
attached to a diaphragm, so arranged that when the diaphragm vibrates, the
coil moves back and forth in a radial magnetic field. It thus generates the
output voltage. By careful design of the moving element, and by making use of
air-chamber resonance, it is possible to obtain a nearly uniform response from
40 cycle to 10,000 cycle. A cross section of the Moving-Coil Microphone is
shown in figure 2.4. A coil of fine wire is mounted on the back of the diaphragm
and located in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet.
VOICE COIL
POLE PIECE

MAGNET
DIAPHRAGM

Figure 2.4 Dynamic microphone.


When sound waves strike the diaphragm, the coil moves back and forth
cutting the magnetic lines of force. This induces a voltage into the coil that is
an electrical reproduction of the sound waves. An incidental advantage is that
the output impedance of the microphone is low, and the microphone cable is
less sensitive to hum pickup than in the case of the crystal microphones. The
sensitivity of the dynamic microphone is almost as high as that of the carbon
type. It is lightweight and requires no external voltage. The dynamic
microphone is rugged and can withstand the effects of vibration, temperature,
and moisture. This microphone has a uniform response over a frequency
range that extends from 40 to 15,000 hertz. The impedance is very low
(generally 50 ohms or less). A transformer is required to match its impedance
to that of the input of an audio frequency amplifier.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Ribbon Microphone: A type of dynamic microphone that uses a thin


aluminum, duraluminum, or nanofilm ribbon placed between the poles of a
magnet to generate voltages by electromagnetic induction. Ribbon
microphones are typically bidirectional, meaning they pick up sounds equally
well from either side of the microphone. Ribbon microphones consist of a thin
strip of metallic foil suspended in front of a magnetic plate, the construct and
sectional view is shown in figure shown in figure 2.5.

Ribbon
Microphone

Magnets

S
N

Sound Waves

Ribbon

Microphone
output leads

(a) Construction
(b) Sectional view
Figure 2.5The Ribbon (Studio) Microphone
As shown in figure 2.5b, the sound waves cause the foil to vibrate, producing
fluctuations in the electrical current, creating the audio signal. This extremely
sensitive configuration picks up a wide range of frequencies and produces an
extraordinarily rich representation of the original sound. The tradeoff for this
sensitivity is the delicacy of the mechanism. Ribbon microphones are also
sensitive to physical impacts and therefore are not considered portable and
can be easily damaged by power overdrive.
Ribbon microphones are not as commonly used as moving-coil microphones
today. There are some modern manufacturers that currently make ribbon
microphones, but they are primarily regarded as studio microphones. In this
type, the moving element is a very thin and flexible aluminum ribbon, upon
which the sound waves act directly. It vibrates in a transverse magnetic field
and generates an electromotive force on the ribbon. The ribbon impedance is
so low that a small step-up transformer is included in the microphone

51

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

mounting to raise the impedance to a level suitable for transmission over a


line. Most ribbon microphones respond to air-particle velocity. In the sound
wave, rather than to sound pressure. These are referred to as velocity
microphones. They can be made to have excellent frequency characteristics.
Condenser Microphones: A condenser microphone with components
shown in figure 2.6 operates on a capacitive design. The cartridge from the
condenser microphone utilizes basic transduction principles and will
transform the sound pressure to capacitance variations, which are then
converted to an electrical voltage. This is accomplished by taking a small thin
diaphragm and stretching it a small distance away from a stationary metal
plate, called a back plate. A voltage is applied to the back plate to form a
capacitor. In the presence of oscillating pressure, the diaphragm will move
which changes the gap between the diaphragm and the back plate. This
produces an oscillating voltage from the capacitor, proportional to the original
pressure oscillation.
Protection Grid

Diaphragm

Backplate
Casing

Insulator

Figure 2 6 Microphone Component


The back plate voltage can be generated by two different methods. The first is
an externally polarized microphone design where an external power supply is
used. The power source on this traditional design is 200 volts. The second or
newer design is called a prepolarized microphone design. This modern
design utilizes an electret layer placed on the backplane, which contains
charged particles that supply the polarization. This design, when coupled with
an Integrated Circuit Piezoelectric (ICP) circuit can provide great advantages.
An inexpensive constant current supply can power the unit, instead of the
more expensive externally polarized power supplies. Standard coaxial cables
with BNC or 10-32 connectors can be used, instead of LEMO 7-pin

52

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

connectors and cables. The coaxial cables can be driven long distances
without degradation of the signal. The modern prepolarized designs are
becoming increasingly popular for laboratory test and measurement, and field
applications, due to their low cost and ease of use.
Microphones Field Types: There are three common application fields for
precision condenser microphones. The first and most common is the free-field
type shown in figure 2.7a. The free-field microphone is most accurate when
measuring sound pressure levels that radiate from a single direction and
source, which is pointed directly (0o incidence angle) at the microphone
diaphragm, and operated in an area that minimizes sound reflections. A
freefield microphone is designed to measure the sound pressure at the
diaphragm, as it would appear if the microphone were not present. When a
microphone is placed in a sound field, diffraction effects will alter the sound
pressure when the frequency is high enough so that the wavelengths are
similar in size to the dimension of the microphone. The effect is accounted for
in the design of the microphone and the resulting correction factors are
applied to the actuator response during calibration. These microphones work
best in open areas, where there is no hard or reflective surfaces. Anechoic
chambers or larger open areas are ideal for these Free Field microphones.

(a)

(b)

Figure 2.7 Microphones Field Types


The second type is called a Pressure Field. A Pressure Field microphone
shown in figure 2.7b is designed to measure the sound pressure that exists in
front of the diaphragm. It is described to have the same magnitude and phase
at any position in the field. It is usually found in an enclosure, or cavity, which is
small when compared to wavelength. The microphone will include the
measurement changes in the sound field caused by the presence of the
microphone. The sound being measured is typically coming from a single
source. Testing of pressure exerted on walls, exerted on airplane wings, or
inside structures such as tubes, housings or cavities are examples of
Pressure Type microphone applications.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

The third type is called a Random Incident Microphone. This is also referred to
as a Diffuse Field Type. The Random Incident type of microphone shown in
figure 2.7c is designed to be omni-directional and measure sound pressure
coming from multiple directions, multiple sources and multiple reflections. The
Random Incident type microphone will have typical correction curves for
different angles of incidence. The random incidence microphone will
compensate for its own presence in the field. An average of the net effect of all
the calibrated incidence angles will be taken into account, in order to come up
with a net zero correction factor. When taking sound measurements in a
church or in an area with hard, reflective walls, you would utilize this type of
microphone.
2.5.3 Microphone Calibrations
There are two types of calibration, the constant-pressure or pressure
calibration, and the constant-field or field calibration. The difference between
the two is this: The microphone itself by reason of its presence in the sound
field causes a distortion of the oncoming sound waves, although this effect is
small for some types. Accordingly, a calibration made where the pressure is
uniform over the diaphragm and measured at the diaphragm will not agree
(especially at the higher frequencies) with a calibration made where the sound
is picked up in an unobstructed space some distance from the source.
A thermophone sometimes is used in pressure calibrating microphones. It
consists essentially of an enclosed chamber which can be tightly sealed
against the face of the microphone to be calibrated. There are two very thin
gold-leaf thermal elements near the bottom of the chamber. These are kept
heated by a constant current, upon which an alternating current of the
frequency at which the calibration is desired is superimposed. Gold leaf has
low thermal capacity, and accordingly the impressed alternating current
produces relatively large temperature variations. These in turn cause
expansion and contraction of the surrounding gas, which constitute sound
waves of deter-minable pressure. Calculations for determining this pressure
can be made from the constants and operating data.
Manufacturing Process
While the manufacturing process will vary depending upon the type of
microphone and how it is used, all microphones had three common parts a
capsule containing the microphone element, internal wiring, and housing. The
following process describes the construction of a moving-coil or dynamic
microphone.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

The case is formed from thin sheet aluminum or mold injected plastic.
The aluminum sheet is placed in the die of a punch press. The die is an
inverted replica of the desired case shape. The hydraulic punch is
release and forces the aluminum into the die. Any excess material is
trimmed and discarded. If the case is to be made of plastic, the plastic
pellets are fed into a hopper and melted. The liquid is poured into an
injection molding machine. The machine feeds the liquid into a closed
mold. Once the mold is filled and the plastic has cooled, the mold is
opened and the plastic case is taken out. If a switch is required, it is
mounted in position in the case and secured with small screws and nuts
or rivets.
The voice coil is made by winding very fine enameled copper wire onto
a plastic bobbin. The wire is secured to the bobbin with glue.
The permanent magnet is made from a neodymium iron boron
compound. It is formed by sintering the powder (the powder is placed in
a high pressure die and heated, the metals combine and becomes a
solid) or by bonding it with plastic binders.
The pre-cut plastic diaphragm is placed in a holding fixture. The voice
coil bobbin is then glued in the exact center of the bobbin. After the glue
has cured (about 24 hours), the assembly is lowered into the
permanent magnet assembly and glued together.
A coaxial audio signal cable is selected and cut to length. Insulation is
stripped from all leads at both ends of the cable. Then, an audio
connector is soldered to one end of the cable. The open end to the cable
is left free.
The open end of the audio cable is inserted through its hole in the
bottom of the case. The cable is pulled out through the top of the case a
sufficient length to allow the wires to be soldered to the switch and voice
coil.
A foam rubber spacer is placed around the voice coil assembly and the
assembly is lowered into the case. It is secured into proper place with a
grille and cap.
The microphone is then packaged and shipped to the distributor.

2.6 Loud Speakers or Reproducers


The loud speaker are transducers that convert electrical signals into sound
without adding or deleting information, with minimum masking by the listening
environment and based upon what is perceptibly significant. A reproducer is a
device for converting electrical energy into sound. As in the case of

55

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

microphones, this transformation usually involves an intermediate


mechanical motion.
2.6.1 Loudspeaker Principle
The loudspeaker involves electro mechanical processes shown in figure 2.8a,
where the amplified audio signal must move a cone or other mechanical
device to produce sound like the original sound wave shown in figure 2.8b. An
audio signal source such as a microphone or recording produces an electrical
"image" of the sound. That is, it produces an electrical signal that has the
same frequency and harmonic content, and a size that reflects the relative
intensity of the sound as it changes. This sound changes is detected by a loud
speaker that is driven by an amplifier in most cases. Once the amplifier has
made the electrical image large enough, it applies it to the voice coils of the
loudspeaker, making them vibrate with a pattern that follows the
Current
in wire
Magnetic
field
Current away
from viewer

Force on
wire

Paper cone attached to coil


moves air to produce sound
when coil is vibrated by
AC current interacting with
magnetic field.
Current
toward
viewer

Force
on coil

(a)

(b)
Figure 2.8 Loudspeaker principle

(a) A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a magnetic force perpendicular to the
wire. (b) Section of the loud speaker illustrating the electromagnetic operation

variations of the original signal. The voice coil is attached to and drives the
cone of the loudspeaker, which in turn drives the air. This action on the air
produces sound that more-or-less reproduces the sound pressure variations
of the original signal.
2.6.2 Loudspeaker Construction Details
Figure 2.9 shows the constructional details of the speaker as described here;

56

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Basket
Voice coil
Cone
Dust
cover

Grill
cloth

Suspension
ring

Figure 2.9 Constructional Details of a loudspeaker


A light voice coil is mounted so that it can move freely inside the magnetic field
of a strong permanent magnet. The speaker cone is attached to the voice coil
and attached with a flexible mounting to the outer ring of the speaker support.
Because there is a definite "home" or equilibrium position for the speaker cone
and there is elasticity of the mounting structure, there is inevitably a free cone
resonant frequency like that of a mass on a spring. The frequency can be
determined by adjusting the mass and stiffness of the cone and voice coil, and
it can be damped and broadened by the nature of the construction, but that
natural mechanical frequency of vibration is always there and enhances the
frequencies in the frequency range near resonance.
Back-to-Front Cancelation: While the front surface of the cone of a
loudspeaker is pushing forward to create a sound wave by increasing air
pressure, the back surface of the cone is lowering the air pressure. Since the
wavelengths of low frequency sound are large compared to the size of the
speaker, and since those low frequencies readily diffract around the speaker
cone, the sound wave from the back of the cone will tend to cancel that from
the front of the cone as shown in figure 2.10.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Sound wave from


back of cone tends
to cancel the wave
from the front.

Pressure wave from


back of cone.

Pressure wave from


front of cone.

Figure 2.10 Front-to-back cancellations


For most bass frequencies, the wavelength is so much longer than the
speaker diameter that the phase difference approaches 180, so there is
severe loss of bass from this back-to-front cancelation. This is one of the
reasons why even the best cone-type loudspeaker must have an enclosure to
produce good sound.
Loudspeaker Resonance: Direct-radiating cone-type loudspeakers must be
mounted so that they are free to vibrate. This mounting is elastic, so there is an
inherent resonant frequency of the speaker cone assembly like a mass on a
spring shown in figure 2.11.
Because the speaker cone
is elastically suspended,
it tends to have a resonant
frequency like a mass on
a spring.

The tendency to respond


more to a particular
frequency range is often
called the free-cone
resonance of the speaker.

Loudspeaker
response
Frequency

Figure 2.11 Loudspeaker Resonances


This free cone resonant frequency distorts the sound by responding more
strongly to signals near its natural vibration frequency. This non-uniform
response changes the frequency content in terms of the relative intensities of

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

the harmonics and thus changes the timbre of the sound. Since the cone is
undamped, it tends to produce "ringing" or "hangover" with frequencies near
resonance. If the resonance is in the bass range, the bass will be "boomy".
2.7 External Arrangement and Parts of Speaker Systems
The main parts of a speaker are:
1.
Diaphragm
2.
Dust Cap
3.
Basket or Chassis
4.
Permanent Magnet
5.
Lead Wires
6.
Voice Coil
7.
Spider
Figure 2.12 shows external arrangements and parts which help to structure a
speaker. The two terminals through which we give the electrical signals to
voice coil as input, are directly connected to two ends of the coils.

(a) External structure

(b) Component Parts

Figure 2.12 The Speaker structure and parts


The Spider is made of materials like cotton, connex, flax or mixture of cotton
and connex. Figure 2.13b shows the voice coil which is the heart of a speaker.
It is generally constructed using copper wires or aluminum wires. It acts as an
electromagnet when current passes through it. The voice coil is positioned
between a gap. It is done to allow the movement of voice coil in the fixed region
of permanent magnet's magnetic field.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

(a) The spider


(b) The Voice Coil
Figure 2.13 The Spider and Voice Coils
The main body which defines the shape of a speaker, also known as Basket
or Frame or Chassis is shown in figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14 The Speaker Frame


All these components makes a synergism to take input as an electrical signal
through lead wires and send output as vibrations in air particles through
diaphragm. Magnets and sound coils play an important role to produce
vibrations exactly equivalent to correspondent electrical signals. When
electrical signals pass through the voice coil, an electromagnetic field is
generated around the coil which interacts with the magnetic field of the
permanent magnet. The positive end of electromagnet is attracted by
negative end of the permanent magnet and negative end of electromagnet is
repelled by negative end of permanent magnet. The electric signal
continuously changes its polarity, thereby changing the direction of the

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magnetic field continuously and in result of this, the coil moves back and forth
according to the input electrical signal. This coil movement makes moves the
spider and diaphragm which in turn makes vibrations in the surrounding air
particles.
2.8 Types of Speaker Systems
Speaker systems are usually the first choice to be made when planning a
sound system. Important points to consider are the size and purpose of the
room in which the speaker system is to be used, and the interior design. Let us
look at some of the types of speaker systems most commonly used in
commercial facilities, and how they are installed.
2.8.1 Speaker Systems Used In Commercial Installations
The types of speaker systems most commonly used in commercial
installations can be broadly organized into the following three categories.
Surface Mount Speaker Systems: These are usually speaker systems in a
box-type enclosure that are mounted on a wall or ceiling. Surface mounting is
the most basic speaker installation method. Surface mounted speakers are
sometimes used for primary output in small to medium size facilities, or as
secondary support speakers in large halls or event spaces where the main
speakers alone aren't able to provide sufficient intelligibility throughout the
entire listening area (at the back of the hall, for example). They are also
sometimes used to distribute announcements and background music
throughout a facility. Figure 2.15shows an example of a 2-way surface mount
speaker system Yamaha S15W.

Figure 2.15Yamaha S15W; 2-way surface mount speaker system


In product catalogs you'll notice that surface mount speakers are available in
"2-way" and "3-way" variations. This indicates how the overall audio
frequency range is divided up and output via the speaker units. 2-way speaker
systems divide the audio spectrum into two bands that will be separately
output via corresponding speaker units, while 3-way speaker units divide the

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audio spectrum into three bands. 2-way types are often chosen for small to
medium commercial sound installations.
Ceiling Speakers: Ceiling speakers are built into the ceiling so that they are
flush with the ceiling surface. This type of installation is ideal in situations
where the speakers are to be hidden so that they won't disrupt the interior
decororation, and is a common choice for distributing background music
(BGM) throughout a facility (see figure 2.16). The broad coverage and relative
lack of directionality of ceiling speakers is an advantage for the latter
application. Ceiling speakers are sometimes used in a supplemental support
role in larger installations, in the same way that surface mount speakers are.

Figure 2.16 Yamaha S5 Ceiling Speaker


Column Speakers: Column speakers consist of numerous speaker units of
the same type arranged vertically in a column-like enclosure. With the
speaker units arranged in this way vertical sound spread toward the floor and
ceiling is reduced, and that can help suppress unwanted reflections. This
arrangement also results in less diffusion of the sound energy and therefore
less loss of output level (see figure 2.17). Column speakers are often used in
churches, gymnasiums, and other facilities where excessive reverberation
might be a problem, as well as in conference rooms and lecture halls where
maximum speech intelligibility is the main goal.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Speaker units

Figure 2.17Column Speaker Construction


2.8.2 Specialized Speaker Systems
The speaker systems introduced above are the types most commonly found
in commercial sound installations. Now let's take a look at two more speaker
system types that have even more specialized applications. Subwoofers:
Subwoofers are designed specifically to handle ultra-low frequencies that
cannot be effectively reproduced by standard speaker systems. The low
frequencies output by subwoofers are more felt than heard, and can add
significantly to the perceived power and impact of the sound. Subwoofers are
most commonly used in facilities that cater primarily to music events. See
figure 2.18.

Figure 2.18Yamaha IS1118 A subwoofer


2.8.3 Large Sound Reinforcement Speakers
These types of speakers are necessary to provide the required sound
pressure levels in large-scale installations such as theaters, halls, and
stadiums. Wide range and high output speaker systems, and line arrays that

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

are basically an evolved type of column speaker are commonly used. See
figure 2.19.

Figure 2.19 (left): A large speaker system


(right): A line array speaker system
2.9 Telephone Receivers
A telephone receiver is defined as "a device whereby electric waves produce
substantially equivalent sound waves." A loudspeaker is defined as "a
telephone receiver designed to effectively radiate acoustic power for
reception at a distance.
Any electroacoustic transducer consists of an electric portion and an acoustic
portion, although in some instances these two portions may be common. For
instance, in some crystal microphones the sound waves strike the crystal
(acoustic portion) and the crystal (electric portion) generates electric signals.
Somewhat similarly, the received electric signals cause the iron diaphragm
(electric portion) of the common telephone receiver to move back and forth,
and this iron diaphragm (acoustic portion) thereby radiates sound waves.
The electric portion is the motor element, defined as "that portion of a
telephone receiver which receives power from the electric system and
converts it into mechanical power." The acoustic portion is the acoustic
radiator, defined1 as "that portion of an electroacoustic transducer which
initiates the radiation of sound vibrations." A telephone receiver or
loudspeaker is a reciprocating electric motor loaded with an acoustic radiating
system. The ordinary telephone receiver is the most commonly known
acoustic device. A modified form, the watch-case type used in radio operators'
headsets, is shown in figure 2.20. Two small coils are wound on soft-iron pole

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pieces, which are attached to the poles of a permanent magnet. The pole
pieces attract the steel diaphragm with a steady pull caused by the permanent
magnet, and with an alternating force set up by the voice currents flowing in
the coils. The diaphragm is set into vibration, and sets up sound waves in the
air in contact with it. The permanent magnet is necessary to avoid distortion in
the output, since the diaphragm would be attracted twice in each cycle if only
the a.c. attraction were present.

Magnet
Diaphragm

Figure 2.20 The Telephone Receiver


The ordinary receiver used with telephone instruments. Telephone receiver is
wound for about 70 ohm resistance, and it has a definite resonance peak near
1,000 cycle, for the sake of sensitivity. By winding with many turns of fine wire,
the sensitivity to weak currents can be greatly increased, and such receivers
are very useful as indicators in a.c. bridges and for radio communication
systems.
2.9.1 Types of Motor Elements
Many motor elements have been developed, and most of them can be
classified under the following headings.
Condenser Motor Element: As is well known, mechanical forces exist
between the plates of a charged capacitor. Thus, if a special capacitor is
constructed with one or more movable plates, if these plates are arranged so
that they will radiate sound effectively, and, if speech or program electric
voltage waves are impressed on the device, sound waves will be radiated.
Condenser receivers and condenser loudspeakers have not been used

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

extensively. They are more delicate and more expensive, and they require
higher voltages than other types. Also, condenser driving elements require a
polarizing direct voltage to prevent the radiation of sounds of twice the
frequency of the received electric signals.
Piezoelectric Motor Element: Electric signals impressed on the crystal
electrodes cause the dimensions of the crystal to change in accordance. The
crystal may radiate the sound waves directly or may be coupled mechanically
to an acoustic radiator, such as a diaphragm or a paper cone. Crystal
telephone receivers are rugged, light in weight, sensitive, and have an
excellent frequency response. The input impedance of one type is about
80,000 ohms at any frequency, and the sensitivity is 1.5 bars per volt at 1000
cycles. Piezoelectric motor elements have been used to a limited extent in
small loudspeakers.
Magnetic Motor Element: This classification includes most of the motor
elements used in modern telephone receivers and loudspeakers. Largely of
historical interest are the induction magnetic motor element and the magnetostriction motor element. Of practical importance is the magnetic-armature
motor element, a device the operation of which involves vibration in some part
of the ferromagnetic circuit. Also of practical importance is the moving-coil
motor element in which the mechanical forces are developed by the
interaction of the field set up by the currents in the conductor and the
polarizing field surrounding it. Advertising literature of the Brush Development
Company.
Magnetic-Armature Motor Element: From the general nature of the definition
previously given, it follows that many magnetic-armature motor elements are
possible. Because of this mode of operation, the device is often called a
balanced-armature motor element. In an early radio loudspeaker known as
the cone loudspeaker the motion of the armature was transmitted to a large
double cone.
Moving-Coil (Electrodynamic or Dynamic) Motor Element: This motor
element is used almost universally in loudspeakers. The moving-coil motor
element consists of a voice coil of a few turns of wire suspended in a very
strong, constant magnetic field. The coil is free to move back and forth axially.
It is attached to a suitable acoustic radiator, such as a paper cone as in the
radio dynamic loudspeaker, or a metal diaphragm, as in the driving unit used
with large horn-type loudspeakers. The signal current variations in the voice

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

coil react with the constant magnetic field and cause the coil and acoustic
radiator to move and radiate sounds.
The strong constant magnetic field is produced by an electromagnet as shown
in Fig. 19, or by a permanent magnet. If an electromagnet produces the field,
the coil is sometimes made of a few turns of fairly heavy wire, and the direct
current is furnished by a storage battery or by rectifiers. Or the coil can be
made of a large number of turns of fine wire, and the exciting current is
furnished by a rectifier supplying, perhaps, 50 milliamperes at several
hundred volts. In many radio receiving sets the loudspeaker field coil also
serves as the inductor, or "choke," in the filter of the power supply.
The impedance of the voice coil in a moving-coil driving unit is very low, a
typical value being 8.8/+25ohms at 1000 cycles, and a direct-current
resistance of 5 ohms. Many moving-coil loudspeakers have an impedancematching transformer mounted on them to increase their impedance so that
they will match amplifiers with high-impedance outputs.
2.9.2 Types of Acoustic Radiators
The acoustic radiator is the portion of a telephone receiver or loudspeaker that
initiates the radiation of sound vibrations. Two types are commonly used: the
small diaphragm and the cone. Fundamentally, they are the same, but
practically they are quite different, particularly in size.
Diaphragms: Diaphragms are used in the receivers of common telephone
sets.. Diaphragms are also used in the moving-coil motor elements for horntype loudspeakers.
Cones: A cone is made of various substances, particularly paper and similar
materials, and sometimes metal.
2.9.3 Dynamic Loudspeakers
This type is used almost exclusively in radio. It consists essentially of a
moving-coil motor element driving a free-edge cone. The cones used are of
various types and shapes and are made so that they move approximately with
piston action.
A dynamic loudspeaker should be mounted in a cabinet or in a baffle if it is to
operate satisfactorily, particularly at low frequencies. When the cone moves
out, a condensation is produced on the front side and a rarefaction occurs on
the rear side. The air accordingly flows around the edge, neutralizing the
pressure difference and hence largely preventing sound radiation at that
frequency. The baffle corrects this by providing a long path from the front of the

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

diaphragm around to the back, thus preventing neutralization until after


considerable sound has been radiated. The dimensions of the baffle should
be such that the shortest air path between the front and the back of the cone is
at least one-fourth the wavelength of the lowest note to be reproduced.
2.9.4 Horn-Type Loudspeakers
Horn-type loudspeakers are used extensively where large audiences are to
be served, as in a large auditorium or in a stadium. These loudspeakers
usually consist of a horn attached to a moving-coil driving unit. The function of
the horn in relation to the diaphragm is much more intimate. It causes an
actual increase in the load on the diaphragm, making it advance against a
greater air pressure, and withdraw from a greater opposing rarefaction.
The Air Chamber: The horn itself is connected acoustically to the diaphragm
by the throat and air chamber as indicated by Fig. 20. This air chamber acts as
an acoustic transformer for, owing to the differences between the area of the
diaphragm and the area of the throat, a small diaphragm velocity gives the air
in the horn a greater velocity and much higher air pressure.
Size of the Horn Mouth: If the area of the horn mouth is not correct, sound
waves of the lower frequencies will not be effectively radiated from the horn
but will be reflected back down the horn.
2.9.5 Hand and Head Receivers
A hand receiver is1 a "telephone receiver designed to be held to the ear by the
hand," and a head receiver is1 a "telephone receiver designed to be held to
the ear by a headband," Because their fundamental principle of operation is
the same, no further distinction will be made between them. For illustrating the
theory of operation, the old-style telephone receiver will be used because of
its simplicity.
The permanent magnet of the receiver of figure 2.21 provides a constant
magnetic field which passes from the north pole, through the magnetic (softiron) pole piece, across the air gap, through the soft-iron diaphragm, across
the air gap, through the pole piece, and to the south magnetic pole. The coils
through which the speech currents flow are placed on the soft-iron pole pieces
and are connected in series so that they aid.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering


SHELL AND CAP
OF HARD RUBBER
FERROTYPE IRON
DIAPHRGM (JAPANNED),

SPECIAL STEEL MAGNET


(WELDED TO U-SHAPE)

CONCEALED TERMINALS
POLE PIECES OF MAGNETIC
IRON (WELDED TO MAGNET)
COILS (REMOVABLE)
BRASS CUP

Figure 2.21 Cross section of a Western Electric telephone receiver.


The necessity for the constant pull on the diaphragm is made clear by figure
2.22. Suppose that one cycle of alternating current passes through the coil in
(a). As the current increases from zero to a positive maximum, the diaphragm
is pulled in to the dotted position. The adjacent air particles on the right of the
diaphragm D will flow in, thus causing a rarefaction. Now as the current dies
out to zero, the diaphragm will return to a position of the zero displacement,
and in so doing the air particles on the right will be compressed and a
condensation will be produced. .
D
+
-

+
-

Sound wave

+
Signal current

(a)

Permanent magnet

+
-

Sound wave

+
Signal current

(b)

Figure 2.22. Illustrating how a double-frequency tone is produced by a


receiver not having a constant pull on the diaphragm.

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When the current builds up in the negative direction the diaphragm will be
again drawn in, producing another rarefaction; and, when it again dies out to
zero, the diaphragm will return to the position of rest and will produce another
condensation. When one cycle of alternating current flows through the speech
coils, two complete cycles of sound waves are set up. Thus, if a constant pull is
not exerted on a diaphragm, the reproduced sound waves will be twice the
frequency of the speech currents.
If the windings are placed on a permanent magnet, the diaphragm is bowed in
when no current flows, as shown by the full line D. When the current increases
from zero to a positive maximum, the diaphragm is pulled in further to the
dotted position, producing one half of a rarefaction. When the current dies out
to zero the diaphragm returns momentarily to the position shown by the full
line producing one half of a condensation. As the current builds up in the
opposite direction the flux due to this current neutralizes part of the flux from
the permanent magnet and the diaphragm moves to the outward dotted
position, thus causing the other half of the condensation. As the current dies
out to zero, the diaphragm returns momentarily to the full-line position,
causing the other half of the rarefaction. With a constant pull on the
diaphragm, therefore, one cycle of current causes one cycle of sound wave,
and thus the frequency of the sound is the same as that of the exciting current.
2.9.6 Theory of Telephone Receiver Operation
The total magnetic flux crossing the air gaps between the pole pieces and
the iron diaphragm is composed of the constant flux 0 produced by the
magnets, and the variable flux i caused by the voice currents passing
through the coils on the soft-iron pole pieces. That is,

(13)

The air gaps tend to keep the total reluctance of the magnetic path
independent of the current intensity, and it can therefore be assumed that the
flux i produced by a sine-wave test current is proportional to the current
intensity, or

. =

KI

sin t.

(14)

Combining equations 13 and 14,

= 0

+ KI m

sin t.

(15)

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

As shown in most textbooks presenting magnetic theory, the force of


attraction between two portions of a magnetic circuit separated by an air gap
varies as the flux squared, and it can therefore be written that the force F
acting on the diaphragm is
sin t. 2

F=

K I 2 = K I (0 + KI m

(16)

F =

K I 02 + 2K I k 0 I m sin t. + K I k 2Im2 sin 2 t.

(17)

Since from trigonometry sin2t = (1-cos 2t)/2, equation 17 can be written


F = K I02

2K I k 0Im sin t.

K I K 2I m2

K I K 2 I m2 cos 2t.

(18)

Equation 18 is of importance as it indicates the forces acting on the receiver


diaphragm. These are:
2
(1) a steady pull K10 produced by the permanent magnets;
(2) a force 2K1K0Im sin t proportional to the product of the strength of the
permanent magnets and the value of the instantaneous current flow;
2 2
(3) a force (K1K Im )/2 which is constant; and
2 2
(4) a force (K1K Im cos 2t)/2 which has a frequency (2t) twice that of the
impressed current.
Thus, part 4 produces a double-frequency sound, causing distortion. An
examination of parts 2 and 4 will show that, for good quality, the flux 0 from the
permanent magnet should be made large so that the magnetic effect of the
speech currents is small in comparison with that of the permanent magnet.
Then, part 2 will be large and the volume will be sufficient, but part 4 will be
small and there will be little distortion.
There is also a force acting due to the eddy currents induced in the diaphragm,
The voice-frequency component of the flux passes through the diaphragm,
and as this flux changes it induces eddy currents. It will now be shown that
these eddy currents cause distortion.
Assume that a sine-wave current i = Im sin t flows through the coils of the
receiver. There is little hysteresis owing to the large air gaps, and therefore the
flux produced is in phase with the current. This varying flux will induce a
voltage in the diaphragm proportional to the rate of change of flux, but lagging
90 behind it. The eddy currents flowing in the diaphragm will be in phase with
the voltage and will accordingly lag 90 behind the currents producing them.
Thus, with respect to the useful current i = Imsint, there will be eddy currents
having the value ie = Ie(m)sin(t-90).

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The distorting force acting on the diaphragm because of the reaction of the
eddy currents and the useful voice currents is proportional to the product of
the two equations just written. That is,
Fc =

k [ (I m

sin t ( (I c ( m ( sin

( t

_ 90 (
( ].

(19)

This can be written in the form


Fc =

k I m I c ( m ( ( sin

t ( sin

( t

_ 90
(.

(20)

Since from trigonometry (sin t) (sin (t - 90)) is equal to sin 2t, equation 20
becomes
Fc =

1
2

k I m I c (m(

sin

2 t

(21)

Therefore, since 2t is twice the frequency of t, the eddy currents in the


diaphragm cause a double-frequency component and thus distort the original
speech sounds. This double-frequency effect can be illustrated by figure 2.21.
The curve I represents the voice currents in the receiver windings, and ie
represents the induced eddy currents and the resulting flux e in the receiver
diaphragm, lagging by approximately 90. Since the force on the diaphragm is
at any instant the product of the current and the flux, this force will be a doublefrequency wave as indicated by the heavy line. Diaphragms of highresistance material tend to prevent large eddy currents and thus minimize this
double-frequency distortion.
i e or e

Figure 2.21 The eddy currents in the diaphragm reacting with the voice
current in the windings produce a double-frequency force F.
The degree of saturation of the receiver diaphragm has an influence on
distortion. Because of hysteresis, if the diaphragm is not operated fairly high
on its magnetization curve, the increase and decrease of flux with current will
not be proportional, and thus the diaphragm will not follow the current

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variations. Since the diaphragm is thin, the desired magnetic operating point
is easily reached.
The air gaps between the pole pieces and the diaphragm tend to reduce
distortion by making the overall magnetization characteristics approach a
straight line. Then, the rise and fall of flux in the magnetic path will closely
follow current variations instead of following a hysteresis curve.
Direct current passing through the windings of a receiver not designed for it
may cause distortion by opposing the flux from the permanent magnet, and
thus shifting the point of operation to a non-linear portion of the magnetization
curve. Also, direct current in opposing the constant magnetic flux will weaken
the field, making the receiver less sensitive. Furthermore, if the current is
strong enough it may clamp the diaphragm against the pole pieces or even
burn out the windings.
Distortion is also caused by the mechanical resonance of the receiver
diaphragm. This causes a greater response at the resonant frequencies and
causes the diaphragm to tend to continue to vibrate at these frequencies. The
diaphragms of the new telephone receivers are designed to minimize these
effects.
Acoustic distortion of the radiated sound waves is produced by the effects of
the air cavities of the receiver and of the listener's ear.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Self-test 5.0
1
Define transducer and Mention the types of transducers give an
example of active transducers.
2.
Mention the basic requirement of transducer.
3.
Which transducer is called as self-generating type transducer?
4.
(i) Explain briefly the active and passive transducer
(ii) Primary and secondary transducers with examples.
5.
State the advantages of transducers
6.
Mention the applications of capacitive and inductive transducers.
7.
Classify electrical transducers and name the parts
8.
What is the function of electrical current transducer, voltage transducer
in control panel?
9.
The carbon-granules microphone works on the principle of change in
10. The sound cannot be used in a vacuum. As a medium for sound
transmission we use usually air. a) What is the most abundant element
in air? b) Which percentage of this element is present in the air?
11. Explain briefly the manufacturing process of the microphone
12. There are three common application fields for precision condenser
microphones. Name and explain them.
13. Name two types of microphone calibration and explain briefly the
difference between the two.
14. Explain the Loudspeaker Principle.
15. What is Back-to-Front Cancellations?
16. What are the Parts of Speaker Systems?
17. Name the types of Speaker Systems.
18. Explain the speaker systems used in commercial installations.
29
Define a telephone and mention the types of motor elements
20
Explain the types of acoustic radiators
21. Explain briefly the dynamic loudspeakers

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CHAPTER THREE
Signal Transmission and Reception Principles
3.0 Introduction
Audio or low frequency signals cannot be sent over long distances by
radiating it out directly from the aerial. The audio frequencies which lie within
the frequency range of 15 Hertz to 20 Kilohertz have very small signal power
and thus cannot be transmitted via antenna for communication purposes. The
audio signals must be sent along with the high frequency signals for
communication. This can be done by superimposing electrical audio signals
on a high frequency wave called the carrier wave. The carrier wave is
generated from radio-frequency oscillators and is undamped in nature. Thus,
when the audio-frequency signal is superimposed on a carrier wave, the
resulting wave gets all the characteristics of the audio signal. The method of
superimposing an audio signal over the carrier wave is called modulation.
Thus, the audio frequency signal has to be modulated with a radio-frequency
carrier wave. The carrier wave can be produced using any oscillator.
The reason why low frequency signals cannot be transmitted over long
distances through space is listed below:
Short Operating Range: When a wave has a large frequency, the energy
associated with it will also be large. Thus low frequency signals have less
power that does not enable them to travel over long distances.
Poor Radiation Efficiency: The radiation efficiency becomes very poor for low
frequency signals.
Mutual Interference: If all audio frequencies are send continuously from
different sources, they would all get mixed up and cause erroneous
interference air. If modulation is done, each signal will occupy different
frequency levels and can be transmitted simultaneously without any error.
Huge Antenna Requirement: For a effective signal transmission, the sending
and receiving antenna should be at least 1/4th of the wave length of the signal.
Thus, for small frequencies, the antenna will have kilometers of length. But if
the signal has the range of Megahertz frequency, then the antenna size would
be less. The carrier wave cannot be used alone for transmission purposes.
Since its amplitude, frequency, and phase angle are constant with respect to
some preference.
3.1 Modulation

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The process of loading a carrier wave with information is called modulation


and the circuit arrangement which carries out the task is called a modulator.
The purpose is to vary one of the characteristics (one of the parameters) of the
carrier-wave in accordance with the form of the information signal. The
simplest modulation system switches the carrier on and off in a series of long
and short bursts to form the internationally-accepted Morse code. The
message is spelled out one character at a time; although laborious the code
can be both sent and read by experienced operators as easily as they read the
human voice. Because of the distinctive rhythms of the characters a message
can be read against a background of noise that completely obliterates all other
systems. An early version of this type of modulation was known as interrupted
continuous-wave (I.C.W.) in which the carrier was regularly interrupted by a
buzzer or a tone-wheel mechanism. If the interruptions occurred at audio
frequency then the presence of the carrier appeared as an audible tone at the
output of a simple receiver. A continuous wave (CW) carrier produces only dc
at the receiver output and additional components are necessary to make the
incoming signal audible. CW working is often referred to as carrier-wave
working but the initials stand for continuous-wave as distinct from the
discontinuous wave-trains of the early spark transmitters. To the pedant the
unmodulated wave cannot be a "carrier" but it can be argued that Morse is
indeed a form of modulation because it does produce sidebands. In practice
confusion does not result and the exact meaning of the nomenclature is not
important. There are four basic ways in which a carrier can be modulated:
by variation of the carrier amplitude - amplitude modulation (A.M.)
by variation of the carrier frequency - frequency modulation (F.M.)
by variation of the carrier phase
- phase modulation (Ph.M,)
by pulsing the carrier
- pulse modulation (Pu.M.)
Modulated wave have some fundamental parameters, these parameters for
AM and FM is represented in figure 3.1.

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peak Amplittude

unmade.

Ef

carrier

peak

Ec

minimum carrier amp. E m in


Peak-to-peak

(a)

ampl.

(p-p)

Carrier Envelope
(ampl.

is Ep - Ec = m.Ec)

Modulating Signal

fm

(b)

Constant-ampl. Carrier

Ec

(C)
fc

Deviation =
=

fmin

fmax

fmin

fmax

- fc

fc

- fmin

fmax

A.M. Modulation Factor


(m)
m

F.M. Modulation Index (m)

Ep

- Ec x 100%
Ec

deviation
mod. freq.
- fc
= -fmax fm

Fig.
(a) Amplititude Modulation

Parameters of a Modulated Wave


(b) Modulating Signal

(c) Frequency Modulation

Figure 3.1 AM/FM Fundamental Parameters

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3.1.1 Need for Modulation


All audio signals occupy the same frequency band i.e. between 0 and 20 kHz.
Before being broadcast an audio signal (speech or music) must be moved, or
frequency translated to a specific frequency range in order to use the available
frequency spectrum. To do this the audio signal (or modulating signal)
modulates a much higher radio frequency (the carrier frequency). Each audio
signal is assigned a carrier - defining a channel - so that it is possible for the
receiver to discriminate between all the streams of signals coming in.
There are 3 main reasons to modulate a signal on to a high frequency carrier

Audio is in the range approx. 30 - 20000 kHz. If an electromagnetic


signal with a frequency of 30 Hz is transmitted it will have a wavelength
of (speed of light /frequency) = 300,000/30 km = 10,000 km. To pick up
this signal an aerial of size approx. 2,500 km will be required impractical. If this signal is used to modulate a carrier of 1 MHz the
wavelength will be 300,000/1,000,000 km = 300 m, and an aerial of 75
m will suffice. If the carrier is 100 MHz, the wavelength is 3 m and a 750
cm aerial is sufficient.

A large number of radio transmitters are trying to transmit at the same


time. It is necessary for the receiver to pick up only the wanted signal
and to reject the rest. One way to do to this is to assign a carrier with a
known frequency to each transmitter, modulate this carrier with the
signal, and then design the receiver to pick up only that known carrier
frequency and reject the rest, using appropriate filtering methods. Then
the original signal is removed from the received carrier. The same
concept is used in carrying a large number of telephone conversations
over a single pair of wires or optical fibre.

Using appropriate modulation techniques it is possible at the receiver to


remove a lot of the noise and other distortions which the transmission
medium would impose on the signal.
3.1.2 Functions of the Carrier Wave
The main function of the carrier wave is to carry the audio or video signal from
the transmitter to the receiver. The wave that is resulted due to
superimposition of audio signal and carrier wave is called the modulated
wave. The sinusoidal carrier wave can be given by the equation
vc = Vc Sin(ct + ) = Vc Sin(2fct + )
Where Vc is the Maximum Value
fcthe Frequency
the Phase Relation

--------------- 3.1

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Since the three variables are the amplitude, frequency, and phase angle, the
modulation can be done by varying any one of them.
3.2 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
The method of varying amplitude of a high frequency carrier wave in
accordance with the information to be transmitted, keeping the frequency and
phase of the carrier wave unchanged is called Amplitude Modulation. The
information is considered as the modulating signal and it is superimposed on
the carrier wave by applying both of them to the modulator as shown in figure
3.1.
Modulating Signal

Carrier Wave

Amplitude Modulated Wave

Figure 3.2 Amplitude Modulation


From figure 3.2, the carrier wave has positive and negative half cycles. Both
these cycles are varied according to the information to be sent. The carrier
then consists of sine waves whose amplitudes follow the amplitude variations
of the modulating wave. The carrier is kept in an envelope formed by the
modulating wave.
3.2.1 Analysis of Amplitude Modulation Carrier Wave
Let vc = Vc Sin wct
vm = Vm Sin wmt
Where vcis the Instantaneous value of the carrier
Vcthe Peak value of the carrier
Wcthe Angular velocity of the carrier
vmthe Instantaneous value of the modulating signal
Vmthe Maximum value of the modulating signal
wmthe Angular velocity of the modulating signal
fmthe Modulating signal frequency

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It must be noted that the phase angle remains constant in this process. Thus it
can be ignored. The amplitude of the carrier wave varies at fm.
The amplitude modulated wave is given by the equation
A = Vc + vm = Vc + Vm Sin wmt = Vc [1+ (Vm/Vc Sin wmt)]
= Vc (1 + mSinwmt)
------------------- 3.2
Where m = Modulation Index given by the ratio of Vm/Vc.
Instantaneous value of amplitude modulated wave is given by the equation
v = A Sin wct = Vc (1 + m Sin wmt) Sin wct
-------------- 3.3
= Vc Sin wct + mVc (Sin wmt Sin wct)
v = Vc Sin wct + [mVc/2 Cos (wc-wm)t mVc/2 Cos (wc + wm)t] ---------- 3.4
Equation 3.4 represents the sum of three sine waves. One with amplitude of
Vc and a frequency of wc/2 , the second one with an amplitude of mVc/2 and
frequency of (wc wm)/2 and the third one with an amplitude of mVc/2 and a
frequency of (wc + wm)/2 .
In practice the angular velocity of the carrier is known to be greater than the
angular velocity of the modulating signal (wc>>wm). Thus, the second and third
cosine equations are more close to the carrier frequency. Equation 3.4 is
represented graphically as shown in figure 3.3.
Vc (1+m sin wmt)
(1+m)Vc
Vc
(1-m)Vc

mVc
Vc ( 1 + m sin Wmt ) sin wet

Time, t

(a) Amplitude Modulated Sinewave with m < 1

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Relative
Amplitude

Carrier

m
LSB

m/2

wm

(Wc - Wm)

USB

Wc

(Wc + Wm)

(b) Frequency Spectrum of a Sinusoidally


Modulated Wave
Amplitude

Bandwidth required for DSB

Am

Ac
mAc/2

mAc/2
0

Fm
Modulating Signal
m(t)

Fc-Fm

Fc
Carrier

Lower sideband(LSB)

Frequency

Fc+Fm

Upper sideband(LSB)

( c)

3.3 Amplitude Modulation Frequency Spectrum


Frequency Spectrum of AM Wave: The frequency components present in
the AM wave are represented by vertical lines approximately located along the
frequency axis shown in figure 3.3b. This is given by
Lower side frequency = (wc wm)/2
Upper side frequency = (wc +wm)/2
The height of each vertical line is drawn in proportion to its amplitude. Since
the angular velocity of the carrier is greater than the angular velocity of the
modulating signal, the amplitude of side band frequencies can never exceed
half of the carrier amplitude. Thus there will not be any change in the original
frequency, but the side band frequencies (wc wm)/2 and (wc +wm)/2 will be
changed. The former is called the upper side band (USB) frequency and the
latter is known as lower side band (LSB) frequency. Since the signal
frequency wm/2 is present in the side bands, it is clear that the carrier voltage

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component does not transmit any information.Two side banded frequencies


will be produced when a carrier is amplitude modulated by a single frequency.
That is, an AM wave has a band width from (wc wm)/2 to (wc +wm)/2 , that is,
2wm/2 or twice the signal frequency is produced. When a modulating signal
has more than one frequency, two side band frequencies are produced by
every frequency. Similarly for two frequencies of the modulating signal 2
LSB's and 2 USB's frequencies will be produced.The side bands of
frequencies present above the carrier frequency will be same as the ones
present below. The side band frequencies present above the carrier
frequency is known to be the upper side band and all those below the carrier
frequency belong to the lower side band. The USB frequencies represent the
some of the individual modulating frequencies and the LSB frequencies
represent the difference between the modulating frequency and the carrier
frequency. The total bandwidth is represented in terms of the higher
modulating frequency and is equal to twice this frequency.
3.2.2 Modulation Index (m)
The ratio between the amplitude change of carrier wave to the amplitude of
the normal carrier wave is called modulation index. It is represented by the
letter 'm'.It can also be defined as the range in which the amplitude of the
carrier wave is varied by the modulating signal.
m = Vm/Vc

---------------------- 3.5

Percentage modulation,
%m = m*100 = Vm/Vc * 100

---------------------- 3.6

The percentage modulation lies between 0 and 80%.


Modulated Wave
(Modulation Envelope)
Unmodulated
Carrier

crest
Trough

Vm
Vc

Vc

Vc

Vmin

Vmax

Vmax - Vmin

Vmax

Vc = Vm

Vc - Vmin

crest

3.4Amplitude Modulated Carrier Wave

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Another way of expressing the modulation index is in terms of the maximum


and minimum values of the amplitude of the modulated carrier wave. This is
shown in the figure 3.4.
From figure 3.3,
2 Vin = Vmax Vmin
Vin = (Vmax Vmin)/2

---------------------- 3.7

Vc = Vmax Vin
= Vmax (Vmax-Vmin)/2
=(Vmax + Vmin)/2

---------------------- 3.8

Substituting the values of Vm and Vc in the equation m = Vm/Vc, we get


M = Vmax Vmin/Vmax + Vmin

---------------------- 3.9

The value of 'm' lies between 0 and 0.8. The value of m determines the
strength and the quality of the transmitted signal. In an AM wave, the signal is
contained in the variations of the carrier amplitude. The audio signal
transmitted will be weak if the carrier wave is only modulated to a very small
degree. But if the value of m exceeds unity, the transmitter output produces
erroneous distortion.
3.2.3 Power Relations in an AM wave
A modulated wave has more power than had by the carrier wave before
modulating. The total power components in amplitude modulation can be
written as:
Ptotal= Pcarrier + PLSB + PUSB
---------------------- 3.10
Considering additional resistance like antenna resistance R.
Pcarrier = [(Vc/2)/R]2= V2C/2R

------------------ 3.11

Each side band has a value of m/2 Vc and r.m.s value of mVc/2 2. Hence
power in LSB and USB can be written as
2

PLSB = PUSB= (mVc/22) /R = m /4*V C/2R = m2/4 Pcarrier------------------ 3.12

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Ptotal= V2C/2R + [m2/4*V2C/2R] + [m2/4*V2C/2R]


= V2C/2R (1 + m2/2)
2
= Pcarrier(1 + m /2)
---------------------- 3.13
If the carrier is simultaneously modulated by several sinusoidal modulating
signals, the total modulation index is given by
Mt = (m12 + m22 + m32 + m42 + ..)

