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CHAPTER ONE
Structure of Telecommunication Systems
1.0 Introduction
Communication is the transfer of information from one place to another. This
should be done as efficiently as possible, with as much fidelity/reliability as
possible and as securely as possible. The word Telecommunication is a
combination of two words... Tele + Communication.The word Tele in Latin
means Distance. Hence Telecommunication is Distance Communication. The
necessity of communication begun as early as the existence of mankind on
this earth. Communication has become the vital tool for mankind to strife
prosperously in this world.
Evolution of the Communication System:
Primitive Sign Language
Pounding Drum
Smoke Signal
Fire Signals
Modern Telegraph
Telephone
Wireless communication
Satellite Communication
The requirements for a complete communication system are:
The Source of the Messages: Messages are the signals you wish to send.
The message itself can be voice, computer data, music, video movie,
temperature reading or alarm information. All these can be considered as
Messages. The Sources of messages can come in many forms. It can be your
mouth, a cassette tape player, a video tape player, a computer, a thermometer
or a security system. These messages are normally converted to electrical
signals and is known as intelligence, information, audio signal or base band
signal, depending on the message itself.
The Modulator and the transmitter: For a message to be able to reach the
required destination is has to be sent out through a transmitter. The message
is converted into electrical signals and is modulator. The process of
modulation is required as the original message or signal is generally of a low
frequency waveform, and therefore has low energy. Thus modulation is the
process of translating the original signal to a higher frequency signals
representing the original. The modulation process is done inside a device
Messages are delivered from one specific address to one or more specific
addresses. Users are alerted to the presence of new messages in their
inboxes by email clients that display the content and offer an opportunity to
reply. Messages are primarily text but may include file attachments of various
types including images and short movies. Unlike instant messages, emails
are generally not expected to be read immediately upon receipt. Most email
readers keep track of conversations that include multiple people through the
use of threads. Thus email is ideally suited for long, involved conversations
between two people or among small groups of people.
Forums: Conversations that go on indefinitely, involve large numbers of
people or need to be archived are not well suited to email. Forums, often
hosted on the Web, provide an alternative that combines many of the aspects
of email and Web pages. They involve discussions around a single, limited
topic but can take place over months or years and involve dozens or even
hundreds of participants. Most use a treelike structure that allows participants
to jump in at whatever level their comments are most appropriate.
Text and Instant Messaging: Text messaging uses cellular airwaves and
protocols to deliver textual messages from one cellular phone to another or
from one phone to a group of other phones. Text messaging is usually
intended as near-instant communication and can be quicker than a phone call
because the sender doesn't have to wait for the recipient to answer before
delivering a message. Because text messaging is informal and easy, it's
sometimes called chatting. Text messaging can also facilitate private
discussions when there is a chance that a phone call could be overheard.
Instant messaging is similar to text messaging but is carried over the Internet
rather than over cell phone airwaves.
Social Networking: Social networking sites facilitate communication among
people with common interests or affiliations. Sites such as Facebook and
Linked in provide places for people to interact, sometimes in real time. Micro
blogging services like Twitter, allow short textual messages of no more than
140 characters to be broadcast to a large audience. Unlike text messages,
which are delivered to only small groups, micro blog posts are intended to be
seen by all of a user's followers. Micro blog users can repost messages that
they want to share with their own followers, so a micro blog post can spread
quickly. A widely reposted message is called a viral post.
Video Chat: Like instant messaging, most video chatting is conducted over
Internet protocols that stream images from one device to another. At times,
nothing beats a face-to-face conversation. Video chats provide immediacy to
a conversation. Because a person's tone is often easier to read when you can
see his face, businesses often use videoconferencing to aid in virtual
meetings.
1.4 Standardization in Telecommunications
Standardization is vital in telecommunications. It allows worldwide
communication because we all speak a standard language.There are
international, regional, and national standardization agencies. There are at
least two international agencies that impact telecommunications. The most
encompassing is the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) based in
Geneva, Switzerland, which has produced more than 1000 standards.
Another is the International Standardization Organization (ISO), which has
issued a number of important data communication standards. Unlike other
standardization entities, the ITU is a treaty organization with more treaty
signatories than the United Nations. Its General Secretariat produces the
Radio Regulations. This document set is the only one that is legally binding on
the nations that have signed the treaty. In addition, two of the ITU's subsidiary
organizations prepare and disseminate documents that are
recommendations, reports, or opinions, and are not legally binding on treaty
signatories. However they serve as worldwide standards. The ITU went
through a reorganization on January 1, 1993. Prior to that the two important
branches were the CCITT, standing for International Consultive Committee
for Telephone and Telegraph, and the CCIR, standing for International
Consultive Committee for Radio. After the reorganization, the CCITT became
the Telecommunication Standardization Sector of the ITU, and the CCIR
became the ITU Radio communication Sector. The former produces ITU-T
Recommendations and the latter produces ITUR Recommendations. The ITU
Radio communications Sector essentially prepares the Radio Regulations for
the General Secretariat.
We note one important regional organization, ETSI, the European
Telecommunication Standardization Institute. For example, it is responsible
for a principal cellular radio Specification GSM or Ground System Mobile (in
the French). Prior to the 1990s, ETSI was the Conference European Post and
Telegraph or CEPT. CEPT produced the European version of digital network
PCM, previously called CEPT30+2 and now called E-1. There are numerous
national standardization organizations. There is the American National
Standards Institute based in New York City that produces a wide range of
standards.
x(t)
Transmitter
message
r(t)
Channel
modulated
message
s(t)
Receiver
corrupted
modulated
message
Sink
demodulated
message
x(t)
System
y(t)
finding such a channel in the real world), the receiver would serve as the
inverse system to the transmitter, and yield the message with no distortion.
However, because of the channel, the receiver must do its best to produce a
received message s(t) that resembles s(t) as much as possible. Shannon
showed in his 1948 paper that reliable for the moment, takes this word to
mean error-freedigital communication was possible over arbitrarily noisy
channels. It is this result that modern communications systems exploit, and
why many communications systems are going digital. The module on
Information Communication details Shannon's theory of information, and
there we learn of Shannon's result and how to use it.
Finally, the received message is passed to the information sink that somehow
makes use of the message. In the communications model, the source is a
system having no input but producing an output; a sink has an input and no
output.
Understanding signal generation and how systems work amounts to
understanding signals, the nature of the information they represent, how
information is transformed between analog and digital forms, and how
information can be processed by systems operating on information-bearing
signals.
1.6 Telecommunication System Requirements
The first requirement is for the original information energy (such as that of the
human voice, or music, or a telegraph signal) to be converted into electrical
form to produce an electronic information signal. This is achieved by a suitable
transducer, which is a general term given to any device that converts energy
from one form to another when required.
+
+
Line link
originator of
information
Transducer
Amplifier
Amplifier
Transducer
Receiver of
information
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originator of
Transducer
Amplifier
information
Radio
Radio
transmitter
receiver
Amplifier
Transducer
Receiver of
information
Transmitter
(TX)
Communications
channel or medium
Receiver
(RX)
Recovered
information and
intelligence
Noise
Figure 1.3 General Component of all communication systems.
Transmitter: The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and
circuits that converts the electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission
over a given medium. Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers,
tuned circuits and filters, modulators, frequency mixers, frequency
synthesizers, and other circuits.
Communication Channel: The communication channel is the medium by
which the electronic signal is sent from one place to another. Types of media
include
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Electrical conductors
Optical media
Free space
System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for sonar).
Receivers: A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits
that accepts the transmitted message from the channel and converts it back
into a form understandable by humans. Receivers contain amplifiers,
oscillators, mixers, tuned circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector
that recovers the original intelligence signal from the modulated carrier.
Transceivers: A transceiver is an electronic unit that incorporates circuits that
both send and receive signals.
Examples are: Telephones, Fax machines, Handheld CB radios, Cell
phones, Computer modems etc.
Attenuation: Signal attenuation, or degradation, exists in all media of
wireless transmission. It is proportional to the square of the distance between
the transmitter and receiver.
Noise: Noise is random, undesirable electronic energy that enters the
communication system via the communicating medium and interferes with the
transmitted message.
1.7.1 Communication System Component Sub-units
From the general model in figure 1.3, all communication systems contain
three main sub systems: Transmitter, Channel and the Receiver. The model is
sub-divided into more units as shown in figure 1.4.
Noise n(t)
Information
input m(t)
Signal
processing
Carrier
circuits
s(t)
Transmission
medium
(channel)
r(t)
To information
sink m(t) (user)
Carrier
circuits
Signal
processing
Figure 1.4
Transmitter: The signal-processing block is used for more efficient
transmission.
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Examples: In an analog system, the signal processor may be an analog lowpass filter to restrict the bandwidth of m(t).In a hybrid system, the signal
processor may be an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to produce digital
signals that represent samples of the analog input signal. The transmitter
carrier circuit converts the processed base band signal into a frequency band
that is appropriate for the transmission medium of the channel.
Example: An amplitude modulated (AM) broadcasting station with an
assigned frequency of 850 kHz has a carrier frequency fc=850 kHz. The
mapping of the base band input information waveform m (t) into the band pass
signal s(t) is called modulation. It will be shown that any band pass signal has
the form
s(t) = R(t) cos (ct + (t)
Where = 2f
If R(t)=1 and (t) = 0, s(t) would be a pure sinusoid of frequency f=fc with zero
bandwidth.
Channel: A channel represents the path in which signals travel from
transmitter to receiver. Very general classifications of channels are:
Wire: Twisted-pair telephone line, coaxial cable, waveguide, and fiber-optic
cables.
Wireless: Air vacuum, and seawater.
In general, the channel medium attenuates the signal so that the delivered
information m (t)deteriorated from that of the source. The channel noise may
arise from natural electrical disturbances or from artificial sources.
Receiver: The receiver takes the corrupted signal at the channel output and
converts it to be a base band signal that can be handled by the receiver's base
band processor.
The base band processor cleans up this signal and delivers an estimate of the
source information m(t) to the communication system output. In digital
systems, the measure of signal deterioration is usually taken to be the
probability of bit error P(e) also called Bit Error Rate (BER) of the delivered
data m(t).
In analog systems, the performance measure is usually taken to be the
Signal-to-noise Ratio (SNR) at the receiver output.
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Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
Output
Transducer
Transducer
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Half Duplex: The form of two-way communication in which only one party
transmits at a time is known as half duplex. Examples are:
Police, military, etc. radio transmissions
Citizen band (CB)
Family radio
Amateur radio
Full Duplex: Most electronic communication is two-way and is referred to as
duplex. When people can talk and listen simultaneously, it is called full duplex.
The telephone is an example of this type of communication.
1.9 Analogue and Digital
Data (Information) can be analog or digital. The term analog data refers to
information that is continuous; digital data refers to information that has
discrete states. Analog data take on continuous values. Digital data take on
discrete values.
Data can be analog or digital, analog data are continuous and take continuous
values while digital data have discrete states and take discrete values.
Signals can be analog or digital, analog signals can have an infinite number of
values in a range; digital signals can have only a limited number of values. See
figure 1.6.
Value
Value
Time
Time
a. Analog signal
b. Digital signal
Figure 1.6 Comparison of analog and digital signals
Analog Signals: An analog signal shown in figure 1.7 is a smoothly and
continuously varying voltage or current. Examples are:
Sine wave
Voice
Video (TV)
15
(a)
(b)
Sync pulse
Sync pulse
Light variation
along one
scan line
of video
Mark
Mark
Mark
Space
Space
(a)
Dot
Dot
Dash
The letter R
(b)
+5 V
0V
(a) Telegraph (Morse code). (b) Continuous-wave (CW) code. (c) Serial
binary code.
Digital Signals: Many transmissions are of signals that originate in digital
form but must be converted to analog form to match the transmission medium.
Example; Digital data over the telephone network.
Analog signals: are first digitized with an analog-to-digital (A/D) converter.
The data can then be transmitted and processed by computers and other
digital circuits.
1.10 Periodic analog signals and non-periodic
In communication systems, we commonly use periodic analog signals and
non-periodic digital signals.
Periodic Analog Signals: Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple
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Value
Time
Amplitude
Peak amplitude
Time
Amplitude
Peak amplitude
Figure 1.10 Two signals with the same phase and frequency,
b. A signal with low peak amplitude
but different amplitudes
Time
17
Equivalent
Unit
Equivalent
Unit
Seconds (s)
1s
Hertz (Hz)
1 Hz
Milliseconds (ms)
10-3 S
Kilohertz (kHz)
103 Hz
Microseconds (s)
10-6 S
Megahertz (MHz)
106 Hz
Nanoseconds (ns)
10-9 S
Gigahertz (GHz)
109 Hz
Amplitude
12 periods in 1 s
Frequency is 12 Hz
1s
Time
1
Period:12
Frequency is 6 Hz
1s
Time
T
Period: 61 s
Figure 1.11 Two signals with the same amplitude and phase,
(b) signal with a frequency of 6 Hz
but different frequencies
Example1: If the period of a signal is 100ms. Calculate its frequency in
kilohertz?
Solution
First we change 100 ms to seconds, and then we calculate the frequency from
3
the period (1 Hz = 10 kHz).
-3
100ms = 100 x 10 s
-1
= 10
F = 1/T
18
= 1/10-1 Hz
= 10Hz
If a signal does not change at all, its frequency is zero. If a signal changes
instantaneously, its frequency is infinite. The Phase describes the position of
the waveform relative to time 0. See figure 1.12.
Time
a. 0 degrees
1/4 T
Time
b. 90 degrees
0
Time
1 2T
Figure
1.12 Three sine waves with the same
amplitude and c.
frequency,
but different phases
180 degrees
Example 2:A sine wave is offset 1/6 cycle with respect to time 0. What is its
phase in degrees and radians?