---------------------- 3.14

If Ic and It are the r.m.s values of unmodulated current and total modulated
current and R is the resistance through which these current flow, then
Ptotal/Pcarrier= (It.R/Ic.R)2 = (It/Ic)2
Ptotal/Pcarrier= (1 + m2/2)
2
It/Ic = 1 + m /2

---------------------- 3.15

3.2.4 Limitations of Amplitude Modulation

Low Efficiency: Since the useful power that lies in the small bands is
quite small, so the efficiency of AM system is low.

Limited Operating Range: The range of operation is small due to low


efficiency. Thus, transmission of signals is difficult.

Noise in Reception: As the radio receiver finds it difficult to distinguish


between the amplitude variations that represent noise and those with
the signals; heavy noise is prone to occur in its reception.

Poor Audio Quality: To obtain high fidelity reception, all audio


frequencies till 15 kilohertz must be reproduced and this necessitates
the bandwidth of 10 kilohertz to minimize the interference from the
adjacent broadcasting stations. Therefore in AM broadcasting stations
audio quality is known to be poor.
3.2.5 Solved Problems
Question 1: Suppose that on an AM signal, the Vmax p-p value read from the
graticule on the oscilloscope screen is 5.9 divisions and Vminp-p is 1.2 divisions.
a. What is the modulation index?
b. Calculate Vc, Vmand m if the vertical scale is 2 V per division.
Solution
(a)
m[Vmax Vmin/Vmax + Vmin] = 5.9 1.2/5.9 + 1.2 = 0.66
(b)
Vc = Vmax + Vmin/2 = 5.9 + 1.2/2 = 3.55

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Using 2V/div. we have,


Vc = 3.55 x 2 = 7.1V
Vm = Vmax Vmin/2 = 5.9 1.2/2 = 2.35
Using 2V/div. we have,
Vm = 2.35 x 2 = 4.7V
m = Vm/Vc = 4.7/7.1 = 0.66
Question 2: If the carrier frequency an AM signal is 2.8 MHz (2800 kHz) with a
maximum modulating frequency of 3KHz.Calculate the side band frequencies
and the bandwidth of the signal.
Solution
The side band frequencies are;
fUSB= 2800+ 3 =2803kHz
fLSB= 2800+ 3 =2797 kHz
The bandwidth is;
BW = fUSBfLSB= 2803 2797 = 6 kHz
Question 3:A standard AM broadcast station is allowed to transmit
modulating frequencies up to 5 kHz. If the AM station is transmitting on a
frequency of 980 kHz, compute the maximum and minimum upper and lower
sidebands and the total bandwidth occupied by the AM station.
Solution
fUSB= 980 + 5 = 985kHz
fLSB= 980 5 = 975kHz
BW = fUSBfLSB= 985 975 = 10 kHz
Question 3:An AM transmitter has a carrier power of 30 W. The percentage of
modulation is 85 percent. Calculate (a) the total power and (b) the power in
one sideband.
Solution
a. PT = PC(1 + m2/2)
= 30 [ 1 + 0.852/2]
= 30(1 + 0.7225/2)
= 30 x1.36125
= 40.8W

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b. PSB (both) = PT Pc
= 40.8 30
= 10.8W
PSB(single)
= PSB/2
= 10.8/2
= 5.4W
Question 4: The efficiency of a single-tone AM signal is defined as the
percentage of the total power carried by the sidebands that is
= (Psig/PT) x 100%
Where Psig is the power carried by the sidebands and PT is the total power of
the AM signal.
(a) Find for AM modulation index ma=0.5.
(b) Show that for a single-tone AM, max is 33.3% at ma =1.
Solution
Pc = Carrier Power = Ac2
Ps = Sideband power = .ma2A2
2
2
Thus, = Psig/PT= ma /2 + ma
a. For ma = 0.5, = 11.1%
b. max occurs at ma = 1, max = 33.3%
Question 5:The output signal from an AM modulator is:
s(t) = 5cos(1800 t) + 20cos (2000 t) + 5cos (2200 t)
(a) Determine the modulation index.
(b) Determine the ratio of the power in the sidebands to the power in the
carrier.
Solution
a. s(t) = 5 cos (1800t) + 20 cos (2000t) + 5 cos (2200t)
= 20 [1 + cos (200)] cos (2000t)
Thus the modulation index is 0.5.
b. Carrier power = 200
Sideband power = 25
Sideband power to carrier power ratio = 0.125
Question 6:For an amplitude modulated double sideband full carrier
(DSBFC) modulator with a carrier frequency of 100kHz and a maximum
modulating signal of 5kHz, determine (a) the frequency limits for the upper

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and lower sidebands, (b) the bandwidth, (c) the upper and lower side
frequencies produced when the modulating signal is a single frequency tone
at 3kHz, and (d) sketch the output frequency spectrum.
Solution
fc = 100kHz
fm = 5kHz
a. Frequency limit for upper and lower side bands.
FLSB = fc fm = 100 5 = 95 kHz 95 100 kHz
fUSB = fc + fm= 100 + 5 = 105 kHz 105 100kHz
b. BW = 2fm= 2 x 5 = 10 kHz
c. fLSB = fc fm = 100 - 3 = 97 kHz
fUSB = fc + fm= 100 3 = 103kHz
Question 7: What is the maximum modulating signal frequency that can be
used with an AM double sideband full carrier system with a bandwidth of 20
kHz.
Solution
BW = 2fm
fm = BW/2
= 20/2
= 10 kHz
Question 8: If a modulated RF wave with an average voltage of 20 volts peak
changes in amplitude plus or minus 5 volts, calculate the minimum and
maximum envelope amplitudes, the modulation coefficient, and the percent
modulation.
Solution
Vmax = Ec + Em
= 20Vp + 5
= 25Vp
Vmin = Ec - Em
= 20Vp 5
= 15Vp

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m = Em/Ec
= 5/20
= 0.25
%m = 25%
Question 9: A 1 MHz carrier is amplitude modulated by an audio signal which
contains all frequencies in the range 300 Hz to 5 kHz. What are the frequency
bands which are output? What is the output bandwidth? Draw the spectral
diagram of these signals.
Solution
The carrier is 1 MHZ
The Upper Side Band is all frequencies in the range 1,000,300 to 1,005,000
Hz
The Lower Side Band is all frequencies in the range 995,000 to 999, 700 Hz
The Bandwidth is 1,005,000 - 995,000 = 10,000 Hz = 10 kHz.
Question 10: A 1.5 MHz carrier is amplitude modulated by three sinusoidal
signals of frequency 500 Hz, 800 Hz and 1,400 Hz. What are the frequencies
in the AM spectrum?
Solution
Convert all the frequencies to kHz. 1.5 MHz is 1500 kHz. 500 Hz is 0.5 kHz.
800 Hz is 0.800 kHz. 1400 Hz is 1.4 kHz.
The output frequencies are:
1500 kHz,
Or
1500,

1500 0.5 kHz,

1500 0.8 kHz

1500.5, 1499.5,

1500.8, 1499.2,

1500 1.4 kHz


1501.4, 1498.6 kHz

Question 11: An AM signal is represented by the equation


3
6
v = (15 + 3 Sin (2 * 5 * 10 t)) * Sin (2 * 0.5 * 10 t) volts
(i)
What are the values of the carrier and modulating frequencies?
(ii)
What are the amplitudes of the carrier and of the upper and lower
side frequencies?
(iii)
What is the modulation index?
(iv)
What is the bandwidth of this signal?
Solution
This looks the same as Eqn. 3.1 above with:

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c
(= 2 fc) = 2 * 0.5 * 106
m
(= 2fm) = 2 * 5 * 103
Vc
= 15 V
Vm
=3V
(i) Therefore the carrier frequency fc is 0.5 * 106 = 0.5 MHz
and the modulating frequency fm is 5 * 103 = 5 kHz
(iii) The bandwidth
BW = 2 fm = 10 kHz
(ii) The modulation index
m = Vm/Vc = 3/15 = 0.2
The amplitude of each side frequency is
m* Vc /2 = 0.2 * 15 /2 = 1.5 V
Example 12: A transmitter puts out a total power of 25 Watts of 30% AM
signal. How much power is contained in the carrier and each of the
sidebands?
Solution
Total power = 25 = Pc(1 + m2/2 ) = Pc(1 + 0.3m2/2) = Pc * 1.045
Therefore the carrier power is Pc = 25/ 1.045 = 23.92 Watts
The total power in the 2 sidebands is 25 - 23.92= 1.08 W
The power in each sideband is 1.08/2 = .54 W
The fraction of the power in the carrier is 23.92/25 = 0.957, or 95.7%
3.3 Frequency Modulation (FM)
Frequency modulation (FM) is a method of impressing data onto an
alternating-current (AC) wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the
wave. This scheme can be used with analog or digital data. When the
instantaneous frequency of a carrier is varied, the instantaneous phase
changes as well. The converse also holds: When the instantaneous phase is
varied, the instantaneous frequency changes. But FM and PM are not exactly
equivalent, especially in analog applications; this is because the relationship
between frequency and phase variations is not linear; that is, frequency and
phase do not vary in direct proportion. While AM is the simplest form of
modulation to envisage, it is also possible to vary the frequency of the signal to
give frequency modulation (FM). It can be seen from Figure 3.5 that the
frequency of the signal varies as the voltage of the modulating signal changes.
The amount by which the signal frequency varies is very important. This is
known as the deviation, and is normally quoted in kilohertz. As an example,
the signal may have a deviation of 3 kHz. In this case, the carrier is made to
move up and down by 3 kHz frequency, and this means that any signal-level
variations will not affect the audio output provided that the signal is of a

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sufficient level.
Analog electrical image
of signal to be transmitted.

Higher frequency
shorter period
when signal is
maximum.
Electric
Field

Frequency modulated
electromagnetic
carrier wave.

Time

Lower frequency
Longer period when
signal is at negative
extreme.

Figure 3.5. A frequency modulated signal.


The change in frequency, which is greatly exaggerated here,
is proportional to the amplitude of the signal.
As a result, this makes FM ideal for mobile or portable applications where
signal levels vary considerably. The other advantage of FM is its resilience to
noise and interference when deviations much greater than the highest
modulating frequency are used. It is for this reason that FM is used for highquality broadcast transmissions where deviations of 75 kHz are typically
used to provide a high level of interference rejection. In view of these
advantages, FM was chosen for use in the first-generation analogue mobile
phone systems.
3.3.1 Modulation index and deviation ratio
In many instances a figure known as the modulation index is of value and is
used in other calculations. The modulation index is the ratio of the frequency
deviation to the modulating frequency, and will therefore vary according to the
frequency that is modulating the transmitted carrier and the amount of
deviation:
M =

Frequency deviation
Modulation frequency

However, when designing a system it is important to know the maximum


permissible values. This is given by the deviation ratio, and is obtained by
inserting the maximum values into the formula for the modulation index:
D =

Maximum Frequency deviation


Maximum modulation Frequency

The diagrams opposite show examples of how the modulation index affects

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the FM output, for a simple sinusoidal information signal of fixed frequency.


The carrier signal has a frequency of ten times that of the information signal.
x

This graph shows the information signal,

Time

This graph shows the unmodulated carrier.

Time

This graph shows the frequency modulated

Time

carrier when the modulation index = 3.


x

This graph shows the frequency modulated


Time

carrier when the modulation index = 5.


x

This graph shows the frequency modulated carrier


when the modulation index = 7.

Time

As the modulation index increases you should notice that the peaks of the high
frequency get closer together and low frequency get further apart. For the
same information signal therefore, the carrier signal has a higher maximum
frequency.
3.3.2 Sidebands
Any signal that is modulated produces sidebands. In the case of an amplitude
modulated signal they are easy to determine, but for frequency modulation the
situation is not quite as straightforward. They are dependent upon not only the
deviation, but also the level of deviation i.e., the modulation index M. The
total spectrum is an infinite series of discrete spectral components, expressed
by the complex formula:
Spectrum components = Vc{J0(M)cosct
+ J1(M)[cos(c+ m)t - cos(c - m)t]
+ J2(M)[cos(c+ 2m)t - cos(c - 2m)t]
+ J3(M)[cos(c+ 3m)t - cos(c - 3m)t]
+ ...}.

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In this relationship, Jn(M) are Bessel functions of the first kind, c is the angular
frequency of the carrier and is equal to 2, and m is the angular frequency of
the modulating signal. Vcis the voltage of the carrier. It can be seen that the
total spectrum consists of the carrier plus an infinite number of sidebands
spreading out on either side of the carrier at integral frequencies of the
modulating frequency. The relative levels of the sidebands can be read from a
table of Bessel functions, or calculated using a suitable computer program.
Figure 3-10 shows the relative levels to give an indication of the way in which
the levels of the various sidebands change with different values of modulation
index.
1.0
Relative amplitude

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0

-0.2
-0.4
0

10

11

12

13

14

15

Figure 3.6. The relative amplitudes of the carrier and the first 10 side
frequency components of a frequency modulated signal for different values
of modulation index.
It can be gathered that for small levels of deviation (that is, what is termed
narrowband FM) the signal consists of the carrier and the two sidebands
spaced at the modulation frequency either side of the carrier. The spectrum
appears the same as that of an AM signal. The major difference is that the
lower sideband is out of phase by 180.
As the modulation index increases, other sidebands at twice the modulation
frequency start to appear (Figure 3.7). As the index is increased, further
sidebands can also be seen. It is also found that the relative levels of these
sidebands change, some rising in level and others falling as the modulation
index varies.

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M
Vc

0.5

fm

Figure 3.7. Spectra of frequency-modulated signals with various


values of modulation index for a constant modulation frequency.
It can be seen that for small values of the modulation index M (e.g. M = 0.5),
the signal appears to consist of the carrier and two sidebands. As the
modulation index increases, the number of sidebands increases and the level
of the carrier can be seen to decrease for these values.
3.3.3 Bandwidth
It is clearly not acceptable to have a signal that occupies an infinite bandwidth.
Fortunately, for low levels of modulation index all but the first two sidebands
may be ignored. However, as the modulation index increases the sidebands
further out increase in level, and it is often necessary to apply filtering to the
signal. This should not introduce any undue distortion. To achieve this it is
normally necessary to allow a bandwidth equal to twice the maximum
frequency of deviation plus the maximum modulation frequency. In other
words, for a VHF FM broadcast station with a deviation of 75 kHz and a
maximum modulation frequency of 15 kHz, this must be (2 75) + 15 kHz, i.e.
175 kHz. In view of this a total of 200 kHz is usually allowed, enabling stations

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to have a small guard band and their centre frequencies on integral numbers
of 100 kHz.
3.3.4 The Theory of Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation uses the information signal, Vm(t) to vary the carrier
frequency within some small range about its original value. Here are the three
signals in mathematical form:

Information: Vm(t)

Carrier: Vc(t) = Vco sin ( 2 fc t + f )


------------------------ 3.16

7FM: VFM (t) = Vco sin (2 [fc + (f/Vmo) Vm (t) ] t + f)


--------------- 3.17
3.3.5 Peak frequency deviation
We have replaced the carrier frequency term, with a time-varying frequency.
We have also introduced a new term: f, the peak frequency deviation. In this
form, you should be able to see that the carrier frequency term: fc + (f/Vmo) Vm
(t) now varies between the extremes of fc - f and fc + f. The interpretation of f
becomes clear: it is the farthest away from the original frequency that the FM
signal can be. Sometimes it is referred to as the "swing" in the frequency.
Frequency deviation (f) is used in FM radio to describe the maximum
instantaneous difference between an FM modulated frequency and the
nominal carrier frequency. The term is sometimes mistakenly used as
synonymous with frequency drift, which is an unintended offset of an oscillator
from its nominal frequency.
The frequency deviation of a radio is of particular importance in relation to
bandwidth, because less deviation means that more channels can fit into the
same amount of frequency spectrum. The FM broadcasting range (88 108
MHz) uses a channel spacing of 200 kHz, with a maximum frequency
deviation of 75 kHz, leaving a 25 kHz buffer above the highest and below the
lowest frequency to reduce interaction with other channels. AM broadcasting
uses a channel spacing of 10 kHz, but with amplitude modulation frequency
deviation is irrelevant.
FM applications use peak deviations of 75 kHz (200 kHz spacing), 5 kHz (25
kHz spacing), 2.25 kHz (12.5 kHz spacing), and 2 kHz (8.33 kHz spacing).
3.3.6 Modulation index of FM
We can also define a modulation index for FM, analogous to AM as
= f/fm,
------------------------ 3.18
Where fm is the maximum modulating frequency used.

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The simplest interpretation of the modulation index, , is as a measure of the


peak frequency deviation, f; the maximum deviation of the instantaneous
frequency from the carrier frequency.
In other words, represents a way to express the peak deviation frequency as
a multiple of the maximum modulating frequency, fm,
i.e. f = fm.

------------------------ 3.19

If >>1, the modulation is called narrowband FM, and its bandwidth is


approximately 2fm.
If <<1, the modulation is called wideband FM and its bandwidth is
approximately 2f.
While wideband FM uses more bandwidth, it can improve the signal-to-noise
ratio significantly; for example, doubling the value of f, while keeping fm
constant, results in an eight-fold improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio.
For example, suppose in FM radio that the audio signal to be transmitted
ranges from 20 to 15,000 Hz. If the FM system used a maximum modulating
index, b, of 5.0, then the frequency would "swing" by a maximum of 5 x 15 kHz
= 75 kHz above and below the carrier frequency. Here is a simple FM signal in
figure 3.8:
FM Signal
voltage

1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0

50

100

150

200

250

time

Figure 3.8 Simple FM signal


Here, the carrier is at 30 Hz, and the modulating frequency is 5 Hz. The
modulation index is about 3, making the peak frequency deviation about 15
Hz. That means the frequency will vary somewhere between 15 and 45 Hz.
How fast the cycle is completed is a function of the modulating frequency.
3.3.7 FM modulated wave spectrum
The spectrum of the frequency modulation modulated wave occurs above and

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below the carrier wave Fc, and the frequency is the integral multiple of the
modulating signal Fm. In the spectrum, the modulation signal frequency Fm,
deviation f, and frequency modulation index m are related as follows. (When
the modulating signal is a single sine wave). The spectrum interval is the
modulation signal frequency Fm, and it spreads in an infinite frequency band.
Deviation f is the difference in the center frequency Fc of the carrier wave
and the frequency of the modulation index number from Fc. See figure 3.9.
f(m=4)
f(m=2)

Fm

Fc
m=1

m=2

m=3

m=4

FM modulated wave spectrum


Modulation index: m=2

Figure 3.9 Spectrum Interval


The detailed analysis of an FM waveform is very complicated and well beyond
the scope of this introductory course, however we will try to simplify things a
little so that you get a flavor of what the key differences are. Theoretically, an
FM spectrum has an infinite number of sidebands, spaced at multiples of fi
above and below the carrier frequency fc. However the size and significance of
these sidebands is very dependent on the modulation index, m (as a general
rule, any sidebands below 1% of the carrier can be ignored). If <1, then the
spectrum looks like this:
Amplitude

fc- fi

fc

fc+fi

Frequency

Figure 3.10 Spectrum for <1


From the spectrum in figure 3.10, it can be seen that there are only two
significant sidebands, and thus the spectrum looks very similar to that for an
AM carrier.

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If = 1, then the spectrum looks like this:


Amplitude

fc -2fi fc -fi

fc

fc+fi fc+2fi

Frequency

Figure 3.11 Spectrum for =1


From the spectrum figure 3.11 we can see that the number of significant
sidebands has increased to four. If = 3, then the spectrum looks like this:
Amplitude

fc

Frequency

Figure 3.12 Spectrum for =3


From the spectrum figure 3.12 we can see that the number of significant
sidebands has increased to eight. It can be deduced that the number of
significant sidebands in an FM transmission is given by
2(m + 1)

------------------------ 3.20

The implication for the bandwidth of an FM signal should now be coming clear.
The practical bandwidth is going to be given by the number of significant
sidebands multiplied by the width of each sideband (i.e. fi).
BandwidthFM = 2(m + 1)fi
= 2(fc/fi + 1)fi
= 2(fc + fi) ------------------------ 3.21

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The bandwidth of an FM waveform is therefore twice the sum of the frequency


deviation and the maximum frequency in the information.
3.3.8 Carson's rule
A , Carson's rule states that nearly all (~98 percent) of the power of a
frequency-modulated signal lies within a bandwidth BWof
BW = 2(f + fm)

------------------------ 3.22

where f, as defined above, is the peak deviation of the instantaneous


frequency f(t)from the center carrier frequency fc.
3.3.9 The required bandwidth for frequency modulated waves
The envelope amplitude of frequency modulated waves is said to be constant,
but this is only when all spectrum components are collected, and actually,
amplitude fluctuation appears due to frequency band restrictions.
The bandwidth B required so that amplitude fluctuation does not become a
problem for demodulation is as follows. f is the maximum frequency shift, m
is the modulation index, and Fm is the modulation signal frequency.
B 2(f + Fm) = 2(m + 1)Fm

------------------------ 3.23

When the maximum frequency of the modulating signal is fixed, a wide


transmission band is required if the modulation index m is high. When the
maximum frequency shift f is fixed, the spectral interval becomes narrow if
the modulation index m is high.
For example, if the occupied band width of FM radio is 200 kHz and the
maximum frequency shift f is 75 kHz, so the maximum frequency Fm and
modulation index m of the modulated wave are as follows.
Fm = B/2 - f = 200/2 - 75 = 25 kHz
m = f/Fm = 75/25 = 3
The modulation index is greater than 1, so it is wideband FM.
3.3.10 Bessel functions
The frequency modulated wave spectrum is a Bessel function of the first kind
The frequency modulated wave spectra appear chaotic and difficult to
analyze theoretically, but the modulation index m of the spectrum is
expressed as a Bessel function of the first kind Jn(m)

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Spectrum fm = Ac

(m) . cos 2 (Fc + nFm ) t

n=-

For the case of a carrier modulated by a single sine wave, the


resulting frequency spectrum can be calculated using Bessel
functions of the first kind, as a function of the sideband number and
the modulation index. The carrier and sideband amplitudes are
illustrated for different modulation indices of FM signals. For
particular values of the modulation index, the carrier amplitude
becomes zero and all the signal power is in the sidebands. See
figure 3.13.
Sideband

Modulation
Index Carrier

0.00

1.00

0.36

0.58

0.12

0.6

0.54

0.24

0.03

10

11

1.0

0.77

0.44

0.11

0.02

1.6

0.51

0.55

0.23

0.06

2.0

0.22

0.53

0.35

0.13

0.03

2.41

0.52

0.43

0.20

0.06

0.02

2.6

-0.05

0.50

0.45

0.22

0.07

0.02

0.01

3.0

-0.25

0.34

0.49

0.31

0.13

0.04

0.01

4.0

-0.40 -0.07

0.36

0.43

0.28

0.13

0.05

0.02

6.0

-0.13 -0.33

0.05

0.36

0.39

0.25

0.13

0.05 0.02

6.63

0 -0.34

-0.13

0.25

0.40

0.32

0.19

0.09 0.03 0.01

8.0

0.15 -0.23 -0.24

0.11

0.36

0.36

0.25

0.13 0.06 0.02

7.0

0.30

0.00 -0.30 -0.17

0.16

0.35

0.34

0.23 0.13 0.06 0.02

8.0

0.17

0.23 -0.11 -0.29 -0.10

0.19

0.34

0.32 0.22 0.13 0.06 0.03

12

13

0.27

0.05 -0.24 -0.23

0.03

0.26

0.34 0.28 0.18 0.10 0.05 0.02

8.0

-0.09

0.25

0.14 -0.13 -0.27 -0.05

0.25

0.33 0.31 0.21 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01

10.0

-0.25

0.04

0.25

0.05 -0.22 -0.03

0.06 -0.22 -0.23 -0.01


0.20

15

16

0.01

8.86

12.0

14

0.22 0.32 0.29 0.21 0.12 0.06 0.03 0.01

0.13 -0.07 -0.24 -0.17 0.05 0.23 0.30 0.27 0.20 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.01

Figure 3.13 Bessel Functions Table


3.3.11
FM Performance
Bandwidth: As we have already shown, the bandwidth of a FM signal may be
predicted using:
BW = 2 (m + 1) fm
Where m is the modulation index and fm is the maximum modulating frequency

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used.
FM radio has a significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio, but the FM radio
band is also larger. The combination keeps the number of available channels
about the same.
The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in
the AM case (recall, the bandwidth of AM signals depend only on the
maximum modulation frequency). In FM, both the modulation index and the
modulating frequency affect the bandwidth. As the information is made
stronger, the bandwidth also grows.

Efficiency: The efficiency of a signal is the power in the side-bands as a


fraction of the total. In FM signals, because of the considerable side-bands
produced, the efficiency is generally high. Recall that conventional AM is
limited to about 33 % efficiency to prevent distortion in the receiver when the
modulation index was greater than 1. FM has no analogous problem.
The side-band structure is fairly complicated, but it is safe to say that the
efficiency is generally improved by making the modulation index larger (as it
should be). But if you make the modulation index larger, so make the
bandwidth larger (unlike AM) which has its disadvantages. As is typical in
engineering, a compromise between efficiency and performance is struck.
The modulation index is normally limited to a value between 1 and 5,
depending on the application.
Noise: FM systems are far better at rejecting noise than AM systems. Noise
generally is spread uniformly across the spectrum (the so-called white noise,
meaning wide spectrum). The amplitude of the noise varies randomly at these
frequencies. The change in amplitude can actually modulate the signal and be
picked up in the AM system. As a result, AM systems are very sensitive to
random noise. An example might be ignition system noise in your car. Special
filters need to be installed to keep the interference out of your car radio. FM
systems are inherently immune to random noise. In order for the noise to
interfere, it would have to modulate the frequency somehow. But the noise is
distributed uniformly in frequency and varies mostly in amplitude. As a result,
there is virtually no interference picked up in the FM receiver. FM is sometimes
called "static free, referring to its superior immunity to random noise.
3.3.12 Actual Frequency Modulation
There are two ways to generate a frequency modulation signal, direct FM and
indirect FM. With frequency modulation, the information is incorporated in the
frequency, so anonlinear power amplifier can be used which ensures good

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electrical efficiency.
Direct FM: With direct FM, the modulating signal is input in a VCO (voltage
control oscillator) which generates a frequency shift proportionally to the
added voltage. The signal input of the VCO has a variable capacitance diode,
and when a modulating signal voltage is applied here, the capacitance of the
variable capacitance diode changes and the oscillation frequency (carrier
frequency) changes.
Indirect FM: For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to
generate a phase-modulated signal. This is used to modulate a crystalcontrolled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to
give an FM signal.
Narrow Band FM: In narrowband FM, commonly used in two-way wireless
communications, the instantaneous carrier frequency varies by up to 5
kilohertz (kHz, where 1 kHz = 1000 hertz or alternating cycles per second)
above and below the frequency of the carrier with no modulation.
Wide Band FM: The level of deviation is important in many aspects. It
obviously is important in determining the bandwidth of the overall signal. As a
result the deviation used for FM is different between different applications.
Broadcast stations in the VHF portion of the frequency spectrum between
88.5 and 108 MHz use large values of deviation, typically 75 kHz. This is
known as wideband FM (WBFM). These signals are capable of supporting
high quality transmissions, but occupy a large amount of bandwidth. Usually
200 kHz is allowed for each wideband FM transmission. In wideband FM,
used in wireless broadcasting, the instantaneous frequency varies by up to
several megahertz (MHz, where 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz). When the
instantaneous input wave has positive polarity, the carrier frequency shifts in
one direction; when the instantaneous input wave has negative polarity, the
carrier frequency shifts in the opposite direction. At every instant in time, the
extent of carrier-frequency shift (the deviation) is directly proportional to the
extent to which the signal amplitude is positive or negative.
Analogue FM: For radio communications purposes less bandwidth is used.
Narrowband FM, NBFM often uses deviation figures of around 3 kHz or
possibly slightly more. As quality is not as important for radio communications
applications, the much narrower bandwidth has advantages in terms of radio
spectrum efficiency.

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Digital FM: In digital FM, the carrier frequency shifts abruptly, rather than
varying continuously. The number of possible carrier frequency states is
usually a power of 2. If there are only two possible frequency states, the mode
is called frequency-shift keying (FSK). In more complex modes, there can be
four, eight, or more different frequency states. Each specific carrier frequency
represents a specific digital input data state.
3.3.13
Solved Examples on FM
Example 13: A very important concept in electronics is modulation. Explain
what "modulation" means, and give one example of it.
Solution
Modulation is the act of impressing information onto an otherwise featureless
stream of matter or energy, usually for the sake of communicating that
information over a long distance. Radio is a very common example of
modulation.
Example 14: A 400 kHz sinusoidal carrier of amplitude 5V is frequency
modulated by a 3 kHz sinusoidal information signal of amplitude 3V. The
behavior of the carrier is governed by the frequency deviation per volt and for
this system is 25 kHz per volt. Describe how the resulting FM signal changes
with time.
Solution
The FM carrier will change in frequency from 400 kHz to 475 kHz to 400 kHz to
325 kHz and back to 400 kHz, 3000 times per second. This is because the
frequency deviation fc = 3 x 25 kHz = 75 kHz. The amplitude of the carrier will
remain fixed at 5 V.
Example 15: A common modulation technique employed in radio
broadcasting is frequency modulation, or FM. Explain how a high-frequency
carrier signal would be modulated by a lower-frequency signal such as in the
case of the two signals shown here in the time domain:

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Carrier signal

Modulating signal

Modulated signal

Time

Time

Time

Solution

Modulated signal

Time

Example 15: At the heart of an FM transmitter is a circuit called a voltagecontrolled oscillator, or VCO. Explain what the purpose of a VCO is, and how
this directly relates to frequency modulation.
Solution
A VCO generates an AC output signal whose frequency is proportional to an
externally-supplied input voltage. They are also essential to the function of
phase-locked loops.
Example 16: FM tends to be a far more noise-resistant means of signal
modulation than AM. For instance, the "crackling" form of radio interference
caused by natural lightning or the "buzzing" noise produced by high-voltage
power lines are both easy to hear on an AM radio, but absent on an FM radio.
Explain why.
Solution
Radio interference manifests itself as additional peaks on the envelope of a
modulated carrier wave. AM reception is based on the extraction of that

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envelope from the modulated carrier, and so AM receivers will "pick up"
unwanted noise. FM reception is based on the extraction of information from
changes in frequency, which is largely unaffected by noise.
Example 17: Plot what the frequency spectrum would look like for a pure
(undistorted) 1 MHz sine wave:

Power

1 x 100

1 x 101

1 x 102

1 x 103

1 x 104

1 x 105

1 x 106

1 x 107

1 x 108

1 x 109

1 x 1010

Frequency (Hz)

Solution

Power

1 x 100

1 x 101

1 x 102

1 x 103

1 x 104

1 x 105

1 x 106

1 x 107

1 x 108

1 x 109

1 x 1010

Frequency (Hz)

Example 18: Find a relation between kp and kf such that the peak phase
deviation of the modulated signal in both cases are equal.
Solution
The phase deviation in PM modulation is kps(t). Hence the maximum deviation
is kpmax{s(t)} = kp.
For the case of FM modulation after integrating from the signal we reach that
the peak of that is 1 and hence the peak deviation will be 2kf. So we have to
have 2kf = kp.
Example 19: A C-band satellite link sends a single NTSC-TV signal through a
36 MHz transponder on a C-band GEO satellite. The NTSC video signal is
modulated onto the carrier using wideband frequency modulation, and the
bandwidth of the transmitted RF signal is 32 MHz The baseband bandwidth of

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the TV signal is 4.2 MHz Calculate the peak frequency deviation of the FM
carrier using Carson's rule.
Solution
Carson's rule gives the bandwidth of an FM signal in terms of the peak
frequency
deviation, fpk, and the maximum baseband frequency, fmax.
B = 2 ( fpk + fmax)
Hence the peak frequency deviation can be found as
fpk = B/2 - fmax
For B = 32 MHz and fmax = 4.2 MHz
fpk = 16 4.2 = 11.8 MHz
Example 20: Two NTSC FM-TV signals are transmitted through a 36 MHz
bandwidth transponder. The bandwidth of each signal is 16 MHz, calculate the
peak frequency deviation of the FM signal using Carson's rule.
Solution
Carson's Rule gives the bandwidth required for transmission of FM signals as
B = 2 (fpk + fmax)
The maximum baseband frequency for a NTSC TV signal is fmax = 4.2 MHz
Hence the peak frequency deviation is found from
16 MHz = 2 (fpk + 4.2 MHz)
fpk = 8 4.2 = 3.8 MHz
Example 21: An angle-modulated signal with carrier frequency of 100 MHz is
described by the equation s(t) = 10 cos[2fct+ 5 sin(3000t) + 10 sin(2000)]
(a) Find the power of the modulated signal.
(b) Find the frequency deviation.
(c) Find the deviation ratio .
(d) Find the phase deviation .
(e) Estimate the transmission bandwidth BT.
Solution
The signal bandwidth is W = 1000 Hz.
(a) P = 100/2 = 50 W.
b. fi(t) = di(t)/dt
= fc + (1500/2) cos (3000t) + 10000 cos (2000t)
The carrier deviation is (1500/2) cos (3000t) + 10000 cos (2000t)
The two sinusoids will add in phase at some point, and the maximum value of

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this expression is (15000/2+10000).


Thus, f=12387.32 Hz.
c. = f/W = 12387.32 /10000 = 12.387
d. The angle (t) = 2fct+ 5 sin(3000t) + 10 sin(2000), the phase deviation is
the maximum value of the angle inside the square brackets, and is given as
= 15 rad.
e. Using Carson's Rule; BT = 2(f + W) = 26774.65 Hz
Example 22: Let m (t) be a periodic triangular wave with period 103 sec. with
m(t) max = m(t)min = 1 volt. Calculate the maximum and minimum value of
4
the instantaneous frequency for FM with kf = 10 Hz/volt
Solution
For FM, fi (t) = fc + kf m (t)
(fi (t )) min = 100 103 104 = 90 kHz
3
4
(fi (t )) max = 100 10 + 10 = 110 kHz
3.4 Radio Stations
The earliest radio stations were simply radio telegraph systems and did not
carry audio. The first claimed audio transmission that could be termed a
broadcast occurred on Christmas Eve in 1906, and was made by Reginald
Fessenden. While many early experimenters attempted to create systems
similar to radiotelephone devices where only two parties were meant to
communicate, there were others who intended to transmit to larger
audiences. Charles Herrold started broadcasting in California in 1909 and
was carrying audio by the next year.
3.4.1 Types of radio stations
Radio stations are of several types. The best known are the AM and FM
stations, including both commercial and public or nonprofit varieties. Noncommercial college and university radio stations are found throughout the
developed world. Although now being eclipsed by internet-distributed radio,
there are many stations that broadcast, using AM technology, on shortwave
bands, which can be received thousands of miles away, especially at night.
For example, the BBC has a full schedule transmitted via shortwave. These
broadcasts are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions and sunspots.
3.4.2 AM radio stations
AM stations were the earliest broadcasting stations to be developed. AM
refers toamplitude modulation, a mode of broadcasting radio waves by

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varying the amplitude of the carrier signal in response to the amplitude of the
signal to be transmitted. One of the advantages of AM is that its
unsophisticated signal can be received (turned into sound) with simple
equipment. If a station is close enough, not even a power source is needed;
building a powerless crystal radio receiver was once a common childhood
project in the developed world. AM broadcasts occur on North American
airwaves in the medium wave frequency range of 530 to 1700 kHz (known as
the "standard broadcast band"). The band was expanded in the 1990s by
adding nine channels from 1620 to 1700 kHz. Channels are spaced every 10
kHz in the Americas, and generally every 9 kHz everywhere else. Many
countries outside of the US use a similar frequency band for AM
transmissions. Europe also uses the long wave band. In response to the
growing popularity of FM radio stations in the late 1980s and early 1990s,
some North American stations began broadcasting in AM stereo, though this
never really gained acceptance, mostly because consumers needed to
upgrade their existing radios.
AM radio has three serious shortcomings.
The signal is very subject to interference from various sources, such as
electrical storms (lightning). The degradation of the signal can be
severe.
AM radio is in large part a daylight phenomenon: The AM signals travel
longer distances at night, and while this is a benefit in short wave
broadcasts, in a commercial broadcast environment this means that
power must be reduced at night so as to avoid interference among
signals, at the same time sacrificing listeners who cannot receive the
weaker signals. A few of the older stations obtained frequencies without
any other station in the US; these are called clear channel stations
because there would not be any potential interference. (This is not to be
confused with Clear Channel Communications, which currently owns
many US radio stations.)
AM radio is that it transmits only frequencies up to 5000 Hertz
(cycles):This means that stations can be 10,000 cycles apart - the
difference between 530 Hertz and 540 Hertz, for example. At the time
that AM started, in the 1920s and 1930s, this was more than adequate
fidelity for the microphones, 78 rpm recordings, and load speakers of
the day. However the fidelity of this equipment improved considerably the LP record was introduced in 1948 as a "high fidelity' medium - and
AM radio was by that time too established to make the disrupting
changes necessary to transmit higher fidelity. This would have meant
reallocating frequencies, shutting down some stations so others could

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broadcast in higher fidelity. This was technically possible but received


no serious consideration for commercial reasons.
3.5 FM radio stations
FM refers to frequency modulation, and occurs on VHF airwaves everywhere
(except Japan) in the frequency range of 88 to 108 MHz Japan uses the 74 to
90 MHz band. FM stations are much more popular in economically developed
regions, such as Europe and the United States, especially since higher sound
fidelity and stereo broadcasting became common in this format. FM radio was
invented by Edwin Howard Armstrong in the 1930s for the specific purpose of
overcoming the interference (static) problem of AM radio, to which it is in fact
immune. At the same time, greater fidelity was made possible by spacing
stations further apart.
3.6 Other radio stations
Apart from the digital and satellite radio stations, many other non-broadcast
types of radio stations exist. These include:
base stations for police, fire and ambulance networks
military base stations
dispatch base stations for taxis, trucks, and couriers
emergency broadcast systems
amateur radio stations
FM radio uses frequency modulation, of course. The frequency band for FM
radio is about 88 to 108 MHz; the information signal is music and voice which
falls in the audio spectrum. The full audio spectrum ranges from 20 to 20,000
Hz, but FM radio limits the upper modulating frequency to 15 kHz (cf. AM radio
which limits the upper frequency to 5 kHz). Although, some of the signal may
be lost above 15 kHz, most people can't hear it anyway, so there is little loss of
fidelity. FM radio maybe appropriately referred to as "high-fidelity."
If FM transmitters use a maximum modulation index of about 5.0, so the
resulting bandwidth is 180 kHz (roughly 0.2 MHz). The FCC assigns stations)
0.2 MHz apart to prevent overlapping signals. If you were to fill up the FM band
with stations, you could get 108 - 88 / .2 = 100 stations, about the same
number as AM radio (107).
FM radio is broadcast in stereo, meaning two channels of information. In
practice, they generate three signals prior to applying the modulation:

The L + R (left + right) signal in the range of 50 to 15,000 Hz.

A 19 kHz pilot carrier.

The L-R signal centered on a 38 kHz pilot carrier (which is suppressed)

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that ranges from 23 to 53 kHz.


So, the information signal actually has a maximum modulating frequency of
53 kHz, requiring a reduction in the modulation index to about 1.0 to keep the
total signal bandwidth about 200 kHz.
Station formats: Radio formats differ by country, regulation and markets.
In addition, formats change in popularity as time passes and technology
improves. Originally, one of the most popular formats for radio was
broadcasting program material in real time, known as live broadcasting. As
technology for sound recording improved, an increasing proportion of
broadcast programming used pre-recorded material. A current trend is the
automation of radio stations. Some stations now operate without direct human
intervention by using entirely pre-recorded material sequenced by computer
control.
3.7 Broadcast Signals
Radio communication is typically in the form of AM radio or FM Radio
transmissions. The broadcast of a single signal, such as a monophonic audio
signal, can be done by straightforward amplitude modulation or frequency
modulation. More complex transmissions utilize sidebands arising from the
sum and difference frequencies which are produced by superposition of some
signal upon the carrier wave. For example, in FM stereo transmission, the
sum of left and right channels (L+R) is used to frequency modulate the carrier
and a separate subcarrier at 38 kHz is also superimposed on the carrier. That
subcarrier is then modulated with a (L-R) or difference signal so that the
transmitted signal can be separated into left and right channels for stereo
playback. In television transmission, three signals must be sent on the carrier:
the audio, picture intensity, and picture chrominance. This process makes use
of two subcarriers. Other transmissions such as satellite TV and long distance
telephone transmission make use of multiple subcarriers for the broadcast of
multiple signals simultaneously
FM Stereo: Until 1961, all commercial FM broadcast-band transmissions
were monophonic. The FCC authorized stereophonic transmission for the
commercial FM broadcast band. With stereophonic transmission, the
information signal is spatially divided into two 50-Hz to 15-kHz audio channels
(a left and a right). Music that originated on the left side is reproduced only on
the left speaker, and music that originated on the right side is reproduced only
on the right speaker. The main problem with introducing stereophonic

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transmission is the compatibility with monophonic receivers. The spectrum


shown in figure 3.14 is the standard spectrum used today. The spectrum
compromises the 50 Hz to 15 kHz stereo channel plus an additional stereo
channel frequency division multiplexed into a composite baseband signal with
a 19 kHz pilot. The three channels are (1) the left (L) plus the right (R) audio
channels, (2) the left plus the inverted right audio channels, and (3) the SCA
subcarrier and its associated sidebands.
L+R
stereo
channel

38k

15k 19k 23k

SCA channel
subcarrier

L.R
USB

L.R
LSB

L+R

50

L - R stereo
channel
subcarrier

Stereo
pilot

SCA

53k

60k 6Jk 14k

f (Hz)

Figure 3.14

The L + R stereo channel occupies the 0 - 15 kHz passband. The L - R audio


channel amplitude modulates a 38 kHz subcarrier and produces the L - R
stereo channel, which is a double-sideband suppressed carrier that occupies
the 23 - 53 kHz passband, used only for FM stereo transmission. SCA
transmission occupy the 60 - 74 kHz frequency spectrum. Mono receivers can
demodulate the total baseband spectrum but only the 50 - 15 kHz L + R
channel is amplified and fed to all speakers. Stereophonic receivers must
provide additional demodulation of the 23 - 53 kHz L - R stereo channel,
separate the left and right audio channels and then feed them to their
respective speakers. The process of multiplexing two audio signals is shown
in figure 3.15.
S1 (t)

+
S2 (t)

freq.
x2

cos 2 x 19,000t

Figure 3.15 Multplexing stereo signals

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Stereo Transmission: Figure 3.16 shows a simplified block diagram for a


stereo FM transmitter. The L and R audio channels are combined in a matrix
network to produce the L + R and the L - R audio channels. The L - R audio
channel modulates a 38 kHz subcarrier and produces a 23 to 53 kHz L - R
stereo channel. Because there is a time delay introduced in the L - R signal
path as it propagates through the balanced modulator, the L + R stereo
channel must be artificially delayed somewhat to maintain phase integrity with
the L - R stereo channel for demodulation purposes. Also for demodulation
purposes, a 19 kHz pilot is transmitted rather than the 38 kHz subcarrier
because it is considerably more difficult to recover the 38 kHz subcarrier in the
receiver. The composite baseband signal is fed to the FM transmitter, where it
modulates the main carrier.
Left and right
audio channels

L + R and L - R
audio channels

L + R and L - R
stereo channels
to main FM
transmitter
composite
baseband

L channel in

R channel in

Preemphasis

L+R
adder

L+R
50 Hz - 15 kHz

Delay L + R
Delay
network 50 Hz - 15 kHz

Preemphasis

L-R
adder

L-R
50 Hz - 15 kHz

Balanced
modulator

Matrix
network

L - R sideband
23-53 kHz

Linear
combining
network

60-7 4 kHz

19 kHz
pilot

38 kHz
x2
multiplier

19 kHz
oscillator

Figure 3.17 Stereo FM transmitter using FDM


Stereo Reception: FM stereo receivers are identical to standard FM
receivers up to the output of the audio detector stage. The output of the
discriminator is the total baseband spectrum that was shown in figure 3.14.
Figure 3.17 shows a simplified block diagram for an FM receiver that has both
mono and stereo audio outputs. In the mono section of the signal processor,
the L + R stereo channel, which contains all of the original information from
both the L and R audio channels, is simply filtered, amplified and the fed to
both the L and R speakers. In the stereo section of the signal processor, the
baseband signal is fed into the stereo demodulator where the L and R audio
channels are separated and then fed to their respective speakers. The L + R
and L - R stereo channels and the 19 kHz pilot are separated from the
composite baseband signal with filters. The 19 kHz pilot is filtered with a highQ bandpass filter, multiplied by 2, amplified and the fed to the L - R
demodulator. The L + R stereo channel is filtered off by a low-pass filter with an

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upper cutoff frequency of 15 kHz. The L - R double-sideband signal is


separated with a broadly tuned bandpass filter and then mixed with the
recovered 38 kHz carrier in a balanced modulator to produce the L - R audio
information. The matrix network combines the L + R and L - R signals in such a
way as to separate the L and R audio information signals, which are fed to their
respective de-emphasis networks and speakers.
From FM
receiver

Frequency
discriminator

Mono receiver
composite
baseband

L+R

Deemphasis
network

Speaker
(L + R)
Audio
channels

Stereo receiver
Low-pass
filter and
time delay

L+R

Matrix network
(stereo decoder)

19 kHz
bandpass
filter

L speaker

R
Audio channels

Bandpass
filter
23-53 kHz

L-R
Sidebands

19kHz
pilot

L-R
Balanced
product
detector

Audio
channels

R speaker

Amplifier
38 kHz
and x 2
subcarrier
multiplier

Figure 3.18 FM stereo and mono receiver


The block diagram for the stereo matrix decoder if shown in figure 3.18. The L R audio channel is added directly to the L + R audio channel. The output from
the adder is
(L + R) + (L - R)
2L
The L - R audio channel is inverted and then added to the L + R audio channel.
The output from the adder is
(L + R) - (L - R)
2R

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Stereo channels

Audio channels

Matrix network
L+R

L-R

+
Adder
+

2L

Deemphasis
network

2L

Audio
amplifier

L speaker

+
Adder
-

2R

Deemphasis
network

2R

Audio
amplifier

R speaker

3.18 Stereo matrix network decoder


3.8 Applications of Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation is used mainly for transmissions above 25 megahertz
(MHZ). Typical uses are in broadcasting, television sound, mobile radio
telephony, radio paging systems, space telemetry, intercity microwave
relaying of all classes of public traffic including voice channels, teleprinting,
facsimile, broadcast network programs, and television and computer data,
and intercontinental telecommunications via satellite. Frequency modulation
is used for both analog and digital communications, and phase modulation as
well as frequency modulation is employed.
FM broadcasting: The frequency band 88 108 MHz is allocated to FM
broadcasting in a large part of the world by international agreement. For a
channel spacing of 200 kHz, there are 100 allocatable channels for
transmission of an audio range of 50 15,000 Hz, with a frequency-deviation
ratio of 5. This means that there are five significant sidebands above and
below the carrier, the carrier is deviated a maximum of 75 kHz, and the
emitted spectrum is twice this value. Because of the relatively small signal
power in the modulating frequencies above 4 kHz, the received signal-tonoise ratio is improved substantially by pre-emphasis of the audio signal in
transmission, necessitating complementary de-emphasis in the receiver to
restore natural program balance. In fact, pre-emphasis produces a sort of
hybrid form of modulation, being pure frequency modulation at the lowest
audio frequencies, and gradually changing to phase modulation at the
highest. See also Frequency modulation.
FM mobile transmission: Millions of land, maritime, and aeronautical mobile
FM transceivers are employed by police, firemen, public safety agencies,
industrial and commercial enterprises, private citizens, and radio amateurs
who desire the benefits of enroute telephony. The intensity of such usage has

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grown exponentially, mainly because of the availability of reliable, small, lowpower-consumption solid-state equipments that are economical, and also
because of the public realization of the benefits of having such
communications.
Radio relaying: Frequency modulation is used for microwave radio relaying
over land, over water, and to great distances using satellites, sometimes
carrying thousands of simultaneous telephone conversations or several
television channels.
The advent of requirements for short-haul services, local distribution networks
within cities, television relay, and a wide variety of optical communication
services including high-speed computer communications, electronic mail,
data transmission, and other services, where it may be cost-effective to avoid
the local telephone loop, presents another application for FM radio relaying.
Telegraphy: Telegraphy, including teleprinting and binary digital data
transmission, is based on shifting the carrier frequency or its phase between
two limiting values, one of which represents a mark signal and the other a
space signal. This frequency shift (or phase shift) is a form of FM signaling
used over a wire, cable, or radio.
Facsimile: Black-and-white images (line drawings and typed copy) can be
transmitted by employing the principles used in FM telegraphy; one limit
frequency corresponds to black, and the other to white, on the image to be
transmitted. A continuous gray scale can be transmitted and recorded if,
instead of just two frequencies, a continuous frequency shift is employed
between some low frequency (say, 1500 Hz) and some higher frequency (say,
2700 Hz), the exact frequency at any instant being proportional to the gray
level of the image. See also facsimile.
Telemetry: Frequency modulation is the preferred method for transmission of
information or data from a remote or inaccessible location such as a rocket
vehicle in flight. Each condition to be remotely observed actuates one sub
channel, which, when multiplexed with other channels reporting other status
conditions, modulates the radio carrier by frequency modulation.

3.9 Advantages and Disadvantages of Frequency Modulation (FM) over

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Amplitude Modulation (AM)


Advantages
Amplitude of FM wave is independent of depth of modulation (In AM, it is
dependent on depth of modulation).
In FM, Transmitted power remains same. Bandwidth increases for increase in
modulation index (In AM, transmitted power increases with increase in
modulation index).
FM is immune to noise than AM (SNR is high).
Noise is lesser for increased frequency deviation.
Adjacent channel interference is less in FM than AM (as there are guard
bands between FM stations).
FM operates at upper VHF and UHF.
Disadvantages
Wider channel -> 7 to 15 times larger than AM.
FM transmitter and receiver equipment are complex and expensive.
Line of sight -> area of reception is smaller than AM.

Self test 3.0

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1a
b.

Define modulation.
What are the degrees of modulation?

2.

Explain why modulation is necessary or desirable.

3.

Name the circuit that causes one signal to modulate another, and give
the names of the two signals applied to this circuit.

4.

In AM, how does the carrier vary in accordance with the information
signal?

5.

True or false? The carrier

6.

Describe what is meant by the modulation of a wave.

7.

Sketch and analyze graphs of the power spectrum of a carrier wave that
is amplitude-modulated by a single-frequency signal.

8.

Define the sideband frequencies

9.

Give the formula for modulation index and explain its terms.

10.

An AM wave displayed on an oscilloscope has values of and as read


from the graticule. What is the percentage of modulation?

11.

What is the ideal percentage of modulation for maximum amplitude of


information transmission?

12.

To achieve 75 percent modulation of a carrier of what amplitude of the


modulating signal is needed?

13.

The maximum peak-to-peak value of an AM wave is 45 V. The peak-topeak value of the modulating signal is 20 V. What is the
percentage of modulation?

13.

What is the mathematical relationship of the carrier and modulating


signal voltages when over modulation occurs?

15.

An AM radio transmitter operating on 3.9 MHz is modulated by

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frequencies up to 4 kHz. What are the maximum upper and lower side
frequencies? What is the total bandwidth of the AM signal?
16.

What is the bandwidth of an AM signal whose carrier is

17.

1 MHz modulated by a 1.5-kHz square wave with significant harmonics


up to the fifth? Calculate all the upper and lower sidebands produced.

18.

How much power appears in one sideband of an AM signal of a 5-kW


transmitter modulated by 80 percent?

19.

What is the total power supplied by an AM transmitter with a carrier


power of 2500 W and modulation of 77 percent?

20.

Distinguish between a carrier wave and a signal wave.

21.

Sketch graphs of the power spectrum of a carrier wave that is


amplitude-modulated by a single frequency signal.

22.
23.

Explain what is meant by sideband frequencies and bandwidth.


Explain the relationship between sideband frequencies and bandwidth.

Self-test 3.1
1.
A 400 kHz sinusoidal carrier of amplitude 5V is frequency modulated by
a 3 kHz sinusoidal information signal of amplitude 3V. The behaviour of
the carrier is governed by the frequency deviation per volt and for this
system is 25 kHz per volt. Describe how the resulting FM signal
changes with time.
2.

A 10 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a pure signal tone of f


requency 8 kHz. The frequency deviation is 32 kHz. Calculate the
bandwidth of the resulting FM waveform.

3.

Suggest why it would not be sensible for long-wave radio transmitters


operating in the range 140 kHz to 280 kHz to use FM.

4.

An audio signal, with a base band of 200 Hz to 4 kHz, frequency


modulates a carrier of frequency 50 MHz The frequency deviation per
volt is 10 kHz V-1 and the maximum audio voltage it can transmit is 3V.
Calculate the frequency deviation and the bandwidth of the FM signal.

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5.
f

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

The diagram below shows an FM carrier modulated by a pure tone


(sinusoidal wave). Calculate the carrier frequency and the pure tone
requency.
Voltage (V)

10

11 12 13

14

15

16 17

18 19

20 21

Time
(s)

6.

A 24 MHz carrier is frequency modulated by a pure signal tone of


frequency 12 kHz. The frequency deviation is 56 kHz. Calculate the
bandwidth of the resulting FM waveform

7.

Suggest why it would not be very sensible for medium-wave radio


transmitters operating in the range 600 kHz to 1600 kHz to use FM.

8.

An audio signal, with a base band of 200 Hz to 12 kHz, frequency


modulates a carrier of frequency 50 MHz The frequency deviation per
volt is 15 kHz V-1 and the maximum audio voltage it can transmit is 7 V.
Calculate the frequency deviation and the bandwidth of the FM signal.

9.

The diagram below shows an FM carrier modulated by a pure tone


(sinusoidal wave). Calculate the carrier frequency and the pure tone
frequency.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

Time (s)

10.

One input to an amplitude modulated double sideband full carrier


modulator is an 800 kHz carrier with amplitude of 40V peak. The second
input is a 25 kHz modulating signal whose amplitude is sufficient to
produce a plus and minus 10V change in the amplitude of the envelope.
Calculate the following:
a)
Upper and lower side frequencies
b)
Modulation coefficient and percent modulation
c)
Maximum and minimum positive peak amplitudes of the
envelope
d)
Draw the output frequency spectrum
e)
Draw the envelope and label

11.

For a modulation coefficient of m = 0.2 and an unmodulated carrier


power of 1000 watts calculate, (a) the total sideband power, (b) the
upper and lower sideband power, (c) the modulated carrier power, and
(d) the total transmitted power.

12.

Determine the maximum upper, lower, and total sideband power for an
unmodulated carrier power of 2000 watts. Determine the maximum
total transmitted power for an AM system.

13.

If a 100 kHz signal and a 30 kHz signal are applied to a balanced


modulator, what frequencies will appear on the output?

14.

If a 1000 kHz signal and a 3 kHz signal are applied to a standard


amplitude modulator, what frequencies will appear on the output?

15

A 150 MHz signal is modulated between 149.9 MHz and 150.1 MHz to
carry a signal ranging from 100 Hz to 20 kHz. Calculate:
(a)
The peak frequency deviation

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(b)
(c)

The modulation index


The band width.

16.

If the amplitude of a signal of frequency 500 kHz is modulated by a


frequency of 15 kHz, what will the frequency of the sidebands be?

17.

An AM signal has a carrier frequency of 1530 kHz and an amplitude of


10 Vpeak The carrier is modulated by a sine wave with a frequency of 1
kHz and a peak voltage of 2.5 V. Give the equation for the resulting AM
signal 'and calculate the modulation index.

18.

For an AM DSBFC transmitter with an unmodulated carrier power, Pc =


500 W that is modulated simultaneously by four tones, m1 = 0.1, m2 =
0.2, m3 = 0.4 and m4= 0.5, determine
a)
the total modulation index
b)
the total sideband power
c)
the total transmitted power

19.

Consider the following modulation system:


M(t)

Cos(2fct)

Xc(t)

Assume that a tone message, m(t) = 2cos(20nt) is transmitted using


this modulation system with fc = 500Hz.
a)
Assume that A=2.
i.
What type of modulation does this correspond to?
ii.
What is the power efficiency of this system?
iii.
Sketch the output signal.
iv.
Sketch the spectrum of the output signal.
b)
Assume that A= 0
i.
What type of modulation does this correspond to?
ii.
What is the power efficiency of this system?
iii.
Sketch the output signal.
iv.
Sketch the spectrum of the output signal.
c)
Assume that A= 0
i.
How would you modify the given modulation system such that

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

the output signal is xc (t) = cos (980t)?


Hint: You might need to add an additional component to the given
system.
ii.
What type of modulation does this correspond to?
iii.
State one advantage and one disadvantage of this modulation
system compared to the one in part (a).
Self-Test 3.2
1.
What is the generation of FM wave by indirect method called?
2.
What is a frequency multiplier?
3.
What is the oscillator whose frequency is controlled by the modulating
signal Called?
4.
How can FM be generated?
5.
Name a device whose output voltage is proportional to the
instantaneous frequency of the FM wave applied to its input.
6.
How can a VCO be implemented by using a sinusoidal oscillator?
7.
Explain how a VCO is used as a frequency modulator.
8.
How does an FM signal differ from an AM signal?
9.
Define guard band?
10. Explain the necessity of De-emphasis and pre-emphasis in FM. Write a
note on zero crossing detector
11. Explain any one method of F.M generation. Define modulation index for
F.M. State Carson's rule for the bandwidth of the F.M wave.
12. In an F.M system, the frequency deviation is 6 kHz. When a modulating
signal with amplitude 4 volts and frequency 600HZ, modulates
the carrier.
13. Determine the modulation index, mf and frequency deviation f if its
amplitude is increased to 8 volts at the same frequency 600HZ and its
amplitude is increased to 12 volts while modulating signal frequency is
decreased to 400HZ.
14. How is FM superior to AM with reference to noise?
15. Draw the circuit and explain FM demodulation by ration detector.
16. An FM signal is 10 sin (16 x106t + 20 sin 2 x103 t). Find the
modulation index and power of FM signal.
17. An FM signal is given by s (t) = 2 cos 20000 t + cos 2000 t + 3 cos
40000 t. Determine the bandwidth and b assuming K f =104 Hz/volt.
18. A modulating signal 5 cos 30000 t angle modulates a carrier A cos
2fct. Assume Kd =Kp = 15 KHz/volt. Determine the modulation index
and bandwidth for FM
16. Give and explain 3 areas of applications where standard FM

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17.
18.
19.
20.

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

transmission is needed?
In a FM system the frequency deviation constant is 1 KHz/v. A
sinusoidal modulating signal of amplitude 15 V and frequency 3 MHz is
applied. Calculate (i) Peak frequency deviation (ii) Modulating index.
Describe the nature of amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency
modulation (FM).
Describe the relative advantages and disadvantages of AM and FM for
radio transmission and reception.
Distinguish between envelop detection and synchronous detection
methods.
AM

FM

quantity
banawire
range
Cost

Self-test 3.3
1.
A high-quality FM radio station has a frequency deviation of 75 kHz and
contains audio signals varying from 50 Hz to 15 kHz. What is the
modulation index and the bandwidth of the FM transmissions?
2.

An FM radio station has a frequency deviation of 75 kHz and contains


audio signals varying from 1 00 Hz to 12 kHz. For the FM transmissions,
calculate:
(a)
The modulation index;
(b)
The bandwidth.

3.

Determine the peak frequency deviation and modulation index for a


frequency modulator with a deviation sensitivity of 10 kHz/V and a
modulating signal of 5cos(2rt(2500)t).

4.

An FM signal is defined by the equation eFM = 50sin (95 x106 t +


10sin5000t) v.
Find the carrier frequency.
Find the modulation frequency.
Find the modulation index.

a)
b)
c)

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

d)

Calculate the frequency deviation.

5.

Determine the practical band Width of an FM signal modulated by a 15kHz tone whose frequency deviation is 45 kHz. What is the approximate
bandwidth for this system using Carson's formula?

6.

When the modulating frequency in an FM system is 500 Hz and the


modulating voltage is 2.6 V, the modulation index is 40. Find the
maximum deviation. What is the modulation index when the modulating
frequency is raised to 800 Hz and the modulating voltage is
simultaneously reduced to 1.3 V?

7.

The audio section of a TV transmission employs frequency modulation


with a maximum allowable deviation of 25 kHz. Find the deviation ratio if
the highest intelligence frequency it can handle is 15 kHz.

8.

What is the modulation index of an FM transmitter whose frequency


deviation is 50 kHz while its audio frequency is 10 kHz?

9.

What is the approximate frequency of the modulating signal having a


bandwidth of 15 kHz and a frequency deviation of 6 kHz?

10.

What is the deviation ratio of an FM signal if the maximum allowable


deviation is 12 kHz and the maximum intelligence frequency is 4 kHz?

11.

Outline the significance of bandwidth in the transmission of a radio


station broadcast. What would happen, in practice, if the bandwidth
allotted to a particular radio station were to be reduced to, say, half its
original size?

12.

State and explain three advantages of frequency modulation over


amplitude modulation in radio transmissions.

13.

An FM radio station has a frequency deviation of 75 kHz and contains


audio signals varying from 1 00 Hz to 12 kHz. For the FM transmissions,
calculate:
(a)
The modulation index;
(b)
The bandwidth.

14.

The frequency modulated voltage wave is given by the equation : e = 12

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cos (6 108t + 5 sin 1250 t) Find (i) carrier frequency (ii) signal
frequency (iii) modulation index (iv) maximum frequency deviation (v)
power dissipated by the FM wave in 10-ohm resistor.
15.

A 25 MHz carrier is modulated by a 400 Hz audio sine wave. If the


carrier voltage is 4V and the maximum frequency deviation is 10 kHz,
write down the voltage equation of the FM wave.

16.

The carrier frequency in an FM modulator is 1000 kHz. If the modulating


frequency is 15 kHz, what are the first three upper sideband and lower
sideband frequencies?

17.

A FM modulator is used to transmit a tone message with amplitude of 4


Volts and frequency of20 Hz. The frequency deviation constant for the
modulator is 25HzN, and the carrier wave has amplitude 10 Volts and
frequency 2000 Hz.
a)
What's the power of the FM modulated signal?
b)
What's the approximate bandwidth of the FM modulated signal
using Carson's rule?
c)
The output of the FM modulator is passed through a bandpass
filter centered at 2000Hz. What should be the bandwidth of the filter
such that 90% of the power in the modulated signal passes through?
d)
How would your answer to part b) change if the amplitude of the
message is doubled?
e)
How would your answer to part b) change if the frequency of the
carrier is doubled?

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CHAPTER FOUR
Principles of AM & FM Demodulation
4.0 Introduction
A radio receiver may be defined as a device for reproducing in the form of
useful output the intelligence conveyed by radio waves applied to it. Usually
an antenna is a necessary adjunct to the receiver. The first radio receivers
were crystal sets, and became available in the 1920's with the opening of
Marconi's first broadcast station in Chelmsford.
A crystal set does not have a battery. It runs completely from the energy
extracted from radio waves it picks up from the antenna. A resonant LC (or
tuned) circuit coupled to a large aerial or antenna was used. Many amateur
experimenters constructed crystal sets, often with the tuner inductor coil
wound on a tubular box or a drinking glass. At this time the semiconductor
diode had not been invented, so extracting the audible modulation signal from
the transmission relied on the non-linear electrical properties of the 'crystal',
typically a piece of coke or galena. In early sets a "cat's whiskers" - a fine
piece of wire - was adjusted by trial and error to make a suitable contact with
the crystal.
There were many limitations to the crystal set: it needed a big aerial (antenna),
an earth connection, the clumsy cat's whisker, and the weak signal could only
be listened to by one person at a time with headphones. Very quickly the
crystal set began to be replaced by valve radios with loudspeakers, powered
by batteries.
In World War II, crystal sets were used by prisoners of war in prison camps to
listen to news from home. Much ingenuity went into improvising the necessary
components.
4.1 AM and FM Radio Frequencies
The Amplitude Modulated (AM radio) carrier frequencies are in the frequency
range 535-1605 kHz. Carrier frequencies of 540 to 1600 kHz are assigned at
10 kHz intervals. The FM radio band is from 88 to 108 MHz between VHF
television Channels 6 and 7. The FM stations are assigned center frequencies
at 200 kHz separation starting at 88.1 MHz, for a maximum of 100 stations.
These FM stations have a 75 kHz maximum deviation from the center
frequency, which leaves 25 kHz upper and lower "gaurd bands" to minimize
interaction with the adjacent frequency band. See figure 4.1.

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200 kHz bandwidth from


88, 1-108.1 Mhz for
100 possible bands

10 KHz bandwidth from


540- 1600 KHz for
106 possible bands

10

10

Microwaves

VHF TV

Channels 2-6
FM Radio

Radio

Shot wave

AM Radio
10

VHF TV
Channels 7-13

FM

AM

10

Frequency in Hz

Figure 4.1 Radio Frequencies


The bandwidth assigned to each FM station is sufficiently wide to broadcast
high-fidelity, stereo signals. The carrier frequency is directly modulated with
the sum of the left and right channel audio signals. A 38 kHz subcarrier also
modulates the carrier, and that subcarrier is modulated with the difference, LR , of the audio signals. The FM tuner then decodes this signal and separates
the Left and Right audio channels. See figure 4.2.

L+R
Channels

Pilot

15 19 23

L-R channels with


38KHz subcarrier
supressed

38

Frequencies reserved
for commercial- free
background music

53

75

Frequency (Khz) relative to band center frequency


Figure 4.2 Left and Right Audio Channels illustration

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4.2 Heterodyne Principle


Heterodyning is a method for transferring a broadcast signal from its carrier to
a fixed local intermediate frequency in the receiver so that most of the receiver
does not have to be re-tuned when you change channels. The interference of
any two waves will produce a beat frequency, and this technique provides for
the tuning of a radio by forcing it to produce a specific beat frequency called
the "intermediate frequency" or IF. Heterodyning is used in the AM radio
receiver and played a big part in making AM radio practical for mass
communication.
Amplitude
Modulated
Carrier
f

Original signal

Signal on original
carrier by
amplitude modulation

Signal on intermediate
frequency carrier produced
by the mixing process.
f

beat

= f - f
2
1

Mixer

f2

Mixer produces
Beat frequency

Local oscillator
Sine wave

Difference frequency
Carrier which retains
The modulating signal.

Figure 4.3 Heterodyning Illustration


An electromagnetic carrier wave which is carrying a signal by means of
amplitude modulation or frequency modulation can transfer that signal to a
carrier of different frequency by means of heterodyning. This transfer is
accomplished by mixing the original modulated carrier with a sine wave of
another frequency as illustrated in figure 4.3. This process produces a beat
frequency equal to the difference between the frequencies, and this difference
frequency constitutes a third carrier which will be modulated by the original
signal.
Heterodyning is extremely important in radio transmission, in fact, the
development of heterodyning schemes was one of the major developments
which led to mass communication by radio. By fixing the beat frequency
between the incoming carrier and the local oscillator to a fixed intermediate
frequency (IF), most of a radio receiver can be constructed so that it can be

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used by any incoming radio signal. When the input radio frequency amplifier is
tuned to the station's carrier frequency, the local oscillator is tuned along with it
to produce a beat frequency equal to the fixed IF frequency. We now take for
granted that one radio receiver can be tuned to any of the locally broadcast
radio stations, but if it were not for heterodyning, you would have to have one
receiver for each broadcast station.
4.3 Beats
Beats are caused by the interference of two waves at the same point in space.
This plot of the variation of resultant amplitude with time shows the periodic
increase and decrease for two sine waves. When two sound waves of
different frequency approach your ear, the alternating constructive and
destructive interference causes the sound to be alternatively soft and loud - a
phenomenon which is called "beating" or producing beats. The beat
frequency (the number of beats per second) is equal to the absolute value of
the difference in frequency of the two waves shown in figure 4.4.Arising from
simple interference, the applications of beats are extremely far ranging.
Pinna
345 m/s
f1
C

f2
345 m/s
C constructive interference
D Destructive interference

Auditory
canal

f beat = f 2 - f 1

Figure 4.4 Interference of two waves at the same point in space


When you superimpose two sine waves of different frequencies, you get
components at the sum and difference of the two frequencies. This can be
shown by using a sum rule from trigonometry. For equal amplitude sine waves
A cos 2f1t + A cos 2f2t = 2A cos 2

f1 - f2 COS f1 + f 2
t
t
2
2
2

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signal - each sideband is a mirror image of the other. See figure 4.5.
Amplitude

Carrier

Lower sideband

Upper sideband

Bandwidth is twice the


maximum audio frequency

Frequency

Figure 4.5 Spectrum of an amplitude modulated, AM signal


Within the overall AM signal the carrier possess the majority of the power - a
fully modulated, i.e. 100% modulation - AM signal has sidebands which have
25% that of the main carrier.
When demodulating a signal, two basic steps may be considered:

Create baseband signal: The main element of AM demodulation is to


create the baseband signal. This can be achieved in a number of ways one of the easiest is to use a simple diode and rectify the signal. This
leaves elements of the original RF signal. When other forms of
demodulation are used, they too leave some elements of an RF signal.

Filter: The filtering removes any unwanted high frequency elements


from the demodulation process. The audio can then be presented to
further stages for audio amplification, etc.
The AM demodulation process is outlined in figure 4.6. This particular
example applies particularly to a diode detector.

Radio frequency
Signal

Rectified signal

Demodulated signal

Figure 4.6 Basics of AM demodulation / detection


4.5.1 Types of AM demodulator
There are a number of ways in which an AM signal can be demodulated. There
is a balance that needs to be made of the performance of the circuit that is

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The first term gives the phenomenon of beats with a beat frequency equal to
the difference between the frequencies mixed. The beat frequency is given by

beat

1 - 2

Since the first term above drives the output to zero (or a minimum for unequal
amplitudes) at this beat frequency. Both the sum and difference frequencies
are exploited in radio communication, forming the upper and lower sidebands
and determining the transmitted bandwidth.
When you say that the beat frequency is f1-f2 rather than (f1-f2)/2, that requires
some explanation. For the difference frequency you can just say that you get a
minimum when the modulating term reaches zero, which it does twice per
cycle, so that the number of minima per second is f1-f2.
4.4 AM Demodulationand Detection
Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal
from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit (or
computer program in a software defined radio) that is used to recover the
information content from the modulated carrier wave.There are several ways
of demodulation depending on how parameters of the base-band signal are
transmitted in the carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency or phase. For
example, for a signal modulated with a linear modulation, like AM (Amplitude
Modulated), we can use a synchronous detector. On the other hand, for a
signal modulated with an angular modulation, we must use an FM (Frequency
Modulation) demodulator or a PM (Phase Modulation) demodulator. Different
kinds of circuits perform these functions.
There are two basic types of AM detection, coherent and non-coherent. Of
these two, the non-coherent is the simpler method.Non-coherent detection
does not rely on regenerating the carrier signal. The information or modulation
envelope can be removed or detected by a diode followed by an audio filter.
Coherent detection relies on regenerating the carrier and mixing it with the AM
signal. This creates sum and difference frequencies. The difference
frequency corresponds to the original modulation signal.Both of these
detection techniques have certain drawbacks. Consequently, most radio
receivers use a combination of both.
4.5 AM demodulation or detection process
An AM signal consists of a carrier which acts as the reference. Any modulation
that is applied then appears as sidebands which stretch out either side of the

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required against the complexity, and hence the cost that can be tolerated.
The major types of AM demodulator are:

Diode AM detector: This is by far the simplest form of AM demodulator


or detector, requiring just a semiconductor (or other form) of diode
along with a capacitor to remove the high frequency components. It
suffers from a number of disadvantages, but its performance is more
than adequate for most applications including broadcast receivers
where cost is a significant driver.

Synchronous AM detector: This form of AM detector offers a higher


level of performance, but at the cost of considerably the use of
considerably more components. This means that it is only used in
receivers where the levels of performance are paramount and can
justify the additional component costs.
Both types of detector are widely used, although the diode detector is far more
common in view of its simplicity and the fact that it is quite adequate for
broadcast applications where performance is not normally an issue.
4.5.2 The Envelop Detector
There are different ways to demodulate an AM signal and recover the
transmitted waveform. Probably the simplest way is to use an envelope
detector. The Envelope detector circuit shown in figure 4.7 uses a diode, a
capacitor and a resistor and it is just like a half wave rectifier followed by a lowpass filter. It is a linear detector which takes high frequency RF signal as input
and gives an output which is the envelope of the input signal. A diode detector
is a type of envelope detector and is used for the detection of AM signal.
Input

Output

(Amplitude modulated signal)

(Envelope of the input)

Figure 4.7 The Envelop Detector


The envelope detector recovers the transmitted signal riding on the carrier by
extracting the envelope of the received signal. The structure of a typical
envelope detector receiver is shown in figure 4.8 with 4 major parts
1. The tuned tank
2. The RF amplifier
3. The envelope detector
4. The audio amplifierFigure 4.7 The Envelop Detector

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The envelope detector recovers the transmitted signal riding on the carrier by
extracting the envelope of the received signal. The structure of a typical
envelope detector receiver is shown in figure 4.8 with 4 major parts
1. The tuned tank
2. The RF amplifier
3. The envelope detector
4. The audio amplifier

RF

Tuned
Filter

Amplifier

Audio

Peak
Detector

Amplifier

Figure 4.8 Structure of a typical AM receiver


The envelope detector that you will use in this experiment is referred to as the
peak envelope detector. It consists of a diode and an RC circuit. This cheap,
easy to build detector is one of the main reasons of popularity of AM in early
radios. The receiver will be quite inexpensive and thus affordable to a larger
number of people. The structure of the peak detector is shown in figure 4.9.
Envelope

D1

Detected Envelope

V out
C

Figure 4.9 left: The peak envelope detector circuit.


right: An AM signal, its envelope (dashed) and its envelope
detected by the circuit on the left (heavy solid). Note the ripples.
Assuming that the diode is ideal and that the initial transient response is
passed, this is how the detector essentially works: Assume that the carrier is
at one of its peaks (note that the peak magnitude is controlled by the

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modulating audio signal). At this point, since we assumed the transient is


passed, capacitor C is charged all the way up to the voltage magnitude of
current peak, so the diode is off (the voltage drop the diode is zero). So the RC
circuit will now consist of a capacitor charged to an initial voltage. Hence, the
capacitor's voltage will start to decrease exponentially. The diode will remain
off till the input signal to the detector becomes greater than the capacitor
voltage. At this point the diode will start conducting and the capacitor voltage
follows the input voltage till the next peak (Fig. 4.9).
The choice of the value of resistor R is crucial for the desired performance of
the detector. If R is chosen very small, the capacitor will fully discharge thus
there will be bigger ripples in the detected envelope. On the other hand if R is
chosen very large, another phenomenon called failure to follow distortion
occurs. This is best shown in figure 4.10.

Detected

Missed

Envelope

Peak

Figure 4.10 Failure to follow distortion.


The time constant of the RC circuit has been very large,
so two peaks have been missed and the detected envelope is distorted.

As you can see, the capacitor discharges so slowly that its voltage remains
greater than a number peaks in the input signal. So, the circuit misses on a few
peaks and thus outputs a distorted detected envelope. Practically, to avoid
these problems, the value of R should be chosen such that it will meet the
following criterion:
2Pfm < 1/RC = 2Pfi

-------------------- 4.1

Where fc, is the carrier frequency and fm is the highest frequency present in the

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modulating audio signal.


The ripple can be approximated by Vr = Vp (1 e-1/fcRC), where Vp is the peak
value of the input voltage.
4.5.3 Diode detector advantages & disadvantages
The diode detector is widely sued, but it has several advantages and
disadvantages:
Diode detector advantages
The diode detector is very simple and is easy to construct. The
circuit six very straightforward, consisting of a very few components.
Low cost: Requiring so few components, and the fact that he components
are not specialized, this form of detector is very cheap. Accordingly it is widely
used in AM domestic radios.
Simplicity:

Diode detector disadvantages


Distortion: Although the diode detector is able to operate in a reasonably
linear fashion over a reasonable range, outside this range high levels of
distortion are introduced, and even within the more linear range, distortion
levels are not particularly low. It is adequate for small low cost radios.
Selective fading: These detectors are susceptible to the effects of selective
fading experienced on short wave broadcast transmissions. Here the
ionospheric propagation may be such that certain small bands of the signal
are removed. Under normal circumstances signals received via the
ionosphere reach the receiver via a number of different paths. The overall
signal is a combination of the signals received via each path and as a result
they will combine with each other, sometimes constructively to increase the
overall signal level and sometimes destructively to reduce it. It is found that
when the path lengths are considerably different this combination process
can mean that small portions of the signal are reduced in strength. An AM
signal consists of a carrier with two sidebands
Insensitive:
Semiconductor diodes have a certain turn-on voltage.
Accordingly the voltage has to reach a certain level before the diode is able to
operate reasonably efficiently.
4.5.4 Synchronous Detector
In a synchronous or coherent detector, the incoming AM signal is mixed
with the original carrier frequency. See figure 4.11.

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Before the diode

After the Diode

Audio

AM

LFF

Sin ct
Figure 4.11 Synchronous Detector with the waveforms before and
after the Diode
A synchronous detector is one where the difference frequency between the
two inputs is zero Hz. Of in other words, the two input frequencies are the
same. Recall that the AM input is mathematically defined by:
m

Carrier

sin (c
2

Lower Sideband

sin ( c

eam = sin ct +

+ m t

Upper Sideband

At the multiplier output, we obtain:


m
2

sin m t

Original Modulation Signal

1
2

sin 2ct

m
4

(
sin 2c

m
(
m t +
sin 2c
4
(

xsin ct =

AM signal centered at 2 times the carrier frequency

+ m t
(

mixer out = e am

------- 4.2

The high frequency component can be filtered off leaving only the original
modulation signal. This technique has one serious drawback. The problem is how to
create the exact carrier frequency. If the frequency is not exact, the entire baseband
signal will be shifted by the difference. A shift of only 50 Hz will make the human
voice unrecognizable. Most radio receivers use an oscillator to create a fixed
intermediate frequency. This is then followed by an envelope detector or a fixed
frequency PLL.
4.5.5 Advantages and disadvantages of AM synchronous demodulation
There is a balance to be made between utilizing a simple diode detector and a
synchronous detector. It is not always viable to incorporate an AM synchronous
demodulator into a new design. Other formats may be more suitable. The
advantages and disadvantages of a synchronous AM detector compared to a simple
diode detector are tabulated below:

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Advantages

Disadvantages

1. Increased linearity - lower


levels of distortion.
2. Considerably less affected
by selective fading
experienced on the medium
and short wave bands.
3. Improved sensitivity.
4. Improved signal to noise
ratio.

1. Considerable additional
complexity, although this is
not such an important
consideration if the
synchronous detector can
be included in an IC.

4.6 FM Signal Demodulation


In FM system, the process of demodulation is also known as conversion or
detection. An ideal Frequency Modulated (FM) signal discriminator's output is
proportional to the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal. In FM signal
demodulation, the basic techniques are:

FM to AM conversion
Zero-crossing demodulation
Quadrature demodulation
FM to AM Conversion: FM to AM Conversion, which is also known as slope
detection, is shown in Figure 4.12. In this method, the input FM signal is
converted to an AM signal by the differentiator. Then an AM demodulation
method is used to demodulate the converted signal. Envelope demodulation
methods are commonly used in the AM signal demodulation. Thus two FM to
AM conversion methods are FM to AM conversion with Hilbert transform and
FM to AM conversion using filter.

Audio signal
Input
xFM (t)

d
dt

Envelope

detector

Removing
DC

Output

Figure 4.12 Block diagram of FM to AM conversion


Slope Detector: Any filter (low-pass, high-pass, and band-pass) can be
turned into an FM detector. The FM signal is chosen to be in the cutoff region
of the filter (Figure 4.13) and therefore any frequency deviation is translated

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into an amplitude variation. The filter is then followed by an AM detector and


the modulation signal is recovered. While this is the simplest technique
available, it is non-linear since a first order low-pass filter response falls as 1/
and this result in second and third-order frequency components. For
example, let us operate a low-pass filter
dB

dB

amplitude

amplitude
modulation

Modulation

frequency
modulation

0 frequency
modulation

AM

FM+ AM

Filter

Noise

Slope

Modulation
AM
Noise

Envelope

Signal

detector

Figure 4.13 FM Detection Using a Slope Detector


(With a corner frequency 1) at 0 and take a frequency deviation of. The filter
response is therefore:
1
1
Vo
1

>> 1
= H () =
=
j 1

Vi
1 + j 1

----------- 4.3

and for = 0 +

( + (
(

1
1
= 0 0 1
+

(
0

Vo
Vi =

+...

------------------ 4.4

For equation 4.4 0and1are fixed.


The peak of the envelope occurs for a negative and is

( (1 +
0

Vi

------------------- 4.5

The minimum of the envelope occurs for a positive and is shown in figure
4.14.

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FM

AM
Filter

(1 +/ o) (1 + m)
Lower frequencies
( is negative)

(1 - / o) (1 - m)

Higher frequencies
( is positive)

Figure 4.14FM to AM conversion by filter


This technique is valid only for a small frequency deviation and does not have
any rejection of unwanted AM signals (noise).If a high pass filter is used, the
demodulation process is much more linear but still suffers from having no
rejection to AM noise.
Zero-Crossing Demodulation: The zero-cross detector is used to find
positive zero-cross points. When the amplitude of the input signal is changed
from negative to positive, an impulse is generated at the zero-cross point.
Then the pulse generator converts the impulse chain into a pulse chain. In the
pulse chain, the width and amplitude of each pulse are and A respectively.
Assume the instantaneous frequency of the FM signal is
f = fcc + f.m (t)

------------ 4.6

where fc is the carrier frequency, Df is the maximum frequency deviation and


m(t) is the massage signal. And
T = 1/f
Thus, the output of the low-pass filter is
T
A.
T

= AT
= AT . [c + . m (t)]
= AT c + AT . m (t)

----------------- 4.7
where the DC component is Afc, the demodulated signal is Af .m(t).
FM Signal

Zero-cross
Detector

Pulse
Generator

(a) Block diagram

Low-pass
Filter

Demodulated
Signal

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Message signal

1
0
-1

0.23

0.24

O.25

0.26

1
0
-1
0.23
1
0.5

0.24

O.25

0.26

0.24

O.25

0.26

0.24

O.25

0.26

0.24

O.25

0.26

0
0.23

0.27

0.28

0.29

0.3

0.31

0.27

0.28

0.29

0.3

0.31

0.27

0.28

0.29

0.3

0.31

0.27
0.28
Modulated signal

0.29

0.3

0.31

0.28

0.29

0.3

0.31

Frequency Modulated Signal

Zero-crossing Points

Pulse

0.5
0
0.23

-1

0.23

0.27
Time (s)

(b) Process
Figure 4.15 Zero-crossing demodulation
Figure 4.15 shows the process of zero-crossing demodulation. A 25 Hz
sinusoidal wave is used as the message signal, the carrier is a 300 Hz
sinusoidal wave. The maximum frequency deviation is 20 Hz. At first, the
carrier is frequency modulated by the message signal. Then the zero-cross
detector outputs the positive zero-crossing points of the FM signal, shown as
triangular wave. After that, the pulse generator converts every zerocrossingpoint to a pulse with fixed width and amplitude, shown as rectangular
wave. After the low-pass filtering, the message signal is recovered.
4.6.1 Quadrature Demodulation in FM System
There is one difference between the quadrature demodulation method in AM
signal demodulation and the one in FM signal demodulation. In AM signal
demodulation, quadrature demodulation is used to extract the amplitude
information of the message signal from the AM signal.
Low-pass

I(t)

Filter

Demodulated

FM Signal

COS( 2 ^ Ct)

arctan(Q/I)

Low-pass
-

Defferentiator

-1

Signal

Q(t)

Filter

sin (2ot)

Figure 4.16 Block diagram of quadrature demodulation for FM signal

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In FM signal demodulation, quadrature demodulation is used to extract the


signal information from the FM signal, and then the angle information is
converted to message signal.As in Figure 4.16, the arctan(Q/I) module is
used to obtain the phase information of the modulated signal. Then the
differentiator outputs the instantaneous frequency of the modulated signal.
Thus the FM signal is demodulated.
4.6.2 Phase locked loop, PLL FM
Phase locked loop, PLL FM demodulator or detector is a form of FM
demodulator that has gained widespread acceptance in recent years. PLL FM
detectors can easily be made from the variety of phase locked loop integrated
circuits that are available, and as a result, PLL FM demodulators are found in
many types of radio equipment ranging from broadcast receivers to high
performance communications equipment. The PLL is an electronic feedback
control system, as illustrated by the block diagram in figure4.17, of locking the
output and input signals in good agreements in both frequency and phase. In
radio communication, if a carrier frequency drifts due to transmission, the PLL
in receiver circuit will track the carrier frequency automatically.
Signal
Input

Vi

Phase
detector

Vd
Kd

Vo

Amplifier
Low-pass
filter

Ka

Signal
Output

VCO
Ko

Figure 4.17 PLL block diagram


In general, a PLL circuit includes the following sections:
1. Phase Detector (PD)
2. Low Pass Filter (LPF)
3. Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
The phase detector within the PLL locks at its two inputs and develops an
output that is zero if these two input frequencies are identical. If the two input
frequencies are not identical, then the output of detector, when passed
through the low-pass filter removing the ac components, is a dc level applied
to the VCO input. This action closes the feedback loop since the dc level
applied to the VCO input changes the VCO output frequency in an attempt to

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make it exactly match the input frequency. If the VCO output frequency equals
the inputfrequency, the PLL has achieved lock, and the control voltage will be
zero for as long as the PLL input frequency remains constant. The parameters
of PLL shown in Fig. 8-1 are as follows:
Kd = phase detector gain in volts/radian
Ka = amplifier gain in volt/volt
Ko = VCO gain in kHz/volt
KL = KdKaKo = closed loop gain in kHz/volt
Input A

XOR

Input B

Output

A
Input
B
Output

(b)

(a)

(C)

Output
dc level

(V)

90

180

270

360

Input phase
difference
(degree)

(d)

Figure 4.18 Phase detection


A better understanding of the operation of phase detector may be obtained by
considering that the simple Exculsive - OR (XOR) gate is used as a phase
detector. The XOR gate can be thought of as an inequality detector which
compares the inputs and produces a pulse output when these inputs are
unequal. The width of the output pulse is proportional to the phase error of the
input signals. As shown in figure 4.18, the width of the output pulse of (b) is
larger than that of (a) and is smaller than that of (c). When the output of phase
detector is applied to the input of low-pass filter, the output of low-pass filter
should be a dclevel that is directly proportional to the pulse width. In other
words, the output dc level is proportional to the phase error of input signals.
Figure 4.18(d) shows the relationship between the input phase error and the
output dc level.

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Self-test 4.1
1.
Explain the envelope detector with a circuit diagram and waveforms.
2.
What is Amplitude modulation? Show that a nonlinear device can be
used for generating AM signal. What are its limitations?
3.
Draw a diode detection circuit and explain the limitations.
4.
What are the types of AM modulators?
5.
Compare linear and non-linear modulators.
6.
What are the two methods of producing an FM wave?
a)
What is zero crossing detectors? Explain how it works and can be used
as an FM demodulator?
7.
What are the types of FM detectors?
8.
What are the types of phase discriminator?
9.
What is the necessity of limiter in FM receivers?
10. Explain the method of FM demodulator.
11. List the three basic components in a phase-locked loop.
12. What is another circuit used in some PLLs other than the three listed in
Question 1?
13. What is the basic function of a PLL?
14. What is the difference between the lock range and the capture range of
a PLL?
15. Basically, how does a PLL track the incoming frequency?
16. Label each block in the PLL diagram in the figure below.

17

A PLL is locked onto an incoming signal with a frequency of 1 MHz at a


o
o
phase angle of 50 . The VCO signal is at a phase angle of 20 .The peak
amplitude of the incoming signal is 0.5 V and that of the VCO output
signal is 0.7 V.
(a)

What is the VCO frequency?

(b)
What is the value of the control voltage being fed back to the
VCO at this point?

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18.

The output frequency of a certain VCO changes from 50 kHz to 65 kHz


when the control voltage increases from 0.5 V to 1 V. What is the
conversion gain, K?

19.

Explain the following terms with diagrams;


i. Heterodyning
ii. Beats

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CHAPTER FIVE
Radio Receivers
5.0 Introduction
In radio communication systems, the transmitted signal is very weak when it
reaches the receiver, particularly when it has traveled over a long distance.
The signal has also picked up noise of various kinds. Receivers must provide
the sensitivity and selectivity that permit full recovery of the original signal. The
radio receiver best suited to this task is known as the superheterodyne
receiver. A communication receiver must be able to identify and select a
desired signal from the thousands of others present in the frequency spectrum
(selectivity) and to provide sufficient amplification to recover the modulating
signal (sensitivity). A receiver with good selectivity will isolate the desired
signal and greatly attenuate other signals. A receiver with good sensitivity
involves high circuit gain.
Selectivity (Q) and Bandwidth (BW): Selectivity in a receiver is obtained by
using tuned circuits and/or filters. LC tuned circuits provide initial selectivity.
Filters provide additional selectivity. By controlling the Q of a resonant circuit,
you can set the desired selectivity.
The optimum bandwidth is one that is wide enough to pass the signal and its
sidebands but narrow enough to eliminate signals on adjacent frequencies.
0
-3 oB
ow - 1
o
2

BW = 12- 11
11

11

12

Frequency

Figure 5.1 Selectivity curve of a tuned circuit


Selectivity (Shape Factor): The sides of a tuned circuit response curve are
known as skirts. The steepness of the skirts, or the skirt selectivity, of a

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receiver is expressed as the shape factor, the ratio of the 60-dB down
bandwidth to the 6-dB down bandwidth. The lower the shape factor, the
steeper the skirts and the better the selectivity. See figure 5.1.
Sensitivity: A communication receiver's sensitivity, or ability to pick up weak
signals, is a function of overall gain, the factor by which an input signal is
multiplied to produce the output signal. The higher the gain of a receiver, the
better its sensitivity. The more gain that a receiver has, the smaller the input
signal necessary to produce a desired level of output. High gain in receivers is
obtained by using multiple amplification stages. Another factor that affects the
sensitivity of a receiver is the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR). One method of
expressing the sensitivity of a receiver is to establish the minimum discernible
signal (MDS). The MDS is the input signal level that is approximately equal to
the average internally generated noise value. This noise value is called the
noise floor of the receiver. MDS is the amount of signal that would produce the
same audio power output as the noise floor signal. See figure 5.2.
Signal voltage or power amplitude
(dB or dBm)

Doslrod signal
(good S/N)

MDS
(Poor S/N)

Noise

Noise
floor
Frequency

Figure 5.2 Illustrating noise, MDS, and receiver sensitivity


5.1 Basic Receiver Configuration
The simplest radio receiver is a crystal set consisting of a tuned circuit, a diode
(crystal) detector, and earphones shown in figure 5.3. The tuned circuit
provides the selectivity. The diode and a capacitor serve as an AM
demodulator. The earphones reproduce the recovered audio signal.

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T1
Headphones
Primary
C1

C2

Secondary

Figure 5.3The simplest receiver a crystal set


5.2 Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
In the tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver sensitivity is improved by adding a
number of stages of RF amplification between the antenna and detector,
followed by stages of audio amplification. The RF amplifier stages increase
the gain before it is applied to the detector. The recovered signal is amplified
further by audio amplifiers, which provide sufficient gain to operate a
loudspeaker. See figure 5.4.
All LC circuits are tuned to
the same signal frequency

Response of one tune day


Two tuned circuits

RF amplifier

Audio amplifier

Three tuned circuits

Detector

Four tuned circuits


Speaker
Filter

Tuning capacitors mechanically ganged

(a)
(b)
Figure 5.4 Tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver (a) Schematic Diagram,
(b) Effectof cascading tuned circuits on selectivity
Many RF amplifiers use multiple tuned circuits. Whenever resonant LC
circuits tuned to the same frequency are cascaded, overall selectivity is
improved. The greater the number of tuned stages cascaded, the narrower
the bandwidth and the steeper the skirts. The main problem with TRF
receivers is tracking the tuned circuits. In a receiver, the tuned circuits must be
made variable so that they can be set to the frequency of the desired signal.
Another problem with TRF receivers is that selectivity varies with frequency.

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5.3 Superheterodyne Receiver.


The shortcomings of straight radio receiver were overcome by the invention of
superheterodyne receiver by Reginald Fessenden (1901), Edwin Armstrong
(1917). Hetero-dyne (from Greek) means different power. Heterodyne refers
to a beat or difference frequency (IF) produced when two or more RF signals
are fed to a nonlinear device (mixer). a single-tone signal (from LO) is mixed
with the received RF signal to produce a lower-frequency version of the signal
(the IF). It uses fixed filters while tuning the LO and has a main problem of
image interference.
The essential idea of the superheterodyne receiver is to change the radio
frequency of the signal to a lower, fixed value, where the amplifying circuits
can be designed to have great stability and gain, and proper selectivity and
fidelity. These circuits constitute the intermediate frequency (I.F.) amplifier.
They operate at a frequency above (super) audibility; say at 455,000 cycles
per second. The change of frequency just before the I.F. amplifier is
accomplished by a beat or heterodyne circuit, called a frequency-converter.
This contains a local-oscillator and the first-detector or mixer. The sequence
of circuits in a "superhet" is shown in figure 5.5. The R.F. amplifier ahead of the
converter is sometimes called the preselector.
Ant.
R. F.
Amplifier
Gnd.

Weak signal
picked up
by Antenna
These two
voltages
combine at
the input of
the first detector

First
Detector

Intermediate
Amplifier

Second
Detector

Audio
Amplifier

LS

Local
Oscillator

Tuned and
amplified by
R.F. Amplifier

Beat frequency
Audio
amplified by
frequency
interned.
freq.
Beat frequency
output from
Amplifier
output from
second
First Detector
detector

A.C, voltage from


local oscilator

Audio voltages
amplified by
Audio Amplifier

Loud speaker changes audio


currents into sound

Figure 5.5 Superheterodyne reception of phone signals


At present, all modern receivers utilize the superheterodyne circuit. In this
type of radio receiver, the selected radio frequency is converted to a fixed
lower value, called intermediate frequency (IF). This is achieved by a special

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electronic circuit called mixer circuit. There is a local oscillator in the radio
receiver itself. This oscillator produces high frequency waves. The selected
radio frequency is mixed with the high frequency wave by the mixer circuit. In
this process, beats are produced and the mixer produces a frequency equal to
the difference between local oscillator and radio wave frequency. The circuit is
so designed that oscillator always produces a frequency 455 kHz above the
selected radio frequency. Therefore, the mixer will always produce an
intermediate frequency of 455 kHz regardless of the station to which the
receiver is tuned. For instance, if 600 kHz station is tuned, then local oscillator
will produce a frequency of 1055 kHz. Consequently, the output from the mixer
will have a frequency of 455 kHz. Figure 5.6 shows the superheterodyne
principle with a block diagram. The selected radio frequency f1 is mixed with a
frequency f2 from a local oscillator. The output from the mixer is a difference
(i.e. f2 f1) and is always 455 kHz regardless of the station to which the receiver
is tuned.
AERIAL

R.F AMPLIFIER

MIXER

2-1- 455kHz

2
OWSCILLATOR

Figure 5. 6 Superheterodyne Principle


The production of fixed intermediate frequency (455 kHz) is the salient feature
of superheterodyne circuit. At this fixed intermediate frequency, the amplifier
circuits operate with maximum stability, selectivity and sensitivity. As the
conversion of incoming radio frequency to the intermediate frequency is
achieved by heterodyning or beating the local oscillator against radio
frequency, therefore, this circuit is called superheterodyne circuit.
5.3.1 Stages of Superheterodyne Radio Receiver
The superheterodyne receiver convert all incoming signals to a lower
frequency, known as the intermediate frequency (IF), at which a single set of
amplifiers is used to provide a fixed level of sensitivity and selectivity. See
figure 5.7. Gain and selectivity are obtained in the IF amplifiers. The key circuit
is the mixer, which acts like a simple amplitude modulator to produce sum and

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difference frequencies. The incoming signal is mixed with a local oscillator


signal.