Solution
We know that 1 complete cycle is 360. Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
1/6 x 360 = 60o
= 60 x 2/360 rad
= /3 rad
= 1.046 rad
A complete sine wave in the time domain can be represented by one single
spike in the frequency domain. See figure 1.13.
19
Time
(s)
Frequency
(Hz)
9 10 11 12 13 14
Frequency
domain
Time
domain
5
5
1s
Time
Frequency
5
8
Time
Frequency
1s
5
Time
16
Frequency
1s
20
each with different amplitude and frequency. All can be represented by three
spikes in the frequency domain.
Amplitude
Amplitude
15
10
15
10
5
5
Time
0
1s
16
Frequency
b. Frequency-domain representation of
a. Time-domain
of three
Figure
1.15 The representation
time domain
and frequencythedomain
of three sine waves
same three signals
sine waves with frequencies 0.8, and 16
Amplitude
Amplitude
Amplitude for sine
wave of frequency f
4 kHz
Time
Figure1.16 Time and frequency
domains of a nonperiodic signal
b. Frequency domain
a. Time domain
The bandwidth of a composite signal is the difference between the highest
and the lowest frequencies contained in that signal. See figure 1.17
Amplitude
Amplitude
1000
Frequency
5000 Frequency
1000
5000 Frequency
21
Amplitude
10v
300
500
700
900
Frequency
100
An example of a nonperiodic
composite signal is the signal propagated by an
Bandwidth = 900- 100 = 800Hz
AM radio station. Each AM radio
station is assigned a 10-kHz bandwidth. The
total bandwidth dedicated to AM radio ranges from 530 to 1700 kHz. Another
example of a nonperiodic composite signal is the signal propagated by an FM
radio station. Each FM radio station is assigned a 200-kHz bandwidth. The
total bandwidth dedicated to FM radio ranges from 88 to 108 MHz.
There are many kinds of information sources, which can be categorized into
two distinct message categories, analog and digital.
An analog communication system should deliver this waveform with a
specified degree of fidelity. A digital communication system should deliver
data with a specified degree of accuracy in a specified amount of time.
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Disadvantages:
Advantage:
o
o
o
no privacy
can not merge data from diff. source
Disadvantages:
o
o smaller bandwidth
larger bandwidth
easier
10
11
12
13
14
X-rays
Gamma rays
Ultraviolet
Visible light
Inrrared
Millimeter
waves,
telemetry
Microwaves
radio
Television
FM radio
AM Radio
Short wave
radio
15
16
17
18
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 Hz
High frequency
Short wavelength
High quantum energy
Low frequency
Long wavelength
Low quantum energy
c = V
Also commonly
written V = f
Speed of light
8
m/s
x10
c=3
Figure 1.18 The Frequency Spectrum
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10 10
\
Figure
10 10
10
10
10 10
11
12
13
10 10 10
14
X-rays
Gamma rays
Ultraviolet
Visible light
Inrrared
Millimeter
waves,
telemetry
Microwaves
radio
Television
FM radio
AM Radio
Short wave
radio
15
16
17
10 10 10
10
18
Hz
lengths
24
25
aeronautical and amateur uses, studio-transmitter relays, etc. There are radar
bands 1,300-1,600 MHZ.
The FM stations are assigned center frequencies at 200 kHz separation
starting at 88.1 MHz, for a maximum of 100 stations. These FM stations have
a 75 kHz maximum deviation from the center frequency, which leaves 25 kHz
upper and lower "gaurd bands" to minimize interaction with the adjacent
frequency band. Television channels have 5 MHz separation.
The frequency range for mobile cellular telephones is listed as 824.040 848.970 MHZ.
Frequencies: 54-1600 MHZ
Wavelengths: 5.55 m - 0.187 m
Quantum energies: 0.22 x 10-6 - 0.66 x 10-5 eV
1.11.4 L-Band for Satellite Communication
The range 390-1550 MHz in the ultrahigh radio frequency range is designated
as the L-Band and is used for a variety of satellite communication purposes.
For example, the Global Positioning System uses two carrier frequencies in
this band for broadcasting navigation data.
1.11.5 Microwaves, Radar
While there are some radar bands from 1,300 to 1,600 MHz, most microwave
applications fall in the range 3,000 to 30,000 MHz (3-30 GHz). Current
microwave ovens operate at a nominal frequency of 2450 MHz, a band
assigned by the FCC. There are also some amateur and radio navigation uses
of the 3-30 GHz range. In interactions with matter, microwave radiation
primarily acts to produce molecular rotation and torsion, and microwave
absorption manifests itself by heat. Molecular structure information can be
obtained from the analysis of molecular rotational spectra, the most precise
way to determine bond lengths and angles of molecules. Microwave radiation
is also used in electron spin resonance spectroscopy.
For microwave ovens and some radar applications, the microwaves are
produced by magnetrons.
Of great astrophysical significance is the 3K background radiation in the
universe, which is in the microwave region. It has recently been mapped with
great precision by the WMAP probe.
Frequencies: 1.6-30 Ghz
Wavelengths: 187 - 10 mm
26
-3
Frequencies: 4 - 7.5 x 10 Hz
Wavelengths: 750 - 400 nm
Quantum energies: 1.65 - 3.1 eV
White light may be separated into its spectral colors by dispersion in a prism.
See figure 1.20
27
Radio
Far IR,
Micro- IR
wave
UV
x-ray
Y-ray
Visible
Spectrum
Slit
750 nm
Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Blue
Violet
400 nm
Prism
White light
1.11.9 Ultraviolet
The region just below the visible in wavelength is called the near ultraviolet. It
is absorbed very strongly by most solid substances, and even absorbed
appreciably by air. The shorter wavelengths reach the ionization energy for
many molecules, so the far ultraviolet has some of the dangers attendant to
other ionizing radiation. The tissue effects of ultraviolet include sunburn, but
can have some therapeutic effects as well. The sun is a strong source of
ultraviolet radiation, but atmospheric absorption eliminates most of the
shorter wavelengths. The eyes are quite susceptible to damage from
ultraviolet radiation. Welders must wear protective eye shields because of the
uv content of welding arcs can inflame the eyes. Snow-blindness is another
example of uvinflamation; the snow reflects uv while most other substances
absorb it strongly.
14
16
Frequencies: 7.5 x 10 - 3 x 10 Hz
Wavelengths: 400 nm - 10 nm
Quantum energies: 3.1 - 124 eV
1.11.10 X-Rays
X-ray was the name given to the highly penetrating rays which emanated
when high energy electrons struck a metal target. Within a short time of their
discovery, they were being used in medical facilities to image broken bones.
We now know that they are high frequency electromagnetic rays which are
produced when the electrons are suddenly decelerated - these rays are called
bremsstrahlung radiation, or "braking radiation". X-rays are also produced
when electrons make transitions between lower atomic energy levels in heavy
elements. X-rays produced in this way have definite energies just like other
line spectra from atomic electrons. They are called characteristic x-rays since
they have energies determined by the atomic energy levels.
In interactions with matter, x-rays are ionizing radiation and produce
28
physiological effects which are not observed with any exposure of nonionizing radiation, such as the risk of mutations or cancer in tissue.
Astronomical observations in the X-ray region of the spectrum are obtained
with the Chandra X-ray Observatory. X-rays are part of the Electromagnetic
spectrum
29
Ionnosphere
Sky wave
Space wave
Surface wave
Figure 1.21Radio propagation methods
Transmitter
aerial
Earth
Receiver
aerial
The surface wave is supported at its lower edge by the surface of the earth and
is able to follow the curvature of the earth as it travels. The surface wave is
used for world-wide communications in the low-frequency bands and for
broadcasting in the medium frequency (MF) band.
The sky wave is directed upwards from the earth into the ionosphere ( 100 km
or more above ground level ) whence, if certain conditions are satisfied, it will
be returned to earth for reception at the required locality. The sky wave is used
for high frequency radio communications systems, including long-distance
radio-telephony and sound broadcasting.
The space wave generally has two components, one of which travels in a very
nearly straight line between the transmitting and receiving locations, and the
other travels by means of a single reflection from the earth. The space wave is
used for sound and tv broadcasting, for multi-channel telephony systems, and
for various mobile systems, operating in the VHF , UHF ,SHF and higher
bands.
Satellite propagation is a technique that utilizes the ability of a
communications satellite orbiting the earth to receive a signal, amplify, and
then transmit it at a different frequency back towards the earth.
Communication satellites are used to carry multi-channel telephony systems,
television signals, and data, utilizing UHF and SHF bands.
Scatter propagation could be said to be the UHF / SHF equivalent of using sky
wave transmission for long-distance HF radio links. (See figure 1.22). The
radio energy is directed towards part of the troposphere which forwardscatters the signal towards the receiver. (The scattering region of the
troposphere is about 10 km above ground level). Scatter systems operate in
the UHF and SHF bands to provide multi-channel telephony links.
30
Ionosphere
Low-power forward
scattered beam
Troposphere
Earth
Figure 1.22 Scatter
propagation
1.12.1
Radio Frequency Spectrum
Radio waves are measured in units called Hertz (Hz). One cycle of electric
current is equal to one complete radio wave. How many of these waves are
generated in one second determines its frequency. The radio frequency
spectrum has been subdivided into a number of frequency bands; these are
given below:-
Frequency band
Classification
Abbreviation
Below 300 Hz
Extremely low
ELF
300 Hz-3 kHz
Infra low
ILF
3 kHz-30 kHz
Very low
VLF
30 kHz-300 kHz
Low
LF
300 kHz-3 MHz
Medium
MF
3 MHz-30 MHz
High
HF
30 MHz-300 MHz
Very high
VHF
300 MHz-3 GHz
Ultra high
UHF
3 GHz-30 GHz
Super high
SHF
30 GHz-300
GHz representation
Extremely high
EHF
1.12.2
Information
Information
as discussed
in chapter one
can be
transmitted in a transmission
300 GHz-3000
GHz Tremendously
high
THF
medium as a representation of passing information to the receiver. The
transmission medium can be one of the following:
Telephone wire used by telephone set
Air used by radio transmitter
Optical fiber used as a backbone for various low speed local area networks
31
The signal relies on the variation of physical property such as the voltage level
and current value. These varying physical properties can mathematically be
represented as a function of time. Using Fourier transformation, any
reasonably behaved periodic function can be represented as a summation of
Sines and Cosines.
Where t stands for time,
f = 1/T is the fundamental frequency shown in figure for the waveform being
analyzed,
th
an and bn are the sine and cosine amplitudes of the n harmonic,
g(t) is the original waveform, and
C/2 is the average value of original signal.
The information such as digital data between your PC and modem is a
periodic signal where the period depends on the modem speed. Can you
figure out the transmission period for 2400 bps?
The advantages offered by using Fourier series include:
Any complex real-time signal bandwidth, which is difficult to understand, can
be identified and analyzed in frequency domain in terms of bandwidth, signal
amplitude, frequency and phase.
Signal distortion against frequency spectrum could be shown in frequency
domain. This provides a clear picture against the signal characteristic.
Signal amplification against frequency spectrum could also be analyzed.
1.12.3 Signal analysis
Any Sin or Cos waveforms as given in figure can be measured by three
physical quantities namely Amplitude, Phase, and Frequency:
Amplitude: Absolute measure of the height of the wave in voltage or Peak-toPeak value.
Wavelength: It is a measure of a distance for a periodic cycle.
Phase: Relative measure of the difference in time between waves. The unit is
in either degree or radian.
Frequency: Absolute measure of the number of times a wave repeats per unit
time.
The velocity V of a wave traveling is determined by frequency and wavelength
as given as;
V = fl
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33
staffing or knowledge.
Any analogue signal is not formed by a single frequency if it is expanded in
terms of Fourier series. In fact, the waveform such as voice produced by
human being consists of waveforms of many different frequencies. The
bandwidth as shown in figure is defined by the difference between the points:
Bandwidth = fh - fl
where fh is the highest frequency and fl is the lowest frequency. Bandwidth
is characterized by medium.
Signal outside the bandwidth will be distorted by the transmission medium.
This explains why digital signals generated by computer output port cannot be
directly sent out across a telephone network, as the network will chop off the
signals over 3400 Hz, which is the upper frequency limit produced by human
being.
Based on the conversion to frequency spectrum, any periodic time varying
signal can be viewed as a series of frequency signals with limited bandwidth.
The bandwidth for a copper signal is around 10 KHz, 350 MHz for coaxial
cable, and 550MHz for single mode optical fiber. Also note that coaxial cable
can carry video signal while telephone wire can support voice and low speed
data.
1.13.1 Communication Channel and Bandwidth
Any communication channel has to be able to transmit information from one
location to another. The method might be analogue such as radio or it might be
digital such as a computer network. Bandwidth is a measure that quantifies
the capability of a communication channel to transmit information.
In the analogue domain, it is measured in 'Hertz' or Cycles Per Second. For
instance a typical PAL television channel has a bandwidth of 8 Megahertz.
Which means all the video and audio signals for a TV channel resides in this
set of frequencies.
In theory you could define the bandwidth of a digital system in terms of
frequency, but it is far more useful to describe bandwidth in terms of bits per
second. After all, you are not particularly interested in the shape of the digital
signal but rather how much information can the network handle. So, digital
networks are measured in Bits Per Second or bps. Generally the wider the
bandwidth the faster it is. It is important to note that it is 'bits' per second not
'byte' which of course is 8 bits Bandwidth and uses.
The reason that bandwidth is so important is that it determines what you can
34
35
36
Channel capacity refers to the maximum data rate for a finite bandwidth
transmission medium in the presence of random noise. It is concerned about
the quality of a specific communications channel and was identified by
Shannon. The relation is governed by:
Maximum data rate = W x log2(1 + S/N)
Where W is the bandwidth of transmission medium
S/N is the signal to noise power ratio
Maximum data rate is measured in bits/second
Practically, this limit is seldom reached. To increase the transmission rate, the
designer should either increase the signal power or use alternative medium
with higher bandwidth.