Antenna
IF amplifiers

RF amplify

Mixer
Demodulator
Selective
filter

AGC
Local oscillator
Or
frequency synthesizer

Speaker Audio amplifier

Figure 5.7 Block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver.


RF Amplifier: The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and feeds it to the
RF amplifier, also called a low-noise amplifier (LNA). RF amplifiers provide
some initial gain and selectivity and are sometimes called preselectors. Tuned
circuits help select the frequency range in which the signal resides. RF
amplifiers minimize oscillator radiation. Bipolar and FETs can be used as RF
amplifiers.
Mixers and Local Oscillators: The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the
input of the mixer. The mixer also receives an input from a local oscillator or
frequency synthesizer. The mixer output is the input signal, the local oscillator
signal, and the sum and difference frequencies of these signals. A tuned
circuit at the output of the mixer selects the difference frequency or
intermediate frequency (IF). The intermediate frequency is the difference
between oscillator frequency and radio frequency i.e.
I.F. = Oscillator frequency - Radio frequency.
The local oscillator is made tunable so that its frequency can be adjusted over
a relatively wide range.
IF Amplifiers: The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing the same
modulation that appeared on the input RF signal. The signal is amplified by
one or more IF amplifier stages and most of the gain is obtained in these

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stages. Selective tuned circuits provide fixed selectivity. Since the


intermediate frequency is usually lower than the input frequency, IF amplifiers
are easier to design and good selectivity is easier to obtain.
Demodulators: The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to the
demodulator, which recovers the original modulating information. The
demodulator may be a diode detector (for AM), a quadrature detector (for FM),
or a product detector (for SSB). The output of the demodulator is then usually
fed to an audio amplifier.
Automatic Gain Control: The output of a demodulator is usually the original
modulating signal, the amplitude of which is directly proportional to the
amplitude of the received signal. The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is
rectified and filtered into a dc voltage by a circuit known as the automatic gain
control (AGC) circuit. This dc voltage is fed back to the IF amplifiers, and
sometimes the RF amplifier, to control receiver gain. AGC circuits help
maintain a constant output level over a wide range of RF input signal levels.
The amplitude of the RF signal at the antenna of a receiver can range from a
fraction of a microvolt to thousands of microvolts; this wide signal range is
known as the dynamic range. Typically, receivers are designed with very high
gain so that weak signals can be reliably received. However, applying a very
high-amplitude signal to a receiver causes the circuits to be over driven,
producing distortion and reducing intelligibility. With AGC, the overall gain of
the receiver is automat.
5.3.2 Frequency Conversion
Frequency conversion is the process of translating a modulated signal to a
higher or lower frequency while retaining all the originally transmitted
information. In radio receivers, high-frequency signals are converted to a
lower, intermediate frequency. This is called down conversion. In satellite
communications, the original signal is generated at a lower frequency and
then converted to a higher frequency. This is called up conversion.
Mixers: Mixers are used for frequency conversion and are critical components
in modern radio frequency (RF) systems. A mixer converts RF power at one
frequency into power at another frequency to make signal processing easier
and also inexpensive. A fundamental reason for frequency conversion is to
allow amplification of the received signal at a frequency other than the RF, or
the audio, frequency.
The ideal mixer, represented by figure 5.8, is a
device which multiplies two input signals.

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Mixer
RF

f 1 +f 2
f1-f 2

f1

IF

f2

LO
Figure 5.8 The ideal Mixer
If the inputs are sinusoids, the ideal mixer output is the sum and difference
frequencies given by

V o = [ A1 COS(1t ([[A2 COS(2 t ([ =

A1 A2

[COS(

(t + COS(

+ 2 (t [

Typically, either the sum, or the difference, frequency is removed with a filter.
Mixing Principles: Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation
carried out by a mixer circuit or converter. The function performed by the mixer
is called heterodyning. Mixers accept two inputs: The signal to be translated to
another frequency is applied to one input, and the sine wave from a local
oscillator is applied to the other input. Like an amplitude modulator, a mixer
essentially performs a mathematical multiplication of its two input signals. The
oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to be translated is the modulating signal.
The output contains not only the carrier signal but also sidebands formed
when the local oscillator and input signal are mixed. See figure 5.9.

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Input
signal
fs

Mixer output: f 0 + fs
f 0 - fs
f 0*
Mixer
fs *

Tuned
circuit
or
filter

fO + f
Or
fO - f

Intermediate
frequency
(IF)

f0

LO local Oscillation
May or may not be in the output depending
upon the type of mixer.

Figure 5.9 Concept of a mixer.


Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers: The local oscillator signal
for the mixer comes from either a conventional LC tuned oscillator or a
frequency synthesizer. The simpler continuously tuned receivers use an LC
oscillator. Channelized receivers use frequency synthesizers.
A local oscillator is sometimes referred to as a variable- frequency oscillator,
or VFO shown in figure 5.10. An amplifier (e.g. FET) is connected as a Colpitts
oscillator. Feedback is developed by a voltage divider made up of capacitors.
The frequency is set by a parallel tuned circuit. The output is taken across an
RFC and it is buffered by a direct-coupled emitter follower.
-V

R1
D1
C1

R3

C4

C2
O1

C2

L1

C1

R2
O2

C1
C1

C1
RFC

To manner

Main tuning

Figure 5.10 A VFO for receiver local oscillator service.


Most new receiver designs incorporate frequency synthesizers for the local
oscillator, which provides some important benefits over simple VFO designs.

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The synthesizer is usually of the phase-locked loop (PLL) design and the
output is locked to a crystal oscillator reference which provides high stability.
Tuning is accomplished by changing the frequency division factor in the PLL,
resulting in incremental rather than continuous frequency changes. See figure
5.11.
Optional frequency multiplier
Frequency
multiplier

Phase
detector
XTAL
reference
oscillator
XTAL
3 KHz

LPF
loop

+
100
30 HHz

30 kHz
Vancine
modulus

VFO

Local
oscillator
signal
to minor
in receiver

8.04-MHZ
minor
144.04 MHZ

frequency divider
+ 268

Dinary inputs
from tuning
circuits

137 MHz
Frequency
multiplier
x4

XTAL
oscillator

34.25 MHz
XTAL

Figure 5.11A frequency synthesizer used as a receiver local oscillator


5.3.3 Intermediate Frequency and Images
The primary objective of an IF stage is to obtain good selectivity. Narrow-band
selectivity is best obtained at lower frequencies. At low frequencies, circuits
are more stable with high gain. At low frequencies, image interference is
possible. An image is an RF signal two times the IF above or below the
incoming frequency shown in figure 5.12a. At higher frequencies, circuit
layouts must take into account stray inductances and capacitances. At higher
frequencies, there is a need for shielding.

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Desired
signal

Local
Oscillator

Desired
Signal

Image

Image

fI = fS - 2fIF

fS

fIF

fIF

2fIF

2fIF

Image

fS

fi = fS + 2fIF

(a)

f0

f1

(b)

Figure 5.12 Intermediate Frequency and Images


(a) Relationship of the signal and image frequencies, (b) Signal, local oscillator, and image
frequencies in a superheterodyne

To reduce image interference, high-Q tuned circuits should be used ahead of


the mixer or RF amplifier. The IF is made as high as possible for effective
elimination of the image problem, yet low enough to prevent design problems.
In most receivers the IF varies in proportion to the frequencies that must be
covered. See figure 5.13.
BW - 2.5 MHz
BW - 1.25 MHz
f2
fo

f1

0dB

f1

f2

-3dB

Q - 10

Q - 20
24

23.5
23.75

24.5

25
25.5
f2
fo
Frequency (MHz)

26
f1

26.5
26.25

Figure 5.13 A low IF compared to the signal frequency with low-Q tuned
circuits causes images to pass and interfere
Frequency Changers: The combination of a mixer and local oscillator
constitute the frequency changer. Both of them provide 'heterodyne' function,
where the incoming signal is converted to a predetermined fixed frequency
called the intermediate frequency. This intermediate frequency is lower than
the incoming carrier frequency. The result of heterodyning is

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fIF = fo - fm
Since the output of the frequency changer is neither the original input
frequency nor the output baseband frequency, it is called intermediate
frequency. Sometimes the frequency changer circuits are referred to as first
detector. In case of double frequency conversion, the demodulator becomes
the third detector.
IF Section: Intermediate Frequency (lF) amplifiers are tuned voltage
amplifiers that are operated in Class A with a fixed resonant load. The IF
section has the bandwidth corresponding to the required signal that the
receiver is intended to handle. This section provides most of the amplification
and selectivity of the receiver.
The intermediate frequency of a receiver is always a compromise between
various factors as described below:
If the intermediate frequency is made too high, adjacent channel
rejection as well as selectivity becomes poor.
A high value of intermediate frequency makes the difference between
signal and local oscillator frequency large and as a result, tracking
becomes difficult.
If the intermediate frequency is lowered, the difference between a
signal frequency and its image frequency is reduced; this results in a
poorer image signal rejection. Thus, intermediate frequency must be
made high if image signals are to be completely rejected.
A low intermediate frequency makes the selectivity sharp, thereby
increasing the adjacent channel rejection. Too low an IF makes the
selectivity too sharp that may result in cutting off side bands. To avoid
this, magnification factor Q of the IF circuits has to be lowered which
results in low-stage gain of IF circuits.
If a low If is to be used then a high stability of the local oscillator
frequency must be maintained because any drift in the local oscillator
frequency results in large percentage
IF drift.
The IF of a receiver should be selected as to be lower than the lowest
signal frequency to be received by the receiver otherwise signal
frequencies close to the intermediate frequency will be difficult to
receive and heterodyne whistles will be heard in the receiver output.
Image Frequency: An image frequency is any frequency other than the
selected radio frequency carrier that, if allowed to enter and mix with the local
oscillator, will produce a cross-product frequency that is equal to the

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intermediate frequency. An image frequency is equivalent to a second radio


frequency that will produce an IF that will interfere with the IF from the desired
radio frequency. Once an image frequency has been mixed to IF, it cannot be
filtered out or suppressed. If the selected RF carrier and its image frequency
enter a receiver at the same time, they both mix with the local oscillator
frequency and produce difference frequencies that are equal to the lf.
Consequently, two different stations are received and demodulated
simultaneously, producing two sets of frequencies. For a radio frequency to
produce a cross product equal to the IF, it must be replaced from the local
oscillator frequency by a value equal to the IF. With high s ide injection, the
selected RF is below the local oscillator by an amount equal to the lf.
Therefore, the image frequency is the radio frequency that is located in the IF
frequency above the local oscillator. Mathematically, for high side injection the
image frequency (fim) is
fim = fc +fIF
Because the desired RF equals the local oscillator frequency minus IF,
fim = fRF +fIF
For a superheterodyne receiver using high side injection, the frequency
spectrum is shown in figure 5.14.

2 fIF

fIF

fIF

Frequency
IF

RF

LO

Image

Figure5.14 Frequency spectrum with image frequency


From the above figure, it is noted that the higher the IF, the farther away in the
frequency spectrum the image frequency is from the desired RF. Therefore,
for better image- frequency rejection, a high intermediate frequency is

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preferred. However, the higher the IF, the more difficult it is to build stable
amplifiers with high gain. Therefore, there is trade off when selecting the IF for
a radio receiver between image frequency rejection and IF gain and stability.
Image Frequency Rejection Ratio (IFRR): The image frequency rejection
ratio (IFRR) is a numerical measure of the ability of a preselector to reject the
image frequency. For a single tuned preselector, the ratio of its gain at the
desired RF to the gain at the image frequency is the IFRR. Mathematically,
IFRR is,
2

IFRR = v (1 + Q )
Where,
= {fim/fRF} {fRF/fim}
If there is more than one tuned circuit in the front end of a receiver, the total
IFRR is simply the product of the two ratios. Once an image frequency has
been down converted to IF, it cannot be removed. Therefore to reject the
image frequency, it has to be blocked prior to the mixer/converter stage.
Image frequency rejection is the primary purpose for the RF preselector. If the
bandwidth is sufficiently low, the image frequency is prevented from entering
the receiver. The ratio of the RF to the IF is also an important consideration for
image frequency rejection. The closer the RF is to the IF, the closer the RF is to
the image frequency.
5.3.4 Advantages of the Superheterodyne Circuit
High R.F. amplification. The superheterodyne principle makes it
possible to produce an intermediate frequency (i.e. 455 kHz) which is
much less than the radio frequency. R.F. amplification at low
frequencies is more stable since feedback through stray and
inter-electrode capacitance is reduced.
Improved selectivity. Losses in the tuned circuits are lower at
intermediate frequency. Therefore, the quality factor Q of the tuned
circuits is increased. This makes the amplifier circuits to operate with
maximum selectivity.
Lower cost. In a superheterodyne circuit, a fixed intermediate
frequency is obtained regardless of the radio wave selected. This
permits the use of fixed R.F. amplifiers. The superheterodyne receiver
is thus cheaper than other radio receivers.

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5.4 Dual-conversion Receiver


A superheterodyne receiver in which there are successive frequency
conversions utilizing two local oscillators, and thus having two intermediate
frequencies shown in figure 5.15. The first intermediate frequency is higher,
for adequate image rejection, while the lower second intermediate frequency
provides high selectivity and gain. Also called dual-conversion
superheterodyne receiver, double-conversion receiver, double-conversion
superheterodyne receiver, double superheterodyne receiver, or tripledetection receiver.
100 MHz

RF amplifier

First
mixer

First IF

Second
Mixer

IF amplifier
455 KHz

10.7 MHz

11.155 MHz

110.7 MHz
Tunable
Or
synthesized

Second IF

Second
LO

First
LO

Denodulator

Original
signal

Recovered
modulating
signal

XTAL

Figure 5.15 Dual-conversion superheterodyne


Another way to obtain selectivity while eliminating the image problem is to use
a dual-conversion superheterodyne receiver. A typical receiver uses two
mixers and local oscillators, so it has two IFs. The first mixer converts the
incoming signal to a high intermediate frequency to eliminate the images. The
second mixer converts that IF down to a much lower frequency, where good
selectivity is easier to obtain.
FM radios, which tune over 88 - 108 MHz, usually do not use a 455 KHz IF
frequency since the image frequency would be only 910 KHz from the desired
FM station. It would be difficult to design a tuned RF amplifier in the 88 - 108
MHz range that rejected a station only 910 KHz away from the desired signal
since 910 KHz is only about 1% different in frequency than the desired FM
station. An IF of 10.7 MHz is normally used in FM radios to allow adequate
image rejection to be achieved by the tuned RF amplifier in the 88 - 108 MHz
band with reduced selectivity because of the higher IF bandwidth associated
with a 10.7 MHz IF filter. The double conversion receiver of figure 4 is
appropriate for VHF narrowband AM or FM operation and uses a 10.7 MHz 1st
IF for good image rejection, and a 455 KHz 2nd IF for good selectivity.

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Tuned RF amplifier

RF input

IF output
1st IF bandpass,
10.7 MHz

2nd IF bandpass,
455 MHz

2nd LO,
11.155 MHz

Tuned LO

Figure 5.16 Double conversion superheterodyne with


good image rejection and selectivity
The double conversion receiver in figure 5.17 does not require a tunable RF
stage to track the tunable LO because the first IF of 830 MHz causes the
image frequencies to be outside the bandpass of the 0-30 MHz input filter.
This technique of commonly used in communication grade receivers, CATV
tuners, and spectrum analyzers.

RF input

0-400 MHZ
lowpass
filter

Image frequencies
are above 400 MHZ
and are eliminated by
the fixed lowpass filter

60-66 MHz,
CH 3

IF
bandpass,611
MHz

Tuned LO
665-1211 MHz

Possible problem frequencies


Input frequency
Attenuation (assuming SRA-200 mixer)
59 dB
2RF 2 = RF
69 dB
3RF 3 = RF
> 73 dB
4RF 4 = RF
and so on.

2nd LO fined
at 674 MHz

Figure 5.17 Double conversion receiver.


This eliminates the need for simultaneously tuned RF and LO

The direct conversion receiver of figure 6 suffers from several disadvantages.


It does not have an intermediate frequency (IF) stage. The purpose of an IF
stage is to allow additional amplification at a non-harmonically related
frequency that will not feed back into the RF input and cause oscillation. The
gain of the direction conversion receiver is therefore limited to the gain of any

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RF amplifiers preceding the mixer, and any audio amplifiers following the
mixer. AM and SSB can be demodulated, but not FM. There is usually
significant LO feed-through at the desired frequency which can cause
undesired beats in the audio output for AM signals
5.5 Direct-conversion (zero-IF) Receiver
A special version of the superheterodyne is known as the direct conversion
(DC) or zero IF (ZIF) receiver shown in figure 5.18. DC receivers convert the
incoming signal directly to baseband without converting to an IF. They perform
demodulation as part of the translation. The low-noise amplifier (LNA) boosts
the signal before the mixer. The local oscillator (LO) frequency is set to the
frequency of the incoming signal. Baseband output is passed via a low-pass
filter (LPF).

LNA

Mixer
LPF

fs

Demodulated
baseband output:

fLO
LO
fLO = fs

Figure 5.18 Direct-conversion (zero-IF) receiver.


Advantages:

No separate IF filter is needed.

No separate detector circuit is needed.

In transceivers that use half duplex and in which the transmitter and
receiver are on the same frequency, only one PLL frequency
synthesizer voltage- controlled oscillator is needed.

There is no image problem.


Disadvantages:

In designs with no RF amplifier (LNA), the LO signal can leak through


the mixer to the antenna and radiate.

An undesired dc offset can develop in the output.

The ZIF receiver can be used only with CW, AM, SSB, or DSB. It cannot
recognize phase or frequency variations.

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5.6 FM Receiver
The FM receiver is more complicated and, therefore, more expensive than the
normal AM receiver. An FM receiver also uses superheterodyne principle. The
FM broadcast signals lie in the frequency range between 88 MHz and 108
MHz. The IF (intermediate frequency) of an FM receiver is 10.7 MHz; much
higher than the IF value of 455 kHz in AM receivers. Figure5.19 shows the
block diagram of an FM receiver.
Speaker
AF
Amplifier

Antenna

2v

88 to 108 MHz

R.F
Amplifier

Mixer

200v

IF
Amplifier

Limiter

2V

FM
Detector

10.7MHz
Local
Oscillator
R.F Tuner

Figure 5.19 FM Receiver


5.6.1 Sections of The FM receiver
R.F. Tuner: The FM signals are in the frequency range of 88 to 108 MHz The
weak FM signal (say 2 V) is picked up by the antenna and is fed to the
R.F. tuner. The R.F. tuner consists of (i) R.F. amplifier (ii) Mixer and (iii) local
oscillator. The R.F. amplifier amplifies the selected FM signal (to 200 V
in the present case). The output from the RF amplifier is fed to the mixer
stage where it is combined with the output signal from a local oscillator. The
two frequencies beat together and produce an intermediate frequency (IF).
The intermediate frequency (IF) is equal to the difference between oscillator
frequency and the RF frequency. The IF is always 10.7 MHz (Recall IF in AM
receiver is 455 kHz) regardless of the frequency to which the FM receiver is
tuned.
IF Amplifier Stage: The output signal from the mixer always has a frequency of

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10.7 MHz and is fed to the IF amplifiers. Since IF amplifiers are tuned to IF (=
10.7 MHz), they render nice amplification. Note that bandwidth of IF an
amplifier is about 200 kHz or 0.2 MHzThe IF gain is very large (assumed
10,000 in this case) so that output is 2V.
Limiter Stage: The output from IF stage is fed to the limiter. This circuit is an IF
amplifier tuned to 10.7 MHz but its main function is to remove AM interference
from the FM signal. Figure5.20 shows how the limiter removes AM
interference from the FM signal.

INPUT
LIMITER

OUTPUT

Figure 5.20 The Limiter


The input is an FM signal, but it has different amplitude levels because of AM
interference has been added. However, the limiter circuit keeps the output
level constant for different input levels.
FM Detector: After the removal of amplitude modulation from the FM signal by
the limiter, the IF signal drives the input of the FM detector. An FM detector is a
circuit that converts frequency variations to amplitude variations. The FM
detector is also called a discriminator because it can distinguish between
different frequencies in the input to provide different output voltages. The
resultant amplitude modulated signal is then rectified and amplified for
feeding to speaker for sound reproduction.
5.7 Practical Radio Receivers Block Diagram
5.7.1 The Superheterodyne AM Receiver
A block diagram of a superheterodyne AM receiver is shown in figure 5.21.
The receiver shown consists of an antenna, an RF (radio frequency) amplifier,
a mixer, a local oscillator (LO), an IF (intermediate frequency) amplifier, a
detector, an audio amplifier, a power amplifier, and a speaker.

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Speaker
RF
Amplifier

Mixer

IF

Detector

amplifier

Audio and
power
amplifiers

AGC

Local
Gang tuned

Oscillator

Figure 5.21 Superheterodyne AM receiver block diagram.


Antenna: The antenna picks up all radiated signals and feeds them into the RF
amplifier. These signals are very small (usually only a few microvolts).
RF Amplifier: This circuit can be adjusted (tuned) to select and amplify any
carrier frequency within the AM broadcast band. Only the selected frequency
and its two side bands pass through the amplifier. (Some AM receivers do not
have a separate RF amplifier stage.)
Local Oscillator: This circuit generates a steady sine wave at a frequency 455
kHz above the selected RF frequency.
Mixer: This circuit accepts two inputs, the amplitude modulated RF signal
from the output of the RF amplifier (or the antenna when there is no RF
amplifier) and the sinusoidal output of the local oscillator (LO). These two
signals are then mixed by a nonlinear process called heterodyning to
produce sum and difference frequencies. For example, if the RF carrier has a
frequency of 1000 kHz, the LO frequency is 1455 kHz and the sum and
difference frequencies out of the mixer are 2455 kHz and 455 kHz,
respectively. The difference frequency is always 455 kHz no matter what the
RF carrier frequency.
IF Amplifier: The input to the IF amplifier is the 455 kHz AM signal, a replica of
the original AM carrier signal except that the frequency has been lowered to
455 kHz. The IF amplifier significantly increases the level of this signal. The
advantage of the IF stage is that it can be designed for a single frequency,
simplifying the receiver.
Detector: This circuit recovers the modulating signal (audio signal) from the

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455 kHz intermediate frequency (IF). At this point the IF is no longer needed,
so the output of the detector consists of only the audio signal.
Audio and Power Amplifiers: This circuit amplifies the detected audio signal
and drives the speaker to produce sound.
AGC: The automatic gain control (AGC) provides a dc level out of the detector
that is proportional to the strength of the received signal. This level is fed back
to the IF amplifier, and sometimes to the mixer and RF amplifier, to adjust the
gains so as to maintain constant signal levels throughout the system over a
wide range of incoming carrier signal strengths.
Figure 5.22 shows the signal flow through an AM superheterodyne receiver.
The receiver can be tuned to accept any frequency in the AM band. The RF
amplifier, mixer, and local oscillator are tuned simultaneously so that the LO
frequency is always 455 kHz above the incoming RF signal frequency. This is
called gang tuning.

540 kHz=1640 kHz


electromagnetic waves
Audio modulated
carrier / c
RF

amplifier

Mixer

455 kHz
modulated IF

455 kHz modulated


IF amplified
RF

amplifier

Amplified
audio
Audio and
power

Detector

amplifier

Audio

Sound
waves

Tuned to / c
Local
oscillator,
LO

/ c + 455 kHz

Figure 5.22 Illustration of signal flow through an AM receiver.


5.7.2 The Superheterodyne FM Receiver
The FM receiver is similar to the AM receiver in many ways, but there are
several differences. A block diagram of a superheterodyne FM receiver is
shown in figure 5.23 which includes an RF amplifier, mixer, local oscillator, and
IF amplifier just as in the AM receiver. These circuits operate at higher
frequencies than in a commercial AM system. A significant difference in FM is
the way the audio signal must be recovered from the modulated IF. This is
accomplished by the limiter, discriminator, and de-emphasis network.

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RF
amplifier

Mixer

IF
amplifier

Limiter

Disseminator
(Detector)

AGC
Dc-emphasis
network

Audio and power


amplifier

Local
Gang tuned

Oscillator

Figure 5.23 Superheterodyne FM receiver block diagram.


RF Amplifier: This circuit must be capable of amplifying any frequency
between 88 MHz and 108 MHz It is highly selective so that it passes only the
selected carrier frequency and significant side-band frequencies that contain
the audio.
Local Oscillator: This circuit produces a sine wave at a frequency 10.7 MHz
above the selected RF frequency.
Mixer: This circuit performs the same function as in the AM receiver, except
that its output is a 10.7 MHz FM signal regardless of the RF carrier frequency.
IF Amplifier: This circuit amplifies the 10.7 MHz FM signal.
Limiter: The limiter removes any unwanted variations in the amplitude of the
FM signal as it comes out of the IF amplifier and produces a constant
amplitude FM output at the10.7 MHz intermediate frequency.
Discriminator: This circuit performs the equivalent function of the detector in
an AM system and is sometimes called a detector rather than a discriminator.
The discriminator recovers the audio from the FM signal.
De-emphasis Network: For certain reasons, the higher modulating
frequencies are amplified more than the lower frequencies at the transmitting
end of an FM system by a process called preemphasis. The de-emphasis
circuit in the FM receiver brings the high-frequency audio signals back to the
proper amplitude relationship with the lower frequencies.

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Audio and Power Amplifiers: This circuit is the same as in the AM system and
can be shared when there is a dual AM/FM configuration.
Figure 5.24 depicts the signal flow through an FM receiver.
88 MHZ - 108 MHz
electromagnetic
waves
10.7 MHz FM

FM /c

RF
amplifier

Mixer

10.7 MHz
Amplified FM

IF
amplifier

10.7 MHZ
limited FM

Limiter

Discriminator
Audio

fc + 10.7 MHz
Local
oscillator

De-emphasis
network

Audio and
power
amplifiers

Compensated
audio

Amplified
audio

Sound

Figure5.24 Example of signal flow through an FM receiver.


5.8 Difference Between FM and AM Receivers
Both FM and AM receivers employ superheterodyne principle. However, the
following are the points of differences between the two types of receivers.

An FM receiver has two additional stages viz. limiter and discriminator,


which are quite different from an AM receiver.

FM broadcast signals lie in the frequency range between 88 and 108


MHz whereas AM broadcast signals lie in the frequency range from 540
kHz to 1600 kHz.

FM receivers are free from interference and this means that much
weaker signals can be successfully handled.

FM bandwidth is about 200 kHz compared to 10 kHz bandwidth for AM.

The IF for FM receivers is 10.7 MHz whereas IF for AM receivers it is


455 kHz.
5.9 Solved Examples
Example 5.1: An AM standard broadcast receiver is to be designed having an
intermediate frequency of 455 kHz. Calculate the required frequency that the
local oscillator should be at when the receiver is tuned to 540 kHz if the local
oscillator tracks above the frequency of the received signal.
Solution

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The intermediate frequency is generated by producing a difference frequency


between the earlier and the local oscillator.
fIF = fo - fm
Or
fIF = fm- fo
To find the local oscillator frequency,
fo = fIF + fm
= (455 X 103) + (540 X 103) = 995 kHz
Example 5.2: An AM superheterodyne receiver uses high side injection and
has a carrier frequency of 1355 kHz. Determine the IF carrier, USB and LSB
for an RF wave that is made up of a carrier frequency of 900 kHz, USB of 905
kHz and LSB of 895 kHz.
Solution
fIF = fc+ fRF
= 1355 X 103 -900 X 103 = 455 kHz
The upper and lower IFs are
fIF(USF) = fc-fRF(LSF)
= 1355 X 103 -895 X 103 = 460 kHz
fIF(LSF) = fc-fRF(USF)
= 1355 X J03 - 905 X J03 =450 kHz
Example 5.3:An AM superheterodyne receiver has IF of 455 kHz, RF of 600
kHz and local oscillator frequency of 1055 kHz. Determine the image
frequency and IFRR for a preselector Q of 100.
Solution
To find the image frequency:
fim = fc+ fIF
3
3
= LOSS x 10 + 455 x 10 = 1510 kHz
Or
fim = fRF + 2fIF
3
3
= 600x 10 +2(455x 10 ) = 1510 kHz
To find the 1FRR:

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= 1510 x 103/600 x 103 - 600 x 103/ 1510 x 103


= 2.51 -0.397
= 2.113
IFRR = v [I + (100)2 (2.113)2]
=211.3
Example 5.4: A receiver using high side injection has an RF carrier of 27M Hz
and an IF centre .frequency of455 kHz. Determine the local oscillator
frequency, image frequency IFRR for a preselector Q of 100 and preselector
Q required to achieve the same IFRR as that achieved for an RF carrier of600
kHz.
Solution
To find the local oscillator frequency:
fc = fRF + f1F
= 27 x 106 + 455 x 103 = 27.455 MHz
To find the image frequency:
fim = fc + fIF
= 27.455 X 106 + 455 X 103
= 27.91 MHz
To find the IFRR:
= 27.91 x 106/27 x 106 - 27 x 106 / 27.91 x 106
IFRR = v [I + (100)2 (0.066)2]
= 6.71
To find the preselector Q:
Q = [(IFRR2 1)/2]
= 3167
Example 5.5:
Calculate the image frequency rejection of a double
superheterodyne receiver which has a first IF at 2 M Hz and a second IF at 200
kHz. An RF amplifier is tuned to the circuit which has Q = 75 and which is
turned 1030 MHz
Solution
fIF1 = 2 MHz

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fIF2 = 200 MHz


2 2
IFRR = v(1 + Q p )
1 = (fim/fRF) (fRF/fim)
= (34 x 106/30 x 106) (30 x 106/34 x 106)
= 0.251
2= (2.4 x 106/2 x 106) (2 x 106/2.4 x 106)
= 0.366
2

IFRR = v[I + (75 ) (0.251 + 0.366 )]


= 33.257
Classification of Radio Emissions
Table 5.1 shows the codes used to designate the many types of signals that
can be transmitted by radio and wire. The basic code is made up of a capital
letter and a number, and lowercase subscript letters are used for more specific
definitions. For example, a basic AM voice signal such as that heard on the AM
broadcast band or on a CB or aircraft radio has the code A3. All the variations
of AM using voice or video intelligence have the A3 designation, but subscript
letters are used to distinguish them. Examples of codes designating signals
described in this chapter are as follows:
DSB two sidebands, full carrier = A3
DSB two sidebands, suppressed carrier = A3b
SSB single sideband, suppressed carrier = A3j
SSB single sideband, 10 percent pilot carrier = A3a
Vestigial sideband TV = A3c
OOK and ASK = A1
Note that there are special designations for fax and pulse transmissions, and
that the number 9 covers any special modulation or techniques not covered
elsewhere. When a number precedes the letter code, the number refers to
bandwidth in kilohertz. For example, the designation 10A3 refers to a 10-kHz
bandwidth voice AM signal. The designation 20A3h refers to an AM SSB
signal with full carrier and message frequency to 20 kHz.
Table 5.1 Radio emission code designations.
Letter
A
Amplitude modulation
F
Frequency modulation

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P
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Phase modulation
Carrier ON only, no message (radio beacon)
Carrier ON/OFF, no message (Morse code, radar)
Carrier ON, keyed tone ON/OFF (code)
Telephony, message as voice or music
Fax, nonmoving graphics (slow-scan TV)
Vestigial sideband (commercial TV)
Four-frequency diplex telegraphy
Multiple sidebands each with different message
General (all others)

None
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
j

Double sideband, full carrier


Single sideband, reduced carrier
Double sideband, no carrier
Vestigial sideband
Carrier pulses only, pulse amplitude modulation (PAM)
Carrier pulses only, pulse width modulation (PWM)
Carrier pulses only, pulse position modulation (PPM)
Quantized pulses, digital video
Single sideband, full carrier
Single sideband, no carrier

Subscripts

Another system used to describe a signal is given in table 5.2. It is similar to


the method just described, but with some variations. This is the definition used
by the standards organization International Telecommunications Union (ITU).
Some examples are A3F amplitude-modulated analog TV
J3E SSB voice
F2D FSK data
G7E phase-modulated voice, multiple signals
Table 5.2 ITU emissions designations
Type of Modulation
N
Unmodulated carrier
A
Amplitude modulation
J
Single sideband
F
Frequency modulation
G
Phase modulation
P
Series of pulses, no modulation

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Type of Modulating Signals


0
None
1
Digital, single channel, no modulation
2
Digital, single channel, with modulation
3
Analog, single channel
7
Digital, two or more channels
8
Analog, two or more channels
9
Analog plus digital
Type of Intelligence Signal
N
None
A
Telegraphy, human
B
Telegraphy, machine
C
Fax
D
Data, telemetry, control signals
E
Telephony (human voice)
F
Video, TV
W
Some combination of any of the above

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Self-test 5.0
1. Describe, by means of a block diagram, an AM radio receiver.
2. Label each block in the AM receiver in Figure below.

Label each block in the FM receiver in Figure below.

3.

An AM receiver is tuned to a transmitted frequency of 680 kHz. What is


the local oscillator (LO) frequency?

4.

An FM receiver is tuned to a transmitted frequency of 97.2 MHz,what is


the LO frequency?

5.

The LO in an FM receiver is running at 101.9 MHz what is the incoming


RF? What is the IF?

6.

Draw a block diagram of an AM superheterodyne receiver. Explain the


function of each block. Include the following terms in your description:
selectivity, sensitivity, AGC and image frequency rejection. Indicate
where in the receiver adjacent channel selectivity takes place.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Calculate the image frequency for a receiver whose intermediate


frequency is 455 kHz and the desired carrier frequency is 1 Mhz.
7.

Explain the following terms as they apply to communications receivers:


(i)
Double conversion
(ii)
Up conversion

8.

Determine the output frequency of the IF amplifier for the frequencies


shown in Figure below
IF

980 KHz

amplifier

986.4 KHz

9.

A radio receiver used in the AM system is shown below. The mixer


translates the carrier frequency fc to a fixed IF of 455 kHz by using a
local oscillator of frequency fLO. The broadcast-band frequencies range
from 540 kHz to 1600 kHz.
(a)

Determine the range of tuning that must be provided in the local


oscillator (i) when fLO is higher than fc (superheterodyne receiver)
and (ii) when fLO is lower than fc.

(b)

Based on the results obtained in (a), explain why the usual AM


radio receiver uses a superheterodyne system.

10.

An AM radio station is transmitted with a carrier frequency of 198


kHz. The signal has arrange from 100 Hz to 3.5 kHz.
(a) Calculate the bandwidth of the signal.
(b) Sketch the frequency spectrum of the signal.
(c) Complete the system diagram of a simple AM radio receiver.
Aerial
Speaker

RF
amplifier

Demodulator

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

(d) Explain the function of the RF amplifier.


(e) Explain the function of the demodulator.
11.

A receiver using high side injection has an RF carrier of 27M Hz and an


IF centre. frequency Of 455 kHz. Determine !he local oscillator
frequency, image frequency IFRR for a preselector Q of 100 and
preselector Q required to achieve the same IFRR as that achieved for
an RF carrier of 600 kHz.

12.

For an AM receiver with RF amplifier loaded to an antenna, the coupling


circuit is 100. If the IF Is 455kHz, find the image frequency and its
rejection ratio at 1000 kHz and at 25M Hz. Also, find the IF to make the
image rejection as good as 25 MHz as it would be at 1000 kHz.
Calculate the image frequency rejection in dB of a double
superheterodyne receiver which has a first IF at 2 M Hz and a second IF
at 200 kHz. An RF amplifier is tuned to the circuit which has Q = 75 and
which is turned 10 30 MHz

13.

14.

A superheterodyne receiver having an RF amplifier is tuned 10 15 MHz


The IF is 455kHz. The RF amplifier and preselector are equal and
are such that the image rejection is 41.58 dB Calculate Q.

15.

The given figure is the block diagram of the frequency multiplier and
heterodyne portion of an FM transmitter. Determine the carrier
frequency and frequency deviation at the following points
a)

b)

2, and

c)

3.
fC = 7.5MHz
8=5KHz

Multiplier

x3

Multiplier

x4

2
Heterodynes/
Mixer

Oscillator

f O =6MHz

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CHAPTER SIX
Telecommunications System
6.0 Introduction
Telecommunications started in the nineteenth century with the telegraph, and
developed through the telephone and radio to TV to satellites and the Internet
etc. Every year, new technologies increase the services available and the
speed of delivery. In order to have a fairly good knowledge of the different
telecommunication system in use, it is important to examine the evolution of
individual streams of telecommunication systems and technology. One
technology is called third generation (3G) wireless access. With this
technology, wireless carriers plan to sell music, videos, and other exclusive
content that can be downloaded and played on phones designed for 3G
technologies. Wireless carriers are developing the next generation of
technologies that will surpass 3G with even faster data transmission. Another
technology is called fixed wireless service which involves connecting the
telephone and/or Internet wiring system in a home or business to an antenna,
instead of a telephone line.
Wireless telecommunications carriers, many of which are subsidiaries of the
wired carriers, transmit voice, graphics, data, and Internet access through the
transmission of signals over networks of radio towers. The signal is
transmitted through an antenna into the wire line network. Other wireless
services include beeper and paging services. The replacement of land lines
with cellular service should become increasingly common because advances
in wireless systems will provide data transmission speeds comparable to
broadband land line systems.
The data transmitted has advanced from signals (Morse code) through voice
to pictures and data and, with the development of convergence, to
combinations of these. While conventional phone networks use packet
switching to break up a call onto multiple shared lines between central offices,
VoIP extends this process to the phone. A VoIP phone will break the
conversation into digital packets and transmit those packets over a highspeed Internet connection.
One way wired carriers are expanding their bandwidth is by replacing copper
wires with fiber optic cable. Fiber optic cable, which transmits light signals

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

along glass strands, permits faster, higher capacity transmissions than


traditional copper wire lines
6.1 Analog Communications
During the first half of the 20th century, two systems of electrical
communication were developed separately, side-by-side. On the one hand
were telephone and telegraph. These were the first systems that allowed
people to communicate with each other over long distances in real time.
Before that, messages had to be hand-delivered and would take hours or
days, depending on the distance. These new systems relied on a network of
copper wires, which could transmit messages almost instantaneously.
Senders and receivers would be connected through switching centers that
would make solid electrical connections between the two. A physical circuit
had to be established and dedicated to the communication between the two
parties at each end until it was terminated. This technique is called circuit
switching. The second, completely separate, communication means was
wireless transmission of radio and television, usually over high-power radio
frequency carrier waves.
6.2 Digital Communication
The transmission of information from the sender to the recipient through some
medium is called as communication. Communication enables us to know
what is happening around us. It helps us to share our knowledge with others
and also gain from other individual's thoughts and ideas. Communication
takes place through various routes and channels and with the help of a
medium. A person can chat with his distant relative over the phone and thus
the medium of communication in this case is the telephone.
Communication can also take place with the help of light. The airport officials
give various signals through light to the pilots for their safe landing. In this case
communication is through light and hence is termed as Optical
communication. Satellites also play a vital role in communication by receiving
signals from the earth station, amplifying it and then resending it back to the
earth. Communication can take place with the aid of an artificial satellite
between two points on the earth. In the same way signal can also be sent in a
digitalized form as in case of Digital communication.
The process of communication is initiated the moment the sender gets some
thought in his brain. To share his ideas with others, the thoughts must be
converted into a meaningful content by careful selection of words. This

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process is also called as encoding. In digital communication, the thought is


converted in a digital format for the recipient to understand. In this mode of
communication, the data or the information is transferred electronically with
the help of computers.
Thus digital communication is a mode of communication where the
information or the thought is encoded digitally as discreet signals and
electronically transferred to the recipients. Digital communication is one of the
most commonly used mode of communication in the current scenario.
Organizations generally rely on this mode for all their business
communications. The most important aspect of any digital communications
system is the required transmission speed. Just how much data needs to be
transmitted, and how fast? The second, equally important aspect is the link
distance. How far apart are sender and receiver?
Generally, digital transmission becomes harder when the transmission speed
and link distance increase. A measure for the effort required to make a digital
communications link work is the bandwidth-distance product. An old
telegraph, for example, transmitted about 100 bit/s, over a maximum distance
of 20 km. The radio downlink from the Voyager spacecraft transmits data
slightly faster, at 160 bit/s, but over an incredible distance of 14.821 billion km.
The much larger bandwidth-distance product of the spacecraft link can be
achieved only with incredible effort.
Every digital link consists of three components: a sender, a transport medium,
and a receiver. Usually, the medium is defined first, depending on the required
link bandwidth, the distance between transmitter and receiver, and economic
considerations. Electrical links are still the most common type; they come in a
great variety, ranging from bond wires within an integrated circuit package to
printed circuit board traces on a motherboard to Ethernet cables connecting
office computers. Fiber-optic cables are used for very high bandwidth
connections in network and storage environments, but it seems as if "fiber to
the home" might be replaced by wireless links in the near future.
6.3 Basic Elements of Digital Communication System
The whole digital communication system is divided as per figure6.1 shown
below. These are the basic elements of any digital communication system and
it gives a basic understanding of communication systems. We will discuss
these basic elements.

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Information
Source and
Input
Transducer

Source Encoder

Channel Encoder

Digital Modulator

Channel

output
Signal
Output
Transducer

Source Decoder

Channel Demodulator

Digital

Demodulator

Basic elements of Digital Communication System

Figure 6.1 Basic elements of digital communication system


Information Source and Input Transducer: The source of information can be
analog or digital, e.g. analog: audio or video signal, digital: like teletype signal.
In digital communication the signal produced by this source is converted into
digital signal consists of 1's and 0's. For this we need source encoder.
Source Encoder: In digital communication we convert the signal from source
into digital signal as mentioned above. The point to remember is we should
like to use as few binary digits as possible to represent the signal. In such a
way this efficient representation of the source output results in little or no
redundancy. This sequence of binary digits is called information sequence:
Source Encoding or Data Compression: the process of efficiently converting
the output of wither analog or digital source into a sequence of binary digits is
known as source encoding.
Channel Encoder: The information sequence is passed through the channel
encoder. The purpose of the channel encoder is to introduced, in controlled
manner, some redundancy in the binary information sequence that can be
used at the receiver to overcome the effects of noise and interference
encountered in the transmission on the signal through the channel. e.g. take k
bits of the information sequence and map that k bits to unique n bit sequence
called code word. The amount of redundancy introduced is measured by the
ratio n/k and the reciprocal of this ratio (k/n) is known as rate of code or code
rate.

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Digital Modulator: The binary sequence is passed to digital modulator which in


turns convert the sequence into electric signals so that we can transmit them
on channel (we will see channel later). The digital modulator maps the binary
sequences into signal wave forms , for example if we represent 1 by sin x and
0 by cos x then we will transmit sin x for 1 and cos x for 0. ( a case similar to
BPSK)
Channel: The communication channel is the physical medium that is used for
transmitting signals from transmitter to receiver. In wireless system, this
channel consists of atmosphere , for traditional telephony, this channel is
wired , there are optical channels, under water acoustic channels etc. we
further discriminate this channels on the basis of their property and
characteristics, like AWGN channel etc.
Digital Demodulator: The digital demodulator processes the channel
corrupted transmitted waveform and reduces the waveform to the sequence
of numbers that represents estimates of the transmitted data symbols.
Channel Decoder: This sequence of numbers then passed through the
channel decoder which attempts to reconstruct the original information
sequence from the knowledge of the code used by the channel encoder and
the redundancy contained in the received data
The average probability of a bit error at the output of the decoder is a measure
of the performance of the demodulator decoder combination.
Source Decoder: At the end, if an analog signal is desired then source
decoder tries to decode the sequence from the knowledge of the encoding
algorithm. And which results in the approximate replica of the input at the
transmitter end
Output Transducer: Finally we get the desired signal in desired format analog
or digital. The points worth noting are:
the source coding algorithm plays important role in higher code rate
the channel encoder introduced redundancy in data
the modulation scheme plays important role in deciding the data rate
and immunity of signal towards the errors introduced by the channel
channel introduced many types of errors like multi path, errors due to
thermal noise etc.
the demodulator and decoder should provide high BER.
In the coming articles of the series we will explore more the different elements
along with their characteristics, types, and also analyze the results of

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simulations. The next post will be on communication channels and their


characteristics and also their mathematical models.
6.3.1 Reasons for Use of Digital Communication
There are several advantages for transmitting data in digital format over
transmission using analog format some of these advantages include.
Ease of regeneration: digital signal can be easily reproduced or regenerated.
Digital signals are transmitted in the form of pulses, if a pulse is distorted
during transmission it can be easily regenerated using electronic circuits
called repeaters.
Noise immunity: digital signals are more immune to noise and distortion than
analog signals. This is because digital signals can be regenerated and
reproduce without any loss. The fact that a digital signal is transmitted as a
pulse if this pulse is corrupted by noise one can regenerate the pulse all over
again and remove the noise completely. The fact that a binary signal takes
only two values (two-state signals) makes it easy to differentiate between
these two values. An analog signal however, takes on an infinite number of
values and once corrupted by noise we cannot remove the noise completely.
Ease of transmission: digital data are easier to transmit and offer less room for
errors to occur. This leads to faster transmission rates and better productivity.
Ease of multiplexing: using digital technology we can transmit several signal
simultaneously over the same communication like and reach higher data rate.
Use of modern technology: The current technology operates in digital for-mat
and better switching information delivery is achieved using digital technology
with less cost.
Ease of encryption: when data is represented in digital format it is easier to
encrypt it to add more security to the transmitted information. In recent years
encryption has gain more importance, many communication systems use
encryption techniques for privacy and for authentication processes. The
major disadvantage of digital transmission is that it requires a greater transmission bandwidth or channel bandwidth to communicate the same
information in digital format as compared to analog format. The transmission
bandwidth is a very valuable resource, and in general the bandwidth of a
communication system is some-thing fixed and cannot be changed arbitrarily.
Another disadvantage of digital transmission is that digital detection requires
system synchronization, whereas analog signals generally have no such
requirement.

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

183

6.4 Data Communications


Data Communications is the transfer of data or information between a source
and a receiver. The source transmits the data and the receiver receives it.
Data communication involved the following like communication networks,
different communication services required, the kind of networks available,
protocol architectures, OSI models, TCP/IP protocol models etc. Data
Communication is interested in the transfer of data, the method of transfer and
the preservation of the data during the transfer process. The purpose of Data
Communications is to provide the rules and regulations that allow computers
with different disk operating systems, languages, cabling and locations to
share resources. The rules and regulations are called protocols and
standards in Data Communications.
Source System

Source

Destination System

Transmitter

Receiver

Destination

Transmission
System

Figure 6.2 Data Communication System


The block diagram of a data communication system is shown in figure 6.2 and
explained as follows;
Source: It is the generator of data that will pass on the destination using
networks. Without any request source never passes the data to destination.
So, if source is passing the data means any of the destinations is requesting
for data using some query languages.
Transmitter: It is simply a device used to convert the data as per the
destination requirement. For example a modem, converts the analog
(telephonic signals) signal to digital (computer signals) signals and
alternatively digital to analog also.
Transmission System: To transmit the data on different connected systems
we use different transmission systems. Data transmission using transmission
system means the physical transfer of data over point-to-point or point-tomultipoint communication channels. Example of such channels are copper
wires, optical fibers even wireless communication channels etc.