The bandwidth for a telephone network is usually restricted between 300Hz to
3400Hz by telephone exchange. As a result, signal that is out of this range
cannot be transmitted over the PSTN. That is to say, if you inject a signal of
10K Hz over the speaker, the remote cannot hear it. For a theoretical
noiseless channel, the maximum data rate that a channel can carry is nW
symbols/per second. A symbol can be n multiple digital levels instead of 0 or 1.
1.16 Decibel
As the signal to power ratio is usually quite significant, a better representation
in communications is used to express the ratio of two values in logarithmic
format. The values can be power, voltage or current. It is not an absolute unit,
just a relative Figure and is expressed in:
dB = 10 log10 P1/P2
Where dB number of decibels
P1 the first value of the power
P2 the second value of the power
It is often used to measure the ratio of signal to noise in a communications
channel due to large quantity of signal power. For example, if the signal power
is 1K Watt and the noise power is 1m Watt, there is no point to have a ratio
written in 1000,000.
Self-Test 1.0
1. Give & explain radio frequency spectrum used for various
communications.
2. Distinguish between analogue and digital signals.
37
38
20.
39
40
CHAPTER TWO
Transducers
2.0 Introduction
A transducer is a device that is used to convert a physical quantity into its
corresponding electrical signal. When using transducers to sense changes in
the physical environment, it's very helpful to convert the physical variable
being measured into a corresponding electrical signal. This is because there
is sophisticated technology available to amplify, filter and digitize electrical
signals. Similarly, when attempting to create a stimulus in the physical
environment, it's optimal to process an electrical signal (typically in digital
form, via software) in the desired fashion prior to converting the signal into
energy of a different physical form. For maximum flexibility and capability it's
typically best to sense the environment using the desired input transducer,
then employ an amplifier/conditioner to direct the electrical signal from the
transducer to an analog to digital converter. Once digitized the signal can be
subject to whatever software-based processing. When attempting to
influence the environment, via some type of physical stimulus, it's optimal to
employ software to establish the nature of the stimulus signal and then use a
digital to analog converter to transform the digital -software produced- signal
back into an electrical signal form. Finally, an output transducer can be used
to transform the electrical signal into the desired physical signal.
In most of the electrical systems, the input signal will not be an electrical
signal, but a non-electrical signal. This will have to be converted into its
corresponding electrical signal if its value is to be measured using electrical
methods. The block diagram of a transducer is given in figure 2.0.
INPUT
SENSING ELEMENT
TRANSDUCTION
ELEMENT
OUTPUT
41
transduction element. This element is responsible for converting the nonelectrical signal into its proportional electrical signal. There may be cases
when the transduction element performs the action of both transduction and
sensing. The best example of such a transducer is a thermocouple. A
thermocouple is used to generate a voltage corresponding to the heat that is
generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals.
2.1
Depends on the best transducer principle for the given physical input.
42
43
44
45
46
the design depending upon the application. Sound recording, radio and
television, and motion picture studios use ribbon or condenser type
microphones because of their high quality reproduction of sound. Public
address systems, telephones, and two-way radio communications systems
can use carbon, ceramic, or dynamic microphones because of their versatility
and low cost.
A diaphragm in the microphone moves in and out in accordance with the
compression and rarefaction of the atmosphere caused by sound waves. The
diaphragm is connected to a device that causes current flow in proportion to
the instantaneous pressure delivered to it. In most types of microphone, the
sound pressure acts upon a thin plate or diaphragm, setting it into vibration
and this mechanical motion is then utilized to produce electrical effects. When
you speak or sing into a microphone, the sound waves of your voice produce
vibrations in a diaphragm inside the mike. The symbol used to represent a
microphone in a schematic diagram is shown in figure 2.1. The schematic
symbol identifies neither the type of microphone used nor its characteristics.
47
causes the voice coil to move on its axis. This movement induces a voltage in
the coil and creates a varying electrical current proportional to the sound to
flow through the coil. This induced current is the audio signal.
The condenser or capacitor microphone consists of two metal plates spaced
slightly apart. These two plates act as a capacitor. A capacitor is a device that
stores an electrical charge. The front plate acts as a diaphragm. As the
diaphragm vibrates, an electrical current is induced to the attached wires
creating an electrical signal between the two plates.
A carbon microphone consists of lightly packed carbon granules in an
enclosure. Electrical contacts are placed on opposite sides of the enclosure. A
thin metal or plastic diaphragm is mounted on one side of the enclosure. As
sound waves hit the diaphragm they compress the carbon granules, changing
its resistance. By running a current through the carbon, the changing
resistance produced by the sound changes the amount of current that flows in
proportion to the sound waves.
The diaphragm of a ribbon microphone uses a thin corrugated aluminum
ribbon about 2 in (50 mm) in length and 0.5 in (2.5 mm) wide suspended in a
strong magnetic field. As sound pressure variations displace the ribbon, it cuts
across the magnetic field. This induces a voltage and produces a current that
is proportional to the sound striking it.
Carbon - Grain Microphone: One of the earliest microphones, and the type
still most generally used in telephone practice, depends for its action on the
fact that the electrical resistance between carbon granules in contact with
each other varies with the contact pressure. Figure 2.2 shows a simplified
sectional view of a single-cell or single-button carbon microphone, as is used
in some telephone sets.
Cathode
discs
Bridge
support
Carbon
granules
Diaphrag
48
the cup and the other attached to the diaphragm. The space between the
discs is partly filled with carbon granules, and as the diaphragm vibrates in
response to the sound waves striking it, the varying pressure on the granules
causes changes in the electrical resistance between the buttons. The
microphone circuit is shown in the same figure, and from this it is seen that
variation of microphone resistance will alter the current through the
transformer primary, and so will set up induced voltages in the secondary. By
proper choice of diaphragm stiffness and mass, the moving system can be
made to resonate near the m1ddle of the speech range of frequencies. When
this is done, the electrical output is large enough to operate a receiver over a
considerable length of line. Without requiring amplification the frequency
response is then not very uniform, although it is entirely adequate for speech
reproduction. By using a very light diaphragm, tightly stretched, the
frequency response is greatly improved, but at the expense of sensitivity.
Carbon microphones with this type of construction, and having two buttons, of
carbon cells, were used extensively in early broadcast.
Crystal Microphone: Another type of microphone, widely used in publicaddress systems, depends for its action on the piezoelectric effect possessed
by certain crystals, for example Rochelle salt. The term piezoelectric effect
refers to the fact that when pressure is applied on the crystal in the proper
direction, electrical potentials are produced between opposite faces of the
crystal. The sound-cell type of microphone contains an assemblage of small
crystals of this type, so connected that their piezoelectric potentials are in
series. The sound falls on the crystals and vibrates them directly. The
electrical output is quite small, but the frequency range and uniformity of
response are excellent. Since Rochelle salt has the largest voltage output for
a given mechanical stress, it is the most commonly used crystal in
microphones.
Crystal
Sound waves
Sound waves
Crystal
Diaphragm
Output
Voltage
Output
Voltage
Electrodes
Electrodes
Diaphragm type
(a)
(b)
49
Figure 2.3a is a crystal microphone in which the crystal is mounted so that the
sound waves strike it directly. Figure 1.4b has a diaphragm that is
mechanically linked to the crystal so that the sound waves are indirectly
coupled to the crystal. The crystal microphone has high output impedance,
making it well suited to direct connection to amplifiers.
Dynamic or Moving-Coil Microphone: Several types of microphones
depend for their action upon the voltage induced in a conductor moving in a
magnetic field. The dynamic or moving-coil micro- phone contains a small coil
attached to a diaphragm, so arranged that when the diaphragm vibrates, the
coil moves back and forth in a radial magnetic field. It thus generates the
output voltage. By careful design of the moving element, and by making use of
air-chamber resonance, it is possible to obtain a nearly uniform response from
40 cycle to 10,000 cycle. A cross section of the Moving-Coil Microphone is
shown in figure 2.4. A coil of fine wire is mounted on the back of the diaphragm
and located in the magnetic field of a permanent magnet.
VOICE COIL
POLE PIECE
MAGNET
DIAPHRAGM
50
Ribbon
Microphone
Magnets
S
N
Sound Waves
Ribbon
Microphone
output leads
(a) Construction
(b) Sectional view
Figure 2.5The Ribbon (Studio) Microphone
As shown in figure 2.5b, the sound waves cause the foil to vibrate, producing
fluctuations in the electrical current, creating the audio signal. This extremely
sensitive configuration picks up a wide range of frequencies and produces an
extraordinarily rich representation of the original sound. The tradeoff for this
sensitivity is the delicacy of the mechanism. Ribbon microphones are also
sensitive to physical impacts and therefore are not considered portable and
can be easily damaged by power overdrive.
Ribbon microphones are not as commonly used as moving-coil microphones
today. There are some modern manufacturers that currently make ribbon
microphones, but they are primarily regarded as studio microphones. In this
type, the moving element is a very thin and flexible aluminum ribbon, upon
which the sound waves act directly. It vibrates in a transverse magnetic field
and generates an electromotive force on the ribbon. The ribbon impedance is
so low that a small step-up transformer is included in the microphone
51
Diaphragm
Backplate
Casing
Insulator
52
connectors and cables. The coaxial cables can be driven long distances
without degradation of the signal. The modern prepolarized designs are
becoming increasingly popular for laboratory test and measurement, and field
applications, due to their low cost and ease of use.
Microphones Field Types: There are three common application fields for
precision condenser microphones. The first and most common is the free-field
type shown in figure 2.7a. The free-field microphone is most accurate when
measuring sound pressure levels that radiate from a single direction and
source, which is pointed directly (0o incidence angle) at the microphone
diaphragm, and operated in an area that minimizes sound reflections. A
freefield microphone is designed to measure the sound pressure at the
diaphragm, as it would appear if the microphone were not present. When a
microphone is placed in a sound field, diffraction effects will alter the sound
pressure when the frequency is high enough so that the wavelengths are
similar in size to the dimension of the microphone. The effect is accounted for
in the design of the microphone and the resulting correction factors are
applied to the actuator response during calibration. These microphones work
best in open areas, where there is no hard or reflective surfaces. Anechoic
chambers or larger open areas are ideal for these Free Field microphones.
(a)
(b)
53
The third type is called a Random Incident Microphone. This is also referred to
as a Diffuse Field Type. The Random Incident type of microphone shown in
figure 2.7c is designed to be omni-directional and measure sound pressure
coming from multiple directions, multiple sources and multiple reflections. The
Random Incident type microphone will have typical correction curves for
different angles of incidence. The random incidence microphone will
compensate for its own presence in the field. An average of the net effect of all
the calibrated incidence angles will be taken into account, in order to come up
with a net zero correction factor. When taking sound measurements in a
church or in an area with hard, reflective walls, you would utilize this type of
microphone.
2.5.3 Microphone Calibrations
There are two types of calibration, the constant-pressure or pressure
calibration, and the constant-field or field calibration. The difference between
the two is this: The microphone itself by reason of its presence in the sound
field causes a distortion of the oncoming sound waves, although this effect is
small for some types. Accordingly, a calibration made where the pressure is
uniform over the diaphragm and measured at the diaphragm will not agree
(especially at the higher frequencies) with a calibration made where the sound
is picked up in an unobstructed space some distance from the source.
A thermophone sometimes is used in pressure calibrating microphones. It
consists essentially of an enclosed chamber which can be tightly sealed
against the face of the microphone to be calibrated. There are two very thin
gold-leaf thermal elements near the bottom of the chamber. These are kept
heated by a constant current, upon which an alternating current of the
frequency at which the calibration is desired is superimposed. Gold leaf has
low thermal capacity, and accordingly the impressed alternating current
produces relatively large temperature variations. These in turn cause
expansion and contraction of the surrounding gas, which constitute sound
waves of deter-minable pressure. Calculations for determining this pressure
can be made from the constants and operating data.
Manufacturing Process
While the manufacturing process will vary depending upon the type of
microphone and how it is used, all microphones had three common parts a
capsule containing the microphone element, internal wiring, and housing. The
following process describes the construction of a moving-coil or dynamic
microphone.
54
The case is formed from thin sheet aluminum or mold injected plastic.
The aluminum sheet is placed in the die of a punch press. The die is an
inverted replica of the desired case shape. The hydraulic punch is
release and forces the aluminum into the die. Any excess material is
trimmed and discarded. If the case is to be made of plastic, the plastic
pellets are fed into a hopper and melted. The liquid is poured into an
injection molding machine. The machine feeds the liquid into a closed
mold. Once the mold is filled and the plastic has cooled, the mold is
opened and the plastic case is taken out. If a switch is required, it is
mounted in position in the case and secured with small screws and nuts
or rivets.
The voice coil is made by winding very fine enameled copper wire onto
a plastic bobbin. The wire is secured to the bobbin with glue.
The permanent magnet is made from a neodymium iron boron
compound. It is formed by sintering the powder (the powder is placed in
a high pressure die and heated, the metals combine and becomes a
solid) or by bonding it with plastic binders.
The pre-cut plastic diaphragm is placed in a holding fixture. The voice
coil bobbin is then glued in the exact center of the bobbin. After the glue
has cured (about 24 hours), the assembly is lowered into the
permanent magnet assembly and glued together.
A coaxial audio signal cable is selected and cut to length. Insulation is
stripped from all leads at both ends of the cable. Then, an audio
connector is soldered to one end of the cable. The open end to the cable
is left free.
The open end of the audio cable is inserted through its hole in the
bottom of the case. The cable is pulled out through the top of the case a
sufficient length to allow the wires to be soldered to the switch and voice
coil.
A foam rubber spacer is placed around the voice coil assembly and the
assembly is lowered into the case. It is secured into proper place with a
grille and cap.
The microphone is then packaged and shipped to the distributor.