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Receiver: This receives the signals from the transmission system and
converts it into a form that is suitable to the destination device. For example, a
modem accepts analog signal from a transmission channel and transforms it
into digital bit stream which is acceptable by computer system.
Destination: It is simply a device for which source device sends the data.
6.4.1 Data Communication Network and Services
Communication Network is set of equipment or say facilities that provide a
communication services like to transfer of data between two or more nodes
located in any of its geographical point. Example of such networks includes
computer networks (LAN/WAN), intranet networks, telephone networks,
television broadcasting networks, cellular networks etc.
Radio and Television Networks: These networks are very common network
usage various stations to transmit an ensemble of signals simultaneously
over network of cables. Aside from selecting the station of interest, the role of
the user in these services is passive. Relatively high audio and video quality is
expected here but a significant amount of delay (fraction of second) can be
tolerated even in live broadcasting.
Telephone Networks: This service is real-time service provided by a network.
Two persons are able to communicate by transmitting their voice across the
network. These services are called connection-oriented service because to
establish such communication users must first interact with the network.
Cellular Networks: These networks extends the normal telephone service to
mobile users who are free to move within a regional area covered by an
interconnected array of smaller geographical areas called cells. Each cell has
a radio transmission system that allows it to communicate with users in its
area. Cellular provides also support a roaming service where a subscriber is
able to place calls while visiting regional area other than the home. There are
many other network services like Video on Demand, Streaming Audiovisual,
and Audio-Video Conferencing etc available.
6.4.2 Data Communication Protocols and Protocol Architecture
To transfer any file or say data between two or more computers there must be
a path either directly or any communication network known as computer
communication. Similarly when two or more computers are interconnected via

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a communication network referred as computer network. Computer


communication and computer network has some protocols and
communication architecture. A protocol is set of rules for communicating
between computers. Protocol includes the key like data format, timings,
sequencing, error controls etc. Without these rules, the computer cannot
make sense of the stream of incoming bits. Basically, protocol is software that
resides either in a computer's memory or in the memory of a transmission
device, like network interface card. When data is ready for transmission, this
software is executed. Two protocol architectures have served as the basis for
the development of interoperable communications standards: the TCP/IP
protocol suite and the OSI reference model. TCP/IP is the most widely used
interoperable architecture, and OSI has become the standard model for
classifying communication functions. See figure 6.3.Here is the brief
introduction of them.
OSI Model Layers

Protocols

Application
Presentation

SMTP, FTP, DNS, WWW, HTTP, TELNET

Application Layer

Session
Transport

TCP, UDP

Network
or
Internet

ARP, RARP, IP, ICMP

Network Layer

Specific to the underlying


media at hardware level.

Interface Layer

Datalink Layer
Physical Layer

Transport Layer

Figure 6.3 The OSI Model Layers


The OSI Protocol Architecture: Open System Interconnection (OSI) includes
set of protocols that attempt to define and standardize the data
communication process defined by International Standardization for
Organizations. The OSI model shown in figure 6.4 has seven layers as
discussed below.

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Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical

Figure 6.4 The OSI Model


1.
Physical Layer
Physical Layer deals with the hardware level like, transmission media,
connections and the voltage for digital signals. In other word physical layer
provides the electrical and mechanical interface to the network medium
(cables).
2.
Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer deals with physical transfer, framing (the assembly of data
bits into single unit), flow control and error control functions. It is responsible
for getting the data packaged for the physical layer. Data Link layer subdivided
into two parts LLC (Logical Link Control) and MAC (Medium Access Control).
3.
Network Layer
Network Layer is very important layer in OSI Protocol Architecture. Network
layer deals with the transfer of data in the form of packets over the
communication networks. A key aspect of this transfer is the routing of packets
from the source to destination machine. Routing is the process by which a
path is selected out of many available paths to the destination so that data
packets reach the destination fast, efficiently, reliably as required. Network
layer is also responsible for translating logical address or names into physical
(or data link) addresses.
4.
Transport Layer
Transport Layer ensures that data is successfully sent and received between
two end nodes. If data is sent incorrectly, this layer has the responsibility to ask
for re-transmission of the data. Also it ensures data are passes onto the upper
layers in the same order in which they were sent. Specially, it provides a

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reliable, network-independent message interchange service to the top three


application oriented layers.
5.
Session Layer
Session Layers decides when to turn communication on or off between two
computers. It also deals with the programs running in each machine to
establish conversations between them.
6.
Presentation Layer
Presentation Layer performs code conversation and data re-formatting
(translating). It is translator of the network, making sure the data is in the
correct form for the receiving application.
7.
Application Layer
This layer provides the interface between the software running in a computer
and the network. It provides functions to the user's software, including file
transfer access and management and electronic mail services.
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture: TCP/IP has no any official protocol model as
there is in case of ISI model. OSI model where defined by International
Standardization for Organizations (ISO). But in case TCP/IP, has no any such.
However, based on protocol standards TCP/IP have been developed and it
has five layers. See figure 6.4.
Application
Transport
Internet
Physical

Figure 6.4 TCP/IP Layers


1.
Physical Layer
Physical Layer covers the interface between a data transmission device
(computer) and a transmission medium or network.
2.
Network Layer
This layer covers the exchange of data between end systems and the network

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to which it is attached. The transmitter computer provide the network path and
destination address.
3.
Internet Layer
Internet Protocol is used by this layer to provide the routing function across
multiple networks.
4.
Transport Layer
This layer ensures that data is sent and received successfully or not. If any
error occurred then it sends the re-transmission request.
5.
Application Layer
It provides user friendly interface between user and transmission devices. For
example, file transfer, electronic mail services etc.
6.4.3 Data Digitization
Before it can be sent across a data network, information must be converted
from its native human interpretable form into a format native to computers.
Humans operate in an analog world. Sounds have varying frequency and
loudness, pictures have varying colors and shapes, and each character of text
can be one of several options, depending on the language being used.
Computers operate in a digital world: the only values they understand are one
and zero. All data must be represented as a series of these two basic values.
Each one or zero in the data stream is known as bit. The digital data-bit stream
is usually broken into chunks of 8 bits, known as a byte or octet. The
significance of 8 bits to a byte is based on the number of bits required to
represent a single character in the most common encoding schemes
discussed later in this section.
The process of converting analog human interpretable data into digital data
for use by computers is known as digitization. There are many different
techniques available to digitize data. For audio and video information,
specialized computer programs known as CODECS (COder/DECoder) are
used. Examples of data streams produced by CODECs include MP3, AAC,
and DIVX. In addition to simply providing a means of converting analog data to
a digital format, most CODECs provide a means of compressing the data.
This compression happens prior to the data entering the data communication
system and should not be confused with online data compression techniques.
For textual information, the process of transforming humanly readable
characters into machine-readable code is known as character encoding.

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Using an encoding scheme, characters are turned into a series of ones and
zeroes. There are multiple protocols or standards that can be used to code
characters. The most commonly used standards include ASCII, EBCDIC, and
UNICODE.
6.4.4 Data compression
Data compression involves the sending device replacing large strings of
repeating character patterns with a special code that represents the pattern.
The code is then sent to the destination device. From that point forward, the
sending device replaces any instances of the original pattern with the code. As
the code is significantly smaller than the pattern it represents, the amount of
data sent between the two devices is reduced as compared to sending the raw
data. This reduction, up to 400 percent under optimal conditions, results in an
increased amount of data being sent between the sending device and the
receiving device (also known as throughput). One way to get additional data
throughput is to employ data compression. It is important to note that all data
compression technologies use a similar process.
Software vs Hardware Data Compression: The data compression techniques
above hardware based, implemented in the communication devices
themselves. If both software and hardware compression are available,
software compression is usually more effective because the software
packages are typically optimized for the type of data being sent. Hardware
compression must be generic as the device designers have no idea of the type
of data the might be transmitted. Regardless of whether hardware or software
compression is chosen, both hardware and software compression should
never both enabled at the same time
6.4.5 Data Transmission
Data transmission occurs between transmission and receiver over some
transmission medium. Successful transmission of data depends on two main
factors, quality of signal being transmitted and characteristics of transmission
medium. Data transmission always uses the form of electromagnetic waves
and they are classified into guided electromagnetic waves and unguided
electromagnetic waves. Examples of guided waves are twisted pair, coaxial
cable and optical fiber. Unguided waves means transmitting electromagnetic
waves but they are not guided as example propagation through air, vacuum
and seawater.
6.4.6 Transmission Configurations and Terminology

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In general there are two types of transmission configuration used as given in


figure 6.5:
Point to Point Transmission Configuration: In point to point configuration two
devices propagate signals directly from transmitter to receiver with no
intermediate devices, other than amplifiers and repeater used to increase
signal strength.

Transmitter
or
Receiver

Amplifier
or
Repeater

Medium

Transmitter
or
Receiver

Medium

(a) Point to Point Transmission Configuration

Transmitter
or
Receiver

Transmitter
or
Receiver

Medium

Transmitter
or
Receiver

Amplifier
or
Repeater

Transmitter
or
Receiver

Medium

(b) Multi-Point Transmission Configuration


Figure 6.5 Transmission Configuration
Multi-Point Transmission Configuration: In multipoint configuration, more than
two devices share the same medium and usage all devices.
There are several concepts that apply to all data transmission technologies
and are considered as follows;
Serial vs. Parallel Transmission: The bits that represent human-readable
characters can be transmitted in either of two basic transmission
methodologies: either simultaneously (parallel transmission) or in a linear
fashion, one after the other (serial transmission). The difference between
each of these transmission methodologies is illustrated in Figure 6.6. As
illustrated in Figure 6.6, parallel communication is natively faster than serial
communication as multiple bits are sent concurrently. There is a key limiting
factor to the application of parallel communication, however: The multiple

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signal lines running in parallel tend to create interference with each other in an
electrical transmission environment. A common application for parallel
communication is communicating between subsystems within a computer.
Common examples of this type of parallel communication include the PCI bus
and IDE/ATA and SCSI hard drive connections.
Parallel

Serial
1 byte consisting of
8 serial bits
Sender

1 byte consisting of
8 parallel bits

10100101

Receiver

Circuit consists of
ONE copper wire

Sender

Receiver
0

1
0

Circuit consists of
EIGHT copper
wires

Figure 6.6 Serial and Parallel Transmission Illustrated


Serial communication is typically used between computers and external
devices. In this application the reduced number of wires required to carry the
signal means that cables are less expensive and more flexible. For this
reason, all local area and wide area network connections are serial in nature.
Synchronous vs. Asynchronous Transmission: When devices are
communicating, they are exchanging some sort of detectable signal that
represents the data. The originating and destination devices must establish
and maintain some type of timing between them so that signals are produced,
transmitted, and detected accurately.

Asynchronous transmission
1000011
modem

1010101

Stop bit

1 010010

1 01 0100

Start bit

modem

Characteristics:

Efficiency (1000 byte transmission)

Data is sent one byte at a time


Each byte has a start and 1, 1.5, or 2 stop bits
Synchronization is reestablished for each byte
Time between bytes is unsynchronized and of random
length

Control / Overhead bits: 1 start and stop bits per byte


2 control bits per byte x 1000 bytes = 2000 control bits
7000 data bits / 9000 total bits = 77.7% efficient

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Synchronous transmission
1 00001 110101 01 101 00101 010100
modem

Synchronization byte

modem

Characteristics:

Efficiency (1000 byte transmission)

Data is sent as a block of uninterrupted bytes


Synchronization bytes precede and follow the data
block
Synchronization is maintained whether data is
actually being sent and detected or not
Modems remain synchronized during idle time

Control / Overhead bits: 48 total control bits per block


using HDLC
48 control bits per block x 1 block = 48 control bits
7000 data bits / 7048 total bits = 99.3% efficient

Figure 6.7 Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Transmission


There are two main alternatives to establishing and maintaining the timing for
the sampling of the signals. These two timing alternatives are known as
asynchronous and synchronous transmission. Figure 6.7 summarizes some
important characteristics about asynchronous and synchronous transmission
methods for 8-bit character-based data transmission.
Half vs. Full Duplex Communication: Data communications sessions are
bidirectional in nature. There are two environments available for handling this
bidirectional traffic: full and half duplex. In a full duplex communications
environment both devices can transmit at the same time. In a half-duplex
environment you can only hear or talk at any given point in time. This is similar
to a conversation taking place via a walkie-talkie. When two data
communication devices are communicating in a half-duplex environment, one
device must be the transmitter and the other the receiver. In order to enable
bidirectional communication they periodically have to reverse roles. Even if
the objective of the communication is to send a file from the sender to the
destination some communication must go from the destination back to the
sender. This reverse direction data includes error detection and correction
information
Modulation/Demodulation: Although all modern data communications
systems transmit digital data, depending on the type of communication
channel used for the transmission it might have to be converted to an analog
signal for transmission. The process of converting digital data into an analog
signal is known as modulation. Conversely, the process of converting a
modulated analog signal back into a digital format is known as demodulation.
Communications equipment that handles this conversion of data between
digital and analog formats is known as a MOdulator/DEModulator, or modem.

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digital

digital

analog

Local PC

Remote PC
1000001

1000001

PSTN
cable,
etc.

modem

modem
Input
Digital data

Processing
Transform digital data input
to analog data output
(modulation)

Output - Input
Analog

Processing
Transform analog data input
to digital data output
(demodulation)

Output
Digital data

Figure 6.8 Modem Based Communication Channels


As shown in Figure 6.8, modems are placed at each end of the analog
communication channel between the sending device and the channel.
Baud Rate vs Transmission Rate: The number of signaling events per second
is more properly known as the baud rate. Although baud rate and bps (bits per
second) or transmission rate are often used interchangeably, the two terms
are in fact related, but not identical.
6.4.7 Data Communication Techniques
Packetization: Packetization is the process of dividing the data steam flowing
between devices into structured blocks known as packets.
Data
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

Packets
Source
Address

Destination
Address

Sequence
Number

Source
Address

Error
Check

Destination
Address

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

Sequence
Number

Source
Address

Error
Check

Destination
Address

1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0

Sequence
Number

Error
Check

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1

Figure 6.9 Packetization Process


The packetization process is illustrated in Figure 6.9.Apacket can be defined
as a group of bits organized in a predetermined, structured manner consisting
of a piece of the overall datastream to which overhead or management
information is added to assure error-freetransmission of the data to its

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destination. These packets may be referred to as messages, sessions,


frames, cells, blocks, data units, or several other names, depending on which
layer of the OSI Network Reference Model they are located.
Encapsulation/De-encapsulation: When the remote device receives a
sequence of bits, the physical layer at the remote device passes the bits to the
data link layer for manipulation. Once the data is packetized, it is placed in
protocol containers for transmission across the network. a data message
emerges from an application and proceeds down the protocol stack of the
network operating system in a process known as encapsulation. When the full
bit stream arrives at the destination computer, the reverse process of
encapsulation, known as de-encapsulation, takes place.
Multiplexing: Multiplexing is the process of sharing the bandwidth of a data
line among multiple communication sessions. Multiplexing refers to taking a
single communication channel and breaking it into sub channels that can be
used to carry independent messages. After the data is packetized, the
packets are multiplexed into a single truck for transmission. In data
communications, a multiplexer (also known as a MUX) takes data packets
and packages them for transmission over a shared connection along with data
packages from other sources. Once the package is received at the destination
address, the data packets are de-multiplexed and forwarded to their
respective destinations. These destinations represent the applications and
services that require connectivity. Examples include web browsing and
instant messaging. Three basic techniques are employed in multiplexing
digitized traffic across electrical physical connections where bits of data are
transmitted as discrete voltages of electricity are;

Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)


Time Division Multiplexing (TD)
Statistical Time Division Multiplexing (STDM)
Wave length division multiplexing (WDM)

6.4.8 Switching
If a device wishes to communicate with another device to which it has a direct
connection, it is relatively simple to establish a connection and begin
transmitting data. Switching allows temporary connections to be established,
maintained and terminated between sources and destinations, sometimes
referred to as data sink. There are two primary switching techniques
employed in switching architectures:

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

195

Circuit switching
Packet switching

Circuit Switching: In a circuit-switched network, the work to create a signal


path is done up front; a switch fabric creates a direct electrical or optical path
between the source and the destination. After the circuit is established,
communication takes place just as if the temporary circuit were a permanent
direct connection: The switched dedicated circuit established on circuitswitched networks makes it appear to the user of the circuit as if a wire has
been run directly between the communicating devices. The physical
resources required to create this temporary connection are dedicated to that
particular circuit for the duration of the connection. The most common
example of a circuit-switched network is the telephone system or Public
Switched Telephone Network (PSTN).
Packet Switching: Packets are specially structured groups of data that include
control and address information in addition to the data itself. In a packetswitched network, packets of data travel one at a time from the message
source to the message destination. A packet switched network, otherwise
known as a public data network (PDN), is usually represented in network
diagrams by a cloud symbol. The cloud is an appropriate symbol for a packetswitched network because all that is known is that the packet of data goes in
one side of the network and comes out the other. The physical path taken by
one packet may be different than that taken by the other packets in the data
stream and in any case, is unknown to the end user.
Figure 6.10 illustrates the difference between circuit switching and packet
switching.
Circuit Switching
Switch Dedicated Circuits
Switch Dedicated Circuits
Voice or
data

Voice or
data

Central Office
All data or voice travel from source to destination over the same physical path
Packet Switching

Packet
assembler/
disassembler

Packet
assembler/
disassembler

PAD

PAD

Packet-switched network
(Public data network)
Data enter the packet-switched network one packet at a time;
Packets may take different physical paths within packet-switched networks.

Figure 6.10 Circuit Switching vs. Packet Switching

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6.4.9
Message
A message in a data network corresponds roughly to the everyday English
usage of the word. For example, in an airline reservation system, we would
regard a request for a reservation, including date, flight number, passenger
names, and so on, as a message. In an electronic mail system, a message
would be a single document from one user to another. If that same document
is then forwarded to several other users, we would sometimes want to regard
this forwarding as several new messages and sometimes as forwarding of the
same message, depending on the context. In a file transfer system, a
message would usually be regarded as a file. In an image transmission
system (i.e., pictures, figures, diagrams, etc.), we would regard a message as
an image. In an application requiring interactive communication between two
or more users, a message would be one unit of communication from one user
to another.
6.4.10
Packets and Packet Assembly
Packets are specially structured groups of data that include control and
address information in addition to the data itself. These packets must be
assembled (control and address information added to data) somewhere
before entry into the packet switched network and must be subsequently
disassembled upon leaving the packet switched network before delivery to
their destination. This packet assembly and disassembly is done by devices
known as PADs or packet assembler/disassemblers. PADs may be
standalone devices or may be integrated into other data communication
devices such as modems or multiplexers. The PADs may be located directly at
an end-user location, or may be located further along the communication path
at the entry point to the packet-switched data network.
6.4.11
Error in Data Communication
Data transmission errors occur when received data are misinterpreted due to
noise or interference on the communication lines over which the data
message traveled. For a data communication session to be useful there must
be a means of handling any transmission problems to ensure the reliable
transmission of accurate data.
Error Detection: Once everything possible has been done to prevent errors,
the focus shifts to reliably detecting the errors that do occur. Remembering
that transmitted data, on the mostelementary level, is merely a stream of ones
and zeroes, the role of error detection can be defined as providing the
assurance that the receiving computer receives the same ones and zeros.

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Error Prevention: Errors can be prevented by employing filters, amplifiers, and


repeaters in the communication channel to improve the signal to noise ratio to
reduce the likelihood of an error occurring. Another way in which errors can be
prevented during data transmission is through the use of adaptive protocols.
Adaptive protocols adjust transmission session parameters such as base
transmission speed in response to varying line conditions.
Parity: Parity, also known as a vertical redundancy check (VRC), is the simple
sterror - detection technique. Parity works by adding an error check bit to each
character. For example, since the ASCII 7-bit code for the letter A is
1000001shown in figure 6.11, a parity bit is added as the eighth bit. Whether
this bit should be a 0 or a 1 depends on whether odd or even parity has been
defined or agreed upon in advance by communicating devices. These devices
can also agree to data transmission with no parity
Letter A with odd and even parity
Letter A in
7-bit ASCII

Parity bit
Face Value:

Odd

10000011

1+0+0+0+0+0+1+1

= 3 (odd)

Even

1000001 0

1 +0+0+0+0+0+1+0

= 2 (even)

Figure 6.11 Odd and Even Parity


Error Correction: Error correction amounts to the receiving device detecting
the error and requesting a re-transmission and the transmitting device
retransmitting the data containing the error. The differences in sophistication
between the various error correcting protocols are centered on how is the
retransmission requested, how much data must be re-transmitted and how is
retransmission time minimized.
6.4.12
Data Communication Applications
E-Mail
Voice Applications
Groupware
Batch Applications
Data Entry Applications
Distributed Applications
Inquiry/Response Applications
Interactive Applications

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Sensor-Based Applications
Combined Applications
6.5 Wireless Communication
Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a
distance without help of wires, cables or any other forms of electrical
conductors. The transmitted distance can be anywhere between a few meters
(for example, a television's remote control) and thousands of kilometers (for
example, radio communication).Some of the devices used for wireless
communication are cordless telephones, mobiles, GPS units, wireless
computer parts, and satellite television etc. Following are some reasons
because of we are using wireless communication. There are different types of
wireless communication such as IR communications, broadcast
communication, satellite communication and cellular communication. Each of
these types of communications with its working are explained below in
detailed.
Infrared (IR) wireless communication: IR wireless communication
communicates data or information in devices or systems through infrared (IR)
radiation. Infrared is electromagnetic energy at a wavelength that is longer
than that of red light.
Broadcasts: Broadcasting is the dissemination of content or packet that will be
received by every device on the network over a wide geographical area.
Satellite Communications: Satellite communication is the communication in
which an array of orbiting satellites is used tocommunicate between two
distant sites on earth by bouncing signals of satellite.
Cellular Service: In this communication, area is subdivided into multiple cells
or zones with unique frequencies as signed to each cell.
6.5.1 Principles of Wireless Radio Communication
The simplest scheme of wireless communication would be to convert the
speech or music to be transmitted to electric signals using a microphone,
boost up the power of the signal using amplifiers and radiate the signal in
space with the air of an antenna. This would constitute the transmitter. At the
receiver end, one could have a pick-up antenna feeding the speech or music
signal to an amplifier and a loud speaker. (See figure 6.12)

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Antenna

Antenna

Loud
speaker

Microphone
Amplifier

Amplifier

Transmitter

Receiver

Figure 6.12 Simple wireless communication scheme


The above scheme suffers from the following drawbacks:
(i)
EM waves in the frequency range of 20 Hz - 20 kHz (audio-frequency
range) cannot be efficiently radiated and do not propagate well in
space.
(ii)
Simultaneous transmission of different signals by different transmitters
would lead to confusion at the receiver.
In order to solve these problems; we need to devise methods to convert or
translate the audio signals to the radio-frequency range before transmission
and recover the audio-frequency signals back at the receiver. Different
transmitting stations can then be allotted slots in the radio-frequency range
and a single receiver can then tune into these transmitters without confusion.
The frequency range 500 kHz to 20 MHz is reserved for amplitude-modulated
broadcast, which is the range covered by most three band transistor radios.
The process of frequency translation at the transmitter is called modulation.
The process of recovering the audio-signal at the receiver is called
demodulation. A simplified block diagram of such a system is shown in figure
6.13.
Antenna

Microphone
Modualator

Amplifier
Transmitter

Antenna

Amplifier
Amplifier

Demodualtor
Demodualator

Audio
amplifier

Loud
speaker

Receiver

Figure 6.13 Audio Signal Recovery

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Microwaves are radio waves with frequencies higher than television signals.
The wavelengths of microwaves are of the order of a few millimeters. We
know that sound waves spread and bend around the corner of an obstacle.
This is because the wavelength of sound wave is generally comparable to the
size of the obstacle. Unlike a sound wave, a light wave keeps itself along a
straight path. Moreover, the light waves bend by only a small amount at the
corners of the obstacles. This is because the wavelength of light waves is
smaller as compared to the wavelength of sound waves. Thus, lesser the
wavelength of a wave, smaller is it's bending at the corners of ordinary
obstacles and greater the ability of the wave to follow a straight path. The
wavelength of microwaves is very small as compared to the wavelength of
radio waves. So, microwaves are better suited to beam signals in a particular
direction.
6.5.2 Advantages of Wireless Communication
Increased efficiency - Improved communications leads to faster transfer of
information within businesses and between partners/customers.
Greater flexibility and mobility for users - Office-based wireless workers
can be networked without sitting at dedicated PCs.
Reduced costs - Relative to 'wired', wireless networks are, in most cases,
cheaper to install and maintain.
Anywhere, Anytime Work-Through wireless communication, working
professionals and mobile workers can work and access the Internet just
about anywhere, anytime without the hassles of wires and network
cables.
Enhanced Productivity- Wireless Internet connectivity options ensures
that work and assignments can be completed anywhere and enhance
overall productivity of all concerned.
Remote Area Connectivity-Workers, doctors and other professionals
working in remote location hospitals and medical centres can keep in touch
with anyone through wireless communication.
On-Demand Entertainment Bonanza- Wireless communication ensures
an entertainment bonanza on--demand and anytime. For those unable to
keep away from their daily soap operas, reality-programs, online TV shows
and Internet surfing or download activities.
Emergency Alerts-Through wireless communication, many emergency
situations and crisis situations can be addressed quickly. Help and other
assistance can reach affected areas quickly through early alerts and
warnings provided with the help of wireless communication.

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Neat and easy Installation-Since no cable running here and there, just start
up the wireless device and we are ready to rumble
More users supported - Cable device have limited slots whereas wireless
does not. So it is more supported for user.
6.6 Broadcast Communication
Broadcasting refers to a method of transferring a message to all recipients
simultaneously. See figure 6.14.Broadcasting can be performed as a high
level operation in a program, for example broadcasting Message Passing
Interface, or it may be a low level networking operation, for example
broadcasting on Ethernet. Broadcasting is the distribution of information to all
receivers. Information may be anything. It may be audio, video content to a
dispersed audience via any audio or visual mass communications medium,
but usually using electromagnetic radiation (radio waves). The receiving
parties may include the general public or a relatively large subset of public.
Broadcasting has been used for purposes of private recreation, noncommercial exchange of messages, experimentation, self-training, and
emergency communication in addition to commercial purposes like popular
radio or TV stations with advertisements.
Broadcast

Origen

Destino

Destino

Destino

Figure 6.14 Broadcast Communication


The final leg of broadcast distribution is how the signal gets to the listener or
viewer. A broadcast may be distributed to stations or networks through several
physical means, such as magnetic tape, compact disc, DVD, and sometimes
other formats. It may broadcast through the air as radio waves from radio
station or television station to the transmitter to radio/ television antenna and
thus to the radio receiver. Programming may also come through a
communications satellite, played either live or recorded for later transmission.

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Or it may broadcast through cable television or cable radio via the station or
directly from a network. The "broadcast network" is used to distinguish
networks that broadcast an over-the-air television signals and only via cable
television. Over the air television signal that can be received using a tuner
inside a television set with a television antenna and cable television
6.7 Satellite Communication
A satellite communications system uses satellites to relay radio transmissions
between earth's terminals. The two types of communications satellites are
ACTIVE and PASSIVE. A passive satellite only reflects received radio signals
back to earth. An active satellite acts as a REPEATER; it amplifies signals
received and then retransmits them back to earth. This increases signal
strength at the receiving terminal to a higher level than would be available
from a passive satellite. A typical operational link involves an active satellite
and two or more earth terminals. One station transmits to the satellite on a
frequency called the UP-LINK frequency. The satellite then amplifies the
signal, converts it to the DOWN-LINK frequency, and transmits it back to
earth. The signal is next picked up by the receiving terminal. Figure6.15
shows a satellite communications. Satellite
Uplink
Antenna

Downlink
Antenna

Earth station

Earth station

Terrestrial
system

Terrestrial
system

User

User

Figure 6.15 Working of Satellite Communication


All satellite communications earth terminals are equipped with specially
designed, highly sensitive RECEIVERS. These receivers are designed to
overcome down-link power losses and to permit extraction of the desired
communications information from the weak received signal. The terminals
currently in use have specially designed preamplifiers mounted directly
behind the antennas.

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All earth terminal TRANSMITTERS generate high-power signals for


transmission to the communications satellites. High-powered
TRANSMITTERS and highly directional, high-gain antennas are combined in
this configuration. This is necessary to overcome up-link limitations and to
ensure that the signals received by the satellite are strong enough to be
detected by the satellite. Each transmitter has an exciter/modulator and a
power amplifier. The modulator accepts the input signal from the terminal
equipment and modulates an IF carrier. The exciter translates the IF signal to
the up-link frequency and amplifies it to the level required by the power
amplifier. Transmitters used in earth terminals have output power capabilities
that vary from 10 watts to 20 kilowatts, depending on the type used and the
operational requirements.
Telemetry equipment is included in all communications satellite systems. This
permits monitoring of the operating conditions within the satellite. Telemetry
can be used also for remote control of satellite operations, such as energizing
axial jets for changing the spin axis of the satellite. Satellites are specifically
made for telecommunication purpose. They are used for mobile applications
such as communication to ships, vehicles, planes, hand-held terminals and
for TV and radio broadcasting. They are responsible for providing these
services to an assigned region (area) on the earth. The power and bandwidth
of these satellites depend upon the preferred size of the footprint, complexity
of the traffic control protocol schemes and the cost of ground stations.
6.8 Spread-spectrum telecommunications System
This is a technique in which a (telecommunication) signal is transmitted on a
bandwidth considerably larger than the frequency content of the original
information. Spread-spectrum telecommunications is a signal structuring
technique that employs direct sequence, frequency hopping, or a hybrid of
these, which can be used for multiple access and/or multiple functions. This
technique decreases the potential interference to other receivers while
achieving privacy. Spread spectrum generally makes use of a sequential
noise-like signal structure to spread the normally narrowband information
signal over a relatively wideband (radio) band of frequencies. The receiver
correlates the received signals to retrieve the original information signal.
Originally there were two motivations: either to resist enemy efforts to jam the
communications (anti-jam, or AJ), or to hide the fact that communication was
even taking place, sometimes called low probability of intercept (LPI).
Frequency-hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), direct-sequence spread
spectrum (DSSS), time-hopping spread spectrum (THSS), chirp spread
spectrum (CSS), and combinations of these techniques are forms of spread

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spectrum. Each of these techniques employs pseudorandom number


sequences, created using pseudorandom number generators to determine
and control the spreading pattern of the signal across the allocated
bandwidth. Ultra-wideband (UWB) is another modulation technique that
accomplishes the same purpose, based on transmitting short duration pulses.
Wireless Ethernet standard IEEE 802.11 uses either FHSS or DSSS in its
radio interface.
Spread Spectrum refers to a system originally developed for military
applications, to provide secure communications by spreading the signal over
a large frequency band. Figure 6.16 represents a narrow band signal in the
frequency domain. These narrowband signals are easily jammed by any other
signal in the same band. Likewise, the signal can also be intercepted since the
frequency band is fixed and narrow (i.e. easy to detect).
Narrowband
signal level

Noise
level

Figure 6.16 Narrow band signals, relatively easy to jam or intercepted.


The idea behind spread spectrum is to use more bandwidth than the original
message while maintaining the same signal power. A spread spectrum signal
does not have a clearly distinguishable peak in the spectrum. This makes the
signal more difficult to distinguish from noise and therefore more difficult to
jam or intercept.
6.8.1 General Block Diagram
We present now the block diagram of a typical communication system with the
difference that the modulator/demodulator has as input the spreading
generator shown in figure 6.17. This piece will be explored in following
sections.

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Input
Message

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Channel
Channel
encoder

Modulator

Channel
decoder

Demodulator

Spreading
generator

Output
Message

Spreading
generator

Figure 6.17 Block diagram of the spread spectrum communication system


There are two predominant techniques to spread the spectrum:
1)
Frequency hopping (FH), which makes the narrow band signal jump in
random narrow bands within a larger bandwidth.
2)
Direct sequence (DS) which introduces rapid phase transition to the
data to make it larger in bandwidth. We will focus on Direct Sequence
Spread Spectrum technique since it is the mostly used in the industry
(CDMA, UMTS, 802.11, GPS).
3.
Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) introduces rapid phase
transition to the data making it larger in bandwidth. As the period T of a
signal gets shorter in time (or rate R increases), the bandwidth B of the
signal increases: R = 1/T = 2B (Nyquist Rate) figure 6.18 explain it:
As the pulses in time get
shorter, the frequency
bandwidth gets larger

B5
Bc

t
Tc

T5

Figure 6.18 Rate and period are related to bandwidth by Rs = 1/Ts = 2B


when pulse shaping is use Bc >> Bs
6.8.2 Techniques
Techniques known since the 1940s and used in military communication

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systems since the 1950s "spread" a radio signal over a wide frequency range
several magnitudes higher than minimum requirement. The core principle of
spread spectrum is the use of noise-like carrier waves, and, as the name
implies, bandwidths much wider than that required for simple point-to-point
communication at the same data rate.
Resistance to jamming (interference): DS (direct sequence) is better at
resisting continuous-time narrowband jamming, while FH (frequency
hopping) is better at resisting pulse jamming. In DS systems, narrowband
jamming affects detection performance about as much as if the amount of
jamming power is spread over the whole signal bandwidth, when it will often
not be much stronger than background noise. By contrast, in narrowband
systems where the signal bandwidth is low, the received signal quality will be
severely lowered if the jamming power happens to be concentrated on the
signal bandwidth.
Resistance to eavesdropping: The spreading code (in DS systems) or the
frequency-hopping pattern (in FH systems) is often unknown by anyone for
whom the signal is unintended, in which case it "encrypts" the signal and
reduces the chance of an adversary's making sense of it. Moreover, for a
given noise power spectral density (PSD), spread-spectrum systems require
the same amount of energy per bit before spreading as narrowband systems
and therefore the same amount of power if the bitrate before spreading is the
same, but since the signal power is spread over a large bandwidth, the signal
PSD is much lower often significantly lower than the noise PSD so that
the adversary may be unable to determine whether the signal exists at all.
However, for mission-critical applications, particularly those employing
commercially available radios, spread-spectrum radios do not intrinsically
provide adequate security; "...just using spread-spectrum radio itself is not
sufficient for communications security".
Resistance to fading: The high bandwidth occupied by spread-spectrum
signals offer some frequency diversity, i.e. it is unlikely that the signal will
encounter severe multipath fading over its whole bandwidth, and in other
cases the signal can be detected using e.g. a Rake receiver.
Multiple access capability: Multiple users can transmit simultaneously on the
same frequency (range) as long as they use different spreading codes. See
CDMA.

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6.8.3 Spread-spectrum clock signal generation


Spread-spectrum clock generation (SSCG) is used in some synchronous
digital systems, especially those containing microprocessors, to reduce the
spectral density of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) that these systems
generate. A synchronous digital system is one that is driven by a clock signal
and, because of its periodic nature, has an unavoidably narrow frequency
spectrum. In fact, a perfect clock signal would have all its energy concentrated
at 0 Hz, a single frequency, and its harmonics. Practical synchronous digital
systems radiate electromagnetic energy on a number of narrow bands spread
on the clock frequency and its harmonics, resulting in a frequency spectrum
that, at certain frequencies, can exceed the regulatory limits for
electromagnetic interference. Spread-spectrum clocking avoids this problem
by using one of the methods previously described to reduce the peak radiated
energy and, therefore, its electromagnetic emissions and so comply with
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) regulations. It has become a popular
technique to gain regulatory approval because it requires only simple
equipment modification. It is even more popular in portable electronics
devices because of faster clock speeds and increasing integration of highresolution LCD displays into ever smaller devices. Since these devices are
designed to be lightweight and inexpensive, traditional passive, electronic
measures to reduce EMI, such as capacitors or metal shielding, are not viable.
Active EMI reduction techniques such as spread-spectrum clocking are
needed in these cases. However, spread-spectrum clocking can also create
challenges for designers. Principal among these is clock/data misalignment,
or clock skew.
Note that this method does not reduce total radiated energy, and therefore
systems are not necessarily less likely to cause interference. Spreading
energy over a larger bandwidth effectively reduces electrical and magnetic
readings within narrow bandwidths. Typical measuring receivers used by
EMC testing laboratories divide the electromagnetic spectrum into frequency
bands approximately 120 kHz wide.[2] If the system under test were to radiate
all its energy in a narrow bandwidth, it would register a large peak. Distributing
this same energy into a larger bandwidth prevents systems from putting
enough energy into any one narrowband to exceed the statutory limits. The
usefulness of this method as a means to reduce real-life interference
problems is often debated, since it is perceived that spread-spectrum clocking
hides rather than resolves higher radiated energy issues by simple
exploitation of loopholes in EMC legislation or certification procedures. This
situation results in electronic equipment sensitive to narrow bandwidth(s)
experiencing much less interference, while those with broadband sensitivity,

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or even operated at other frequencies (such as a radio receiver tuned to a


different station), will experience more interference. FCC certification testing
is often completed with the spread-spectrum function enabled in order to
reduce the measured emissions to within acceptable legal limits. However,
the spread-spectrum functionality may be disabled by the user in some cases.
As an example, in the area of personal computers, some BIOS writers include
the ability to disable spread-spectrum clock generation as a user setting,
thereby defeating the object of the EMI regulations. This might be considered
a loophole, but is generally overlooked as long as spread-spectrum is enabled
by default. An ability to disable spread-spectrum clocking in computer
systems is considered useful for over clocking, as spread spectrum can lower
maximum clock speed achievable due to clock skew.
6.9 Mobile Cellular Communication System
A mobile cellular communication system provides a wireless connection to the
public switched telephone network (PSTN) for any user located within the
radio range of the system. The evolution of mobile cellular communications
the cellular concept is concept of dividing a large coverage zone into small
cells. The same spectrum can be reused by different cells, which are
separated by a minimum reuse distance, to increase spectrum usage. The
analog systems using frequency division multiple access (FDMA).Popular
systems examples include Advance Mobile Phone System (AMPS) in the US,
European Total Access Cellular System (ETACS) in Europe and Nippon
Telephone (NTT) system in Japan.
Mobile phones were first introduced in the early 1980s. In the succeeding
years, the underlying technology has gone through three phases, known as
generations. The first generation (1G) phones used analogue communication
techniques: they were bulky and expensive, and were regarded as luxury
items. Mobile phones only became widely used from the mid-1990s, with the
introduction of second generation (2G) technologies such as the Global
System for Mobile Communications (GSM). These use more powerful digital
communication techniques, which have allowed their cost to plummet, and
have also allowed them to provide a wider range of services than before.
Examples include text messaging, email and basic access to the Internet.
Third generation (3G) phones still use digital communications, but they send
and receive their signals in a very different way from their predecessors. This
allows them to support much higher data rates than before, and hence to
provide more demanding services such as video calls and high speed Internet
access. A scenario depicting the mobile communication system is shown in
figure 6.19.

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Figure 6.19 Mobile Communication Scenario


In cellular communications, the choice of multiple accesses is one of the most
important issues. There are three important basic properties of a multiple
access. The properties are flexibility, quality and capacity. Operational
flexibility includes easy frequency/cell planning. Abilities to operate in different
environment provide different services for different cell types and users to
support coexistence with other systems. Quality will include good speech
quality. This can be determined by a subjective test. Quality will also include
good coverage to provide the service to users on demand and reliable
communication in terms of low number of dropped calls. High capacity radio
access is vital for cellular radio because it ensures maximum efficiency for the
limited and expensive spectrum. The basic important properties of different
multiple access technologies used for cellular systems. Time division multiple
access (TDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA). When we entered
a phone number into our cell phone and pressed the [SND] key. Following
sequence happens next:

Scan Control Channels: Our cell phone needs to use the "closest" base
station because that's the one with the strongest signal and the one that
will give the best connection. To find the closest base station, our phone
checks all 21 control channels and determines which has the strongest
signal.

Choose Strongest: Our cell phone chooses the strongest signal and

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decides to use that one for placing the call.

Send Origination Message: Our cell phone now transmits a very short
message that contains the MIN (Mobile Identification Number, aka our
cell phone number), its ESN (Electronic Serial Number), and the
number we just dialed.

Get Channel Assignment: After the cellular service provider verifies that
we are a valid, paying customer (based on the MIN and ESN our phone
sent), the base station sends a Channel Assignment message to our
phone. This message tells our phone where (that is, on which channel)
the conversation will take place.

Begin Conversation: Our cell phone tunes to the assigned channel and
begins the call. The spurts we hear that indicate the phone is ringing at
the other end (which is called "ring back") or the busy signal that we
hear do not begin until we get to this step. Both of these are transmitted
by the base station as an audio signal just like the voice of the person
we are calling.

6.9.1 Basic Structure


Each mobile uses a separate, temporary radio channel to talk to the cell site.
The cell site talks to many mobiles at once, using one channel per mobile.
Channels use a pair of frequencies for communication one frequency, the
forward link, for transmitting from the cell site, and one frequency, the reverse
link, for the cell site to receive calls from the users. Radio energy dissipates
over distance, so mobiles must stay near the base station to maintain
communications. The basic structure of mobile networks includes telephone
systems and radio services. Where mobile radio service operates in a closed
network and has no access to the telephone system, mobile telephone
service allows interconnection to the telephone network (see figure 6.20).

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k

rd
rwa

Lin

Fo

nk

e Li

ers
Rev

Mobile
Base Station
Mobile
Base Station

Mobile
Control Equipment

PSTN
Mobile Operator
Network
Interface
Equipment

Figure 6.20 Basic Mobile Telephone Service Network


Traditional mobile service was structured similar to television broadcasting:
One very powerful transmitter located at the highest spot in an area would
broadcast in a radius of up to fifty kilometers. The cellular concept" structured
the mobile telephone network in a different way. Instead of using one powerful
transmitter, many low-power transmitters were placed throughout a coverage
area. For example, by dividing a metropolitan region into one hundred
different areas (cells) with low-power transmitters using twelve conversations
(channels) each, the system capacity theoretically could be increased from
twelve conversations or voice channels using one powerful transmitter to
twelve hundred conversations (channels) using one hundred low-power
transmitters. Figure 6.21shows a metropolitan area configured as a traditional
mobile telephone network with one high-power transmitter.

Figure 6.21 Early Mobile Telephone System Architecture

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6.9.2 Architecture of a mobile telecommunication system


Figure 6.22 shows the architecture of a mobile telecommunication system.
The system is controlled by a particular network operator and is often known
as a public land mobile network (PLMN).
Interface to
other networks

Base stations
Mobile

Switch
Cells
Subscriber
database
Radio access network

Core network

Figure 6.22 Simplified architecture of a mobile telecommunication system


It has three main components: the core network, the radio access network and
the mobile phone.
The core network has a similar role to a traditional fixed line telephone
network. It sends information like voice calls or text messages from one phone
to other using components known as switches. It also maintains a database
containing information about the network operator's subscribers, and uses the
database for tasks like preparing and distributing bills. Finally, it has a number
of functions that are not required in a fixed line network; for example, it
monitors the locations of the mobile phones, so that it can continue sending
information to them as they move around.
The radio access network handles the radio communications between the
core network and the mobile phone. It contains a large number of base
stations, each of which transmits and receives radio signals to and from the
mobile phones in the surrounding area. The area around a base station is
often divided into multiple sectors by equipping the base station with multiple
directional antennas, each of which communicates with the mobile phones in
the corresponding sector. If this is done, then the number of sectors per base
station is usually either three or two.
The most common word for a part of the radio access network is cell.

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Unfortunately this word is ambiguous: it can refer either to a single sector, or to


the group of sectors that a base station controls. We will use the first definition
throughout this book, so that the words 'cell' and 'sector' will mean exactly the
same thing. Each cell has a maximum size, which is determined by the
greatest distance at which the radio signals can be successfully received. It
also has a maximum capacity, which limits the number of mobile phones that
can make calls within the cell at the same time. In rural areas, the population
densities are low, so capacity is not a problem. The cells are therefore large,
typically a few kilometers across, and are known as macrocells. In urban
areas, the population densities are much greater. To handle this, we can
introduce an extra set of microcells: these are only a few hundred metres
across, so they greatly increase the total capacity of the network. The original
macrocells are usually retained, as they are useful for fast-moving users who
move quickly from one cell to another.
We can also use a third set of picocells; these are a few tens of metres across,
and provide small scale coverage in offices, shopping centres or the
home.The use of cells is a crucial part of the system as it allows the same radio
frequencies to be used in different locations with little interference, which
greatly increases the number of mobile phones that can be supported. For this
reason, the system is often known as a mobile cellular network.
The user's device was traditionally known as a mobile phone but, with the
increased use of data communications like text messaging and email, this
terminology has become rather restrictive. In UMTS, the device is officially
known as the user equipment (UE); in this book, we normally use the simple
term mobile. The interface between the radio access network and the mobile
is known as the air interface or the radio interface. On this interface, the path
from the network to the mobile is known as the downlink (DL) or forward link,
and the path from mobile to network is the uplink (UL) or reverse link.
When a mobile moves from one cell to another, it has to stop communicating
with its current cell and start communicating with the next cell along. This
process is known as a handover, and is controlled by signaling messages
between the mobile and the network. A mobile can also move outside the
region covered by its own network operator, for example when traveling to
another country. The mobile can still make calls by using resources in two
networks: the base stations in the visited network, the user database in the
home network, and switches in both. This situation is known as roaming.
6.9.3 Mobile Telephone System Using the Cellular Concept
Interference problems caused by mobile units using the same channel in

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adjacent areas proved that all channels could not be reused in every cell.
Areas had to be skipped before the same channel could be reused. Even
though this affected the efficiency of the original concept, frequency reuse
was still a viable solution to the problems of mobile telephony systems.
Engineers discovered that the interference effects were not due to the
distance between areas, but to the ratio of the distance between areas to the
transmitter power (radius) of the areas. By reducing the radius of an area by
fifty percent, service providers could increase the number of potential
customers in an area fourfold. Systems based on areas with a one-kilometer
radius would have one hundred times more channels than systems with areas
ten kilometers in radius. Speculation led to the conclusion that by reducing the
radius of areas to a few hundred meters, millions of calls could be served.
The cellular concept employs variable low-power levels, which allows cells to
be sized according to the subscriber density and demand of a given area. As
the population grows, cells can be added to accommodate that growth.
Frequencies used in one cell cluster can be reused in other cells.
Conversations can be handed off from cell to cell to maintain constant phone
service as the user moves between cells (see Figure 6.23).

Figure 6.23 Mobile Telephone System Using a Cellular


Architecture
The cellular radio equipment (base station) can communicate with mobiles as
long as they are within range. Radio energy dissipates over distance, so the
mobiles must be within the operating range of the base station. Like the early
mobile radio system, the base station communicates with mobiles via a
channel. The channel is made of two frequencies, one for transmitting to the
base station and one to receive information from the base station.

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6.9.4 Cellular System Architecture


Increases in demand and the poor quality of existing service led mobile
service providers to research ways to improve the quality of service and to
support more users in their systems. Because the amount of frequency
spectrum available for mobile cellular use was limited, efficient use of the
required frequencies was needed for mobile cellular coverage. In modern
cellular telephony, rural and urban regions are divided into areas according to
specific provisioning guidelines. Deployment parameters, such as amount of
cell-splitting and cell sizes, are determined by engineers experienced in
cellular system architecture. Provisioning for each region is planned
according to an engineering plan that includes cells, clusters, frequency
reuse, and handovers.
Cells: A cell is the basic geographic unit of a cellular system. The term cellular
comes from the honeycomb shape of the areas into which a coverage region
is divided. Cells are base stations transmitting over small geographic areas
that are represented as hexagons. Each cell size varies depending on the
landscape. Because of constraints imposed by natural terrain and man-made
structures, the true shape of cells is not a perfect hexagon.
Clusters: A cluster is a group of cells. No channels are reused within a cluster.
Figure 6.24illustrates a seven-cell cluster.
Cluster size
is expressed as n
In this cluster n=7

Cell 2
Cell 7

Cell 1

Cell 6

Cell 3

Cell 4
Cell 5

Figure 6.24A Seven-Cell Cluster


6.9.5 Frequency Reuse Concepts
Because only a small number of radio channel frequencies were available for
mobile systems, engineers had to find a way to reuse radio channels in order
to carry more than one conversation at a time. The solution the industry
adopted was called frequency planning or frequency reuse. Frequency reuse
was implemented by restructuring the mobile telephone system architecture
into the cellular concept.The concept of frequency reuse is based on

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assigning to each cell a group of radio channels used within a small


geographic area. Cells are assigned a group of channels that is completely
different from neighboring cells. The coverage area of cells is called the
footprint. This footprint is limited by a boundary so that the same group of
channels can be used in different cells that are far enough away from each
other so that their frequencies do not interfere (see Figure 6.25).
Cell 2
Cell 7

Cell 3

Cell 1
Cell 4

Cell 6
Cell 5

Cell 2
Cell 7

Cell 2

Cell 3

Cell 1
Cell 6

Cell 1

Cell 4
Cell 5

Cell 3

Cell 7

Cell 4

Cell 6
Cell 5

Figure 6.25 Frequency Reuse


Cells with the same number have the same set of frequencies. Here, because
the number of available frequencies is 7, the frequency reuse factor is 1/7.
That is, each cell is using 1/7 of available cellular channels.
6.9.6 Cell Splitting
We have seen that reducing the size of cells of a cellular system keeps the SIR
constant but results in an expansion of the network capacity because the
smaller cells cover less area and therefore more cells would be required to
cover the whole region which directly reflects on the network capacity. If the
network is already functioning, it may be found that the network needs
expansion only in specific regions and not networkwide expansion. In this
case, a cell (or multiple cells) can be split into smaller cells and frequencies
are redistributed in a way that does not cause additional interference. This is
shown in figure 6.26. Figure 6.26a shows a cell that has reached it capacity
and needs to be split. This cell is split into several cells. Since the area of a cell
is proportional to R2. So, reducing the cell radius to one half of its original
value, for example, the area of the cell drops to one quarter of its original
value. Therefore, theoretically, 4 of the smaller cells can fit into 1 of the large
cells. However, since it is not possible to fit 4 quartersize hexagonal cells
completely into 1 fullsize hexagonal cell, some regions will have to be
covered by adjacent cells.

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n

PTransmitted in Small Cell


PTransmitted in Large Cell

RSmall Cell
RLarge Cell

(a) original Cell Distribution

(b) Distribution following the splitting


of the cell labeled A in the upper figure
Figure 6.26 Cell Splitting
Note that following cell splitting, the new small cells are reassigned new
frequencies that do not cause co-channel interference with adjacent cells as
shown in the figure 6.26b. In addition, the power transmitted in the small cells
is reduced compared to the power transmitted in the large cells as it would
require much less power to cover the cell compared to the large cells. In fact
the power has to be reduced by a factor of For example, if the cell radius of the
small cells is half the radius of the large cell and the path loss exponent n = 4,
the power transmitted by the tower of the small cell is only 1/16 that of the
power transmitted by the tower of the large cell. In addition to the advantage of
having a higher network capacity due to cell splitting, the reduced transmitted
power, especially by the mobile phone, is another major advantage because it
increases the battery life of these mobile phones. The main disadvantage of
cell splitting is that it requires the construction of new towers, which is very
costly.
6.9.7 Sectoring
Improving Coverage and Capacity is achieved by using cell sectoring. As the
demand for wireless service increases, the number of channels assigned to a

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cell eventually becomes insufficient to support the required number of users.


At this point, cellular design techniques are needed to provide more channels
per unit coverage area. See figure 6.27.
If cells can be

C=

Atotal
Acell

reduced in size, more


of them can be added

S
N

in a given area,
increasing the overall
capacity.

Figure 6.27 Sectoring


The sectoring technique increases the capacity via a different strategy. In this
method, a cell has the same coverage space but instead of using a single
Omnidirectional antenna that transmits in all directions, either 3 or 6
directional antennas are used such that each of these antennas provides
coverage to a sector of the hexagon. When 3 directional antennas are used,
120 sectoring is achieved (each antenna covers 120), and when 6
directional antennas are used, 60 sectoring is achieved (each antenna
covers 60). See figure 6.28

o
60 Cell Sectoring

120o Cell Sectoring

Figure 6.28(a) 120 , (b) 60 Sectoring


Example Sectoring (N = 7); with no sectoring, suppose m = 18 channels/cell.
With 120o sectoring, we have 6 channels/sector. With 60o sectoring, we have 3
channels/sector Can support the same number of users per cell. See figure
6.29.

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1
1

(a)

1 2
54 3

6 1 2
54 3
(b)

Figure 6.29 Sectoring N = 7


Dividing the cells into sectors actually reduces the network capacity because
the channels allocated to a cell are now divided among the different sectors. In
fact, handoff takes place when a cell phone moves from one sector to another
in the same cell. The gain in network capacity is achieved by reducing the
number of interfering co-channel cells. If sectoring is done in a way that
channels assigned to a particular sector are always at the same direction in
the different cells (i.e., group A of channels is assigned to the sector to the left
of the tower in all cells, and group B of channels is assigned to the sector at the
top of all cells, and so on), each sector causes interference to the cells that are
in its transmission angle only. Unlike the case of no sectoring where 6
interfering co-channel cells from the first-tier co-channels cells cause
interference, with 120 sectoring, 2 or 3 co-channel cells cause interference
and with 60 sectoring, 1 or 2 co-channel cells cause interference. The
number of co-channel interfering cells depends on the cluster shape and size.
By having less than 6 interfering first tier co channel cells causing
interference, the SIR is increased for the same cluster size.

Figure 6.30 Increasing Network capacity


This allows us to reduce the cluster size and achieve the same original SIR,

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which directly increases the network capacity. See figure 6.30.As seen in the
figures 6.31, for the case of cluster size of N = 4 , only 2 of the 6 co-channel
cells cause interference to the middle cell for the sector labeled S2 in the case
of 120 cell sectoring (the cells with radiation sectors colored red and green).
The other 4 cells, although they are radiating at the same frequencies cause
no interference because the middle cell is not in their radiation angles. For the
case of 60 cell sectoring, only one cell causes interference (the cell with
radiation sectors colored green).

o
60 cell sectoring
120 cell sectoring
Figure 6.31 Cluster size of N = 4

In addition to the reduced number of interfering towers that sectoring


produces, the SIR is reduced due to another reason. Since interfering tower
always fall behind the tower (i.e., if a sector is radiating to the Right, for
example, the interfering cells must be to its Left). Therefore, the worst case
SIR occurs when the mobile phone being served by that sector is located at a
relatively far corner with respect to the interfering cells. This means that
among the 6 interfering co-channel cells in a non-sectored system, the
sectored system gets rid of some of the worst interfering cells (the cells closest
to the corner at which the mobile phone is located). See figure 6.32.
No
Sectoring
S1
S2

Location 1 of cell phone


to get worst case SIR

S3
S1

S2
S3
S1
S2

Location of cell phone to


get worst case SIR

Not worst case (try to find worst


point of the 3 as an exercise)

Location 2 of cell phone


to get worst case SIR

S3

No
Sectoring

With Cell Sectoring

Without Cell Sectoring

Figure 6.32

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6.9.8 Handover and Handoff


Mobility is the most important feature of a wireless cellular communication
system and the final obstacle in the development of the cellular network
involved the problem created when a mobile subscriber traveled from one cell
to another during a call. As adjacent areas do not use the same radio
channels, a call must either be dropped or transferred from one radio channel
to another when a user crosses the line between adjacent cells and the mobile
telephone network should automatically transfer a call from radio channel to
radio channel as a mobile crosses adjacent cells. Because dropping the call is
unacceptable, continuous service is achieved by supporting handoff (or
handover) from one cell to another. Handoff is the process of changing the
channel (frequency, time slot, spreading code, or combination of them)
associated with the current connection while a call is in progress (see Figure
6.33). It is often initiated either by crossing a cell boundary or by deterioration
in quality of the signal in the current channel. Handoff is divided into two broad
categories hard and soft hand offs. They are also characterized by break
before make and make before break.

Cellular Switch:
DMS-MTX

Trunk Routes

Figure 6.33 Handoff between Adjacent Cells


During a call, two parties are on one voice channel. When the mobile unit
moves out of the coverage area of a given cell site, the reception becomes
weak. At this point, the cell site in use requests a handoff. The system switches
the call to a stronger-frequency channel in a new site without interrupting the
call or alerting the user. The call continues as long as the user is talking, and
the user does not notice the handoff at all.

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6.9.8.1
Types of handover / handoff
Hand offs are broadly classified into two categories hard and soft handoffs, the
hard handoff can be further divided into two different types; intra-and inter-cell
handoffs. The soft handoff can also be divided into two different types; multi
way soft handoff and softer handoff. In this chapter, we focus primarily on the
hard handoff. With the advent of CDMA systems where the same channels
can be used by several mobiles and where it is possible to adjacent cells or
cell sectors to use the same frequency channel there are a number of different
types of handover that can be performed:
Hard handover (hard handoff)
Soft handover (soft handoff)
Softer handover (softer handoff)
Although all of these forms of handover or handoff enable the cellular phone to
be connected to a different cell or different cell sector, they are performed in
slightly different ways and are available under different conditions.
Hard handover: The definition of a hard handover or handoff is one where an
existing connection must be broken before the new one is established. One
example of hard handover is when frequencies are changed. As the mobile
will normally only be able to transmit on one frequency at a time, the
connection must be broken before it can move to the new channel where the
connection is re-established. This is often termed and inter-frequency hard
handover. While this is the most common form of hard handoff, it is not the only
one. It is also possible to have intra-frequency hard handovers where the
frequency channel remains the same.
A hard handoff is essentially a break before make connection. Under the
control of the MSC, the BS hands off the MS's call to another cell and then drop
the call. In a hard handoff, the link to the prior BS is terminated before or as the
user is transferred to the new cell's BS; the MS is linked to no more than one
BS at any given time. Hard handoff is primarily used in FDMA (frequency
division multiple access) and TDMA (time division multiple access), where
different frequency ranges are used in adjacent channels in order to minimize
channel interference. So when the MS moves from one BS to another BS, it
becomes impossible for it to communicate with both BSs (since different
frequencies are used). Figure 6.34 illustrates hard handoff between the MS
and the BSs.

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BS1

MS

BS2

BS1

a. Before handoff

MS

BS2

b. After handoff

Figure 6.34 Hard handoff between the MS and BSs.


Although there is generally a short break in transmission, this is normally short
enough not to be noticed by the user.
Soft handover: The new 3G technologies use CDMA where it is possible to
have neighboring cells on the same frequency and this opens the possibility of
having a form of handover or handoff where it is not necessary to break the
connection. This is called soft handover or soft handoff, and it is defined as a
handover where a new connection is established before the old one is
released. In UMTS most of the handovers that are performed are intrafrequency soft handovers.
Softer handover: The third type of hand over is termed a softer handover, or
handoff. In this instance a new signal is either added to or deleted from the
active set of signals. It may also occur when a signal is replaced by a stronger
signal from a different sector under the same base station. This type of
handover or handoff is available within UMTS as well as CDMA2000. Cellular
handover or cellular handoffs are performed by all cellular
telecommunications networks, and they are a core element of the whole
concept of cellular telecommunications. There are a number of requirements
for the process. The first is that it occurs reliably and if it does not, users soon
become dissatisfied and choose another network provider in a process known
as "churn". However it needs to be accomplished in the most efficient manner.
Although softer handoff is the most reliable, it also uses more network
capacity. The reason for this is that it is communicating with more than one
sector or base station at any given instance. Soft handover is also less
efficient than hard handover, but again more reliable as the connection is
never lost.
It is therefore necessary for the cellular telecommunications network provider

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to arrange the network to operate in the most efficient manner, while still
providing the most reliable service.
6.9.8.2 Line of Sight (LOS) and Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) Handoff
Mobiles moving around in microcells will face line of sight (LOS) handoffs and
non-line of sight (NLOS) handoff. In the case of NLOS, completely reliable
handoff are difficult to achieve. A problem with microcells is the so called
corner effect. When a mobile station moves around a corner such as at a
street intersection (see figure 6.35), there can be a sudden drop in the
received signal level. It loses its LOS component with the serving base station.
Now if the mobile user does not link up with this new base station B fast
enough, the call gets dropped. Furthermore, the mobile can cause
interference to the new base station. The base station is unable to regulate the
power of the mobile and users within this cell are blocked.

Cell A

Cell B

Figure 6.35 Mobile Station Moves around a Corner


In the cellular design, one could carefully plan so that this can't happen. That is
layout the cells in such a way that no corner effect will ever be encountered.
This cannot always be practically done. Measures are taken in handoff design
to help alleviate this problem. We may use a fast forward handoff as the old
base station is dropped. Decentralizing the handoff decision, as in the case of
the mobile assisted handoff, often achieves this fast forward handoff decision.
With decentralizing, it is advantageous that the central switch does not have to
make the handoff decisions for every mobile user. This amounts to a saving in
system resources.

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6.9.8.3 Methods for performing handoff


There are numerous methods for performing handoff, at least as many as the
kinds of state information that have been defined for MSs, as well as the kinds
of network entities that maintain the state information. The decision-making
process of handoff may be centralized or decentralized (i.e., the handoff
decision may be made at the MS or network). From the decision process point
of view, one can find at least three different kinds of handoff decisions.
Network-Controlled Handoff: In a network-controlled handoff protocol, the
network makes a handoff decision based on the measurements of the MSs at
a number of BSs. In general, the handoff process (including data
transmission, channel switching, and network switching) takes 100200 ms.
Information about the signal quality for all users is available at a single point in
the network that facilitates appropriate resource allocation. Networkcontrolled handoff is used in first-generation analog systems such as AMPS
(advanced mobile phone system), TACS (total access communication
system), and NMT (advanced mobile phone system).
Mobile-Assisted Handoff: In a mobile-assisted handoff process, the MS
makes measurements and the network makes the decision. In the circuitswitched GSM (global system mobile), the BS controller (BSC) is in charge of
the radio interface management. This mainly means allocation and release of
radio channels and handoff management. The handoff time between handoff
decision and execution in such a circuit-switched GSM is approximately 1
second.
Mobile-Controlled Handoff: In mobile-controlled handoff, each MS is
completely in control of the handoff process. This type of handoff has a short
reaction time (on the order of 0.1 second). MS measures the signal strengths
from surrounding BSs and interference levels on all channels. A handoff can
be initiated if the signal strength of the serving BS is lower than that of another
BS by a certain threshold.
6.9.9 Cell Reselection
Mobile will continuously make measurements on its neighboring cells (as
indicated by the BA list) to initiate cell reselection if necessary. At least 5
measurement samples per neighboring cell is needed. A running average of
the received signal level will be maintained for each carrier in the BA list.All
system information messages sent on the current BCCH on the serving cell
must be read by the mobile every 30 seconds to monitor changes in cell

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parameters (ex: MsTxPwrMax). The mobile also has to read the 6 strongest
BCCH every 5 minutes to receive its cell parameters (ex: MsTxPwrMax). The
6 strongest can be seen from the BA list which has the updated measurement
of the 32 BCCH carrier. The neighboring list for the best 6 neighbors is
updated every 60 seconds, which means the mobile has to measure each
neighbor by 10 seconds. The mobile also has to read the BSIC of the 6
strongest BCCH every 30 seconds to confirm that it is still monitoring the same
cells. If a new BSIC is detected, then the BCCH of this BSIC will be read to
receive the cell parameters.
BSIC
Serving cell
Six neighbors

BCCH

Every 30 secs

Every 30 secs

Every 5 minute

Cell reselection Criteria: The mobile will reselect and camp on another cell if
any of the following criteria is satisfied:
1.
The serving cell is barred.
2.
C1 value in the current cell is below 0 for 5 seconds which indicates that
the path loss is high and the mobile needs to change cell.
3.
The Mobile has unsuccessfully tried to access the network as defined
by the MAXRET parameter or Max Number Retrans missions.
MAXRET is the maximum number of retransmission a mobile can do when it is
accessing the system It is defined per cell.
Assuming that one of the criteria above was satisfied then the mobile will
select a cell with a better C1. However if the cell belongs to a different location
area then the C1 for that cell has to exceed a reselection hysteresis
parameter called CRH or Cell Reselect Hysteresis for the reselection to
happen.
If the mobile is moving in a border area between location areas, it might
repeatedly change between location areas. Each change requires location
updating and cause heavy signaling load and risk paging message being lost.
To prevent this, a cell reselect hysteresis parameter CRH is used. See figure
6.36.

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

LA 1

C1 = 1
CRH = 4
Serving cell

LA 2

C1 = 6

Target cell

Figure 6.36 Cell Reselection


The cell in a different location area will only be selected if the C1 of that cell is
higher than the C1 of the current serving cell by the value of the Reselect
Hysteresis. Since the Value of CRH may be different for each cell, the CRH
used for comparison will be the one broadcast by the serving cell. If the value
is set very low then the mobile will Ping-Pong between locations areas which
will increase signaling load. If the value is set very high the mobile may camp
in the wrong cell too long.

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Self-Test Questions 1
Wireless communication
1
What is GSM?
2
What is the maximum data rate supported by a GSM system?
3
Explain the following techniques in GSM:
a. Sectorization of a cell
b. Frequency Re-use
c. Transmitted Power Control
d. Discontinuous Transmission
4
Which uplink/ downlink spectrum is allocated to following;
a. GSM 900
b. DCS 1800
5
Explain the following:
a. Equalization,
b. Interleaving,
c. Speech coding,
d. Channel coding
6
What are the interfaces between the following?
a. BTS and MS
b. BTS and BSC
c. BSS and MSC
d. TRAU and BSC
e. BSC and PCU
6.
What do following mean? Why do we need them? a. Location Area
b. Location Update
7
Give the meaning of the following; IMSI, TMSI, IMEI, MS-IDN, and
ARFCN.
8
Differentiate between FDD and TDD
9
What do you mean by Extended Cell? Does it have any impact on
the system?
10
What is Ethernet and write the use of Ethernet?
11
Differentiate Wired LANS and wireless LAN
Self-Test Questions 2
Introduction to Data Communication
1
What is Data Communications?
2
Explain Communications Channels?
3
Explain Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Transmission?
4
Explain Parity and Checksums?
5
What is Data Compression?
6
Explain Data Encryption?

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

7
8
9
10
11
12
13a.

What is Data Storage Technology?


What is analog?
What is digital?
Explain the term modulation?
What is crosstalk?
What is the effect of noise?
Differentiate between data communications and telecommunications
b. Identify the essential elements of communication.
14. What are the essential features of networks?
15. Discuss network requirements.
16a. List the seven layers of the OSI reference model.
b. List the five layers of the TCP/IP protocol stack.
17. Discuss several significant events in the history of data
communications.
18. Identify and briefly describe several business data communications
applications.
19. Discuss several business data communications issues.
20. Enumerate the business data communications occupation and career
options.
Self-Test Questions 3
Data Communication 2
1.
What is Data Communications?
2.
Explain Communications Channels?
3.
Explain Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Transmission?
4.
Explain Parity and Checksums?
5.
What is Data Compression?
6.
Explain Data Encryption?
7.
What is Data Storage Technology?
8.
What is analog?
9.
What is digital?
10. Explain modulation?
11. What is crosstalk?
12. What is the effect of noise?
13
Differentiate LAN , MAN , WAN
14
Differentiate Flow control, Error Control
15
Differentiate Connection less service, Connection Oriented service
16
Differentiate Half duplex communication, full duplex communication.
17
Differentiate Wired LANS and wireless LANS
18
What is Ethernet and write the use of Ethernet?

230

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

What is a bridge and explain different types of bridges?


Differentiate Flow control, Error Control

Self-Test Questions 4
Mobile Cellular Communications 1
1a. Compare the common wireless communication systems.
1b
Explain the cell splitting process for improving the capacity of cellular
systems.
2a
Describe the various types of hybrid spread spectrum multiple access
techniques.
3a
Describe a cellular system with the help of a block diagram.
3b
Differentiate between circuit switching and packet switching.
4a
Describe the cellular digital packet data service.
5
Explain in detail 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G generation systems and their
standards
6a. Explain the concept of frequency reuse and channel assignment
b.
Explain the different handoff strategies used in wireless
communication
7.
Give the meaning of TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, and SDMA.
8.
Discuss how the following aspects are interrelated in cellular wireless
networks: reuse factor/cluster size, co-channel interference, basestation antenna height, network capacity and network coverage
9.
Define the following concepts in the context of cellular communications:
a.
hard handover, b. Soft handover, c. softer handover.
10. Describe the difference between circuit-switched and packet-switched
networks. Give an example of commercial system for each.
Self-Test Questions 5
Satellite Communication 1
1.
What is the difference between active and passive satellites?
2.
List some advantages of satellite communication
3
List some of the important parameter used to specify a particular earth's
Station.
4
What are very small aperture terminals (V SATs)?
5
What is meant by tracking satellite communications?
6.
Why the uplink frequency is different from downlink frequency'.
7.
What do you mean by orbitals spacing? Why it is required?
8.
Define TDMA frame efficiency
9.
Explain briefly how satellites can be helpful in forecasting weather.
10. How many types of transmission media are used in
telecommunications?

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

11.
12.
13.

What are the advantages of twisted pair cable over parallel wire cable?
What are step index fibre and graded index fibre?
Write down the differences between in channel and common channel
signaling.
14a. Name and define three modes of multiple access.
b.
Why uplink frequency is kept higher than downlink frequency in
satellite communication systems?
15a What is BER? What is its optimum acceptable value for digital satellite
communication?
b.
Differentiate between system noise temperature and carrier-tothermal noise temperature?
16. What is the difference between multiplexing and multiple accesses?
17. Explain the difference between the active and passive satellite
systems.
Discuss their merits and demerits.
18. Explain, why time division multiplexing is the only option for digital
satellite link and also, why the inter modulation effects are not prevalent
in TDM?
19. Discuss the advantages of CDMA over TDMA and FDMA.
20. Write note on any two of the following; (i) VSAT and (ii) Satellite voice
services.
Self-Test Questions 6
Digital Communication 1
1.
What is meant by PCM?
2.
What is the need for speech coding at low bit rates?
3.
Define modulation rate.
4.
State NRZ unipolar format
5.
State Manchester format.
6.
What is Inter symbol interference?
7.
Which criterion makes ISI Zero?
8
What is matched filter receiver?
8.
What is maximum likelihood detector
10
Define antipodal signals.
11. What are the three broad types of synchronization?
12
Define code efficiency
13
Define pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.
14
Define a random binary sequence.
15
Give the correlation property of random binary sequence.
16
What is called processing gain?

232

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19
20.

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

What is called jamming effect?


What is Anti jamming?
What are the three codes used for the anti-jamming application?

Self-Test Questions 7
Digital Communication 2
1
What is called frequency hop spread spectrum
2
What is meant by PCM?
3
Define quantizing process.
4
What is meant by idle channel noise?
5
Define delta modulation
6
Name the types of uniform quantizer
7
What is the need for speech coding at low bit rates?
8
What is PAM?
9
Define modulation rate.
10
State NRZ unipolar format
11
State Manchester format.
12
What is Inter symbol interference?
13
Which criterion makes ISI Zero?
14
What is matched filter receiver?
15
What is maximum likelihood detector?
16
Define antipodal signals.
17
Give the two basic operation of DPSK transmitter
18
Define deviation ratio in MSK
19
What are the three broad types of synchronization?
20
What are the disadvantages of closed loop bit synchronization?
Self-Test Questions 8
Digital Communication 3
1
Define code efficiency
2
Define pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.
3
What does the term catastrophic cyclic code represent?
4
Define a random binary sequence.
5
Give the correlation property of random binary sequence.
6
What is called processing gain?
7
What is called jamming effect?
8.
What is Anti jamming?
9.
What are the three codes used for the anti-jamming application?
10
What is called frequency hop spread spectrum?
11. What are the two function of fast frequency hopping?
12
What are the features of code Division multiple Accesses?

233

13
15
16
17
18
19
20

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

What is called multipath Interference?


What is the advantage of a spread spectrum technique?
What is called frequency hop spread spectrum?
BPFSK is more efficient than BFSK in presence of noise. Why?
What is inter-symbol interference?
What is raised cosine pulse?
Compare the bandwidth efficiency of the M-ary FSK and M-ary PSK
modulation schemes

Self-Test Questions 9
Digital Communication 4
1 Which modulation technique has best utilization of bandwidth?
2 In which modulation scheme probability is maximum
3 In which modulation scheme probability is minimum
4 What is Nyquist rate?
5 What is advantage of digital communication over analog communication?
6 Which are the channels used for digital communication?
7 Which kind of multiplexing used in digital communication?
8 Define Aperture effect. How it can be avoided
9 Why is Sample & Hold circuit used?
10 What is requirement for Transmission Bandwidth?
11 Difference between Coherent and Non-coherent detection
12 Signal constellation diagram of all modulation schemes
13 Properties of Matched filter?
14 Difference between CDMA & TDMA
15 What is Pulse code modulation (PCM)?
16 How the performance of a PCM is corrupted?
17 What are the two types of Spread spectrum technique?
18 What is a Constellation Diagram?
19 Which modulation is a combination of other 2 schemes?
20 Name two principles by which spread spectrum achieves its goal
Self-Test Questions 10
Digital Communication 5
1 Which of the 3 multiplexing techniques is common for fibre optic links?
2 What are the two function of fast frequency hopping?
3 What are the features of code Division multiple Accesses?
4. What is called multipath Interference?
5 What is the advantage of a spread spectrum technique?
6 What is called frequency hop spread spectrum?
7 What is inter-symbol interference?

234

8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Which modulation technique has best utilization of bandwidth?


What is advantage of digital communication over analog
communication?
Which are the channels used for digital communication?
Which kind of multiplexing used in digital communication?
Why is Sample & Hold circuit used?
What is requirement for Transmission Bandwidth?
Difference between Coherent and Non-coherent detection
Difference between CDMA & TDMA
What is Pulse code modulation (PCM)?
What are the two types of Spread spectrum technique?
What is a Constellation Diagram?
Which modulation is a combination of other 2 schemes?
Name two principles by which spread spectrum achieves its goal

Self-Test Questions 11
Digital Communication 6
1
What are GPRS services?
2
What are the advantages of CDMA?
3
What are the advantages of spread spectrum?
4
Explain the steps involved in demodulating a signal.
5
How can a Pseudo Random Noise Code be usable?
6.
What are the drawbacks of walsh codes?
7
What are the various types of numbers for network identity?
8
Which of the 3 multiplexing techniques is common for fibre optic links?

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CHAPTER SEVEN
Communication Technology and Applications
7.0 Introduction
Telecommunications are devices and techniques used for transmission of
information over long distances via wire, radio/satellite without damaging/loss
due to noise and interference. The major trend in telecommunications at
present is a fundamental shift from mechanical to electrical furthermore,
electronic , and within electronic, analogue to digital modes of transmission
involving all types of communications voice, facsimile, computer
transmission, TV communicators, microwave and satellite communications,
and radio links. On the other hand, certain applications of microcomputers
(PCs) have opened new vistas for the transfer of information by
telecommunications. The development of microelectronics has led to home
minicomputers and TV based information terminals. Recently, there have
been considerable activities in evaluating the potential for DDS on satellite
communications. Applications in the information field include remote
browsing, using TV, searching of automated catalogues (OPAC), searching of
bibliographic and numeric data, etc. Electronic communication consists of
telecommunication and data communications. Telecommunication involves
use of telephone, tele-printer, telegraph, radio or TV and satellite facilities to
transmit information, either directly or via computer. Data communication is
the transfer of data/information between computer devices, and is a common
that each of us has probably seen it in action everyday life without thinking
about it. The other major current developments in CT are: E mail, electronic
imaging, electronic publishing and DTP, tele-text, teleconferencing, video-text
technology, fax, voice mail, satellite, telemedicine, etc. The advent of
telecommunication technology and the tremendous speed, with which it is
changing, require adaptability to change in present information society.
7.1 Communication Technology System Categorization
Communication system may be categorized based on their physical
infrastructure and the specifications of the signals they transmit. The physical
infrastructure pertains to the type of the channel used and the hardware
design of the transmitting and receiving equipment. The signal specifications
signify the nature and type of the transmitted signal. The types of
communication systems based on their infrastructure and signal
specifications are discussed;

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Based on Physical Infrastructure: Based on the physical structure, there


are two types of communication systems:
Line communication systems
Radio Communication systems
There is physical link, called hardwire channel between the transmitter and
the receiver in line communication systems. In a radio communication
system, there is no such link and natural resources, such as space and water
are used as soft wire channels. A particular communication system can be one
of these two types. For example, radio broadcast is purely radio
communication system and cannot be categorized as a line communication
system. On the other hand, landline telephony is purely a line communication
system and cannot be typed as a radio communication system. Consider a TV
system in which a user can only receive the signals and view available
channels. A television receiver cannot transmit the signals. Now consider
telephony as another example. In this case, you can simultaneously send and
receive signals. TV transmission is a one way transmission. While telephony
is a two way transmission. In technical terms, one way transmission is called
simplex, while a two way transmission is called duplex.
The one way or two way transmission feature of a communication system
depends on the design of the equipment used on the two sides of the
communication system, and is therefore included in the physical structure
specifications of the system. As a rule, a communication system can be a
simplex or a duplex system, but not both.
Therefore baseband on the physical structure of a communication system,
you can define two groups, and only one specification from each group is
required to decide the type of communication system. These groups are:
Line / Radio communication
Simplex/Duplex communication
For instance, a TV communication system is a combination of the radio and
simplex communication systems and landline telephony is a combination of
the line and duplex communication systems. A particular communication
systems can be implemented as both line and radio communication system.
For example, landline telephony is a line communication system. However,
overseas or long distance telephony is carried out through satellites and the
system is called radio telephony as it makes use of radio waves for
transmission and reception. This system is then categorized as a radio
communication system.

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Based on Signal Specifications: The signal specifications used to decide


the type of communication system include:
Nature of the baseband or information signal.
Nature of the transmitted signal.
Based on the nature of the baseband signal, there are two types of
communication systems.
Analog communication systems
Digital communication systems
Based on the nature of transmitted signal: The baseband signal can either
be transmitted as it is without modulation, or through a carrier signal with
modulation. The two systems can then be categorized as:
Baseband communication system
Carrier communication system
Therefore, the four types of communication system categorized based on
signal specification are:
Analog communication systems
Digital communication systems
Baseband communication systems
Carrier communication systems
Of the four, at least two types are required to specify a particular
communication system. Thus, two groups are formed consisting each of two
types such that at least one of the types from each group is necessarily
required to specify a communication system. These groups can be formed as:
Analog/digital communication systems
Baseband/carrier communication systems
A particular communication system is either an analog communication system
or a digital communication system at a time. For instance, TV transmission is
an analog communication system while high definition television (HDTV) is a
digital communication system. The internet is another example of a digital
communication system. Similarly, a particular communication system is either
a baseband communication system or a carrier communication system.
Examples of baseband communication system are landline telephony and
Fax. Examples of carrier communication system are TV transmission, radio

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broadcast, and cable TV. Therefore, to completely describe a particular


communication system, four of the eight types of communication systems are
required. If any one type is missing, then the description of communication
system will not be complete. To make things simple and clear, four groups
containing these eight types are formed, such that only one choice is possible
from each group and the four choices together describe the communication
system. These four groups are:
Group I: Line/radio communication system
Group II: Simplex/duplex communication system
Group III: Analog/digital communication system
Group IV: Baseband/carrier communication system
Consider the television communication system. It is described as a radio
communication system from group I, simplex communication system from
group II, analog communication system form group III, and carrier
communication system from group IV. That is, a television communication
system is a radio-simplex-analog-carrier communication system. This is the
description of a television communication system in it's totally. Another
example is landline telephony. This is described as line communication
system from group I, duplex communication system form group II, analog
communication system from group III, and baseband communication system
form group IV. Therefore, telephony through landline is a line-duplex-analogbaseband communication system. Similarly, you can completely describe any
communication system with these four groups.
7.2 Fixed Wireless Access (FWA) Technology
Fixed wireless access (FWA) is a radio-based local exchange service in which
telephone service is provided by common carriers (see Figure 7.1). It is
primarily a rural application, that is, it reduces the cost of conventional
wireline. FWA extends telephone service to rural areas by replacing a wireline
local loop with radio communications. Other labels for wireless access include
fixed loop, fixed radio access, wireless telephony, radio loop, fixed wireless,
radio access, and Ionica. FWA systems employ TDMA or CDMA access
technologies.

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Wireline
Cluster

Switch

TDMA
micro-cell
microcell

Landline
micro-cell

Figure 7.1 Fixed Wireless Access


7.3 Personal Communications Services (PCS)
The Cellular Telecommunications Industry Association (CTIA) defines PCS
as a "wide range of wireless mobile technologies, chiefly cellular, paging,
cordless voice, personal communications networks, mobile data, wireless
PBX, specialized mobile radio, and satellite-based systems." The FCC
defines PCS as a "family of mobile or portable radio communications services
that encompass mobile and ancillary fixed communications services to
individuals and businesses and can be integrated with a variety of competing
networks." However, in the wireless industry, PCS is commonly recognized as
the nascent systems proposed to provide competition (see below) to cellular,
and perhaps to wireline telephone services.
Personal communications service is a wireless phone service similar to
cellular telephone service but emphasizing personal service and extended
mobility. It is sometimes referred to as digital cellular (although cellular
systems can also be digital). Like cellular, PCS is for mobile users and
requires a number of antennas to blanket an area of coverage. PCS is
designed for greater user mobility. It generally requires more cell transmitters
for coverage, but has the advantage of fewer blind spots. Several
technologies are used for PCS in the United States, including Time Division
Multiple Access (TDMA), Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), and Global
System for Mobile (GSM) communication. GSM is more commonly used in
Europe and elsewhere.
The PCS offerings are divided into three categories: narrowband, broadband,
and unlicensed. It is expected that initially, providers will offer different
services in each of the three areas.

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Narrowband PCS provides advanced voiced paging and messaging,


acknowledgment paging, data messaging, one and two-way electronic
messaging, and facsimile. The spectrum allocation for narrowband PCS is the
900 MHz band adjacent to the spectrum currently being used for paging and
special mobile radio (SMR) applications. While advanced paging services
appear to be the most likely application, narrowband PCS is also capable of
being used as a locator service to pinpoint the position of an object or vehicle.
Broadband PCS offer two-way voice, data, and video communications. The
spectrum allocation for broadband is in the 1850 to 1990 MHz range which is
separated from other communication services. The FCC allocated 120 MHZ
to broadband in six bands - Blocks A,B, and C each containing thirty MHz, and
Blocks D, E, and F each containing ten Mhz.
Unlicensed PCS accommodate a wide range of services for small areas such
as data networking within office buildings with wireless Local Area Networks
(LANs), wireless private branch exchanges (PBXs), personal digital
assistants, laptop computers, portable facsimile machines, wireless
replacements for portions of the wireline telephone network, and other kinds
of short-range communications. Unlicensed PCS is particularly suitable for
office-wide and campus-wide services. In addition, equipment manufacturers
do not have to wait for the development of standards since they can design
proprietary products for their clients. The FCC has allocated spectrum for
unlicensed PCS in the 1910 to 1930 MHZ band.
7.4 Radio Paging System
Paging is a one-way communications system. Paging allows callers to
forward information to anyone with a pager and within the system coverage
boundaries. System users can directly page people via the telephone system
or through a dispatch message center. Paging information will be either, a
tone only page, a voice page or a display page. A tone only page refers to the
user being alerted with no information following. The alert inherently implies
that the user should call some predetermined number to retrieve messages or
information that waits. This type of paging is very specific and mainly used by
dispatch services. A voice page allows the user to send a finite length speech
message directly from any telephone to the pager. This type of paging is quite
useful since it is easy to use and requires no special equipment besides a
telephone. The paging system alerts the subscriber and delivers a direct and
to the point message where a return call is not necessary. This service is
popular in hospital environments where time is crucial and a direct outbound

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message is sent to a paging user. This type of service however have potential
draw backs since it uses up much system air time, receiver audio quality can
be poor in some coverage areas making the message difficult to hear or it can
be difficult to hear if received in a high noise environment. Display paging
refers to the user receiving either numeric or alpha numeric information on an
LCD display. Numeric display is the most popular because it is easy to access
from any touch tone phone system and air time usage is lower.Paging
systems are commonly referred to as being one of two types, either Simulcast
or Non-Simulcast.
Non-Simulcast systems: are primarily for single transmitter systems or
systems where coverage is not required to be continuous over a geographic
coverage area, i.e. the transmitters are so far apart that they cannot interfere
with each other. Non-Simulcast systems allow for lower transmitter costs
since system alignment and maintenance for overlapping transmitter
coverage is not an issue by definition.
A Simulcast Paging system: refers to a system where coverage is continuous
over a geographic area serviced by more than one paging transmitter. In this
type of system the pager can be receiving signals from two or more paging
transmitters when in the overlap area of the two or more paging transmitter.
The overlaps are of two or more paging transmitters are referred to as the noncapture is since a pager not locked or captured by a single transmitter.
Sector Paging: A paging system, either simulcast or non-simulcast, can be
operated in either an, all transmitters key or a subset of all transmitters key,
depending on the pager being paged. When all transmitters do not key for
paging in the system this is referred to as sector paging. Sector paging allows
the system operator to partition his system and charge various monthly
service fees depending on the user's desired area of coverage.
Multiple Frequency Paging: Multiple frequencies paging on a system is
possible however it provides no benefit to service. When the multiple
frequency transmitters are keyed on a channel the other channel is forced to
be idle by definition. The objective of a paging system operator is to build a
single frequency channel and load the channel to capacity such the system
users receive acceptable paging throughput at a reasonable cost. If the
system loading is excessive then throughput during peak paging hours may
become unacceptable by users and service may be sought by the user from
the competition. Typically multiple frequency paging is used when the user

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desires to hold a paging frequency they have been granted however they do
not have the capitol to build a complete second system.
7.4.1 Paging System Block Diagram and Components
A paging system is composed of the following 6 basic elements (see Figure
7.2 below).
1
Paging Terminal
2
Controller
3
Outbound control and paging information channel
4
Transmitter network
5
Communications link from transmitter network to controller
6
End user pagers
1
PAGING
TERMINAL

AUDIO AND
CONTROL
INTERFACE

5
COMMUNICATIONS
LINK
2
CONTROLLER

4
TRANSMITTER
NETWORK

6
PAGERS

3
OUT BOUND CONTROL AND
PAGING INFORMATION

Figure 7.2 Paging system block diagram


The Paging Terminal: The Paging Terminal maintains subscriber pager type
and service information. The terminal accepts paging requests via direct dialup phone interface or via data entry equipment. The terminal prepares the
paging information for transmission and communicates to the controller that it
needs access to the infrastructure. Terminals can also provide statistics on
paging traffic and billing information. The paging terminal is connected to the
controller for key requests and control handshakes as well as passing pager
address and information for transmission. The terminal and controller are
therefore co-located to allow for control signal and audio interface. The paging
terminal provides user access typically by a Video Display Terminal (VDT) for
database programming and review purposes. Terminals can usually support a
variety of peripherals such as disk drives, printers, and modems for expanded
user capabilities.
The Controller: The controller is the central focal point of the system
responsible for recognizing paging terminal requests and keying the
transmitters in the proper paging mode, analog or binary. The controller,
depending on its sophistication, is responsible for monitoring transmitter
operational performance as well as reporting system level alarms. The

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controller can also perform system level maintenance to compensate for


changes in the outbound control and paging information channel. Depending
on the type, the controller may or may not store transmitter configuration and
operational data, as well as logging station and system alarm information. The
controller provides user access typically by a Video Display Terminal (VDT) for
database programming and review. More sophisticated controller usually
supports a variety of peripherals such as disk drives, printers, and modems for
expanded user capabilities.
The Outbound Control and Paging Information Channel: The outbound
control and paging information channel is the medium by which the controller
information is passed on to the transmitters. The most conventional
information distribution methods are Radio Frequency RF) Links, dedicated
wire lines to each transmitter from the controller site, or satellite uplink and
down links. With an RF link system the controller audio is sent to a Link
transmitter via a wire line connection. A link repeater could then be used to
listen to the link transmitter to further extend transmission of the information,
hence the name repeater. With a wire line system the controller audio is
source to a data splitter which then feeds the signal to each transmitter via a
dedicated wire line. With a satellite distribution system the controller
information is sent to the satellite uplink location. Each station is equipped with
a satellite dish and receiver to recover the controller information.
Transmitter Network: The paging base stations decode control information
from the controller for keying in the appropriate mode, analog or binary. The
transmitter network in conjunction with the antenna system converts the
information from the paging terminal into modulation and RF energy for
transmission to the paging receivers. The transmitters continually check their
operating performance and generate alarms in the event of degradation in
performance. The controller and system configuration determine how and
when the alarms are reported.
Communications Link: The communications link is primarily a feedback path
from the transmitter network to the controller. This communications link is
used to transfer base station status and alarm information from the transmitter
network to the controller for evaluation and reporting. Several
communications links may exist from the transmitter network to the controller.
The communications link can be a one way path from base station to controller
or a bi-directional depending on the type of link used. Some common
communications links include dedicated wire lines, dial-up phone lines, and

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monitor receivers with dedicated return phone lines.


Pagers: The pager is a specialized miniature radio receiver carried by the
user for retrieval of information from the paging terminal. Depending on the
pager and system, the user can receive an alert, a voice transmission, a
numeric display page, or an alpha numeric display page. The pager is only
able to receive pages within the allowable coverage area provided by the
transmitter network.
7.5 Voice and Fax over Internet Protocol (V/FoIP)
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP), is a technology that allows you to make
voice calls using a broadband Internet connection instead of a regular (or
analog) phone line. Some VoIP services may only allow you to call other
people using the same service, but others may allow you to call anyone who
has a telephone number including local, long distance, mobile, and
international numbers. Also, while some VoIP services only work over your
computer or a special VoIP phone, other services allow you to use a traditional
phone connected to a VoIP adapter. A voice-overInternet protocol (VoIP)
application meets the challenges of combining legacy voice networks and
packet networks by allowing both voice and signaling information to be
transported over the packet network.
A fax-over-Internet protocol (FoIP) application enables the inter working of
standard fax machines with packet networks. It accomplishes this by
extracting the fax image from an analog signal and carrying it as digital data
over the packet network. Organizations around the world seek to reduce rising
communications costs. The consolidation of separate voice, fax, and data
resources offers an opportunity for significant savings. Accordingly, the
challenge of integrating voice, fax, and data is becoming a rising priority for
many network managers. Organizations are pursuing solutions that will
enable them to take advantage of excess capacity on broadband networks for
voice, fax, and data transmission, as well as utilize the Internet and company
Intranets as alternatives to costlier mediums.
7.5.1 VoIP Embedded Software Architecture
Two major types of information must be handled to interface telephony
equipment to a packet network: voice and signaling information. As shown in
Figure 7.3, VoIP software interfaces to both streams of information from the
telephony network and converts them to a single stream of packets
transmitted to the packet network. The software functions are divided into four

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general areas.
Signaling

Voice

Voice
Packet
Module

Telephony
Signaling
Module

Network
Management
Module

Network
Protocol
Module

DSP
MICROPROCESSOR

Voice &
Signaling
Packets

Figure 7.3 VoIP Software Architecture


Voice Packet Software Module: This software, also known as the voiceprocessing module, typically runs on a digital-signal processor (DSP),
prepares voice samples for transmission over the packet network. Its
components perform echo cancellation, voice compression, voice-activity
detection, jitter removal, clock synchronization, and voice packetization.
Telephony-Signaling Gateway Software Module: This software interacts with
the telephony equipment, translating signaling into state changes used by the
packet protocol module to set up connections. These state changes are onhook, off-hook, trunk seizure, etc. This software supports ear, mouth, earth,
and magneto (E&M) Type I, II, III, IV, and V; loop or ground start foreign
exchange station (FXS); foreign exchange office (FXO); and integrated
services digital network (ISDN) basic rate interface (BRI) and primary rate
interface (PRI).
Packet Protocol Module: This module processes signaling information and
converts it from the telephony signaling protocols to the specific packetsignaling protocol used to set up connections over the packet network (e.g.,
Q.933 and voice-over-frame relay signaling). It also adds protocol headers to
both voice and signaling packets before transmission into the packet network.
Network-Management Module: This module provides the voice-management
interface to configure and maintain the other modules of the voice-overpacket system. The software is partitioned to provide a well-defined interface
to the DSP software usable for multiple voice packet protocols and
applications. The DSP processes voice data and passes voice packets to the
microprocessor with generic voice headers. The microprocessor is
responsible for moving voice packets and adapting the generic voice headers

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to the specific voice packet protocol that is called for by the application, such
as real-time protocol (RTP), voice over frame relay (VoFR), and voice
telephony over ATM (VToA). The microprocessor also processes signaling
information and converts it from supported telephony-signaling protocols to
the packet network signaling protocol [e.g. H.323 IP, frame relay, or ATM
signaling]. This partitioning provides a clean interface between the generic
voice-processing functions, such as compression, echo cancellation, and
voice-activity detection, and the application-specific signaling and voice
protocol processing.
Signaling, Protocol and Management Modules: The VoIP software performs
telephony signaling to detect the presence of a new call and to collect address
(dial digit) information, which is used by the system to route a call to a
destination port. It supports a wide variety of telephony-signaling protocols
and can be adaptable to many environments. The software and configuration
data for the voice card can be downloaded from a network
7.5.2 VoIP Applications
A wide variety of applications are enabled by the transmission of VoIP
networks. In Figure 7.4a, is a network configuration of an organization with
many branches that wants to reduce costs and combine traffic to provide
voice and data access to the main office. This is accomplished by using a
packet network to provide standard data transmission while at the same time
enhancing it to carry voice traffic along with the data. Voice over packet
provides the inter working function (IWF), which is the physical
implementation of the hardware and software that allows the transmission of
combined voice and data over the packet network.
Branch 1

Home Office

IWF

Telephone

Mainframe
IWF

Packet
Network
Branch N

Telephone

Telephone

PBX

IWF

Telephone

PSTN

(a) Branch Office Application

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Office 2

Office 1

IWF

Telephone

Telephone

IWF

Packet
Network

Telephone

Pax

Telephone

Pax

(b) Interoffice Trunking Application


Base Station Subsystem

Base Transceiver
Station (BTS)

Base Station
Base Transceiver Controller
(BSC)
Station (BTS)

PSTN

ATM
Transcoding
Gateway
Base Transceiver
Station (BTS)
Base Station
Controller
Base Transceiver
(BSC)
Station (BTS)

Mobil
Switching
Center
(MSC)

(c) Cellular Network Interworking Application


Figure 7.4 VOIP Applications
Figure 7.4b, is a trunking application. In this scenario, an organization wishes
to send voice traffic between two locations over the packet network and
replace the tie trunks used to connect the PBXs at the locations. This
application usually requires the IWF to support a higher-capacity digital
channel than the branch application, such as a T1/E1 interface of 1.544 or
2.048 Mbps.
The IWF emulates the signaling functions of a PBX, resulting in significant
savings to companies' communications costs. In Figure 7.4c the voice data in
a digital cellular network is already compressed and packetized for
transmission over the air by the cellular phone. Packet networks can then
transmit the compressed cellular voice packet, saving a tremendous amount
of bandwidth. The IWF provides the transcoding function

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7.5.4 Fax over IP (FoIP)


Fax over IP can be done in many ways, either real-time or store-and-forward
Real-time: Transmission of a fax audio stream over a VoIP protocol, like SIP,
IAX, H.323. This requires an uncompressed 64 Kbit codec to have any chance
of working, resulting in the need of around 80 Kbit bandwidth. For a number of
reasons it may or may not work even then. Fax over IP with a special protocol
designed for this application. The key standardized protocol for this is T.38.
Store and forward: A FAX, from a FAX machine, is decoded and stored by a
FoIP gateway. It is then sent, using SMTP or a similar transport, to another
FoIP gateway where it may be sent out to a destination FAX machine. The key
standardized protocol for this is T.37.
7.5.4 1 FoIP Software Architecture
The facsimile interface unit (FIU) is the software module that resides within a
FoIP IWF. It demodulates voice band signals from an analog interface and
converts them to a digital format suitable for transport over a packet network. It
also re-modulates data received from the packet network and transmits it to
the analog interface. In doing so, the FIU performs protocol conversion
between Group-3 facsimile protocols and the digital facsimile protocol
employed over the packet network. The FIU, shown in Figure 7.5, consists of
the following three units:
Fox Interface Unit (FIU)
PCM
Interface

Fox
Modem
Unit

Fox
Protocol
Unit

Fox
Network
Driver
Unit

Real-Time
Operating
Environment

packet
Protocol

To
packet
Network

Message
Processing
Unit

Figure 7.5 FoIP Module


Fax-modem unit (FM): This processes PCM samples based on the current
modulation mode.
Fax protocol unit (FP): This compensates for the effects of timing and lost
packets caused by the packet network. The FP prevents the local fax machine
from timing out while waiting for a response from the other end by generating

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HDLC flags. If, after a time out, the response from the remote fax machine is
not received, it also sends a command repeat (CRP) frame to resend the
frame. This unit monitors the facsimile transaction timing, the direction of
current transmission, and the proper modem configuration.
Fax network driver unit (FND): This assembles and disassembles fax packets
to be transmitted over the network and is the interface unit between the FP
and network modules. The control information packets consist of header and
time stamp information. In the direction of the PCM to the packet network, the
FND collects the specified number of bytes and transmits the packet to the
network. In the receive direction, the FND provides data with the proper timing
(as generated on the transmit side and reproduced through the received time
stamp information) to the rest of the FIU. The FND formats the network
packets for transmission to the network based on the specific network
protocol. The FND delays the data to remove timing jitter from the packet
arrival times
7.5.4.2 Operation
FAX was designed for analog networks, and cannot travel over a digital VoIP
network. The reason for this is that FAX communication uses the analog
signal in a different way to regular voice communication. When VoIP
technologies digitize and compress analog voice communication it is
optimized for voice and not FAX signaling. Subsequently, there are a number
of things you need to take note of when you move to a VoIP Phone System. If
you want to continue using your old fax machine and you want to connect it to
your VoIP phone system, its best to use a VoIP Gateway and an ATA (Analog
Telephony Adapter) that supports T38. T38 is a protocol designed to allow fax
to travel over a VoIP network. It is also possible to convert to computer based
fax and choose a VoIP phone system that supports fax. 3CX Phone System
for Windows includes a full featured fax server that is able to receive faxes and
forward them in PDF format to e-mail. Another way to deal with fax when you
switch to a VoIP phone system is to connect the fax machine directly to the
existing analog phone line and bypass your VoIP system. Fax over IP works
via T38 and requires a T38 capable VoIP Gateway as well as a T38 capable
fax machine, fax card or fax software. Fax Server software that can talk 'T38
allows the great Unified Communications feature, Fax to Email, which sends
faxes directly via a VoIP gateway and converts the fax message into an email.
The plus side is that no additional fax hardware is needed for the Fax to Email
feature to work seamlessly

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Analog line /
ISDN

T38

T38 capable
VOIP Gateway

Analog G3
FAX machine

T38 capable
FAX machine

Figure 7.6 Fax over IP works via T38


T38 is a protocol that describes how to send a fax over a computer data
network. It is needed because fax data cannot be sent over a computer data
network in the same way as voice communications. In essence, with T38 a fax
is converted to an image, sent to the other T38 fax device and then converted
back to an analog fax signal. Most VoIP Gateways and ATA's now support T38
reliably. T38 is described in RFC 3362, and defines how a device should
communicate the fax data. In figure 7.6 above both the gateway and the fax
machine behind the gateway would have to be T38 capable. For the G3 fax
machine on an analog line, this process will be transparent. The analog fax
machine does not need to know T38.
7.5.4.3 FoIP Applications
The FoIP IWF reverses this analog conversion, transmitting digital data over
the packet network and then reconverting the digital data to analog for the
receiving fax machine. This conversion process reduces the overall
bandwidth required to send the fax, because the digital form is much more
efficient, and the fax transmission is half-duplex (i.e., only one direction is
used at any time). The peak rate for a fax transmission is 14.4 kbps in one
direction. A representation of this process is shown in Figure 7.7.
Fax in Analog form
64 <<<<
Full Dulex

Fax in Digital form

Fax in Analog form


64 <<<<
Full Dulex

14.4 <<<<
Full Dulex
Fax Over
Packet
IWF

ATM
Frame Relay
Internet Protocol

Fax Over
Packet
IWF

Figure 7.7 FoIP Conversion Process


An application for fax over packet, shown in Figure 7.8, is a network
configuration of a company with numerous branch offices that wants to use

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the packet network, instead of the long-distance network, to provide fax


access to the main office.
FAX
P8X
IWF

IWF
FAX
FAX

Packet Network
IWF
FAX

Figure 7.8 FoIP Application


The IWF is the physical implementation of the hardware and software that
enables the transmission of fax over the packet network. The IWF must
support analog interfaces that directly interface to fax machines at the
branches and to a PBX at the central site. The IWF must emulate the functions
of a PBX for the fax machines.
7.6 Virtual Private Networks (VPNs)
Virtual Private Networks (VPNs) are tools that allow network users to connect
through the public internet to an organization's internal network. Where many
companies rely on dedicated leased lines to connect remote physical sites, it
simply is not feasible to rely on the same technology to allow dozens or even
hundreds of remote workers to connect from home or from temporary field
locations. VPNs offer a secure method of connectivity that encrypts data, and
they are perfect solutions for individual remote users or very small remote
sites. In addition to the technological advantage, VPNs help reduce costs. In a
nutshell, VPNs when properly implemented, can provide wide area security,
reduce the costs associated with traditional leased lines, and provide effective
support of telecommuters, and road warriors. Additionally, both the
organization and the remote users can save money. The company can forgo
the cost of leased lines, and the remote users escape long distances costs by
using a local service provider to communicate with their headquarters office.
All these advantages are made possible by the concept of a Virtual Tunnel that
re-encapsulates a data packet inside another data packet and transmits it
over the public internet.
7.6.1 Types of VPNs
Site-to-Site: In a site to site VPN, data is encrypted from one VPN gateway to
the other, providing a secure link between two sites over the internet. This
would enable both sites to share resources such as documents and other
types of data over the VPN link.