55
Force on
wire
Force
on coil
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.8 Loudspeaker principle
(a) A current-carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a magnetic force perpendicular to the
wire. (b) Section of the loud speaker illustrating the electromagnetic operation
variations of the original signal. The voice coil is attached to and drives the
cone of the loudspeaker, which in turn drives the air. This action on the air
produces sound that more-or-less reproduces the sound pressure variations
of the original signal.
2.6.2 Loudspeaker Construction Details
Figure 2.9 shows the constructional details of the speaker as described here;
56
Basket
Voice coil
Cone
Dust
cover
Grill
cloth
Suspension
ring
57
Loudspeaker
response
Frequency
58
the harmonics and thus changes the timbre of the sound. Since the cone is
undamped, it tends to produce "ringing" or "hangover" with frequencies near
resonance. If the resonance is in the bass range, the bass will be "boomy".
2.7 External Arrangement and Parts of Speaker Systems
The main parts of a speaker are:
1.
Diaphragm
2.
Dust Cap
3.
Basket or Chassis
4.
Permanent Magnet
5.
Lead Wires
6.
Voice Coil
7.
Spider
Figure 2.12 shows external arrangements and parts which help to structure a
speaker. The two terminals through which we give the electrical signals to
voice coil as input, are directly connected to two ends of the coils.
59
60
magnetic field continuously and in result of this, the coil moves back and forth
according to the input electrical signal. This coil movement makes moves the
spider and diaphragm which in turn makes vibrations in the surrounding air
particles.
2.8 Types of Speaker Systems
Speaker systems are usually the first choice to be made when planning a
sound system. Important points to consider are the size and purpose of the
room in which the speaker system is to be used, and the interior design. Let us
look at some of the types of speaker systems most commonly used in
commercial facilities, and how they are installed.
2.8.1 Speaker Systems Used In Commercial Installations
The types of speaker systems most commonly used in commercial
installations can be broadly organized into the following three categories.
Surface Mount Speaker Systems: These are usually speaker systems in a
box-type enclosure that are mounted on a wall or ceiling. Surface mounting is
the most basic speaker installation method. Surface mounted speakers are
sometimes used for primary output in small to medium size facilities, or as
secondary support speakers in large halls or event spaces where the main
speakers alone aren't able to provide sufficient intelligibility throughout the
entire listening area (at the back of the hall, for example). They are also
sometimes used to distribute announcements and background music
throughout a facility. Figure 2.15shows an example of a 2-way surface mount
speaker system Yamaha S15W.
61
audio spectrum into three bands. 2-way types are often chosen for small to
medium commercial sound installations.
Ceiling Speakers: Ceiling speakers are built into the ceiling so that they are
flush with the ceiling surface. This type of installation is ideal in situations
where the speakers are to be hidden so that they won't disrupt the interior
decororation, and is a common choice for distributing background music
(BGM) throughout a facility (see figure 2.16). The broad coverage and relative
lack of directionality of ceiling speakers is an advantage for the latter
application. Ceiling speakers are sometimes used in a supplemental support
role in larger installations, in the same way that surface mount speakers are.
62
Speaker units
63
are basically an evolved type of column speaker are commonly used. See
figure 2.19.
64
pieces, which are attached to the poles of a permanent magnet. The pole
pieces attract the steel diaphragm with a steady pull caused by the permanent
magnet, and with an alternating force set up by the voice currents flowing in
the coils. The diaphragm is set into vibration, and sets up sound waves in the
air in contact with it. The permanent magnet is necessary to avoid distortion in
the output, since the diaphragm would be attracted twice in each cycle if only
the a.c. attraction were present.
Magnet
Diaphragm
65
extensively. They are more delicate and more expensive, and they require
higher voltages than other types. Also, condenser driving elements require a
polarizing direct voltage to prevent the radiation of sounds of twice the
frequency of the received electric signals.
Piezoelectric Motor Element: Electric signals impressed on the crystal
electrodes cause the dimensions of the crystal to change in accordance. The
crystal may radiate the sound waves directly or may be coupled mechanically
to an acoustic radiator, such as a diaphragm or a paper cone. Crystal
telephone receivers are rugged, light in weight, sensitive, and have an
excellent frequency response. The input impedance of one type is about
80,000 ohms at any frequency, and the sensitivity is 1.5 bars per volt at 1000
cycles. Piezoelectric motor elements have been used to a limited extent in
small loudspeakers.
Magnetic Motor Element: This classification includes most of the motor
elements used in modern telephone receivers and loudspeakers. Largely of
historical interest are the induction magnetic motor element and the magnetostriction motor element. Of practical importance is the magnetic-armature
motor element, a device the operation of which involves vibration in some part
of the ferromagnetic circuit. Also of practical importance is the moving-coil
motor element in which the mechanical forces are developed by the
interaction of the field set up by the currents in the conductor and the
polarizing field surrounding it. Advertising literature of the Brush Development
Company.
Magnetic-Armature Motor Element: From the general nature of the definition
previously given, it follows that many magnetic-armature motor elements are
possible. Because of this mode of operation, the device is often called a
balanced-armature motor element. In an early radio loudspeaker known as
the cone loudspeaker the motion of the armature was transmitted to a large
double cone.
Moving-Coil (Electrodynamic or Dynamic) Motor Element: This motor
element is used almost universally in loudspeakers. The moving-coil motor
element consists of a voice coil of a few turns of wire suspended in a very
strong, constant magnetic field. The coil is free to move back and forth axially.
It is attached to a suitable acoustic radiator, such as a paper cone as in the
radio dynamic loudspeaker, or a metal diaphragm, as in the driving unit used
with large horn-type loudspeakers. The signal current variations in the voice
66
coil react with the constant magnetic field and cause the coil and acoustic
radiator to move and radiate sounds.
The strong constant magnetic field is produced by an electromagnet as shown
in Fig. 19, or by a permanent magnet. If an electromagnet produces the field,
the coil is sometimes made of a few turns of fairly heavy wire, and the direct
current is furnished by a storage battery or by rectifiers. Or the coil can be
made of a large number of turns of fine wire, and the exciting current is
furnished by a rectifier supplying, perhaps, 50 milliamperes at several
hundred volts. In many radio receiving sets the loudspeaker field coil also
serves as the inductor, or "choke," in the filter of the power supply.
The impedance of the voice coil in a moving-coil driving unit is very low, a
typical value being 8.8/+25ohms at 1000 cycles, and a direct-current
resistance of 5 ohms. Many moving-coil loudspeakers have an impedancematching transformer mounted on them to increase their impedance so that
they will match amplifiers with high-impedance outputs.
2.9.2 Types of Acoustic Radiators
The acoustic radiator is the portion of a telephone receiver or loudspeaker that
initiates the radiation of sound vibrations. Two types are commonly used: the
small diaphragm and the cone. Fundamentally, they are the same, but
practically they are quite different, particularly in size.
Diaphragms: Diaphragms are used in the receivers of common telephone
sets.. Diaphragms are also used in the moving-coil motor elements for horntype loudspeakers.
Cones: A cone is made of various substances, particularly paper and similar
materials, and sometimes metal.
2.9.3 Dynamic Loudspeakers
This type is used almost exclusively in radio. It consists essentially of a
moving-coil motor element driving a free-edge cone. The cones used are of
various types and shapes and are made so that they move approximately with
piston action.
A dynamic loudspeaker should be mounted in a cabinet or in a baffle if it is to
operate satisfactorily, particularly at low frequencies. When the cone moves
out, a condensation is produced on the front side and a rarefaction occurs on
the rear side. The air accordingly flows around the edge, neutralizing the
pressure difference and hence largely preventing sound radiation at that
frequency. The baffle corrects this by providing a long path from the front of the
67
68
CONCEALED TERMINALS
POLE PIECES OF MAGNETIC
IRON (WELDED TO MAGNET)
COILS (REMOVABLE)
BRASS CUP
+
-
Sound wave
+
Signal current
(a)
Permanent magnet
+
-
Sound wave
+
Signal current
(b)
69
When the current builds up in the negative direction the diaphragm will be
again drawn in, producing another rarefaction; and, when it again dies out to
zero, the diaphragm will return to the position of rest and will produce another
condensation. When one cycle of alternating current flows through the speech
coils, two complete cycles of sound waves are set up. Thus, if a constant pull is
not exerted on a diaphragm, the reproduced sound waves will be twice the
frequency of the speech currents.
If the windings are placed on a permanent magnet, the diaphragm is bowed in
when no current flows, as shown by the full line D. When the current increases
from zero to a positive maximum, the diaphragm is pulled in further to the
dotted position, producing one half of a rarefaction. When the current dies out
to zero the diaphragm returns momentarily to the position shown by the full
line producing one half of a condensation. As the current builds up in the
opposite direction the flux due to this current neutralizes part of the flux from
the permanent magnet and the diaphragm moves to the outward dotted
position, thus causing the other half of the condensation. As the current dies
out to zero, the diaphragm returns momentarily to the full-line position,
causing the other half of the rarefaction. With a constant pull on the
diaphragm, therefore, one cycle of current causes one cycle of sound wave,
and thus the frequency of the sound is the same as that of the exciting current.
2.9.6 Theory of Telephone Receiver Operation
The total magnetic flux crossing the air gaps between the pole pieces and
the iron diaphragm is composed of the constant flux 0 produced by the
magnets, and the variable flux i caused by the voice currents passing
through the coils on the soft-iron pole pieces. That is,
(13)
The air gaps tend to keep the total reluctance of the magnetic path
independent of the current intensity, and it can therefore be assumed that the
flux i produced by a sine-wave test current is proportional to the current
intensity, or
. =
KI
sin t.
(14)
= 0
+ KI m
sin t.
(15)
70
F=
K I 2 = K I (0 + KI m
(16)
F =
(17)
2K I k 0Im sin t.
K I K 2I m2
K I K 2 I m2 cos 2t.
(18)
71
The distorting force acting on the diaphragm because of the reaction of the
eddy currents and the useful voice currents is proportional to the product of
the two equations just written. That is,
Fc =
k [ (I m
sin t ( (I c ( m ( sin
( t
_ 90 (
( ].
(19)
k I m I c ( m ( ( sin
t ( sin
( t
_ 90
(.
(20)
Since from trigonometry (sin t) (sin (t - 90)) is equal to sin 2t, equation 20
becomes
Fc =
1
2
k I m I c (m(
sin
2 t
(21)
Figure 2.21 The eddy currents in the diaphragm reacting with the voice
current in the windings produce a double-frequency force F.
The degree of saturation of the receiver diaphragm has an influence on
distortion. Because of hysteresis, if the diaphragm is not operated fairly high
on its magnetization curve, the increase and decrease of flux with current will
not be proportional, and thus the diaphragm will not follow the current
72
variations. Since the diaphragm is thin, the desired magnetic operating point
is easily reached.
The air gaps between the pole pieces and the diaphragm tend to reduce
distortion by making the overall magnetization characteristics approach a
straight line. Then, the rise and fall of flux in the magnetic path will closely
follow current variations instead of following a hysteresis curve.
Direct current passing through the windings of a receiver not designed for it
may cause distortion by opposing the flux from the permanent magnet, and
thus shifting the point of operation to a non-linear portion of the magnetization
curve. Also, direct current in opposing the constant magnetic flux will weaken
the field, making the receiver less sensitive. Furthermore, if the current is
strong enough it may clamp the diaphragm against the pole pieces or even
burn out the windings.
Distortion is also caused by the mechanical resonance of the receiver
diaphragm. This causes a greater response at the resonant frequencies and
causes the diaphragm to tend to continue to vibrate at these frequencies. The
diaphragms of the new telephone receivers are designed to minimize these
effects.
Acoustic distortion of the radiated sound waves is produced by the effects of
the air cavities of the receiver and of the listener's ear.
73
Self-test 5.0
1
Define transducer and Mention the types of transducers give an
example of active transducers.
2.
Mention the basic requirement of transducer.
3.
Which transducer is called as self-generating type transducer?
4.
(i) Explain briefly the active and passive transducer
(ii) Primary and secondary transducers with examples.
5.
State the advantages of transducers
6.
Mention the applications of capacitive and inductive transducers.
7.
Classify electrical transducers and name the parts
8.
What is the function of electrical current transducer, voltage transducer
in control panel?
9.
The carbon-granules microphone works on the principle of change in
10. The sound cannot be used in a vacuum. As a medium for sound
transmission we use usually air. a) What is the most abundant element
in air? b) Which percentage of this element is present in the air?
11. Explain briefly the manufacturing process of the microphone
12. There are three common application fields for precision condenser
microphones. Name and explain them.
13. Name two types of microphone calibration and explain briefly the
difference between the two.
14. Explain the Loudspeaker Principle.
15. What is Back-to-Front Cancellations?
16. What are the Parts of Speaker Systems?
17. Name the types of Speaker Systems.
18. Explain the speaker systems used in commercial installations.
29
Define a telephone and mention the types of motor elements
20
Explain the types of acoustic radiators
21. Explain briefly the dynamic loudspeakers
74
75
CHAPTER THREE
Signal Transmission and Reception Principles
3.0 Introduction
Audio or low frequency signals cannot be sent over long distances by
radiating it out directly from the aerial. The audio frequencies which lie within
the frequency range of 15 Hertz to 20 Kilohertz have very small signal power
and thus cannot be transmitted via antenna for communication purposes. The
audio signals must be sent along with the high frequency signals for
communication. This can be done by superimposing electrical audio signals
on a high frequency wave called the carrier wave. The carrier wave is
generated from radio-frequency oscillators and is undamped in nature. Thus,
when the audio-frequency signal is superimposed on a carrier wave, the
resulting wave gets all the characteristics of the audio signal. The method of
superimposing an audio signal over the carrier wave is called modulation.
Thus, the audio frequency signal has to be modulated with a radio-frequency
carrier wave. The carrier wave can be produced using any oscillator.
The reason why low frequency signals cannot be transmitted over long
distances through space is listed below:
Short Operating Range: When a wave has a large frequency, the energy
associated with it will also be large. Thus low frequency signals have less
power that does not enable them to travel over long distances.
Poor Radiation Efficiency: The radiation efficiency becomes very poor for low
frequency signals.
Mutual Interference: If all audio frequencies are send continuously from
different sources, they would all get mixed up and cause erroneous
interference air. If modulation is done, each signal will occupy different
frequency levels and can be transmitted simultaneously without any error.
Huge Antenna Requirement: For a effective signal transmission, the sending
and receiving antenna should be at least 1/4th of the wave length of the signal.
Thus, for small frequencies, the antenna will have kilometers of length. But if
the signal has the range of Megahertz frequency, then the antenna size would
be less. The carrier wave cannot be used alone for transmission purposes.
Since its amplitude, frequency, and phase angle are constant with respect to
some preference.
3.1 Modulation
76
77
peak Amplittude
unmade.
Ef
carrier
peak
Ec
(a)
ampl.
(p-p)
Carrier Envelope
(ampl.
is Ep - Ec = m.Ec)
Modulating Signal
fm
(b)
Constant-ampl. Carrier
Ec
(C)
fc
Deviation =
=
fmin
fmax
fmin
fmax
- fc
fc
- fmin
fmax
Ep
- Ec x 100%
Ec
deviation
mod. freq.
- fc
= -fmax fm
Fig.
(a) Amplititude Modulation
78
--------------- 3.1
79
Since the three variables are the amplitude, frequency, and phase angle, the
modulation can be done by varying any one of them.
3.2 Amplitude Modulation (AM)
The method of varying amplitude of a high frequency carrier wave in
accordance with the information to be transmitted, keeping the frequency and
phase of the carrier wave unchanged is called Amplitude Modulation. The
information is considered as the modulating signal and it is superimposed on
the carrier wave by applying both of them to the modulator as shown in figure
3.1.
Modulating Signal
Carrier Wave
80
It must be noted that the phase angle remains constant in this process. Thus it
can be ignored. The amplitude of the carrier wave varies at fm.
The amplitude modulated wave is given by the equation
A = Vc + vm = Vc + Vm Sin wmt = Vc [1+ (Vm/Vc Sin wmt)]
= Vc (1 + mSinwmt)
------------------- 3.2
Where m = Modulation Index given by the ratio of Vm/Vc.
Instantaneous value of amplitude modulated wave is given by the equation
v = A Sin wct = Vc (1 + m Sin wmt) Sin wct
-------------- 3.3
= Vc Sin wct + mVc (Sin wmt Sin wct)
v = Vc Sin wct + [mVc/2 Cos (wc-wm)t mVc/2 Cos (wc + wm)t] ---------- 3.4
Equation 3.4 represents the sum of three sine waves. One with amplitude of
Vc and a frequency of wc/2 , the second one with an amplitude of mVc/2 and
frequency of (wc wm)/2 and the third one with an amplitude of mVc/2 and a
frequency of (wc + wm)/2 .
In practice the angular velocity of the carrier is known to be greater than the
angular velocity of the modulating signal (wc>>wm). Thus, the second and third
cosine equations are more close to the carrier frequency. Equation 3.4 is
represented graphically as shown in figure 3.3.
Vc (1+m sin wmt)
(1+m)Vc
Vc
(1-m)Vc
mVc
Vc ( 1 + m sin Wmt ) sin wet
Time, t
81
Relative
Amplitude
Carrier
m
LSB
m/2
wm
(Wc - Wm)
USB
Wc
(Wc + Wm)
Am
Ac
mAc/2
mAc/2
0
Fm
Modulating Signal
m(t)
Fc-Fm
Fc
Carrier
Lower sideband(LSB)
Frequency
Fc+Fm
Upper sideband(LSB)
( c)
82
---------------------- 3.5
Percentage modulation,
%m = m*100 = Vm/Vc * 100
---------------------- 3.6
crest
Trough
Vm
Vc
Vc
Vc
Vmin
Vmax
Vmax - Vmin
Vmax
Vc = Vm
Vc - Vmin
crest
83
---------------------- 3.7
Vc = Vmax Vin
= Vmax (Vmax-Vmin)/2
=(Vmax + Vmin)/2
---------------------- 3.8
---------------------- 3.9
The value of 'm' lies between 0 and 0.8. The value of m determines the
strength and the quality of the transmitted signal. In an AM wave, the signal is
contained in the variations of the carrier amplitude. The audio signal
transmitted will be weak if the carrier wave is only modulated to a very small
degree. But if the value of m exceeds unity, the transmitter output produces
erroneous distortion.
3.2.3 Power Relations in an AM wave
A modulated wave has more power than had by the carrier wave before
modulating. The total power components in amplitude modulation can be
written as:
Ptotal= Pcarrier + PLSB + PUSB
---------------------- 3.10
Considering additional resistance like antenna resistance R.
Pcarrier = [(Vc/2)/R]2= V2C/2R
------------------ 3.11
Each side band has a value of m/2 Vc and r.m.s value of mVc/2 2. Hence
power in LSB and USB can be written as
2
84
---------------------- 3.14
If Ic and It are the r.m.s values of unmodulated current and total modulated
current and R is the resistance through which these current flow, then
Ptotal/Pcarrier= (It.R/Ic.R)2 = (It/Ic)2
Ptotal/Pcarrier= (1 + m2/2)
2
It/Ic = 1 + m /2
---------------------- 3.15
Low Efficiency: Since the useful power that lies in the small bands is
quite small, so the efficiency of AM system is low.
85
86
b. PSB (both) = PT Pc
= 40.8 30
= 10.8W
PSB(single)
= PSB/2
= 10.8/2
= 5.4W
Question 4: The efficiency of a single-tone AM signal is defined as the
percentage of the total power carried by the sidebands that is
= (Psig/PT) x 100%
Where Psig is the power carried by the sidebands and PT is the total power of
the AM signal.
(a) Find for AM modulation index ma=0.5.
(b) Show that for a single-tone AM, max is 33.3% at ma =1.
Solution
Pc = Carrier Power = Ac2
Ps = Sideband power = .ma2A2
2
2
Thus, = Psig/PT= ma /2 + ma
a. For ma = 0.5, = 11.1%
b. max occurs at ma = 1, max = 33.3%
Question 5:The output signal from an AM modulator is:
s(t) = 5cos(1800 t) + 20cos (2000 t) + 5cos (2200 t)
(a) Determine the modulation index.
(b) Determine the ratio of the power in the sidebands to the power in the
carrier.
Solution
a. s(t) = 5 cos (1800t) + 20 cos (2000t) + 5 cos (2200t)
= 20 [1 + cos (200)] cos (2000t)
Thus the modulation index is 0.5.
b. Carrier power = 200
Sideband power = 25
Sideband power to carrier power ratio = 0.125
Question 6:For an amplitude modulated double sideband full carrier
(DSBFC) modulator with a carrier frequency of 100kHz and a maximum
modulating signal of 5kHz, determine (a) the frequency limits for the upper
87
and lower sidebands, (b) the bandwidth, (c) the upper and lower side
frequencies produced when the modulating signal is a single frequency tone
at 3kHz, and (d) sketch the output frequency spectrum.
Solution
fc = 100kHz
fm = 5kHz
a. Frequency limit for upper and lower side bands.
FLSB = fc fm = 100 5 = 95 kHz 95 100 kHz
fUSB = fc + fm= 100 + 5 = 105 kHz 105 100kHz
b. BW = 2fm= 2 x 5 = 10 kHz
c. fLSB = fc fm = 100 - 3 = 97 kHz
fUSB = fc + fm= 100 3 = 103kHz
Question 7: What is the maximum modulating signal frequency that can be
used with an AM double sideband full carrier system with a bandwidth of 20
kHz.
Solution
BW = 2fm
fm = BW/2
= 20/2
= 10 kHz
Question 8: If a modulated RF wave with an average voltage of 20 volts peak
changes in amplitude plus or minus 5 volts, calculate the minimum and
maximum envelope amplitudes, the modulation coefficient, and the percent
modulation.
Solution
Vmax = Ec + Em
= 20Vp + 5
= 25Vp
Vmin = Ec - Em
= 20Vp 5
= 15Vp
88
m = Em/Ec
= 5/20
= 0.25
%m = 25%
Question 9: A 1 MHz carrier is amplitude modulated by an audio signal which
contains all frequencies in the range 300 Hz to 5 kHz. What are the frequency
bands which are output? What is the output bandwidth? Draw the spectral
diagram of these signals.
Solution
The carrier is 1 MHZ
The Upper Side Band is all frequencies in the range 1,000,300 to 1,005,000
Hz
The Lower Side Band is all frequencies in the range 995,000 to 999, 700 Hz
The Bandwidth is 1,005,000 - 995,000 = 10,000 Hz = 10 kHz.
Question 10: A 1.5 MHz carrier is amplitude modulated by three sinusoidal
signals of frequency 500 Hz, 800 Hz and 1,400 Hz. What are the frequencies
in the AM spectrum?
Solution
Convert all the frequencies to kHz. 1.5 MHz is 1500 kHz. 500 Hz is 0.5 kHz.
800 Hz is 0.800 kHz. 1400 Hz is 1.4 kHz.
The output frequencies are:
1500 kHz,
Or
1500,
1500.5, 1499.5,
1500.8, 1499.2,
89
c
(= 2 fc) = 2 * 0.5 * 106
m
(= 2fm) = 2 * 5 * 103
Vc
= 15 V
Vm
=3V
(i) Therefore the carrier frequency fc is 0.5 * 106 = 0.5 MHz
and the modulating frequency fm is 5 * 103 = 5 kHz
(iii) The bandwidth
BW = 2 fm = 10 kHz
(ii) The modulation index
m = Vm/Vc = 3/15 = 0.2
The amplitude of each side frequency is
m* Vc /2 = 0.2 * 15 /2 = 1.5 V
Example 12: A transmitter puts out a total power of 25 Watts of 30% AM
signal. How much power is contained in the carrier and each of the
sidebands?
Solution
Total power = 25 = Pc(1 + m2/2 ) = Pc(1 + 0.3m2/2) = Pc * 1.045
Therefore the carrier power is Pc = 25/ 1.045 = 23.92 Watts
The total power in the 2 sidebands is 25 - 23.92= 1.08 W
The power in each sideband is 1.08/2 = .54 W
The fraction of the power in the carrier is 23.92/25 = 0.957, or 95.7%
3.3 Frequency Modulation (FM)
Frequency modulation (FM) is a method of impressing data onto an
alternating-current (AC) wave by varying the instantaneous frequency of the
wave. This scheme can be used with analog or digital data. When the
instantaneous frequency of a carrier is varied, the instantaneous phase
changes as well. The converse also holds: When the instantaneous phase is
varied, the instantaneous frequency changes. But FM and PM are not exactly
equivalent, especially in analog applications; this is because the relationship
between frequency and phase variations is not linear; that is, frequency and
phase do not vary in direct proportion. While AM is the simplest form of
modulation to envisage, it is also possible to vary the frequency of the signal to
give frequency modulation (FM). It can be seen from Figure 3.5 that the
frequency of the signal varies as the voltage of the modulating signal changes.
The amount by which the signal frequency varies is very important. This is
known as the deviation, and is normally quoted in kilohertz. As an example,
the signal may have a deviation of 3 kHz. In this case, the carrier is made to
move up and down by 3 kHz frequency, and this means that any signal-level
variations will not affect the audio output provided that the signal is of a
90
sufficient level.
Analog electrical image
of signal to be transmitted.
Higher frequency
shorter period
when signal is
maximum.
Electric
Field
Frequency modulated
electromagnetic
carrier wave.
Time
Lower frequency
Longer period when
signal is at negative
extreme.
Frequency deviation
Modulation frequency
The diagrams opposite show examples of how the modulation index affects
91
Time
Time
Time
Time
As the modulation index increases you should notice that the peaks of the high
frequency get closer together and low frequency get further apart. For the
same information signal therefore, the carrier signal has a higher maximum
frequency.
3.3.2 Sidebands
Any signal that is modulated produces sidebands. In the case of an amplitude
modulated signal they are easy to determine, but for frequency modulation the
situation is not quite as straightforward. They are dependent upon not only the
deviation, but also the level of deviation i.e., the modulation index M. The
total spectrum is an infinite series of discrete spectral components, expressed
by the complex formula:
Spectrum components = Vc{J0(M)cosct
+ J1(M)[cos(c+ m)t - cos(c - m)t]
+ J2(M)[cos(c+ 2m)t - cos(c - 2m)t]
+ J3(M)[cos(c+ 3m)t - cos(c - 3m)t]
+ ...}.
92
In this relationship, Jn(M) are Bessel functions of the first kind, c is the angular
frequency of the carrier and is equal to 2, and m is the angular frequency of
the modulating signal. Vcis the voltage of the carrier. It can be seen that the
total spectrum consists of the carrier plus an infinite number of sidebands
spreading out on either side of the carrier at integral frequencies of the
modulating frequency. The relative levels of the sidebands can be read from a
table of Bessel functions, or calculated using a suitable computer program.
Figure 3-10 shows the relative levels to give an indication of the way in which
the levels of the various sidebands change with different values of modulation
index.
1.0
Relative amplitude
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
-0.2
-0.4
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
Figure 3.6. The relative amplitudes of the carrier and the first 10 side
frequency components of a frequency modulated signal for different values
of modulation index.
It can be gathered that for small levels of deviation (that is, what is termed
narrowband FM) the signal consists of the carrier and the two sidebands
spaced at the modulation frequency either side of the carrier. The spectrum
appears the same as that of an AM signal. The major difference is that the
lower sideband is out of phase by 180.
As the modulation index increases, other sidebands at twice the modulation
frequency start to appear (Figure 3.7). As the index is increased, further
sidebands can also be seen. It is also found that the relative levels of these
sidebands change, some rising in level and others falling as the modulation
index varies.