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Remote Access VPN: In a Remote Access VPN deployment which is also


known as a mobile VPN a secure connection is made from an individual
computer to a VPN router. This enables a user to access their e-mail, files and
other resources at work from outside the network, provided they have an
internet connection. There are a number of common forms of technology used
in remote access VPNs and VPN Tunnels.
VPN Networking Protocols: VPN tunnels rely on one of four major networking
protocols, all of which can provide different levels of security.
PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol): PPTP supports the use of VPNs.
Using PPTP allows remote users to access their business networks in a
secure fashion while using Microsoft Windows Systems and other PPP (Point
to Point tunneling Protocol) capable platforms. Remote users leverage their
local internet providers to connect securely to their networks via the internet.
PPTP brings with it its own problems and is a weak security protocol
compared to other options; however, it should be pointed out that Microsoft
has enhanced the operation of PPTP to correct protocol instabilities.
L2TP (Layer 2 Tunneling Protocol): L2TP is an enhancement of PPTP (Point
to point tunneling protocol) and it is widely used by internet service providers
to offer VPN services over the internet. L2TP is actually a hybrid of two
protocol types: PPTP (Point-to-Point Tunneling Protocol) and L2F (Layer 2
Forwarding Protocol), with some other functionality stolen from IPSec. It
should be noted that L2TP can be deployed in unison with IPSec to satisfy
virtually any encryption, authentication, or data integrity requirements.
IPSec (IP Security): IPSec works at the third layer of the OSI model and as
such can it can protect any protocol that runs on the IP stack. IPSec is actually
a suite of protocols and associated algorithms that can be expanded on in a
modular fashion. IPSec is a strong, flexible, and scalable security protocol and
virtually perfect for securing VPNs. IPSec requires significant amounts of
setup on a network as well as on the client. This makes the protocol a
complicated solution to work with, not to mention it is much more of a
processor strain for all devices that run it than its lighter weight counterparts.
The added bonus is that IPSec can be used for both site-to-site and Remote
Access VPNs.
SSL VPN (Secure Socket Layer): SSL VPN provides the best of both worlds
when it comes to protection and ease of use. Another benefit is that it has been

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a tried and true solution that has been used heavily on the internet for years.
Most commonly this protocol is employed by online stores and online banking.
When you see https: in your browser URL bar, you know immediately that you
are being protected by SSL.
The reduction in complication offered by SSL VPNs comes when you consider
that the client no longer requires client software to be installed and running.
This single fact lessens the burden of the protocol as well as reduces the
overhead needed to maintain and troubleshoot it in a working environment.
The absence of client software means that a user needs to rely on a secure
portal. A secure portal is a graphical interface served up to a web browser that
provides tools and access to applications running on the network. Today one
of the most common applications served up in this fashion are email and thin
clients tools like RDP. SSL can also approximate the way IPSec works with
additional lightweight software that can be installed with very little effort via the
browser. This fact can simplify the processes involved in securely accessing
the corporate network.
SSL VPNS can literally support thousands of end users that need access to
the headquarters network without requiring the support of an administrator or
even a single hour of configuring or troubleshooting unlike IPSec protocol.
7.7 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a digital air interface standard,
claiming eight to fifteen times the capacity of analog. It employs a commercial
adaptation of military spread-spectrum single-sideband technology. Based on
spread spectrum theory, it is essentially the same as wireline service; the
primary difference is that access to the local exchange carrier (LEC) is
provided via wireless phone. Because users are isolated by code, they can
share the same carrier frequency, eliminating the frequency reuse problem
encountered in AMPS and DAMPS. Every CDMA cell site can use the same
1.25 MHz band, so with respect to clusters, n = 1. This greatly simplifies
frequency planning in a fully CDMA environment. CDMA is an interference
limited system. Unlike AMPS/TDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit; however,
each user is a noise source on the shared channel and the noise contributed
by users accumulates. This creates a practical limit to how many users a
system will sustain. Mobiles that transmit excessive power increase
interference to other mobiles. For CDMA, precise power control of mobiles is
critical in maximizing the system's capacity and increasing battery life of the
mobiles. The goal is to keep each mobile at the absolute minimum power level

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that is necessary to ensure acceptable service quality. Ideally, the power


received at the base station from each mobile should be the same (minimum
signal to interference).
Access Schemes: For radio systems there are two resources, frequency and
time. Division by frequency, so that each pair of communicators is allocated
part of the spectrum for all of the time, results in Frequency Division Multiple
Access (FDMA). Division by time, so that each pair of communicators is
allocated all (or at least a large part) of the spectrum for part of the time results
in Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA).

FDMA

frequency

frequency

frequency

time

TDMA

time

time
CDMA

Figure 7.9 Multiple Access Schemes


In Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA), every communicator will be
allocated the entire spectrum all of the time. CDMA uses codes to identify
connections. See figure 7.9.
7.7.1 Coding
CDMA uses unique spreading codes to spread the baseband data before
transmission. The signal is transmitted in a channel, which is below noise
level. The receiver then uses a correlator to despread the wanted signal,
which is passed through a narrow bandpass filter. Unwanted signals will not
be despread and will not pass through the filter.
USER 1
DATA

USER 2
DATA

POWER

USER 3
DATA

TIME

FREQUENCY
POWER

FREQUENCY
TIME

Figure 7.10 CDMA spreading

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Codes take the form of a carefully designed one/zero sequence produced at a


much higher rate than that of the baseband data. The rate of a spreading code
is referred to as chip rate rather than bit rate. See figure 7.10.
Codes: CDMA codes are not required to provide call security, but create a
uniqueness to enable call identification. Codes should not correlate to other
codes or time shifted version of itself. Spreading codes are noise like pseudorandom codes, channel codes are designed for maximum separation from
each other and cell identification codes are balanced not to correlate to other
codes of itself. Figure 7.11 illustrates an example of a code system applied in
W-CDMA.
Cch,4.0 = (1.1.1.1)

Cch,3.0 = (1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1)

Cch,3.1 = (1.1.1.1.-1.-1.-1.-1)

Cch,2.0 = (1.1)
Cch,4.1 = (1.1.-1.-1)

Cch,3.2 = (1.1.-1.-1.1.1.-1.-1)
Cch,3.3 = (1.1.-1.-1.-1.-1.1.1)

Cch,1.0 = (1)
Cch,4.2 = (1.-1.1.-1)

Cch,3.4 = (1.-1.1.-1.1.-1.1.-1)
Cch,3.5 = (1.-1.1.-1.-1.1.-1.1)

Cch,2.1 = (1.-1)
Cch,4.3 = (1.-1.-1.1)

Cch,3.6 = (1.-1.-1.1.1.-1.-1.1)
Cch,3.7 = (1.-1.-1.1.-1.1.1.-1)

SF = 1

SF = 2

SF = 4

SF = 8

Figure 7.11OVSF Code (Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor) is used as


channelization code
The channelization codes are Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF)
codes. They are used to preserve orthogonality between different physical
channels. They also increase the clock rate to 3.84 Mcps. The OVSF codes
are defined using a code tree.Orthogonal codes are easily generated by
starting with a seed of 1, repeating the 1 horizontally and vertically, and then
complementing the -1 diagonally. This process is to be continued with the
newly generated block until the desired codes with the proper length are
generated. Sequences created in this way are referred as Walsh code.
Channelization uses OVSF code, for keeping the orthogonality of different
subscriber physical channels. OVSF can be defined as the code tree
illustrated in figure7.11.
The Spreading Process: WCDMA uses Direct Sequence spreading, where
spreading process is done by directly combining the baseband information to
high chip rate binary code. The Spreading Factor is the ratio of the chips

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(UMTS = 3.84Mchips/s) to baseband information rate. Spreading factors vary


from 4 to 512 in FDD UMTS. Spreading process gain can in expressed in dBs
(Spreading factor 128 = 21dB gain). Figure 7.12 illustrates the spreading
process.
Spreading factor =

Chip rate
Data rate

30kbit/s channel
QPSK

15k symbols/s

3840k
=

15k

Spreading
Factor 256

W/Hz

Non-Spread Signal
Spread Signal
F
Figure 7.12 CDMA spreading
7.7.2 Power Control
CDMA is interference limited multiple access system. Because all users
transmit on the same frequency, internal interference generated by the
system is the most significant factor in determining system capacity and call
quality. The transmit power for each user must be reduced to limit
interference, however, the power should be enough to maintain the required
Eb/No (signal to noise ratio) for a satisfactory call quality. Maximum capacity
is achieved when Eb/No of every user is at the minimum level needed for the
acceptable channel performance. As the MS moves around, the RF
environment continuously changes due to fast and slow fading, external
interference, shadowing, and other factors. The aim of the dynamic power
control is to limit transmitted power on both the links while maintaining link
quality under all conditions. Additional advantages are longer mobile battery
life and longer life span of BTS power amplifiers
7.7.3 Handover
Handover occurs when a call has to be passed from one cell to another as the
user moves between cells. In a traditional "hard" handover, the connection to
the current cell is broken, and then the connection to the new cell is made. This
is known as a "break-before-make" handover. Since all cells in CDMA use the
same frequency, it is possible to make the connection to the new cell before
leaving the current cell. This is known as a "make-before-break" or "soft"

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handover. Soft handovers require less power, which reduces interference and
increases capacity. Mobile can be connected to more than two

A
C

B
C

B
A
C

3 Way Soft
Figure 7.13CDMA soft handover
BTS the handover. "Softer" handover is a special case of soft handover where
the radio links that are added and removed belong to the same Node B. See
figure 7.13.
7.7.4 Multipath and Rake Receivers
One of the main advantages of CDMA systems is the capability of using
signals that arrive in the receivers with different time delays. This
phenomenon is called multipath. FDMA and TDMA, which are narrow band
systems, cannot discriminate between the multipath arrivals, and resort to
equalization to mitigate the negative effects of multipath. Due to its wide
bandwidth and rake receivers, CDMA uses the multipath signals and
combines them to make an even stronger signal at the receivers. CDMA
subscriber units use rake receivers. This is essentially a set of several
receivers. One of the receivers (fingers) constantly searches for different
multipath and feeds the information to the other three fingers. Each finger then
demodulates the signal corresponding to a strong multipath. The results are
then combined together to make the signal stronger.
7.8 Wide Band Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA)
WCDMA of 3G potentially will offer the user significantly increased data
throughput rates. Speeds of up to 2mbit/s and higher are being predicted but it
will be sometime before these are achieved. New techniques such as voice
over IP are being developed for use on the Transport Infrastructure and will

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bring significant advantages to the operator especially in terms of data


compression techniques used in such transmission modes as ATM.
Increased data throughput means greater capacity for a given amount of
frequency spectrum and thus lower costs for both Infrastructure and spectrum
licenses. Potentially the benefits of WCDMA to the user and operator are
massive with greater data rates for the user and reduced costs for the
operator. The basic technology chosen was Wide-band Code-Division
Multiple Access (W-CDMA), with several sub-flavours:
Direct Sequence, Frequency-Division Duplex
Direct Sequence, Time-Division Duplex
Multi-Carrier.
Within the Time-Division Duplex category the initial specifications were
augmented shortly afterwards by a low chip-rate version developed largely at
the initiative of the Chinese partner. Subsequently, a high chip-rate version
has also been specified.
7.8.1 Spread spectrum
W-CDMA is a spread-spectrum modulation technique; that is, one which uses
channels whose bandwidth is much greater than that of the data to be
transferred. Instead of each connection being granted a dedicated frequency
band just wide enough to accommodate its envisaged maximum data rate, WCDMA channels share a much larger band. The modulation technique
encodes each channel in such a way that a decoder, knowing the code, can
pick out the wanted signal from other signals using the same band, which
simply appear as so much noise.
Using a wide frequency band makes the system inherently resistant to many
of the aspects of radio communication which plague narrow band systems,
such as bursty noise, multipath reflections, and other interfering
transmissions. Since all information shares the same band, and channels can
only be distinguished with a knowledge of the spreading codes used, WCDMA is also very secure from eavesdropping, even before employing
encryption algorithms. Also, unlike systems which use a fixed number of
discrete channels in a given frequency band, with W-CDMA there is no fixed
number of simultaneous communications links which can be supported. The
effect of adding more active links to a given cell will eventually result in the
need for data rates for all links to be reduced in order that the wanted signals
can be picked out of the ever increasing noise, but this is generally preferable

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to allowing access of a first-come, first-served basis, with later users simply


being denied access.
7.8.2 HSDPA in WCDMA
High Speed Downlink Packet Access (HSDPA) is a packet-based data service
in W-CDMA downlink with data transmission up to 8-10 Mbps (and 20 Mbps
for MIMO systems) over a 5MHz bandwidth in WCDMA downlink. HSDPA
implementations includes Adaptive Modulation and Coding (AMC), MultipleInput Multiple-Output (MIMO), Hybrid Automatic Request (HARQ), fast cell
search, and advanced receiver design.In 3rd generation partnership project
(3GPP) standards, Release 4 specifications provide efficient IP support
enabling provision of services through an all-IP core network and Release 5
specifications focus on HSDPA to provide data rates up to approximately 10
Mbps to support packet-based multimedia services. MIMO systems are the
work item in Release 6 specifications, which will support even higher data
transmission rates up to 20 Mbps. HSDPA is evolved from and backward
compatible with Release 99 WCDMA systems.
7.9 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (3G Systems)
The Third Generation mobile cellular technology developed by 3GPP - known
variously as Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS),
Freedom of Mobile Multimedia Access (FOMA), 3GSM, is based on wideband
code division multiple access (W-CDMA) radio technology offering greater
spectral efficiency and higher bandwidth than GS. 3G Systems are intended
to provide a global mobility with wide range of services including telephony,
paging, messaging, Internet and broadband data. International
Telecommunication Union (ITU) started the process of defining the standard
for third generation systems, referred to as International Mobile
Telecommunications 2000 (IMT-2000). In Europe European
Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) was responsible of UMTS
standardization process. In 1998 Third Generation Partnership Project
(3GPP) was formed to continue the technical specification work. 3GPP has
five main UMTS standardisation areas: Radio Access Network, Core
Network, Terminals, Services and System Aspects and GERAN. (3GPP) was
formed for technical development of cdma2000 technology which is a
member of IMT-2000 family. In February 1992 World Radio Conference
allocated frequencies for UMTS use. Frequencies 1885 - 2025 and 2110 2200 MHz were identified for IMT-2000 use. See the UMTS Frequency page
for more details. All 3G standards are still under constant development.

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UMTS Architecture: A UMTS network consist of three interacting domains;


Core Network (CN), UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) and
User Equipment (UE). The main function of the core network is to provide
switching, routing and transit for user traffic. Core network also contains the
databases and network management functions. The basic Core Network
architecture for UMTS is based on GSM network with GPRS. All equipment
has to be modified for UMTS operation and services. The UTRAN provides
the air interface access method for User Equipment. Base Station is referred
as Node-B and control equipment for Node-B's is called Radio Network
Controller (RNC).
UTRAN: The UMTS Radio Access Network (UTRAN) technology is
specified in the 3GPP TS 25.-series specifications. The specifications cater
for Frequency Division Duplex (FDD) and Time Division Duplex (TDD) forms,
with high (3.84 Mc/s) and low (1.28 Mc/s) chip rate flavours. (Low chip rate
TDD was developed in China, but may well be deployed elsewhere.) Other
chip rates (e.g. 7.68 Mc/s) were subsequently added. Maximum commonality
between FDD and TDD variants is assured by a single set of higher layer
protocols and shared physical layer parameters, as far as possible.
UTRAN was originally specified for operation in several bands in the 2 GHz
range (3GPP TS 25.101). Subsequently, UTRAN has been extended to
operate in a number of other bands, including those originally reserved for
Second Generation (2G) services. Nominal carrier spacing is 5 MHz (1.6 MHz
for the low-rate TDD option, 10 MHz for the 7.68 Mc/s option). Contrast this
with GSM's 200 kHz channel spacing.
The UTRAN radio technology is direct-sequence CDMA. Each 10 ms radio
frame is divided into 15 slots, with 2560 chips/slot at 3.84 Mc/s. Modulation is
16QAM and turbo coding gives high speed packet access. A flexible radio
protocol allows multiplexing of several services (speech, video, data...) on a
single carrier. Real-time and non-real-time services are catered for by
configurable quality of service parameters (delay, bit error probability, frame
error ratio). The architecture allows for point-to-point and also point-tomultipoint services (broadcast, multicast).
As a development of the original radio scheme, a high-speed download
packet access (HSDPA, offering download speeds potentially in excess of 10
Mbit/s), and an uplink equivalent (HSUPA, also sometimes referred to as
EDCH) were developed. Collectively the pair are tagged HSPA, and permit

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the reception of multimedia broadcast/multicast, interactive gaming and


business applications, and large file download rivalling traditional terrestrial or
satellite digital broadcast services and fixed-line broadband internet access.
The radio frames are divided into 2 ms subframes of 3 slots, and gross
channel transmission rates are around 14 Mbit/s.
UMTS Services: UMTS offers teleservices like speech or SMS and bearer
services, which provide the capability for information transfer between access
points. It is possible to negotiate and renegotiate the characteristics of a
bearer service at session or connection establishment and during ongoing
session or connection. Both connections oriented and connectionless
services are offered for Point-to-Point and Point-to-Multipoint communication.
Bearer services have different QoS parameters for maximum transfer delay,
delay variation and bit error rate. Offered data rate targets are:

144 kbits/s satellite and rural outdoor

384 kbits/s urban outdoor

2048 kbits/s indoor and low range outdoor


UMTS network services have different QoS classes for four types of traffic:

Conversational class (voice, video telephony, video gaming)

Streaming class (multimedia, video on demand, webcast)

Interactive class (web browsing, network gaming, database access)

Background class (email, SMS, downloading)

UMTS is a concept for personal service environment portability across


network boundaries and between terminals. Personal service environment
means that users are consistently presented with the same personalized
features, User Interface customization and services in whatever network or
terminal, wherever the user may be located. UMTS also has improved
network security and location based services.
7.10 4G Mobile Wireless Technology
4G, short for fourth-generation wireless communication systems, has
engaged the attention of wireless operators, equipment makers (OEMs),
investors, and industry watchers around the world. 4G refers to the next
generation of wireless technology that promises higher data rates and
expanded multimedia services. Since, at this point, 4G is more of an
aspiration than a standard, there is not an agreement yet on what should
constitute 4G.

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Since the ITU is a major force in the standardization of telecommunications


technologies, it's worth looking at the ITU's performance goals for 4G: The
framework for 4G systems should fuse elements of current cellular systems
with nomadic wireless-access systems and personal-area networks in a
seamless layered architecture that is transparent to the user Data rates of
100 Mbps for mobile applications and 1 Gbps for nomadic applications
achievable by the year 2010. Worldwide common spectrum and open,
global standardization should be pursued.
As another viewpoint, the Wireless World Research Forum (WWRF) defines a
4G network as one that operates on Internet technology, combines it with
other applications and technologies such as Wi-Fi and WiMAX, and runs at
speeds ranging from 100 Mbps in cell-phone networks to 1 Gbps in local Wi-Fi
networks. There is some debate among standards bodies and industry
watchers as to whether WiMAX is, or will become, a full-fledged 4G
technology competitive with 4G wireless.
The process of developing a standard is a long one, carried out by several
groups, which include Standards Development Organizations (SDOs),
industry forums, and companies, such as OEMs, that have a stake in the end
product. Some of the major SDOs are nonprofit regional or governmental
bodies, such as ETSI in Europe, CCSA in China, and the TTA in Korea. 3GPP
and 3GPP2 are examples of industry SDOs that develop and maintain
standards for current 2G and 3G technologies.
One alternative to 4G being proposed is the 3GPP LTE (Long Term Evolution)
project. It is the name given to an initiative within the Third Generation
Partnership (3GPP) Project for the ongoing enhancement of the UMTS 3G
standard. The LTE project is not a standard, but it will establish a 4G like
capability for UMTS operators. Among all these technologies, several
research organizations think 3G LTE holds the most promise. 3G LTE,
sometimes called 3.99G, is also being hyped as Super 3G.Among the new
schemes being proposed for 4G, 802.16e and 802.20 standards are OFDMA,
Single Carrier FDMA, and MC-CDMA. The new technologies, while offering
the efficiencies of the older technologies such as CDMA, also offer
advantages in scalability. Current working assumptions for physical layer
multiple access schemes is OFDMA for downlink and Single Carrier FDMA
(SC-FDMA) for uplink. One way to increase system capacity is to implement a
Multiple-Input Multiple-Output (MIMO) antenna scheme. A wireless system
with single antennas obeys Shannon's classical limit for capacity, which can
be expressed as C = log2(1+SNR). Ideal capacity therefore increases as the
log of the signal-to-noise ratio. MIMO systems, on the other hand, increase
capacity linearly with respect to the number of transmit and receive pairs that

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are used. The 4G migration, while holding great promise for high data rate
services and a broad range of multimedia applications, will require additional
radio spectrum. However, use of this band for mobile wireless services is
years away due to the complexities of reallocating existing broadcast
licenses. Moreover, there is little chance of establishing a common 4G
spectrum plan on global basis.
7.11 Satellites, Broadband and Internet Services
7.11.1 Satellite Broadband
Satellite broadband is Internet connectivity shown in figure 7.14 provided by
satellite, rather than dial-up, DSL (digital subscriber line) or cable service.
Satellite broadband is linked to a dish network subscriber service and
provides speeds similar to other broadband technologies.
Satelite

Modem

Dish

Gateway
Fibre Cable

Figure 7.14 Satellite broadband is Internet connectivity


Broadband service is the premiere way to connect to the Internet.
Unfortunately, not everyone can get DSL or cable service, particularly in rural
areas. To be eligible for DSL, the subscriber must be within 18,000 feet
(5,486.4 meters) of the phone center, though some telecommunications
companies do accommodate greater distances. Companies that provide
cable TV offer Internet service, but this also does not cover all areas. For
those left out, satellite broadband can be the answer. The Internet feed is
beamed from satellite to a dish installed at the subscriber's home. Satellite
broadband can deliver speeds of up to 4 megabits per second (mbps)
downstream and 1 mbps upstream in NZ. Compare this to dial-up service
that tops out at about 53 kilobits per second. That's about 39 times slower than
satellite broadband. Every time a satellite broadband subscriber sends a
command to fetch a Web page, the request must travel 22,300 miles (35,888
km) to a satellite in geostationary orbit. From there, the signal travels another
22,300 miles back to earth, to the satellite service provider, where it is routed

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to the internet, data is exchanged, and is then sent 22,300 miles back to the
satellite. Once the satellite receives the information, the page data must travel
the final 22,300 miles back to the user. The subscriber pays for that 89,200
mile (143,553 km) round trip for each request in delayed milliseconds. Some
sources indicate the average latency is 500-700ms. This unavoidable 'delay'
makes satellite broadband a poor choice for activities like multiplayer online
gaming. While satellite broadband is far faster than dial-up, it is still one of the
slower broadband technologies. The slowest DSL service is equivalent to
satellite broadband, minus the high latency, and faster DSL can reach speeds
far greater. Cable is also a faster technology, though cable speeds can be
affected by local traffic loads.
7.11.2 Satellite Internet
Satellite internet services have come a long way, providing speeds
comparable to some cable services and far better than dial-up. Satellite
internet depends on geostationary satellites, which orbit at the same speed as
the Earth's rotation and thus remain stationary relative to a location on the
Earth's surface. The satellites send and receive internet signals. To receive
satellite internet at home, you need a special satellite dish or receiver and a
service contract with an internet satellite provider. Satellite internet is ideal for
homes and businesses in rural areas where cable, fiber or even DSL internet
is not available. Satellite is a vast improvement over conventional dial-up
because it delivers a high-speed internet connection without tying up a
telephone line
7.11.3 Ultra-FastBroadband
Broadband is defined by the International Telecommunications Union as a
service which provides transmission capacity in excess of 2.0 Megabits per
second (Mbps). Ultra-Fast Broadband is generally defined as services which
deliver much faster speeds, in excess of 25 Mbps. Having access to UltraFast Broadband is taken to mean the availability of broadband services at a
minimum speed of 100 Mbps Downstream (from the Internet to the user) and a
minimum of 50 Mbps Upstream (from user to the Internet). Uptake of faster
broadband speeds has been increasing rapidly worldwide in recent years.
Optical fibre technology is the most commonly preferred means of delivering
Ultra-Fast Broadband services worldwide. FTTP or Fibre-To-The-Premise
services connect households and businesses to the Internet via optic fibres,
which transmit data using pulses of light. Fibre services allow transmission
over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data speeds) than other
forms of communications. Specifications for Ultra-Fast Broadband also have

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reference to relevant international standards developed by the Metro Ethernet


Forum and the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
7.11.4 Wireless over Fibre
Wireless over Fibre provides fast broadband using our Wireless Network to
apartment and hotels within a kilometer of one of our Wireless Antennas. If
you can see the top of any of the buildings (see figure 7.15) from the window,
and the location is within a kilometer, that location is within the service area.
Wireless signal
tower
CPE
on your window

Fibre Cable

Figure 7.15Wirelesses over Fibre


Fibre optic is used to connect to the Wireless Antenna on each building, and it
is a short hop from the Wireless Antenna to a small receiver which sticks inside
the window. The end result is very fast, consistent Internet; usually with
15Mbps downloads, and 10Mbps uploads.The fibre optic connection
bypasses the heavily congested copper network outside the building. The
Wireless connection is a very short distance, and it's reliableand fast to install.
7.11.5 Cable over Fibre
Cable over Fibre provides fast broadband to specific apartment and hotels in
city centres. Like the name suggests, the service uses a fibre optic
connection to bridge the Internet to the building, and then it splits Internet
across the building's existing copper cable network inside the building. See
figure 7.16.

Fibre Cable

Figure 7.16 Cable over Fibre


The end result is very fast, consistent Internet. The fibre into the building
provides consistent and fast internet. This system bypasses the heavily

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congested copper network outside the building. The building also has a
wireless network as a backup, so it is safer
7.12 Multimedia
Multimedia is a combination of some or all forms such as text, data images,
photographs, animation, audio and video, which are converted from different
formats into a uniform at digital media and is delivered by computers. Unlike
the analogue media, the digital media, which allow users to manipulate
according to the needs, use at their pace, and interact at any point of the
program when a multimedia program is developed in a hypertext
environment, the resulting product is called 'hypermedia', so multimedia
would then be a part of the hypermedia products but not vice-versa. The basic
difference between these two is in the organization and linkage of the
information fragments. The information fragments in multimedia are
organized linearly whereas in hypermedia, these are non-linearly organized
with links to each other. The main elements of the multimedia are:
Text: Information about an object or event, etc. notes, captions, subtitles,
contents, indexes, dictionaries and help facilities.
Data: Tables, charts, graphs, spreadsheets, statistics and row data.
Graphics: Both traditional and computer generated such as drawings, points,
maps, etc.
Photographic Images: Negatives, slides, prints, video cameras, etc.
Animation: Including both computers generated video, etc.
Audio: Includes speech and music digitized form cassettes, tapes, CD's, etc.
Video: Either converted from analogue film of entirely created within a
computer.
7.13 Telecommunication Tools
The important telecommunication tools are as follows:
Telegram: A written message supplied to the department of
telecommunication, which in turns sends, the message by telegram.
Telegraph: A system of sending message by telegraph using both wires and
electricity or radio.
Telegraphy: With reference to telecommunication, telegraphy is the process
of sending message by telegraph. Telegraph wire by which telegraph
messages are sent.
Telepathy: A quite different style of communication of ideas, though directly
from one's mind without the use of audio or visual.
Telephone Directory: Directory is a specially prepared type of book containing

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the names and address of a particular group. Telephone directory is a list of


names, addresses and telephone numbers of a group of all the people in a
particular area who have telephones and the arrangement is according to
alphabetical order.
Telephone exchange: A centrally-controlled system through which telephone
calls are directed. The use of telephone exchange is necessary in case of nonSTD and in the absence of direct dialing operation.
Teleprinter: Teleprinter is a specialized type of typewriter used in
communication system.
Teletype: Teleprinter is a specialized type of typewriter used in communication
system.
Telex: Sending of messages through teleprinter is called telex.
Telecom: Telecom signifies inter-communication system used to
communicate with one another, especially to talk between two rooms, officer,
etc. by means of a telephone or a radio system.
7.13.1 Telegraph
The world telegraph comes from Greek words 'Tele' which means a far and
'graphrin'' meaning write. The method of communication employing electrical
signaling impulses produced and received manually or by machines.
Telegraphy as communication techniques uses essentially a narrow
frequency band and a transmission rate adapted to machine operations. ''TEL
uh graf'' was the first method used to send messages by electricity. Tapping
outwards letter by letter with a telegraph sent at one time most telegraph
message. Early equipment devised by Samuel F. B. Morse consisted of a
mechanical transmitter and receiver. Operators soon learned to handle
messages faster by using simple manual keys, and audible sounders. The
telegraph revolutionized long distance communication. Until its invention,
messengers served as the chief means of communication at a distance. In
1790's Claude Chappe, a French inventor established a system visual
telegraph is semaphores that relayed messages across France. In 1820,
Hans Christian Oersted of Denmark showed that an electric current could
produce a magnetic field that an electric current can produce a magnetic field
that will turn a compass needle. Using the electromagnetic techniques three
scientists namely William F.
Cooks, Charles Wheatstone and F. B. Morse developed successful electrical
telegraphs. Today, machines telegraph, messages. The facsimile machine
has a keyboard, and the operator sends a message by typing it. A printing
device a receiving it automatically types it on the paper.

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7.13.2
Telephone
The telephone has gradually supplemented the telegraph as the principle
system of telecommunications. Not only does the telephone service as an
instrument for reproducing articulate speech and other sounds at a distance
through the medium of electric waves but its circuits carry telegraph telephoto
and television signals and data in a form that can be fed directly into
processing devices. In effect telephone circuits enable computers at remote
points to communicate with each other. As a consequence telephone systems
have become an integral part of modern telecommunication system, intern
telecommunication systems have become an integral part of IT.
Operating Principles: In telephone, the voice vibrates the air, which in turn
vibrates a diaphragm. The motion of the diaphragm produces a
corresponding vibration in an electric current. The basic components of a
typical long distance telecommunications system capable of transmitting
voice, teletypewriter, facsimile, data or television signals. If digital
transmission is employed, signals are first processed in a coder that
completely transforms their character. Typically the coder includes filtering
and coding circuits that convert the signals into digital form; in data
transmission that step is bypassed because the signals are already in digital
form. A telecommunication network, at its simplest, may be regarded as
compressing a transmission network, an arrangement of transmission paths
and switching centers through which signals are conveyed by a physical
transmission medium. Information coming from a source, or to a receiver, is
converted via a terminal into signals appropriate to the characteristics of the
particular network. Although there are specialized networks for digital data, if
conventional voice telecommunication lines are used for part of the
transmission, the signals must be converted by the transmitting system into
analogue form. The analogue signals are converted back into digital form at
the receiving end. Modulator and demodulator (Modem) carry out this
process. The transmission media used in telecommunication networks vary
both physically and in their carrying capacity. The most usually quoted
performance measurement of a telecommunications link is its 'bandwidth'.
This gives an indication of the range of frequencies, which can be transmitted
by the channel and is expressed in frequency units like hertz, kilohertz,
megahertz, etc. The greater the bandwidth is, the greater the rate at which
data can be transmitted.
7.13.3 Media Used on Telecommunication Networks
Some important types of media used on telecommunication networks are;

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Twisted Pairs of cable: Twisted pairs cables are used to transmit signals and
are commonly used in telecommunication (for conventional voice Telephone
and Telex). They are two color-coded, insulated copper wires that are twisted
around each other. A twisted pair cable consists of one or more twisted pairs in
a common jacket.
Coaxial Cables: coaxial cable is the most common type on networking cable.
It consists of an inner wire surrounded by a layer of insulating material, a
conducting layer of woven wire, another layer of insulation and a plastic
covering. It is used also for data networks and in local area networks due to its
wider bandwidth, interface resistance, high conductivity and longer distance
coverage.
Optical Fibers: This type of cable consists of thin glass or plastic filament,
protected by thick plastic padding and an external plastic sheath. Optical
fibers gradually replaced twisted pairs in the voice network as well as being
installed in data network. These fibers carry signals in the form of laser light
instead of an electronic frequency, and hence can carry large volumes of data
at high speed and are resistant to interface.
Radio/Mobile Communication: Radio/mobile communication is the rapidly
growing area of telecommunication. Cordless phone, cellular phones, new
personal communication network (PCN) systems, etc. are the examples of
this category.
Satellite: Satellites are used extensively for general telecommunications, as
well as for television. Originally contemplated only for long distance, transworld links but increasingly employed for high speed, high volume transfers.
7.13.4 Telecommunication Standards and Protocols
Standards are crucial in the telecommunications field if data is to be
transmitted successfully between different manufacturers equipment. The
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and its attached organization
Consultative Committee for International Telephone and Telegraph (CCITT)
have been concerned with standardization of Telecommunication equipment
and facilities for data communications. Broadly speaking the approach of ITU
(International Telecommunication Union) is to consider the problems of both
advanced and developing countries. According to CCITT, standardization
avoids many problems in the process of data communications, such as:
The use of the existing telegraph and telex, network for data

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communications.
The use of the Public switched telephone network.
The use of the separate network dedicated to 'data services' (public
data network)
The use of an integrated service digital network.
7.13.5 Telecom Services to Subscribers
The Telecom policy envisages many value-added services to subscribers
such as:
Paging Service: Paging has emerged as an integral part of business and
personal communication worldwide due to its speed, mobility and low cost. A
pager is a handheld, any-way wireless communication device that receives
numeric or alphanumeric messages. Three categories of people are essential
in paging services, the sender who sends the message, the paging operator
who beams the message, the paging operator, who beams the message and
the receiver who is the target of it. There is also auto-paging facility, which
bypasses the operator. Each pager will have identification number
(Subscriber number). In order to send the message, the sender has to dial a
four-digit number (Paging Access Number) in his or her telephone and tell the
identification number and message to the service operator. The message is
entered into a computer and immediately transmitted throughout the
operating area. The receivers' pager vibrates or beeps and displays the
message. The messages can be also be stored in the memory of the pager
depending on its storage capacity. All this takes one minute or so. There is no
direct application of pagers in libraries or Information centers. However, in
rare cases this can be used to provide information to be delivered through
telephone
Cellular Service: Cellular Service is a Terrestrial Radio based service
providing two way communications by dividing the servicing area into a
regular pattern of Sub-Areas or Cells. Each cell will have a base station with a
low power transmitter or receiver. The base station receives, transmits, and
routes the call to from the users in its service area. All base stations are
connected to a unit called the Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSSC). The
MSSC carries our several complex functions like locating the mobile user,
establishing connection and traffic management. It also shifts the calls as
users move, say in a car, from one cell to another, while the call is going on.
MSSC serves as an interface between the cellular network and Public
Telephone System so that cellular service users can make or receive Local,
STD and international calls (ISD). Telephone linked with the computer is

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emerging as the hub of all information transmission activities and therefore


cellular phones are a boon to those who want information instantaneously
from ICLs, irrespective of the place at which they are stationed.
Data Services: The rapid developments in telecommunication technology
have made it possible to access data stored anywhere in the world. It is very
well acknowledged that for speedy growth of industry and commerce. Many
libraries and information centers utilize data networks to access online
databases
Videoconferencing: Videoconferencing is a method of holding conferences by
transmitting and data communication networks, so that participants can both
see and hear each other. It allows people in different locations to meet face to
face, while being physically thousands of Kilometers apart. It is a new way to
hold meetings.
Teleconferencing: Teleconferencing is a generic term that denotes the
combined use of telecommunications and electronic technologies as an
alternative to in-person meetings. In fact it is a sort of network capability that
uses the telephone as a medium for voice transmission, television for video,
and computer for data transmission service. Data terminal are connected
together via the telephone network.
Videotext: Videotext systems deliver information to specially modified
television receivers. In video text technology a number of innovative
approaches involving various combinations of transmission technologies like
telephone cables, TV cable, satellite, and optical fibers have been
recommended for video text delivery. Video text systems have been divided
into two categories: teletext and view data, which are differentiated by the
information dissemination methodology they employ. Teletext system,
sometimes called broadcast video text, is an information service. Information
is sent or transmitted, at the same time as a television signal. A television set
with a decoder and a special keypad is needed to use teletext.
View data: View data systems transmit information stored in computer
databases through a telephone line and display them on a television screen or
computer terminals. The simplest terminal is a television receiver equipped
with a view data decoder, typewriter-like keyboard, and modem. View data
systems resemble conventional timesharing computer services, although the

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information they offer is a distinctively packaged combination of text and


graphics.
7.13.6 Trends in Telecommunication
Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT): A Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT)
is a device - known as a small private earth station that is used to transmit &
receive data signal through a satellite. The "very small" component of the
VSAT acronym refers to the size of the VSAT dish antenna typically about 4
feet (1.2 m) diameter that is mounted on a roof, or placed on the ground. This
antenna, along with the attached low-noise converter (LNB - which receives
satellite signals) and the transmitter (BUC - which transmits the radio waves
signals) make up the VSAT outdoor unit (ODU), one of the two components of
a VSAT earth station. The satellite modem which makes the connection
between the computers is named the indoor unit (IDU) and does all
management of that small private low cost earth station. VSAT's networks
facilities either one way applications like information dissemination, training
and advertising or two way communications like facsimile and document
transfer, digital voice, compressed video, reservation system, file transfer, etc.
There is a tremendous potential for VSAT in networking library services. The
project entitled TITAN (Telemetry Instrumentation and Telecommunication in
an Automated Network) utilities as integrated communication, telemetry;
computer based remote monitoring and electric control system. It is setting up
communication and tele-supervisory control system. The equipment, direct to
line multiplex equipment, electron telephone exchanges, computer based
tele-supervisory control system large antennae for satellite earth stations and
electrons for the earth stations.
The ISDN: The term ISDN (Integrated Services Digital Network) is given to all
digital networks that can simultaneously carry voice and data communication,
and offer additionally a variety of teletex services. ISDN provides integrated
voice and data on common telephone company facilities. It is a type of
network, which is going to integrate a large number of existing services
separately like telephone, telex, data, image, video text, etc. It has come
about due to greater demands by users of the existing services as regards the
performance and flexibility, which led to an increase in the types of services
each bringing a new network with it.
The concept of ISDN: According to CCITT, ISDN is an end to end digital
network that supports a wide range of services accessible by a limited set of
standard multiplication user network interfaces. This approach allows users to

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connect their telephones, data and text and low speed video terminals to the
same link and removes the need of separate accessing links for each type of
service, as it is the practice today. Another important characteristic of ISDN is
the separation of information from signaling and management functions. Thus
one could implement ISDN as a single all-encompassing digital network with
one integrated transport and switching fabric
7.14 Optical Communication system
Optical communication system can be categorized on the basic of
transmission medium, wavelength and signal used to transmit the
information.
Free Space Optical Communications: is a free-space optical channel exists,
between orbiting satellites. A free space channel between satellites is in some
sense, ideal it does not distort or attenuate the light beam. For this application,
the laser is the best source because, it is spatially coherent radiation can be
confined to a much smaller angle of divergence than can the inherent
radiation from other sources.
Atmospheric Optical Communications: an atmospheric optical channel exists
between satellite to earth communication and Terrestrial communications.
The Earth's atmosphere strongly influences the transmission. Transmission
losses are low in clear weather. However, minute temperature gradients along
the path of the light beam cause beam to broaden and bend so that even in
clear air the degradation can be served over longer paths.
Optical Fiber Communication: optical fiber cables are the important medium
of information flow, used in telecommunication system optical fiber has a very
large information capacity in germs of bandwidth. The frequencies
encompassing light wave transmission are very high in the electromagnetic
spectrum. The reader recalls that bandwidth is largely dependent on the
frequency range. Optical bandwidths in the range of 500 MHz are common
today.
As communication technology grows and changes the boundary lines that
separated media in the past become increasingly difficult to sustain, and the
need for new policies becomes more apparent. At the same time a
communication system that is easier and simpler for users to operate requires
a more complex and costly technology. This problem has recently been
brought into sharp focus by the huge investment required to replace existing

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copper telephone, lines with a fiber optic network capable of handling, on a


broad frequency, a vast array of information and entertainment services.
Since these would encompass both mass and private communications, a new
set of policy issues has been raised regarding the relationship between public
utilities highly regulated at the local level and mass media promoted by
constitutional guarantees. The impending spread of fiber optic networks with
broadband communication capabilities was destined to lower the artificial
barrier between the data processing and communication. It also made
obsolete the distinction that regulators had drawn among the various types of
communication companies, in or out of the mass media field.
7.15 TV Technology
A device for receiving television signals and displaying them in visual form. TV,
the abbreviation for television is a telecommunication device used to transmit
moving visual media. It became popular in the mid-twentieth century as a
medium for entertainment. TV may also refer to the physical device.
Televisions are used to view various subscription based programming,
movies (via an additional media player), and recent models can also be used
as computer monitors.
Today's consumers are confronted with plasma, LCD, DLP, OLED, and laser
televisions. And now, the age-old term LED has been stirred into the mix. Let's
take a look at what those three magic letters mean, how they apply to
televisions, and why you might want to consider buying one.
Plasma TV Overview: Plasma television technology is based loosely on the
fluorescent light bulb. The display itself consists of cells. Within each cell two
glass panels are separated by a narrow gap in which neon-xenon gas is
injected and sealed in plasma form during the manufacturing process. The
gas is electrically charged at specific intervals when the Plasma set is in use.
The charged gas then strikes red, green, and blue phosphors, thus creating a
television image. Each group of red, green, and blue phosphors is called a
pixel (picture element).Although Plasma television technology eliminate the
need for the bulky picture tube and electron beam scanning of traditional
televisions, because it still employs the burning of phosphors to generate an
image, Plasma televisions still suffer from some of the drawbacks of
traditional televisions, such as heat generation and screen-burn of static
images.
LCD TV Overview: LCD TVs, on the other hand, use a different technology.
Basically, LCD panels are made of two layers of transparent material, which

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are polarized, and are "glued" together. One of the layers is coated with a
special polymer that holds the individual liquid crystals. Current is then passed
through individual crystals, which allow the crystals to pass or block light to
create images. LCD crystals do not produce their own light, so an external
light source, such as florescent (CCFL/HCFL) or LEDs are needed for the
image created by the LCD to become visible to the viewer.Unlike standard
CRT and Plasma televisions, since there are no phosphors that light up, less
power is needed for operation and the light source in an LCD TV generates
less heat than a Plasma or traditional television. Also, because of the nature of
LCD technology, there is no radiation emitted from the screen itself.
LED TV: Despite having a different acronym, an LED TV is just a different type
of LCD TV. The proper name would actually be LED-backlit LCD TV, but
that's too much of a mouthful for everyday conversation, so people generally
just refer to them as LED TV's, which can cause confusion. Both types of TV
make use of a liquid crystal display (LCD) panel to control where light is
displayed on your screen. These panels are typically composed of two sheets
of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them, so when an
electric current passes through the liquid, it causes the crystals to align so that
light can (or can't) pass through. Ordinary LCD TV's use cold cathode
fluorescent lamps (CCFL's) to provide backlighting, whereas LED TV's use an
array of smaller, more efficient light emitting diodes (LED's) to illuminate the
screen, which gives them a few advantages.
LED TV's carry a number of advantages over regular LCD TV's with CCFL
backlighting. First of all, LED's are considerably smaller than CCFL tubes,
which means LED TV's can be made much thinner. These days, most TV's
that measure under an inch thick are made with LED because they add very
little depth to the display profile.
LED's also consume less power than their CCFL counterparts, but the most
important difference between the two is a feature called local dimming a
selective lighting technique that allows for deeper blacks and better overall
picture
LCD vs. Plasma: There are many different types of televisions, but for most
people the decision comes down to LCD or Plasma. LCD & Plasma each had
their advantages: plasma had better contrast but also had burn-in issues;
LCDs last much longer but also cost more. LED backlit LCD screens are
gaining popularity. These screens are even thinner than normal fluorescent
backlit LCD panels and when done properly they allow for better contrast than

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you typically seen in a LCD panel.


7.15.1 Television Standards
There are currently 3 main television standards used throughout the world:
NTSC: National Television Standards Committee. The oldest existing
standard, developed in the USA. First used in 1954. Consists of 525 horizontal
lines of display and 60 vertical lines. Sometimes irreverently referred to as
"Never Twice the Same Color." Only one type exists, known as NTSC M.
SECAM: Systme lectronique pour Couleur avec Mmoire. Developed in
France. First used in 1967. A 625-line vertical, 50-line horizontal display.
Sometimes referred to by wags as "Something Essentially Contrary to the
American Method" or Second Colour Always Magenta!" Different types use
different video bandwidth and audio carrier specs. Types B and D usually used
for VHF; types G, H, and K for UHF; types I, N, M, K1 and L for both VHF/UHF.
Different types are generally not compatible.
PAL: Phase Alternating Line. Developed by German engineer Walter Bruch
and the German electronic corporation Telefunken. Walter Bruchpatented his
invention 1963 and the first commercial application of the PAL system was in
August 1967. Also a 625/50-line display and variant of NTSC. Proponents call
it "Perfection At Last." Due to the cost of the enormous circuit complexity,
critics often refer to it as "Pay A Lot". Different types use different video
bandwidth and audio carrier specs. Common types are B, G and H; less
common types include D, I, K, N and M. The different types are generally not
compatible.
7.15.2 Television systems
Television systems are the combination of equipment, protocols and
transmission lines that are used to obtain media from content providers and
distribute the media or programs to content viewers. While each type of TV
system can deliver similar programs (such as television shows), the types of
advertising they can accept and the ways it is delivered can dramatically vary.
Some of the key types of television systems include cable TV, satellite TV,
broadcast TV, mobile TV, IPTV, and Internet TV.
Analog Television: Analog television transmits programming in a continuous
signal. This signal varies in amplitude, depending on the information
contained in the picture. It's kind of how music was transcribed onto vinyl
records; the television signal goes up and down depending on what's being

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broadcast.

Figure 7.17 Analog television transmits in a continuous


signal that varies in amplitude.
This analog signal shown in figure 7.17 is transmitted on a particular radio
frequency, from the television station's transmitting antenna over the air to the
receiving antenna connected to your TV set. Each television station is
assigned a particular frequency that corresponds to its channel number.
When you tune your TV to a given channel, you are actually choosing to
receive transmissions on that particular frequency.
Digital television (DTV or DTH): Digital TV is a new technology for the
broadcasting of television signals. Traditionally, analog TV transmission has
been the traditional method of broadcasting TV channels. But analog TV
transmission is not as efficient as that of digital TV. It uses up much more
valuable spectrum than DTH/digital TV, and only allows TV stations to
transmit one channel at a time. In DTH/digital TV signals, the TV programme is
coded into a digital stream of 0 & 1 similar to that of a computer. As a result,
these signals occupy much less capacity in the spectrum. So in space
required for one analog TV channel, a broadcaster can carry four to five
different DTH/digital TV channels. This means greater choice of services as
well as better picture and sound quality for the DTH/digital TV viewer.
DTH/Digital TV technology can also be used to deliver future interactive video
and data services that analog technology can't provide.. Advantages of DTV
over analog TV include:

Superior image resolution (detail) for a given bandwidth


Smaller bandwidth for a given image resolution
Compatibility with computers and the Internet
Interactivity

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Superior audio quality


Consistency of reception over varying distances
System Overview: The transport format and protocol for the Digital Television
Standard is based on the MPEG-2 Systems specification defined in ISO/IEC
13818-1. It is based on a fixed-length packet transport stream approach that
has been defined and optimized for digital television delivery applications,
including direct references and additional extensions, constraints and
conditions. As illustrated in Figure 7.18, the transport subsystem resides
between the application (e.g., audio or video) encoding and decoding
functions and the transmission subsystem. The encoder's transport
subsystem is responsible for formatting the coded elementary streams and
multiplexing the different components of the Program for transmission. It also
is responsible for delivering packets intended for transmission using
appropriate coding methods. A receiver recovers the elementary streams for
the individual application decoders and for the corresponding error signaling.
The transport subsystem also incorporates other higher protocol layer
functionality related to properly timing the packets to enable receiver
synchronization.

multiplexing
demultiplexing

Transmission

elementary
streams, private
sections, or PES

Modulator
Transport
Stream

Clock

Decoders

Application

Presentation

Receiver

elementary
streams, private
sections, or PES
with error
signaling
Clock

Format

Transport

packetization and

Transport

depacketization and

Encoders

Application

Sources for encoding

(Video, audio, data, etc.)

Transmitter

Demodulator
Transport
Stream with
error
signaling

clock
control

Figure 7.18 Sample organization of functionality in a


transmitter-receiver pair fora single Program.
One approach to describing the system multiplexing approach is to consider it
as a combination of multiplexing at two different layers. In the first layer, single
Program transport streams are formed by multiplexing Transport Stream (TS)
packets from one or more Packetized Elementary Stream (PES) and/or

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private section sources. In the second layer, one or more single Program
transport streams are combined to form a service multiplex of Programs (also
known as a multi-program transport stream in the MPEG-2 Systems standard,
and a Digital Television Standard multiplexed bit stream in this ATSC
standard). Program Specific Information (PSI), carried within Transport
Stream packets, relates to the identification of Programs and the components
of each Program.
CABLE TV: Cable Television or Community Antenna Television (CATV) is a
system for distribution of audiovisual content for television, FM radio and other
services to consumers through fixed coaxial cables, avoiding the traditional
system of radio broadcasting antennas (broadcast television) and have
widespread use, mainly through the pay-TV services. Technically, the cable
TV involves the distribution of a number of television channels received and
processed in a central location (known as head-end) to subscribers within a
community through a network of optical fibre and/or coaxial cables and
broadband amplifiers. The use of different frequencies allows many channels
to be distributed through the same cable, without separate wires for each, and
the tuner of the TV or Radio selects the desired channel from among all
transmitted.Cable television brings you more channels and generally better
reception than off-air reception of broadcast television since TV signals travel
to your home through a combination of fiber optics and cable - rather than
through the air. Cable television brings television stations from your local area,
across the country and around the world into your home through miles of hightechnology fiber optics and cable, uninterrupted by trees, buildings and other
surface obstacles. Cable television lets you receive many additional channels
from communications satellites.
Individual television programs are produced in many locations around the
world. These programs are transmitted to communications satellites that orbit
the earth. These satellites stay in a fixed position 22,300 miles above the
earth, allowing them to transmit to your community. Our local receiving dishes
pick up these signals. The cable television "head-end" - the control center processes these satellite signals - along with the signals from your local TV
stations and other sources - so they can be transmitted over our cable system
(consisting of state of the art fiber optic and coaxial cable) to your home.
These quality television programs are brought to your home via hundreds of
miles fiber optics and cable, either strung on the same poles that carry your
telephone or electric service or buried underground. Today, cable TV
companies, generally referred to as multiple (cable) systems operators
(MSOs) collect signals and programs from many sources, multiplex them, and

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distribute them to subscribers (see figure 7.19). The main building or facility is
called the headend.
Distribution
amplifiers

TV signals

Feeder cables (coaxial)

Amplifiers

Headend
cable station
Amplifier

Trunk
cable

Combiner
(multiplexer)

Cable box

Mixer

Drops
to homes
Channel
3 or 4

(Coaxial
75

TV
set

Figure 7.19 Cable TV System


The antennas receive local TV stations and other nearby stations plus the
special cable channel signals distributed by satellite. The cable companies
use parabolic dishes to pick up the so-called premium cable channels. A cable
TV company uses many TV antennas and receivers to pick up the stations
whose programming it will redistribute. These signals are then processed and
combined or frequency-multiplexed onto a single cable.
The main output cable is called the trunk cable. In older systems it was a large,
low loss coaxial cable. Newer systems use a fiber-optic cable. The trunk cable
is usually buried and extended to surrounding areas. A junction box containing
amplifiers takes the signal and redistributes it to smaller cables, called
feeders, which go to specific areas and neighborhoods. From there the
signals are again rejuvenated with amplifiers and sent to individual homes by
coaxial cables called drops. The overall system is referred to as a hybrid fiber
cable (HFC) system. The coaxial cable (usually 75RG-6/U) comes into a
home and is connected to a cable decoder box, which is essentially a special
TV tuner that picks up the cable channels and provides a frequency
synthesizer and mixer to select the desired channel. The mixer output is
heterodyned to TV channel 3 or 4 and then fed to the TV set antenna
terminals. The desired signal is frequency-translated by the cable box to
channel 3 or 4 that the TV set can receive. Cable TV is a popular and widely

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used. This service eliminates the need for antennas. And because of the
direct connection of amplified signals, there is no such thing as poor, weak,
noisy, or snowy signals. In addition, many TV programs are available only via
cable, e.g., the specialized content and premium movie channels. The only
downside to cable TV is that it is more expensive than connecting a TV to a
standard antenna.
DIGITAL TERRESTRIAL TV: Digital Terrestrial Television (DTTV or DTT) is an
implementation of digital television technology to provide a greater number of
channels and/or better quality of picture and sound using aerial broadcasts to
a conventional antenna (or aerial) instead of a satellite dish or cable
connection. DTTV is transmitted on radio frequencies through the airwaves
that are similar to standard analogue television, with the primary difference
being the use of multiplex transmitters to allow reception of multiple channels
on a single frequency range (such as a UHF or VHF channel).The amount of
data that can be transmitted (and therefore the number of channels) is directly
affected by the modulation method of the channel. The modulation method in
DVB-T is COFDM with either 64 or 16 state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM). In general a 64QAM channel is capable of transmitting a greater bit
rate, but is more susceptible to interference. 16 and 64QAM can be combined
in a single multiplex, providing a controllable degradation for more important
programme streams. This is called hierarchical modulation. New
developments in compression have resulted in the MPEG-4/AVC standard
which will enable two high definition services to be coded into a 24 Mbit/s
European terrestrial transmission channel. DTTV is received via a digital settop box, or integrated receiving device, that decodes the signal received via a
standard aerial antenna, however, due to frequency planning issues, an aerial
with a different group (usually a wideband) may be required if the DTTV
multiplexes lie outside the bandwidth of the originally installed aerial.
HDTV: The high-definition television, also known as HDTV (High Definition
Television) is a television system with a resolution significantly higher than in
the traditional formats (NTSC, SECAM, PAL).The HDTV is transmitted
digitally and therefore its implementation generally coincides with the
introduction of digital television (DTV), technology that was launched during
the 1990s.Although several patterns of high-definition television have been
proposed or implemented, the current HDTV standards are defined by ITU-R
BT.709 as 1080i (interlaced), 1080p (progressive) or 720p using the 16:9
screen format. The term "high definition" can refer to the specification of the
resolution itself or, more generally, the mdia capable of such a definition as

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the video mdia support or the television set. What will be of interest in the near
future is high definition video, through the successors of the DVD, HD DVD
and Blu-Ray (is expected that the last one will be adopted as a standard) and,
consequently, the projectors and LCD and plasma televisions sets as well as
retro projectors and video recorders with 1080p resolution/definition.Highdefinition television (HDTV) yields a better-quality image than standard
television does, because it has a greater number of line resolution. The visual
information is some 2 to 5 times sharper because the gaps between the scan
lines are narrower or invisible to the naked eye.
The larger the size of the television the HD picture is viewed on, the greater the
improvement in picture quality. On smaller televisions there may be no
noticeable improvement in picture quality. The lower-case "i" appended to the
numbers denotes interlaced; the lower-case "p" denotes progressive: With
the interlaced scanning method, the 1,080 lines of resolution are divided into
pairs, the first 540 alternate lines are painted on a frame and then the second
540 lines are painted on a second frame; the progressive scanning method
simultaneously displays all 1,080 lines on every frame, requiring a greater
bandwidth.
PAY-PER-VIEW: Pay-per-view (often abbreviated PPV) offers a system by
which a television audience can purchase events to view on TV-monitors via
private telecast of that event to their homes. The broadcaster shows the event
at the same time to everyone ordering it (as opposed to video-on-demand
systems, which allow viewers to see the event at any time) and can be
purchased using an on-screen guide, an automated telephone system, or
through a live customer service representative. Events often include feature
films, sporting events, adult content movies and "special" events.
VIDEO-ON-DEMAND: Video-on-Demand (VoD) or Audio-Video-on-Demand
(AVoD) systems allow users to select and watch/listen to video or audio
content on demand. VoD systems either stream content through a set-topbox, allowing viewing in real time, or download it to a device such as a
computer, digital video recorder, personal video recorder or portable media
player for viewing at any time. Download and streaming video-on-demand
systems provide the user with a large subset of VCR functionality including
pause, fast forward, fast rewind, slow forward, slow rewind, jump to
previous/future frame etc., these functions are called trick modes.
For disk-based streaming systems which store and stream programs from
hard disk drive, trick modes require additional processing and storage on the
part of the server, because separate files for fast forward and rewind must be

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stored. Memory - based VoD streaming systems have the advantage of being
able to perform trick modes directly from RAM, which requires no additional
storage or CPU cycles on the part of the processor. It is possible to put video
servers on LANs, in which case they can provide very rapid response to users.
Streaming video servers can also serve a wider community via a WAN, in
which case the responsiveness may be reduced. Download VoD services are
practical to homes equipped with cable modems or DSL connections.
WEB TV: Web TV, TVIP, or TV on the Internet is the transmission of a
programming grid through the Internet. It can be known "normal" TV channels
or channels specifically designed for the Internet. Web TV, in a simplified form,
is nothing more than the provision of video and audio over the Internet; and the
way to assist the transmission varies from the monitor of a computer through
the use of an iPod or a mobile phone to the TV set if one have the decoder.
IPTV (TV over Internet Protocol): The recent introduction of Television over
Internet Protocol technology, commonly known as IPTV, made a revolution on
the distribution networks for TV signals, allowing eliminate many of the
problems associated with a distribution network based on coaxial cables, in
particular those related with the degradation of signal, interference, signal
levels, and capacity of the transmission of the channel's band. With IP
(Internet Protocol), it will be possible the combination of several interfaces in a
multi-service unit and the broadcast and distribution of diverse and varied
services on the same network, which previously required differentiated
infrastructure, including: TV signals, telephone service and broadband
Internet access, setting a platform we know today as Triple Play. In essence,
the triple play concept is not entirely new because, in terms of services, there
are some years ago that are available some solutions combining a mix of TV
services, telephony and Internet access.
Studies show that the churn rate (voluntary abandonment of service) of the
offer triple play subscribers is substantially lower than that observed when the
voice, data and TV are sold on a non-convergent way. Another factor is the
progress in access technologies and platforms for packet telephony and
video. A variant of ADSL (asymmetrical digital subscriber line), known as
ADSL2+, represents a change in the effective performance of Internet
connection on the original format, not to mention the more recent
developments, such as VDSL (very-high-bit-rate DSL). The access over
optical fibre in its more popular form, known as PON (passive optical network),
reflects an even more daring way, resulted in significant investments in that
technology, seeking for high-speed Internet access, voice and multi-channel

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of high-definition TV union.
Satellite TV: Simultaneously broadcasts a few hundred channels. Some of
the channels can be dynamically assigned for on demand programs and
addressable ads. Satellite systems must use a different data channel for the
return direction to allowing for interactive ads.
Broadcast TV: Simultaneously broadcasts tens of channels. A few channels
can be dynamically assigned for on demand programs and addressable ads.
Some broadcast TV systems have a radio transmission system for the return
channel allowing for interactive ads.
Mobile TV: Simultaneously broadcasts a few channels, usually in resolution
formats that are less than standard definition. Mobile TV programs may be
sent on different frequencies than mobile telephone calls. Mobile TV systems
may use a mobile telephone channel (packet data) to transfer ads and to
provide interactive ads.
7.16 LCD Projector Principles
LCD projectors are rapidly becoming popular as useful presentation tools for
business and entertainment at home on large screens as home theaters.
LCD (liquid crystal display) projectors shown in figure 7.20 contain three
separate LCD glass panels, one for red, green, and blue components of the
image signal being transferred to the projector. As the light passes through the
LCD panels, individual pixels can be opened to allow light to pass or closed to
block the light. This activity modulates the light and produces the image that is
projected onto the screen.
Lens

Dichroic Combiner Cube


Mirror

Mirror

Red Dichroic
Mirror

LCD

LCD

Blue Dichroic
Dichroic Mirror
Mirror
Wavelength Selector
Light Source

Figure 7.20 LCD Projector Principles

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The lamp provides white light that passes through a polarizing filter. Polarizing
works by accepting light that is traveling on the same plane. All other light will
be blocked. From the polarizing filter the light is then passed through a series
of dichroic mirrors. Dichroic mirrors work by only allowing certain colors in the
light spectrum to be reflected, while others pass through. The dichroic mirrors
in LCD projectors separate the light into the three primary colors: green, red
and blue. These three colors are then sent to a separate LCD panel:
remember there are three of them. From there the LCD panels send the light
through the dichroic prism which recombines the light and sends it out the
main lens in the LCD projector to the surface against which it is projected.
Each LCD is only capable of controlling one color. So if you were to see a
picture of a red plane against a blue sky, the green LCD would block the light
from passing to the dichroic prism and out the lens. LCD panels in LCD
projectors work by allowing the polarized light to travel through a pane of glass
into the liquid crystal inside the display. The liquid crystals bend the light, and it
is traveling on a different plane then when it entered through the polarizing
filter. If you apply an electrical current to the liquid crystal they will align,
allowing the light to pass through on the same plane as when it entered. If you
add a second polarizing filter at the other end of the liquid crystal you can then
effectively block all light from passing through. Each LCD panel has a
separate system to control the electrical current that passes through the liquid
crystal, allowing each to be controlled individually. The resolution, or how
sharp the image is, of each LCD is determined by the number of cells which
are called pixels, with the higher the number of pixels meaning more clarity to
the image. Each LCD panel also has the ability to control what color each pixel
will be in that particular panel so that when all the light is recombined at the
dichroic prism, it will be the right color. Think of it working the same way that
the old dot matrix printers used to work. They would combine dots of the three
main colors to provide the desired color.
7.17 Closed Circuit Television
As the name implies, Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) is a system in which
the circuit is closed and all the elements are directly connected. This is unlike
broadcast television where any receiver that is correctly tuned can pick up the
signal from the airwaves. Directly connected in this context includes systems
linked by microwave, infrared beams, etc. This article introduces the main
components that can go to make up CCTV systems of varying complexity.
The Applications for CCTV: Probably the most widely known use of CCTV is in
security systems and such applications as retail shops, banks, government

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establishments, etc. The true scope for applications is almost unlimited. Some
examples are listed below.
Monitoring traffic on a bridge.
Recording the inside of a baking oven to find the cause of problems.
A temporary system to carry out a traffic survey in a town centre.
Time lapse recording for the animation of plasticine puppets.
Used by the stage manager of a show to see obscured parts of a set.
The well-publicised use at football stadiums.
Hidden in buses to control vandalism.
Recording the birth of a gorilla at a zoo.
Making a wildlife program using a large model helicopter.
Reproducing the infrared vision of a goldfish!
Aerial photography from a hot air balloon.
Production control in a factory.
The Camera: The starting point for any CCTV system must be the camera.
The camera creates the picture that will be transmitted to the control position.
Apart from special designs CCTV cameras are not fitted with a lens. The lens
must be provided separately and screwed onto the front of the camera. There
is a standard screw thread for CCTV cameras, although there are different
types of lens mounts. See figure 7.21.
Focus adjustment
Iris adjustment

Lens

Camera

Mains lead
(if required)

BNC plug

Figure7.21 Camera and Lens


Not all lenses have focus and iris adjustment. Most have iris adjustment.
Some very wide angle lenses do not have a focus ring. The 'BNC' plug is for
connecting the coaxial video cable. Line powered cameras do not have the
mains cable. Power is provided via the coaxial cable.
The Monitor: The picture created by the camera needs to be reproduced at
the control position. A CCTV monitor shown in figure 7.22 is virtually the same
as a television receiver except that it does not have the tuning circuits.

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Mains cable

Brightness
and contrast
controls

On off switch

Figure 7.22 CCTV Monitor


Simple CCTV System: The simplest system is a camera connected directly
to a monitor by a coaxial cable with the power for the camera being provided
from the monitor. This is known as a line powered camera. Figure7.23 shows
such a system.
MAINS

COAXIAL
CABLE

CAMERA
&
BRACKET

MONITOR

Figure 7.23 Basic Line Powered CCTV System


Probably the earliest well-known version of this was the Pye Observation
System that popularised the concept of CCTV, mainly in retail establishments.
It was an affordable, do-it-yourself, self-contained system.
Systems with Video Recording: The next development of a basic system is
to add a video recorder; the arrangement would be as shown in figure 7. 24

COAXIAL CABLES
MONITOR
OUT

VIDEO
IN

VIDEO
OUT
1235

VIDEO SWITCHER

VIDEO RECORDER

Diagram 7.24 Multi Camera System With Video Recorder

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With this arrangement the pictures shown during play back will be according
to the way in which the switcher was set up when recording. That is, if it was
set to sequence then the same views will be displayed on the monitor. There is
no control over what can be displayed.
Movable and Fixed Cameras: In many applications the area to be covered
would need many fixed cameras. The solution to this is to use cameras fixed to
a movable platform. This platform can then be controlled from a remote
location. The platform may simply rotate in a horizontal plane and is generally
known as a scanner. Alternatively the platform may be controllable in both
horizontal and vertical planes and is generally known as a pan, tilt unit. A basic
system is illustrated in figure 7.25

Monitor
Movable
camera

Controller

Figure 7.25 Basic Movable Camera System


When used outdoors they will always require a protective housing. For indoor
use the environment or aesthetic constraints will dictate whether housing is
needed. Systems may contain a combination of both fixed and movable
cameras as illustrated in figure 7.26.
Fixed cameras
Monitor
+

++
+ +
+
+
+

movable
cameras

Switcher/controller

Figure 7.26 Multiple Camera System

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Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Self-Test 1
3G UMTS
1
Explain the following; 2G, 3G and 4G.
2
What is International Telecommunication Union?
3
What is Universal Mobile Telecommunications System?
4
Explain CDMA2000?
5
Explain Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications?
6
Explain WiMAX?
7
Explain Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution?
8
Explain High Speed Packet Access?
9
What is 3GPP Long Term Evolution?
10
What is Evolution-Data Optimized?
11
Explain HSDPA in WCDMA.
Self-Test 2
VOIP IP Telephony
1
Explain the IPV4 and IPv6 address bit?
2
What is an IP address range A, B, C, D, and E?
3
Explain URL?
4
In VoIP telephone witch part will convert data analog to digital, digital
to analog?
5
Explain how does VOIP work?
6
What do internet telephony, packet telephony, IP telephony and
converged network means?
7
Explain VOIP?
8
Explain what are the advantages to VoIP?
9
What equipment is needed for VoIP?
Self-Test 3
Telecom Switches Routers
1
Which is a type of hub that forwards packets to an appropriate port
based on the packets address?
2
Which is a type of hub that forwards packets to an appropriate port
based on the packets address?
3
Which devices discriminate between multicast and unicast packets?
4
What is the Difference between Routers, Switches and Hubs?
5
Explain Bridging?
6
What is the Difference between Router and Switch?
7
What is causing Location Update (LU) delay when a roamer tries to
latch to a visited network?

290

8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

Why is it that SMS/MO receives a sent and delivered acknowledgment


but MT is not receiving the message?
Is a cross-over cable needed to connect the EZ serial switch to another
hub or some type of device?
Does the EZ serial switch have a user configuration interface like a
router?
What is Auto-Negotiation function?
What is the IP address of the switch?
Will the switches work with both a PC/OS XP and a MAC/OS 9 if the
uplink connection will be to a router?
Does a switch have the ability to send IP addresses?
What are the differences between broadband router and Ethernet
switch?
What are the differences between an Ethernet switch and a hub?
How can you network the computers together with the switch?
Name and explain two types of paging system.

Self-Test 4
GPRS
1
What is GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)?
2
What is Packet switching?
3
What is Mobile phone?
4
What is GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)?
5
Explain Time division multiple access?
6
What is Cellular digital packet data?
Post Your Answer
7
Explain i-mode?
8
What is Dual Transfer Mode?
9
What is Access Point Name?
10
What is GPRS Core Network?
11
What is Base transceiver station (BTS)?
Self-Test 5
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
1.
Is PCM is in the modem?
2.
What is FDM?
3.
Define noise source and give some example of it because it is
outside the wire.
4.
What is male connector and what is female connector?
5.
Explain the difference between Hub, Modem, Router, and Switches.

291

6.
7.
8
9
10.
11
12.
13.
14
15
16.
17.
18
19
20

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

What are the types of IP, define each


What is the meaning of channels in frequency?
a. What is MTSO?
b. What is BAND?
c. What is frequency band?
a. What are Transmission impairments?
b. Explain the following term briefly; Los signal, Attenuation, Distortion.
Explain the Concept of line of sight?
a. What is FDM?
b. What is TDM?
Difference between MUX and Demux
What are the telephone services provided?
a. What are T Line and E Line? b. What are the fractional T Lines?
a What are the Types of Errors? b. Define Error Control.
Explain the term 'error correction'.
Discuss the concept of redundancy in error detection.
a What is Single bit error? b. Mention and discuss the two most
common error correction mechanisms
a. How is CRC superior to the two dimensional parity? b. What is the
difference between even parity and odd parity?
a What are Repeaters and routers? b. What does TCP/IP do? c.
What is the Purpose of Encoding Techniques?

Self-Test 6
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
1
What is a Virtual Private Network (VPN)?
2
Is VPN a long-term solution or a short-term stop gap kind of thing?
3
What security vulnerabilities are addressed by VPN?
4
What security vulnerabilities are unique to or heightened by VPN?
5
Mention the performance issues VPN raise?
6
What crypto issues are relevant in the VPN context?
7
Mention specific kinds of applications or environments VPN be
used?
8
why are VPNs deployed in an environment?
9
What is the relationship between VPN and fire walls?
10
What firewall issues are relevant to VPN selection and deployment?
11
What kind of resources is required for VPN deployment, usage,
maintenance?
12
What are reasonable expectations for a VPN?

292

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14

Nuts and Bolts of Telecommunications Engineering

What are unreasonable expectations for VPN?


What kind of policies and procedures need to be developed for
VPN?

Self-Test 7
Broadband, telecommunication standards and optical communication
system
1
Explain Satellites, Broadband and Internet Services under the following
headings;
(i)
Satellite Broadband
(ii)
Satellite Internet
(iii) Ultra-Fast Broadband Ultra-Fast Broadband
2
Explain (i) Wireless over Fibre (ii) Cable over Fibre
3
Name and explain briefly the important telecommunication tools.
4
Name and explain briefly important types of media used on
telecommunication networks
5
Name and explain briefly Telecommunication Standards and
Protocols
6
Name and explain briefly Optical communication systems.
Self-Test 8
Television Technology
1
Name and explain 3 main television standards used throughout the
world
2
Explain briefly the following television systems; cable TV,HDTV,
satellite TV, broadcast TV, mobile TV, IPTV, and Internet TV.
3
What are the Advantages of DTV over analog TV?
4
What is a Closed Circuit Television?
5
Explain the following in relation to the CCTV; (i) Camera (ii) monitor
(iii) Simple CCTV System
6
Explain briefly the Movable and Fixed Camera system in the CCTV
system
7
What is LCD Projector? Describe the LCD Projector Principles.
8
Define the Following terms; LCD and LED.
9
Explain the principles of Plasma TV.
10
Explain the LED and LCD TV principles
11
Differentiate between LED and LCD TV system.
12
Differentiate between LCD and plasma television.

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Index

A
AC, 55, 89, 103
acoustic, 63, 65-67, 73, 181
actuator, 52
addressable, 284
ADSL, 283
aerial, 28-29, 75, 78, 127, 281
AF, 163
AGC, 151-152, 165-167, 174
alignment, 241
AM, 12, 21-24, 35, 76-77, 79, 81-89, 92, 94,
96, 100, 103-104, 106-109, 115-117,
119-122, 127-129, 131-134, 136-141, 144,
147, 152, 160, 162-169, 171, 174-176

Amplifier, 9-10, 13, 112, 134, 142, 149,


151, 163, 165, 167, 190, 199, 280

Amplitude, 16-17, 19-21, 23, 31, 79-82, 84,


96, 115, 127, 129, 131-133, 144, 171-172,
281

Antenna, 37, 75, 149, 151, 163, 165, 199,


202, 265, 279

antipodal, 231-232
Aperture, 233, 272
APRANET, 3
array, 63, 184, 198, 274-275

ASCII, 189, 197


ATA, 191, 249-250
ATM, 7, 246-247, 250, 258
ATSC, 7, 279
Attenuation, 11, 161, 291
Audio, 34, 75, 78, 84, 112-113, 128, 134,
137-138, 148-149, 151, 165-168, 184,
199, 266, 282

authentication, 182, 252


AVC, 281
AWGN, 181

B
Backplate, 51
baffle, 66-67
bandpass, 111-112, 124, 161, 254
bandwidth, 12, 20-23, 31-36, 38, 82,
84-85, 87-89, 93-95, 98, 100-101,
104-105, 108-109, 117-118, 121-124, 128,
132, 146-148, 157, 159-160, 164, 168,
171, 175, 177, 179, 182, 194, 203-207,
233-234, 247-248, 250, 257-259, 268-269,
273, 276-277, 281-282

Index

baseband, 35, 104-105, 110-112, 131, 137,


157, 162, 236-238, 254-256

Baud, 193
BCCH, 225-226
beacon, 24, 172
beam, 30, 200, 273-274
BER, 12, 181, 231
BFSK, 233
binary, 15, 114, 180-182, 231-232, 242-243,
255

BIOS, 208
bitrate, 206
BNC, 51, 286
bobbin, 46, 54
BPFSK, 233
bps, 31-33, 193
BPSK, 181
broadband, 34-35, 177, 207, 239-240, 244,
259, 261, 263-265, 274, 279, 283, 290

broadcast, 5, 24, 45, 48, 78, 85, 90, 93,


106-109, 113, 123, 127-130, 133, 136,
142, 163, 165, 168, 171, 175, 198-199,
201-202, 211, 227, 236, 238, 260-261,
263, 271, 276-277, 279, 283-285, 292

broadcasting, 12-13, 25, 29, 84, 94,


101-102, 106-109, 113, 184, 201, 203,
211, 277, 279

BS, 222-223, 225


BSC, 225, 228, 247
BSIC, 226
BSS, 228
BT, 281
BTS, 228, 247, 256-257, 290
buffer, 94
buffering, 32
bursts, 76
BW, 32, 85, 87, 89, 146, 156
byte, 33, 188, 191-192

C
cable, 7, 9-10, 12-13, 31, 33-35, 49, 54,
114, 177, 189, 193, 201-202, 231, 238,
263-265, 269, 271, 276, 279-281, 283,
286-287, 290, 292

cabling, 183
calibration, 52-53, 73
Camera, 13, 286-288, 292
cancellation, 245-246
cancellations, 57
capacitance, 41-43, 51, 101, 159
Carrier, 11, 23, 77-79, 81-82, 86, 94, 103,
127, 129, 131, 137, 172, 237, 258, 262

Casing, 51
Cathode, 47
CATV, 7, 161, 279
CB, 11, 14, 171
CCFL, 275
CCIR, 6
CCITT, 6-7, 269, 272
CCSA, 262
CCTV, 285-287, 292
CDMA, 205-206, 209, 222-223, 230-231,
233-234, 238-239, 253-260, 262, 289

Cell, 11, 43-44, 215-218, 220, 224-228


cellular, 5-6, 25, 177, 184, 198, 208-211,
213-216, 218, 221-224, 230, 239, 247,
259, 262, 269-271

CEPT, 6
channel, 2, 8-13, 29, 33, 35-36, 78, 94,
107, 110-115, 128, 157, 173-174,
180-182, 184, 192-194, 197, 210,
213-215, 217, 219-222, 225, 230-232,
235-236, 241-243, 247, 253-256, 258,
260-261, 268, 273, 277, 279-281, 283-284

Channelization, 255
chirp, 203
choke, 66
cluster, 214-215, 219-220, 230
clusters, 215, 253
ii

Index

coaxial, 12, 33, 51-52, 54, 189, 269,


279-280, 283, 286-287

code, 2-4, 15, 76, 171-172, 177, 180-181,


187-189, 197, 206, 209, 221, 231-234,
253, 255, 258-259

CODECS, 188
COFDM, 281
coherent, 132, 136, 233-234, 273
coil, 42-47, 49-50, 53-56, 58-60, 65-68, 127
communication, 1-2, 4-6, 8-15, 20-21,
23-26, 32-33, 37, 64, 75, 109, 114, 129,
132, 142, 146-147, 161, 178-201,
203-206, 208-210, 221, 225, 228-231,
233-240, 249, 258, 261, 266-267,
269-274, 292

composite, 16, 20-21, 38, 110-112


compression, 7, 43, 46, 188-189, 245-246,
258, 281

condenser, 46-47, 51-52, 64-65, 73


conductivity, 269
conductor, 43, 49, 65
configuration, 50, 168, 190, 203, 243, 246,
249-250, 290

connectivity, 194, 200, 251, 263


connectors, 51-52
Constellation, 233-234
construction, 48, 53, 56, 217
continuous, 14, 21, 76, 114, 155, 206, 221,
241, 276-277

controller, 225, 242-243, 288


Conversational, 261
Cordless, 269, 289
coverage, 61, 208-209, 211, 213, 215-216,
218, 221, 230, 239-241, 244, 269

CPE, 265
CPU, 283
CRC, 291
crest, 82
CRH, 226-227
crosstalk, 229
CRP, 249
CRT, 275
cryptographic, 8

CSS, 203
CTIA, 239
CW, 15, 76, 162

D
Dash, 15
Data, 14, 38, 173, 180, 183-184, 186,
188-189, 191-193, 195-197, 228-229, 235,
256, 262, 266, 271, 289

database, 212-213, 242-243, 261


Datalink, 185
datastream, 193
dB, 36, 38, 46, 139, 147, 156, 161, 176, 256
dBm, 147
dBs, 256
DDS, 235
Decibel, 36-37
decoder, 112-113, 181, 205, 258, 271, 280,
283

decomposition, 21
Defferentiator, 141
degradation, 11, 52, 107, 243, 273, 281,
283

demodulation, 98, 110-111, 121, 131-132,


137-138, 140-142, 162, 192-193, 199

demodulator, 2, 11, 111, 131-133, 137,


142, 144, 147, 152, 157, 176, 181, 204,
268

depacketization, 278
Destination, 183-184, 193
detection, 3, 122, 131-133, 138, 143-144,
182, 192, 196-197, 206, 233-234,
245-246, 291

detector, 11, 111-112, 121, 131-144,


147-149, 152, 155, 157, 162, 164,
166-167, 231-232

deviation, 25, 77, 89-96, 98, 101-102,


104-106, 113, 115, 117-119, 121-124,
127, 138-141, 176, 232

iii

Index

device, 1-2, 6, 9, 40-41, 45-47, 54-55,

DVD, 201, 282

63-65, 121, 127, 144, 149, 152, 183-185,


187, 189, 192-194, 197-198, 201, 213,
250, 267, 270, 272, 274, 281-282, 290

devices, 42, 45, 106, 188-193, 195-198,


207, 235, 252, 268, 289

diaphragm, 45-49, 51-54, 59-60, 63-68,

70-72, 268

dielectric, 4, 43
differentiator, 138, 142
digital, 3, 6-7, 9, 12-15, 21-22, 31, 33,
35-37, 40, 42, 89, 102, 108, 113-114,
172-173, 177, 179-184, 186, 188,
192-193, 207-208, 229-231, 233-235,
237-240, 244-245, 247-250, 253, 261,
263, 266, 268, 270, 272-273, 277-278,
281-283, 289-290

Digitization, 188
diode, 3, 101, 127, 131-137, 144, 147, 152
diplex, 172
discrete, 14-15, 21, 91, 194, 258
discriminator, 111-112, 138, 144, 164,
166-168

dish, 243, 263-264, 272, 281


dispersion, 26
distortion, 9, 31, 53, 64, 70-72, 83, 93,
100, 135-136, 138, 152, 182

DLP, 274
dot, 2, 285
downlink, 179, 213, 228, 230-231, 259, 262
download, 32, 34, 200, 260-261, 282
DPSK, 232
DSB, 81, 162, 171
DSL, 263-264, 283
DSP, 245
DSSS, 203-205
DTH, 277
DTP, 235
DTT, 281
DTTV, 281
DTV, 277, 281, 292
duplex, 13-14, 162, 192, 229, 236, 238, 250
DVB, 281

EBCDIC, 189
EDCH, 260
efficiency, 46, 75, 84, 86, 100-101, 120,
200, 209, 214, 230-233, 259

EHF, 30
EIA, 7
electroacoustic, 63
Electrodynamic, 65
electroluminescence, 42
electromagnetic, 2, 8, 22-23, 26, 28, 32,
50, 55, 59, 78, 90, 129, 166, 168, 189,
198, 201, 207, 267, 273

ELF, 30
EMC, 207
EMI, 207-208
emissions, 172, 207-208
emphasis, 4, 112-113, 121, 166-168
encapsulation, 194
encoder, 180-181, 205, 278
encoding, 179-181, 188-189, 278
encryption, 22, 182, 252, 258
ENIAC, 3
envelope, 79, 87, 98, 103-104, 119,
132-135, 137, 139, 144

equalization, 3, 257
ETACS, 208
ETSI, 6, 259, 262
eV, 24-26, 28
Evolution, 1, 262, 289

iv

Index

facsimile, 113-114, 235, 240, 248-249,

Gateway, 245, 247, 249-250, 263


Gbps, 34, 262
generator, 140-141, 183, 204-205
GEO, 104
GPP, 259-260, 262, 289
GPRS, 234, 260, 290
GPS, 198, 205
GSM, 6, 208, 225, 228, 239, 259-260,

267-268, 272

Fax, 11, 172-173, 237, 244, 248-250


FCC, 25, 108-109, 208, 239-240
FDD, 228, 256, 260
FDM, 111, 194, 290-291
FDMA, 208, 222, 230-231, 254, 257, 262
Feeder, 280
FH, 205-206
FHSS, 203-204
fiber, 4, 10, 12, 30, 33, 177, 179, 189, 264,

289-290

guard, 94, 115, 121

273-274, 279-280

fidelity, 1, 21, 45, 84, 107-108, 128, 149


filter, 3, 12, 40, 66, 111-112, 124, 132-133,
138-140, 142-143, 151, 154, 160-162,
231-233, 254, 285

FM, 21-25, 35, 76-77, 89-96, 98, 100-115,


117-118, 121-124, 127-128, 132, 138-142,
144, 152, 160, 162-164, 166-168, 174,
176, 248, 279

FoIP, 244, 248, 250-251


Fourier, 20, 31, 33
frame, 230, 245-246, 249, 260, 282
Frequency, 2, 17, 19-22, 30-31, 57, 77-78,
81, 87, 89-90, 94, 96, 100, 104, 112-114,
128, 131-132, 138, 141, 146-148, 152,
154-159, 171-172, 194, 203, 205,
215-216, 228, 241, 243, 254, 258-260

FRR, 169
FSK, 102, 172, 233
FTP, 185
FTTP, 264
FWA, 238
FXO, 245
FXS, 245

H
handoff, 219, 221-225, 230
handover, 213, 221-223, 230, 256-257
handshakes, 242
hardware, 185-186, 189, 235, 246, 249, 251
harmonics, 58, 117, 207
HCFL, 275
HD, 282
HDLC, 192, 249
HDTV, 237, 281-282, 292
Headphones, 148
headsets, 63
Hertz, 2, 17, 30, 33, 75, 107
heterodyne, 149, 156-157, 176
heterodyning, 129-130, 150, 156, 165
HF, 29-30
HFC, 280
HSDPA, 259-260, 289
HSPA, 260
HTTP, 185
hysteresis, 70-72, 226
HZ, 121
v

Index

I
ICLs, 271
ICMP, 185
ICP, 51
IDE, 191
IDN, 228
IDU, 272
IEC, 278
IEEE, 7, 35, 204, 265
IFRR, 159, 169-171, 176
ILF, 30
IMEI, 228
impedance, 42, 49-51, 65-66
IMSI, 228
IMT, 259
Inductance, 40, 43-44
induction, 41, 50, 65
infrared, 22, 26, 198, 285-286
insulation, 34, 269
Insulator, 51
Interface, 185, 201, 211-212, 248, 261
interference, 35, 75, 84, 90, 100, 103,
107-108, 115, 129-130, 149, 155-156,
164, 168, 180, 191, 196, 203, 206-208,
213-214, 216-217, 219-220, 222, 224-225,
230-233, 235, 253-254, 256-257, 281, 283

Intermediate, 149, 154-157


intranet, 184
Ionnosphere, 29
IP, 183, 185, 187, 229, 246, 248-250, 252,
257, 259, 283, 289-291

IPSec, 252-253
IPTV, 276, 283, 292
IPV, 289
IR, 198
ISD, 270
ISDN, 245, 250, 272-273
ISI, 187, 231-232
ISO, 6-7, 187, 278

ITU, 6, 172, 259, 262, 269, 281


ITUR, 6
IWF, 246-248, 250-251

J
jamming, 206, 232

K
Kbps, 34
keyboard, 8, 267, 271

L
landline, 236-238
LANS, 228-229
Layer, 185-188, 252
LCD, 207, 241, 274-276, 282, 284-285, 292
LED, 274-275, 292
limiter, 144, 164, 166-168
LLC, 186
LNA, 151, 162
LNB, 272
LOS, 224
LPF, 142, 155, 162
LPI, 203
LSB, 81-83, 85, 87, 110, 169
LSF, 169
LTE, 262

vi

Index

M
MAC, 186, 290
magnetostriction, 65
Magnetostrictive, 44
magnetrons, 25
Mbps, 34, 247, 259, 262, 264-265
Mcps, 255
MDS, 147
media, 4, 10-11, 185-186, 230, 266, 268,
273-274, 276, 282, 292

message, 1, 5, 7-9, 11, 21, 76, 101, 120,


124, 141-142, 171-172, 187, 194-196,
201, 204, 210, 226, 240-241, 249,
266-267, 270, 290

messaging, 5, 194, 208, 213, 240, 259


microcells, 213, 224
microphone, 20, 42, 45-55, 73, 198
microprocessor, 245-246
Microwaves, 22-23, 25, 128, 200
Millimeter, 22-23, 26
MIMO, 259, 262
mixer, 137, 149-152, 154, 156, 159-166,

multicast, 260-261, 289


multimedia, 4, 34, 259, 261, 263, 266
multiplexer, 194, 280
multiplexing, 37, 110, 182, 194, 231,
233-234, 260, 278

N
nanofilm, 50
narrowband, 92, 95, 101, 160, 203-204,
206-207, 239-240

NBFM, 101
NLOS, 224
NMR, 24
NMT, 225
NRZ, 231-232
NTSC, 104-105, 276, 281
NTT, 208
Nyquist, 3, 205, 233

175, 280

modem, 31, 34, 183-184, 191-193,


248-249, 271-272, 290

Modulation, 75, 77-82, 84, 89-90, 94, 96,


100, 102, 113-115, 119, 132, 137, 139,
172, 192, 259-260, 281

modulator, 1, 76, 79, 86, 111-112, 119,


121-122, 124, 150, 181, 203-204

Monitor, 13, 286-288


monophonic, 109-110
MPEG, 278-279, 281
MRI, 24
MSC, 222, 228, 247
MSK, 232
MSSC, 270
MTSO, 291
MTX, 221

O
OFDMA, 262
OOK, 171
OPAC, 235
optical, 33, 78, 114, 181, 183, 189, 195,
271, 273, 279, 283, 292

Orthogonal, 255
oscillator, 75, 94, 101, 103, 111, 121,
129-130, 137, 149-151, 154-158, 162-166,
168-170, 174-176

OSI, 183, 185-187, 194, 229, 252


OVSF, 255

vii

Index

packetization, 193, 245, 278


packets, 8, 177, 186, 193-196, 244-245,

QoS, 261
QPSK, 256
quadrature, 141-142, 152

248-249, 278-279, 289

paging, 113, 177, 226, 239-244, 259, 270,


290

PAL, 33, 276, 281


PAM, 172, 232
passband, 110
PBX, 239, 246-247, 251
PCI, 191
PCM, 6, 231-234, 248-249, 290
PCN, 269
PCS, 239-240
PCU, 228
PDF, 249
PDN, 195
picocells, 213
Piezoelectric, 42, 44, 51, 65
pixels, 284-285
plasma, 274-275, 282, 292
PLL, 137, 142-144, 155, 162
PLMN, 212
PPM, 172
PPP, 252
PPTP, 252
PPV, 282
Preemphasis, 111
preselector, 149, 159, 169-170, 176
PRI, 245
Projector, 284, 292
propagation, 29-30, 37, 136, 189
Proximity, 44
PSB, 86
PSD, 206
PSTN, 36, 193, 195, 208, 211, 246-247
PWM, 172

R
radar, 25, 172
Radiators, 66
Radio, 29
Rake, 206, 257
Receivers, 11, 63, 67, 146, 164, 168, 257
recorder, 282, 287
redundancy, 180-181, 197, 291
reflection, 29
Regulations, 6
relay, 114, 202, 245-246
repeater, 190, 243
repeaters, 182, 197
resistance, 41-43, 47-48, 64, 66, 83-84, 269
resonance, 24-25, 49, 56-58, 64, 72
ribbon, 46-47, 50-51
RNC, 260
router, 35, 252, 290
routing, 186, 188, 260
RTP, 246

S
Satellite, 1, 3, 25, 28-29, 198, 202,
230-231, 263-264, 269, 284, 292

viii

Index

Scatter, 28-29
SDMA, 230
SECAM, 276, 281
Sectorization, 228
selectivity, 146-152, 155, 157, 159-161, 174
sensitivity, 45-46, 48-50, 64-65, 122, 138,
146-148, 150, 174, 207

sensors, 42
SMTP, 185, 248
SND, 209
SNR, 12, 115, 147, 262
Spreading, 205, 207, 255-256
SRA, 161
SSB, 152, 162, 171-172
SSCG, 207
SSL, 252-253
standardization, 6, 259, 262, 269
STDM, 194
STP, 35
subcarrier, 109-112, 128
subwoofers, 62
superheterodyne, 2, 146, 149-151, 156,
158-164, 166, 168-170, 174-176

swing, 94-95
synthesizer, 151, 154-155, 162, 280

T
TACS, 225
TCP, 183, 185, 187, 229, 291
TDD, 228, 260
TDM, 231, 291
TDMA, 209, 222, 230-231, 233-234,
238-239, 253-254, 257

Teleconferencing, 271
Telegram, 266
Telegraph, 1-2, 4, 6, 15, 266-267, 269
Telegraphy, 114, 173, 266-267

telemedicine, 235
Telemetry, 26, 114, 203, 272
telephony, 29, 113, 181, 214-215, 236-238,
244-246, 259, 261, 283, 289

Teleprinter, 267
teleservices, 261
teletex, 272
teletypewriter, 268
THSS, 203
transceivers, 113, 162
Transducer, 9-10, 13, 40-41, 43-44,
180-181

Transmission, 11, 35, 75, 111, 183,


189-193, 228-229, 233-234, 248, 273,
278, 291

Transmitter, 2, 7, 10-11, 13, 29, 183, 190,


199, 242-243, 278

TRAU, 228
TRF, 148
troposphere, 29
tuner, 127-128, 163, 202, 279-280
TV, 13-15, 24, 33, 104-105, 109, 123, 128,
171-173, 177, 200-201, 203, 235-238,
263, 271, 274-277, 279-284, 292

TVIP, 283

U
UDP, 185
UHF, 24, 29-30, 115, 276, 281
UL, 213
UMTS, 205, 213, 223, 256, 259-262, 289
uplink, 213, 228, 230-231, 243, 260, 262,
290

URL, 253, 289


USB, 81-83, 85, 87, 110, 169
UTP, 34-35
UTRAN, 260
UWB, 204
ix

Index

VCO, 101, 103, 121, 142-145


VCR, 282
VDSL, 283
VDT, 242-243
VFO, 154-155
VHF, 24, 29-30, 93, 101, 108, 115, 127-128,

ZIF, 162

160, 276, 281

VLF, 30
VoD, 282-283
VoFR, 246
VoIP, 34, 177, 244-246, 248-250, 289
VPN, 251-252, 291-292
VSAT, 231, 272
VToA, 246

W
WBFM, 101
WCDMA, 255, 257-259, 289
WDM, 194
WEB, 283
wideband, 95, 98, 101, 104, 203-204, 259,
281

Wireless, 1, 12, 35, 177, 198, 200, 204,


228, 238-239, 261-262, 265, 292

wireline, 238-240, 253


WWW, 185

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