93
M
Vc
0.5
fm
94
to have a small guard band and their centre frequencies on integral numbers
of 100 kHz.
3.3.4 The Theory of Frequency Modulation
Frequency modulation uses the information signal, Vm(t) to vary the carrier
frequency within some small range about its original value. Here are the three
signals in mathematical form:
Information: Vm(t)
95
------------------------ 3.19
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
0
50
100
150
200
250
time
96
below the carrier wave Fc, and the frequency is the integral multiple of the
modulating signal Fm. In the spectrum, the modulation signal frequency Fm,
deviation f, and frequency modulation index m are related as follows. (When
the modulating signal is a single sine wave). The spectrum interval is the
modulation signal frequency Fm, and it spreads in an infinite frequency band.
Deviation f is the difference in the center frequency Fc of the carrier wave
and the frequency of the modulation index number from Fc. See figure 3.9.
f(m=4)
f(m=2)
Fm
Fc
m=1
m=2
m=3
m=4
fc- fi
fc
fc+fi
Frequency
97
fc -2fi fc -fi
fc
fc+fi fc+2fi
Frequency
fc
Frequency
------------------------ 3.20
The implication for the bandwidth of an FM signal should now be coming clear.
The practical bandwidth is going to be given by the number of significant
sidebands multiplied by the width of each sideband (i.e. fi).
BandwidthFM = 2(m + 1)fi
= 2(fc/fi + 1)fi
= 2(fc + fi) ------------------------ 3.21
98
------------------------ 3.22
------------------------ 3.23
99
Spectrum fm = Ac
n=-
Modulation
Index Carrier
0.00
1.00
0.36
0.58
0.12
0.6
0.54
0.24
0.03
10
11
1.0
0.77
0.44
0.11
0.02
1.6
0.51
0.55
0.23
0.06
2.0
0.22
0.53
0.35
0.13
0.03
2.41
0.52
0.43
0.20
0.06
0.02
2.6
-0.05
0.50
0.45
0.22
0.07
0.02
0.01
3.0
-0.25
0.34
0.49
0.31
0.13
0.04
0.01
4.0
-0.40 -0.07
0.36
0.43
0.28
0.13
0.05
0.02
6.0
-0.13 -0.33
0.05
0.36
0.39
0.25
0.13
0.05 0.02
6.63
0 -0.34
-0.13
0.25
0.40
0.32
0.19
8.0
0.11
0.36
0.36
0.25
7.0
0.30
0.16
0.35
0.34
8.0
0.17
0.19
0.34
12
13
0.27
0.03
0.26
8.0
-0.09
0.25
0.25
10.0
-0.25
0.04
0.25
15
16
0.01
8.86
12.0
14
0.13 -0.07 -0.24 -0.17 0.05 0.23 0.30 0.27 0.20 0.12 0.07 0.03 0.01
100
used.
FM radio has a significantly larger bandwidth than AM radio, but the FM radio
band is also larger. The combination keeps the number of available channels
about the same.
The bandwidth of an FM signal has a more complicated dependency than in
the AM case (recall, the bandwidth of AM signals depend only on the
maximum modulation frequency). In FM, both the modulation index and the
modulating frequency affect the bandwidth. As the information is made
stronger, the bandwidth also grows.
101
electrical efficiency.
Direct FM: With direct FM, the modulating signal is input in a VCO (voltage
control oscillator) which generates a frequency shift proportionally to the
added voltage. The signal input of the VCO has a variable capacitance diode,
and when a modulating signal voltage is applied here, the capacitance of the
variable capacitance diode changes and the oscillation frequency (carrier
frequency) changes.
Indirect FM: For indirect FM modulation, the message signal is integrated to
generate a phase-modulated signal. This is used to modulate a crystalcontrolled oscillator, and the result is passed through a frequency multiplier to
give an FM signal.
Narrow Band FM: In narrowband FM, commonly used in two-way wireless
communications, the instantaneous carrier frequency varies by up to 5
kilohertz (kHz, where 1 kHz = 1000 hertz or alternating cycles per second)
above and below the frequency of the carrier with no modulation.
Wide Band FM: The level of deviation is important in many aspects. It
obviously is important in determining the bandwidth of the overall signal. As a
result the deviation used for FM is different between different applications.
Broadcast stations in the VHF portion of the frequency spectrum between
88.5 and 108 MHz use large values of deviation, typically 75 kHz. This is
known as wideband FM (WBFM). These signals are capable of supporting
high quality transmissions, but occupy a large amount of bandwidth. Usually
200 kHz is allowed for each wideband FM transmission. In wideband FM,
used in wireless broadcasting, the instantaneous frequency varies by up to
several megahertz (MHz, where 1 MHz = 1,000,000 Hz). When the
instantaneous input wave has positive polarity, the carrier frequency shifts in
one direction; when the instantaneous input wave has negative polarity, the
carrier frequency shifts in the opposite direction. At every instant in time, the
extent of carrier-frequency shift (the deviation) is directly proportional to the
extent to which the signal amplitude is positive or negative.
Analogue FM: For radio communications purposes less bandwidth is used.
Narrowband FM, NBFM often uses deviation figures of around 3 kHz or
possibly slightly more. As quality is not as important for radio communications
applications, the much narrower bandwidth has advantages in terms of radio
spectrum efficiency.
102
Digital FM: In digital FM, the carrier frequency shifts abruptly, rather than
varying continuously. The number of possible carrier frequency states is
usually a power of 2. If there are only two possible frequency states, the mode
is called frequency-shift keying (FSK). In more complex modes, there can be
four, eight, or more different frequency states. Each specific carrier frequency
represents a specific digital input data state.
3.3.13
Solved Examples on FM
Example 13: A very important concept in electronics is modulation. Explain
what "modulation" means, and give one example of it.
Solution
Modulation is the act of impressing information onto an otherwise featureless
stream of matter or energy, usually for the sake of communicating that
information over a long distance. Radio is a very common example of
modulation.
Example 14: A 400 kHz sinusoidal carrier of amplitude 5V is frequency
modulated by a 3 kHz sinusoidal information signal of amplitude 3V. The
behavior of the carrier is governed by the frequency deviation per volt and for
this system is 25 kHz per volt. Describe how the resulting FM signal changes
with time.
Solution
The FM carrier will change in frequency from 400 kHz to 475 kHz to 400 kHz to
325 kHz and back to 400 kHz, 3000 times per second. This is because the
frequency deviation fc = 3 x 25 kHz = 75 kHz. The amplitude of the carrier will
remain fixed at 5 V.
Example 15: A common modulation technique employed in radio
broadcasting is frequency modulation, or FM. Explain how a high-frequency
carrier signal would be modulated by a lower-frequency signal such as in the
case of the two signals shown here in the time domain:
103
Carrier signal
Modulating signal
Modulated signal
Time
Time
Time
Solution
Modulated signal
Time
Example 15: At the heart of an FM transmitter is a circuit called a voltagecontrolled oscillator, or VCO. Explain what the purpose of a VCO is, and how
this directly relates to frequency modulation.
Solution
A VCO generates an AC output signal whose frequency is proportional to an
externally-supplied input voltage. They are also essential to the function of
phase-locked loops.
Example 16: FM tends to be a far more noise-resistant means of signal
modulation than AM. For instance, the "crackling" form of radio interference
caused by natural lightning or the "buzzing" noise produced by high-voltage
power lines are both easy to hear on an AM radio, but absent on an FM radio.
Explain why.
Solution
Radio interference manifests itself as additional peaks on the envelope of a
modulated carrier wave. AM reception is based on the extraction of that
104
envelope from the modulated carrier, and so AM receivers will "pick up"
unwanted noise. FM reception is based on the extraction of information from
changes in frequency, which is largely unaffected by noise.
Example 17: Plot what the frequency spectrum would look like for a pure
(undistorted) 1 MHz sine wave:
Power
1 x 100
1 x 101
1 x 102
1 x 103
1 x 104
1 x 105
1 x 106
1 x 107
1 x 108
1 x 109
1 x 1010
Frequency (Hz)
Solution
Power
1 x 100
1 x 101
1 x 102
1 x 103
1 x 104
1 x 105
1 x 106
1 x 107
1 x 108
1 x 109
1 x 1010
Frequency (Hz)
Example 18: Find a relation between kp and kf such that the peak phase
deviation of the modulated signal in both cases are equal.
Solution
The phase deviation in PM modulation is kps(t). Hence the maximum deviation
is kpmax{s(t)} = kp.
For the case of FM modulation after integrating from the signal we reach that
the peak of that is 1 and hence the peak deviation will be 2kf. So we have to
have 2kf = kp.
Example 19: A C-band satellite link sends a single NTSC-TV signal through a
36 MHz transponder on a C-band GEO satellite. The NTSC video signal is
modulated onto the carrier using wideband frequency modulation, and the
bandwidth of the transmitted RF signal is 32 MHz The baseband bandwidth of
105
the TV signal is 4.2 MHz Calculate the peak frequency deviation of the FM
carrier using Carson's rule.
Solution
Carson's rule gives the bandwidth of an FM signal in terms of the peak
frequency
deviation, fpk, and the maximum baseband frequency, fmax.
B = 2 ( fpk + fmax)
Hence the peak frequency deviation can be found as
fpk = B/2 - fmax
For B = 32 MHz and fmax = 4.2 MHz
fpk = 16 4.2 = 11.8 MHz
Example 20: Two NTSC FM-TV signals are transmitted through a 36 MHz
bandwidth transponder. The bandwidth of each signal is 16 MHz, calculate the
peak frequency deviation of the FM signal using Carson's rule.
Solution
Carson's Rule gives the bandwidth required for transmission of FM signals as
B = 2 (fpk + fmax)
The maximum baseband frequency for a NTSC TV signal is fmax = 4.2 MHz
Hence the peak frequency deviation is found from
16 MHz = 2 (fpk + 4.2 MHz)
fpk = 8 4.2 = 3.8 MHz
Example 21: An angle-modulated signal with carrier frequency of 100 MHz is
described by the equation s(t) = 10 cos[2fct+ 5 sin(3000t) + 10 sin(2000)]
(a) Find the power of the modulated signal.
(b) Find the frequency deviation.
(c) Find the deviation ratio .
(d) Find the phase deviation .
(e) Estimate the transmission bandwidth BT.
Solution
The signal bandwidth is W = 1000 Hz.
(a) P = 100/2 = 50 W.
b. fi(t) = di(t)/dt
= fc + (1500/2) cos (3000t) + 10000 cos (2000t)
The carrier deviation is (1500/2) cos (3000t) + 10000 cos (2000t)
The two sinusoids will add in phase at some point, and the maximum value of
106
107
varying the amplitude of the carrier signal in response to the amplitude of the
signal to be transmitted. One of the advantages of AM is that its
unsophisticated signal can be received (turned into sound) with simple
equipment. If a station is close enough, not even a power source is needed;
building a powerless crystal radio receiver was once a common childhood
project in the developed world. AM broadcasts occur on North American
airwaves in the medium wave frequency range of 530 to 1700 kHz (known as
the "standard broadcast band"). The band was expanded in the 1990s by
adding nine channels from 1620 to 1700 kHz. Channels are spaced every 10
kHz in the Americas, and generally every 9 kHz everywhere else. Many
countries outside of the US use a similar frequency band for AM
transmissions. Europe also uses the long wave band. In response to the
growing popularity of FM radio stations in the late 1980s and early 1990s,
some North American stations began broadcasting in AM stereo, though this
never really gained acceptance, mostly because consumers needed to
upgrade their existing radios.
AM radio has three serious shortcomings.
The signal is very subject to interference from various sources, such as
electrical storms (lightning). The degradation of the signal can be
severe.
AM radio is in large part a daylight phenomenon: The AM signals travel
longer distances at night, and while this is a benefit in short wave
broadcasts, in a commercial broadcast environment this means that
power must be reduced at night so as to avoid interference among
signals, at the same time sacrificing listeners who cannot receive the
weaker signals. A few of the older stations obtained frequencies without
any other station in the US; these are called clear channel stations
because there would not be any potential interference. (This is not to be
confused with Clear Channel Communications, which currently owns
many US radio stations.)
AM radio is that it transmits only frequencies up to 5000 Hertz
(cycles):This means that stations can be 10,000 cycles apart - the
difference between 530 Hertz and 540 Hertz, for example. At the time
that AM started, in the 1920s and 1930s, this was more than adequate
fidelity for the microphones, 78 rpm recordings, and load speakers of
the day. However the fidelity of this equipment improved considerably the LP record was introduced in 1948 as a "high fidelity' medium - and
AM radio was by that time too established to make the disrupting
changes necessary to transmit higher fidelity. This would have meant
reallocating frequencies, shutting down some stations so others could
108
109
110
38k
SCA channel
subcarrier
L.R
USB
L.R
LSB
L+R
50
L - R stereo
channel
subcarrier
Stereo
pilot
SCA
53k
f (Hz)
Figure 3.14
+
S2 (t)
freq.
x2
cos 2 x 19,000t
111
L + R and L - R
audio channels
L + R and L - R
stereo channels
to main FM
transmitter
composite
baseband
L channel in
R channel in
Preemphasis
L+R
adder
L+R
50 Hz - 15 kHz
Delay L + R
Delay
network 50 Hz - 15 kHz
Preemphasis
L-R
adder
L-R
50 Hz - 15 kHz
Balanced
modulator
Matrix
network
L - R sideband
23-53 kHz
Linear
combining
network
60-7 4 kHz
19 kHz
pilot
38 kHz
x2
multiplier
19 kHz
oscillator
112
Frequency
discriminator
Mono receiver
composite
baseband
L+R
Deemphasis
network
Speaker
(L + R)
Audio
channels
Stereo receiver
Low-pass
filter and
time delay
L+R
Matrix network
(stereo decoder)
19 kHz
bandpass
filter
L speaker
R
Audio channels
Bandpass
filter
23-53 kHz
L-R
Sidebands
19kHz
pilot
L-R
Balanced
product
detector
Audio
channels
R speaker
Amplifier
38 kHz
and x 2
subcarrier
multiplier
113
Stereo channels
Audio channels
Matrix network
L+R
L-R
+
Adder
+
2L
Deemphasis
network
2L
Audio
amplifier
L speaker
+
Adder
-
2R
Deemphasis
network
2R
Audio
amplifier
R speaker
114
grown exponentially, mainly because of the availability of reliable, small, lowpower-consumption solid-state equipments that are economical, and also
because of the public realization of the benefits of having such
communications.
Radio relaying: Frequency modulation is used for microwave radio relaying
over land, over water, and to great distances using satellites, sometimes
carrying thousands of simultaneous telephone conversations or several
television channels.
The advent of requirements for short-haul services, local distribution networks
within cities, television relay, and a wide variety of optical communication
services including high-speed computer communications, electronic mail,
data transmission, and other services, where it may be cost-effective to avoid
the local telephone loop, presents another application for FM radio relaying.
Telegraphy: Telegraphy, including teleprinting and binary digital data
transmission, is based on shifting the carrier frequency or its phase between
two limiting values, one of which represents a mark signal and the other a
space signal. This frequency shift (or phase shift) is a form of FM signaling
used over a wire, cable, or radio.
Facsimile: Black-and-white images (line drawings and typed copy) can be
transmitted by employing the principles used in FM telegraphy; one limit
frequency corresponds to black, and the other to white, on the image to be
transmitted. A continuous gray scale can be transmitted and recorded if,
instead of just two frequencies, a continuous frequency shift is employed
between some low frequency (say, 1500 Hz) and some higher frequency (say,
2700 Hz), the exact frequency at any instant being proportional to the gray
level of the image. See also facsimile.
Telemetry: Frequency modulation is the preferred method for transmission of
information or data from a remote or inaccessible location such as a rocket
vehicle in flight. Each condition to be remotely observed actuates one sub
channel, which, when multiplexed with other channels reporting other status
conditions, modulates the radio carrier by frequency modulation.
115
116
1a
b.
Define modulation.
What are the degrees of modulation?
2.
3.
Name the circuit that causes one signal to modulate another, and give
the names of the two signals applied to this circuit.
4.
In AM, how does the carrier vary in accordance with the information
signal?
5.
6.
7.
Sketch and analyze graphs of the power spectrum of a carrier wave that
is amplitude-modulated by a single-frequency signal.
8.
9.
Give the formula for modulation index and explain its terms.
10.
11.
12.
13.
The maximum peak-to-peak value of an AM wave is 45 V. The peak-topeak value of the modulating signal is 20 V. What is the
percentage of modulation?
13.
15.
117
frequencies up to 4 kHz. What are the maximum upper and lower side
frequencies? What is the total bandwidth of the AM signal?
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
Self-test 3.1
1.
A 400 kHz sinusoidal carrier of amplitude 5V is frequency modulated by
a 3 kHz sinusoidal information signal of amplitude 3V. The behaviour of
the carrier is governed by the frequency deviation per volt and for this
system is 25 kHz per volt. Describe how the resulting FM signal
changes with time.
2.
3.
4.
118
5.
f
10
11 12 13
14
15
16 17
18 19
20 21
Time
(s)
6.
7.
8.
9.
119
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Time (s)
10.
11.
12.
Determine the maximum upper, lower, and total sideband power for an
unmodulated carrier power of 2000 watts. Determine the maximum
total transmitted power for an AM system.
13.
14.
15
A 150 MHz signal is modulated between 149.9 MHz and 150.1 MHz to
carry a signal ranging from 100 Hz to 20 kHz. Calculate:
(a)
The peak frequency deviation
120
(b)
(c)
16.
17.
18.
19.
Cos(2fct)
Xc(t)
121
122
17.
18.
19.
20.
transmission is needed?
In a FM system the frequency deviation constant is 1 KHz/v. A
sinusoidal modulating signal of amplitude 15 V and frequency 3 MHz is
applied. Calculate (i) Peak frequency deviation (ii) Modulating index.
Describe the nature of amplitude modulation (AM) and frequency
modulation (FM).
Describe the relative advantages and disadvantages of AM and FM for
radio transmission and reception.
Distinguish between envelop detection and synchronous detection
methods.
AM
FM
quantity
banawire
range
Cost
Self-test 3.3
1.
A high-quality FM radio station has a frequency deviation of 75 kHz and
contains audio signals varying from 50 Hz to 15 kHz. What is the
modulation index and the bandwidth of the FM transmissions?
2.
3.
4.
a)
b)
c)
123
d)
5.
Determine the practical band Width of an FM signal modulated by a 15kHz tone whose frequency deviation is 45 kHz. What is the approximate
bandwidth for this system using Carson's formula?
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
124
cos (6 108t + 5 sin 1250 t) Find (i) carrier frequency (ii) signal
frequency (iii) modulation index (iv) maximum frequency deviation (v)
power dissipated by the FM wave in 10-ohm resistor.
15.
16.
17.
125
126
127
CHAPTER FOUR
Principles of AM & FM Demodulation
4.0 Introduction
A radio receiver may be defined as a device for reproducing in the form of
useful output the intelligence conveyed by radio waves applied to it. Usually
an antenna is a necessary adjunct to the receiver. The first radio receivers
were crystal sets, and became available in the 1920's with the opening of
Marconi's first broadcast station in Chelmsford.
A crystal set does not have a battery. It runs completely from the energy
extracted from radio waves it picks up from the antenna. A resonant LC (or
tuned) circuit coupled to a large aerial or antenna was used. Many amateur
experimenters constructed crystal sets, often with the tuner inductor coil
wound on a tubular box or a drinking glass. At this time the semiconductor
diode had not been invented, so extracting the audible modulation signal from
the transmission relied on the non-linear electrical properties of the 'crystal',
typically a piece of coke or galena. In early sets a "cat's whiskers" - a fine
piece of wire - was adjusted by trial and error to make a suitable contact with
the crystal.
There were many limitations to the crystal set: it needed a big aerial (antenna),
an earth connection, the clumsy cat's whisker, and the weak signal could only
be listened to by one person at a time with headphones. Very quickly the
crystal set began to be replaced by valve radios with loudspeakers, powered
by batteries.
In World War II, crystal sets were used by prisoners of war in prison camps to
listen to news from home. Much ingenuity went into improvising the necessary
components.
4.1 AM and FM Radio Frequencies
The Amplitude Modulated (AM radio) carrier frequencies are in the frequency
range 535-1605 kHz. Carrier frequencies of 540 to 1600 kHz are assigned at
10 kHz intervals. The FM radio band is from 88 to 108 MHz between VHF
television Channels 6 and 7. The FM stations are assigned center frequencies
at 200 kHz separation starting at 88.1 MHz, for a maximum of 100 stations.
These FM stations have a 75 kHz maximum deviation from the center
frequency, which leaves 25 kHz upper and lower "gaurd bands" to minimize
interaction with the adjacent frequency band. See figure 4.1.
128
10
10
Microwaves
VHF TV
Channels 2-6
FM Radio
Radio
Shot wave
AM Radio
10
VHF TV
Channels 7-13
FM
AM
10
Frequency in Hz
L+R
Channels
Pilot
15 19 23
38
Frequencies reserved
for commercial- free
background music
53
75
129
Original signal
Signal on original
carrier by
amplitude modulation
Signal on intermediate
frequency carrier produced
by the mixing process.
f
beat
= f - f
2
1
Mixer
f2
Mixer produces
Beat frequency
Local oscillator
Sine wave
Difference frequency
Carrier which retains
The modulating signal.
130
used by any incoming radio signal. When the input radio frequency amplifier is
tuned to the station's carrier frequency, the local oscillator is tuned along with it
to produce a beat frequency equal to the fixed IF frequency. We now take for
granted that one radio receiver can be tuned to any of the locally broadcast
radio stations, but if it were not for heterodyning, you would have to have one
receiver for each broadcast station.
4.3 Beats
Beats are caused by the interference of two waves at the same point in space.
This plot of the variation of resultant amplitude with time shows the periodic
increase and decrease for two sine waves. When two sound waves of
different frequency approach your ear, the alternating constructive and
destructive interference causes the sound to be alternatively soft and loud - a
phenomenon which is called "beating" or producing beats. The beat
frequency (the number of beats per second) is equal to the absolute value of
the difference in frequency of the two waves shown in figure 4.4.Arising from
simple interference, the applications of beats are extremely far ranging.
Pinna
345 m/s
f1
C
f2
345 m/s
C constructive interference
D Destructive interference
Auditory
canal
f beat = f 2 - f 1
f1 - f2 COS f1 + f 2
t
t
2
2
2
131
signal - each sideband is a mirror image of the other. See figure 4.5.
Amplitude
Carrier
Lower sideband
Upper sideband
Frequency
Radio frequency
Signal
Rectified signal
Demodulated signal
132
The first term gives the phenomenon of beats with a beat frequency equal to
the difference between the frequencies mixed. The beat frequency is given by
beat
1 - 2
Since the first term above drives the output to zero (or a minimum for unequal
amplitudes) at this beat frequency. Both the sum and difference frequencies
are exploited in radio communication, forming the upper and lower sidebands
and determining the transmitted bandwidth.
When you say that the beat frequency is f1-f2 rather than (f1-f2)/2, that requires
some explanation. For the difference frequency you can just say that you get a
minimum when the modulating term reaches zero, which it does twice per
cycle, so that the number of minima per second is f1-f2.
4.4 AM Demodulationand Detection
Demodulation is the act of extracting the original information-bearing signal
from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit (or
computer program in a software defined radio) that is used to recover the
information content from the modulated carrier wave.There are several ways
of demodulation depending on how parameters of the base-band signal are
transmitted in the carrier signal, such as amplitude, frequency or phase. For
example, for a signal modulated with a linear modulation, like AM (Amplitude
Modulated), we can use a synchronous detector. On the other hand, for a
signal modulated with an angular modulation, we must use an FM (Frequency
Modulation) demodulator or a PM (Phase Modulation) demodulator. Different
kinds of circuits perform these functions.
There are two basic types of AM detection, coherent and non-coherent. Of
these two, the non-coherent is the simpler method.Non-coherent detection
does not rely on regenerating the carrier signal. The information or modulation
envelope can be removed or detected by a diode followed by an audio filter.
Coherent detection relies on regenerating the carrier and mixing it with the AM
signal. This creates sum and difference frequencies. The difference
frequency corresponds to the original modulation signal.Both of these
detection techniques have certain drawbacks. Consequently, most radio
receivers use a combination of both.
4.5 AM demodulation or detection process
An AM signal consists of a carrier which acts as the reference. Any modulation
that is applied then appears as sidebands which stretch out either side of the
133
required against the complexity, and hence the cost that can be tolerated.
The major types of AM demodulator are:
Output
134
The envelope detector recovers the transmitted signal riding on the carrier by
extracting the envelope of the received signal. The structure of a typical
envelope detector receiver is shown in figure 4.8 with 4 major parts
1. The tuned tank
2. The RF amplifier
3. The envelope detector
4. The audio amplifier
RF
Tuned
Filter
Amplifier
Audio
Peak
Detector
Amplifier
D1
Detected Envelope
V out
C
135
Detected
Missed
Envelope
Peak
As you can see, the capacitor discharges so slowly that its voltage remains
greater than a number peaks in the input signal. So, the circuit misses on a few
peaks and thus outputs a distorted detected envelope. Practically, to avoid
these problems, the value of R should be chosen such that it will meet the
following criterion:
2Pfm < 1/RC = 2Pfi
-------------------- 4.1
Where fc, is the carrier frequency and fm is the highest frequency present in the
136
137
Audio
AM
LFF
Sin ct
Figure 4.11 Synchronous Detector with the waveforms before and
after the Diode
A synchronous detector is one where the difference frequency between the
two inputs is zero Hz. Of in other words, the two input frequencies are the
same. Recall that the AM input is mathematically defined by:
m
Carrier
sin (c
2
Lower Sideband
sin ( c
eam = sin ct +
+ m t
Upper Sideband
sin m t
1
2
sin 2ct
m
4
(
sin 2c
m
(
m t +
sin 2c
4
(
xsin ct =
+ m t
(
mixer out = e am
------- 4.2
The high frequency component can be filtered off leaving only the original
modulation signal. This technique has one serious drawback. The problem is how to
create the exact carrier frequency. If the frequency is not exact, the entire baseband
signal will be shifted by the difference. A shift of only 50 Hz will make the human
voice unrecognizable. Most radio receivers use an oscillator to create a fixed
intermediate frequency. This is then followed by an envelope detector or a fixed
frequency PLL.
4.5.5 Advantages and disadvantages of AM synchronous demodulation
There is a balance to be made between utilizing a simple diode detector and a
synchronous detector. It is not always viable to incorporate an AM synchronous
demodulator into a new design. Other formats may be more suitable. The
advantages and disadvantages of a synchronous AM detector compared to a simple
diode detector are tabulated below:
138
Advantages
Disadvantages
1. Considerable additional
complexity, although this is
not such an important
consideration if the
synchronous detector can
be included in an IC.
FM to AM conversion
Zero-crossing demodulation
Quadrature demodulation
FM to AM Conversion: FM to AM Conversion, which is also known as slope
detection, is shown in Figure 4.12. In this method, the input FM signal is
converted to an AM signal by the differentiator. Then an AM demodulation
method is used to demodulate the converted signal. Envelope demodulation
methods are commonly used in the AM signal demodulation. Thus two FM to
AM conversion methods are FM to AM conversion with Hilbert transform and
FM to AM conversion using filter.
Audio signal
Input
xFM (t)
d
dt
Envelope
detector
Removing
DC
Output
139
dB
amplitude
amplitude
modulation
Modulation
frequency
modulation
0 frequency
modulation
AM
FM+ AM
Filter
Noise
Slope
Modulation
AM
Noise
Envelope
Signal
detector
>> 1
= H () =
=
j 1
Vi
1 + j 1
----------- 4.3
and for = 0 +
( + (
(
1
1
= 0 0 1
+
(
0
Vo
Vi =
+...
------------------ 4.4
( (1 +
0
Vi
------------------- 4.5
The minimum of the envelope occurs for a positive and is shown in figure
4.14.
140
FM
AM
Filter
(1 +/ o) (1 + m)
Lower frequencies
( is negative)
(1 - / o) (1 - m)
Higher frequencies
( is positive)
------------ 4.6
= AT
= AT . [c + . m (t)]
= AT c + AT . m (t)
----------------- 4.7
where the DC component is Afc, the demodulated signal is Af .m(t).
FM Signal
Zero-cross
Detector
Pulse
Generator
Low-pass
Filter
Demodulated
Signal
141
1
0
-1
0.23
0.24
O.25
0.26
1
0
-1
0.23
1
0.5
0.24
O.25
0.26
0.24
O.25
0.26
0.24
O.25
0.26
0.24
O.25
0.26
0
0.23
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.3
0.31
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.3
0.31
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.3
0.31
0.27
0.28
Modulated signal
0.29
0.3
0.31
0.28
0.29
0.3
0.31
Zero-crossing Points
Pulse
0.5
0
0.23
-1
0.23
0.27
Time (s)
(b) Process
Figure 4.15 Zero-crossing demodulation
Figure 4.15 shows the process of zero-crossing demodulation. A 25 Hz
sinusoidal wave is used as the message signal, the carrier is a 300 Hz
sinusoidal wave. The maximum frequency deviation is 20 Hz. At first, the
carrier is frequency modulated by the message signal. Then the zero-cross
detector outputs the positive zero-crossing points of the FM signal, shown as
triangular wave. After that, the pulse generator converts every zerocrossingpoint to a pulse with fixed width and amplitude, shown as rectangular
wave. After the low-pass filtering, the message signal is recovered.
4.6.1 Quadrature Demodulation in FM System
There is one difference between the quadrature demodulation method in AM
signal demodulation and the one in FM signal demodulation. In AM signal
demodulation, quadrature demodulation is used to extract the amplitude
information of the message signal from the AM signal.
Low-pass
I(t)
Filter
Demodulated
FM Signal
COS( 2 ^ Ct)
arctan(Q/I)
Low-pass
-
Defferentiator
-1
Signal
Q(t)
Filter
sin (2ot)
142
Vi
Phase
detector
Vd
Kd
Vo
Amplifier
Low-pass
filter
Ka
Signal
Output
VCO
Ko
143
make it exactly match the input frequency. If the VCO output frequency equals
the inputfrequency, the PLL has achieved lock, and the control voltage will be
zero for as long as the PLL input frequency remains constant. The parameters
of PLL shown in Fig. 8-1 are as follows:
Kd = phase detector gain in volts/radian
Ka = amplifier gain in volt/volt
Ko = VCO gain in kHz/volt
KL = KdKaKo = closed loop gain in kHz/volt
Input A
XOR
Input B
Output
A
Input
B
Output
(b)
(a)
(C)
Output
dc level
(V)
90
180
270
360
Input phase
difference
(degree)
(d)
144
Self-test 4.1
1.
Explain the envelope detector with a circuit diagram and waveforms.
2.
What is Amplitude modulation? Show that a nonlinear device can be
used for generating AM signal. What are its limitations?
3.
Draw a diode detection circuit and explain the limitations.
4.
What are the types of AM modulators?
5.
Compare linear and non-linear modulators.
6.
What are the two methods of producing an FM wave?
a)
What is zero crossing detectors? Explain how it works and can be used
as an FM demodulator?
7.
What are the types of FM detectors?
8.
What are the types of phase discriminator?
9.
What is the necessity of limiter in FM receivers?
10. Explain the method of FM demodulator.
11. List the three basic components in a phase-locked loop.
12. What is another circuit used in some PLLs other than the three listed in
Question 1?
13. What is the basic function of a PLL?
14. What is the difference between the lock range and the capture range of
a PLL?
15. Basically, how does a PLL track the incoming frequency?
16. Label each block in the PLL diagram in the figure below.
17
(b)
What is the value of the control voltage being fed back to the
VCO at this point?
145
18.
19.
146
CHAPTER FIVE
Radio Receivers
5.0 Introduction
In radio communication systems, the transmitted signal is very weak when it
reaches the receiver, particularly when it has traveled over a long distance.
The signal has also picked up noise of various kinds. Receivers must provide
the sensitivity and selectivity that permit full recovery of the original signal. The
radio receiver best suited to this task is known as the superheterodyne
receiver. A communication receiver must be able to identify and select a
desired signal from the thousands of others present in the frequency spectrum
(selectivity) and to provide sufficient amplification to recover the modulating
signal (sensitivity). A receiver with good selectivity will isolate the desired
signal and greatly attenuate other signals. A receiver with good sensitivity
involves high circuit gain.
Selectivity (Q) and Bandwidth (BW): Selectivity in a receiver is obtained by
using tuned circuits and/or filters. LC tuned circuits provide initial selectivity.
Filters provide additional selectivity. By controlling the Q of a resonant circuit,
you can set the desired selectivity.
The optimum bandwidth is one that is wide enough to pass the signal and its
sidebands but narrow enough to eliminate signals on adjacent frequencies.
0
-3 oB
ow - 1
o
2
BW = 12- 11
11
11
12
Frequency
147
receiver is expressed as the shape factor, the ratio of the 60-dB down
bandwidth to the 6-dB down bandwidth. The lower the shape factor, the
steeper the skirts and the better the selectivity. See figure 5.1.
Sensitivity: A communication receiver's sensitivity, or ability to pick up weak
signals, is a function of overall gain, the factor by which an input signal is
multiplied to produce the output signal. The higher the gain of a receiver, the
better its sensitivity. The more gain that a receiver has, the smaller the input
signal necessary to produce a desired level of output. High gain in receivers is
obtained by using multiple amplification stages. Another factor that affects the
sensitivity of a receiver is the signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR). One method of
expressing the sensitivity of a receiver is to establish the minimum discernible
signal (MDS). The MDS is the input signal level that is approximately equal to
the average internally generated noise value. This noise value is called the
noise floor of the receiver. MDS is the amount of signal that would produce the
same audio power output as the noise floor signal. See figure 5.2.
Signal voltage or power amplitude
(dB or dBm)
Doslrod signal
(good S/N)
MDS
(Poor S/N)
Noise
Noise
floor
Frequency
148
T1
Headphones
Primary
C1
C2
Secondary
RF amplifier
Audio amplifier
Detector
(a)
(b)
Figure 5.4 Tuned radio-frequency (TRF) receiver (a) Schematic Diagram,
(b) Effectof cascading tuned circuits on selectivity
Many RF amplifiers use multiple tuned circuits. Whenever resonant LC
circuits tuned to the same frequency are cascaded, overall selectivity is
improved. The greater the number of tuned stages cascaded, the narrower
the bandwidth and the steeper the skirts. The main problem with TRF
receivers is tracking the tuned circuits. In a receiver, the tuned circuits must be
made variable so that they can be set to the frequency of the desired signal.
Another problem with TRF receivers is that selectivity varies with frequency.
149
Weak signal
picked up
by Antenna
These two
voltages
combine at
the input of
the first detector
First
Detector
Intermediate
Amplifier
Second
Detector
Audio
Amplifier
LS
Local
Oscillator
Tuned and
amplified by
R.F. Amplifier
Beat frequency
Audio
amplified by
frequency
interned.
freq.
Beat frequency
output from
Amplifier
output from
second
First Detector
detector
Audio voltages
amplified by
Audio Amplifier
150
electronic circuit called mixer circuit. There is a local oscillator in the radio
receiver itself. This oscillator produces high frequency waves. The selected
radio frequency is mixed with the high frequency wave by the mixer circuit. In
this process, beats are produced and the mixer produces a frequency equal to
the difference between local oscillator and radio wave frequency. The circuit is
so designed that oscillator always produces a frequency 455 kHz above the
selected radio frequency. Therefore, the mixer will always produce an
intermediate frequency of 455 kHz regardless of the station to which the
receiver is tuned. For instance, if 600 kHz station is tuned, then local oscillator
will produce a frequency of 1055 kHz. Consequently, the output from the mixer
will have a frequency of 455 kHz. Figure 5.6 shows the superheterodyne
principle with a block diagram. The selected radio frequency f1 is mixed with a
frequency f2 from a local oscillator. The output from the mixer is a difference
(i.e. f2 f1) and is always 455 kHz regardless of the station to which the receiver
is tuned.
AERIAL
R.F AMPLIFIER
MIXER
2-1- 455kHz
2
OWSCILLATOR
151
Antenna
IF amplifiers
RF amplify
Mixer
Demodulator
Selective
filter
AGC
Local oscillator
Or
frequency synthesizer
152
153
Mixer
RF
f 1 +f 2
f1-f 2
f1
IF
f2
LO
Figure 5.8 The ideal Mixer
If the inputs are sinusoids, the ideal mixer output is the sum and difference
frequencies given by
A1 A2
[COS(
(t + COS(
+ 2 (t [
Typically, either the sum, or the difference, frequency is removed with a filter.
Mixing Principles: Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude modulation
carried out by a mixer circuit or converter. The function performed by the mixer
is called heterodyning. Mixers accept two inputs: The signal to be translated to
another frequency is applied to one input, and the sine wave from a local
oscillator is applied to the other input. Like an amplitude modulator, a mixer
essentially performs a mathematical multiplication of its two input signals. The
oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to be translated is the modulating signal.
The output contains not only the carrier signal but also sidebands formed
when the local oscillator and input signal are mixed. See figure 5.9.
154
Input
signal
fs
Mixer output: f 0 + fs
f 0 - fs
f 0*
Mixer
fs *
Tuned
circuit
or
filter
fO + f
Or
fO - f
Intermediate
frequency
(IF)
f0
LO local Oscillation
May or may not be in the output depending
upon the type of mixer.
R1
D1
C1
R3
C4
C2
O1
C2
L1
C1
R2
O2
C1
C1
C1
RFC
To manner
Main tuning
155
The synthesizer is usually of the phase-locked loop (PLL) design and the
output is locked to a crystal oscillator reference which provides high stability.
Tuning is accomplished by changing the frequency division factor in the PLL,
resulting in incremental rather than continuous frequency changes. See figure
5.11.
Optional frequency multiplier
Frequency
multiplier
Phase
detector
XTAL
reference
oscillator
XTAL
3 KHz
LPF
loop
+
100
30 HHz
30 kHz
Vancine
modulus
VFO
Local
oscillator
signal
to minor
in receiver
8.04-MHZ
minor
144.04 MHZ
frequency divider
+ 268
Dinary inputs
from tuning
circuits
137 MHz
Frequency
multiplier
x4
XTAL
oscillator
34.25 MHz
XTAL
156
Local
Oscillator
Desired
Signal
Image
Image
fI = fS - 2fIF
fS
fIF
fIF
2fIF
2fIF
Image
fS
fi = fS + 2fIF
(a)
f0
f1
(b)
f1
0dB
f1
f2
-3dB
Q - 10
Q - 20
24
23.5
23.75
24.5
25
25.5
f2
fo
Frequency (MHz)
26
f1
26.5
26.25
Figure 5.13 A low IF compared to the signal frequency with low-Q tuned
circuits causes images to pass and interfere
Frequency Changers: The combination of a mixer and local oscillator
constitute the frequency changer. Both of them provide 'heterodyne' function,
where the incoming signal is converted to a predetermined fixed frequency
called the intermediate frequency. This intermediate frequency is lower than
the incoming carrier frequency. The result of heterodyning is
157
fIF = fo - fm
Since the output of the frequency changer is neither the original input
frequency nor the output baseband frequency, it is called intermediate
frequency. Sometimes the frequency changer circuits are referred to as first
detector. In case of double frequency conversion, the demodulator becomes
the third detector.
IF Section: Intermediate Frequency (lF) amplifiers are tuned voltage
amplifiers that are operated in Class A with a fixed resonant load. The IF
section has the bandwidth corresponding to the required signal that the
receiver is intended to handle. This section provides most of the amplification
and selectivity of the receiver.
The intermediate frequency of a receiver is always a compromise between
various factors as described below:
If the intermediate frequency is made too high, adjacent channel
rejection as well as selectivity becomes poor.
A high value of intermediate frequency makes the difference between
signal and local oscillator frequency large and as a result, tracking
becomes difficult.
If the intermediate frequency is lowered, the difference between a
signal frequency and its image frequency is reduced; this results in a
poorer image signal rejection. Thus, intermediate frequency must be
made high if image signals are to be completely rejected.
A low intermediate frequency makes the selectivity sharp, thereby
increasing the adjacent channel rejection. Too low an IF makes the
selectivity too sharp that may result in cutting off side bands. To avoid
this, magnification factor Q of the IF circuits has to be lowered which
results in low-stage gain of IF circuits.
If a low If is to be used then a high stability of the local oscillator
frequency must be maintained because any drift in the local oscillator
frequency results in large percentage
IF drift.
The IF of a receiver should be selected as to be lower than the lowest
signal frequency to be received by the receiver otherwise signal
frequencies close to the intermediate frequency will be difficult to
receive and heterodyne whistles will be heard in the receiver output.
Image Frequency: An image frequency is any frequency other than the
selected radio frequency carrier that, if allowed to enter and mix with the local
oscillator, will produce a cross-product frequency that is equal to the
158
2 fIF
fIF
fIF
Frequency
IF
RF
LO
Image
159
preferred. However, the higher the IF, the more difficult it is to build stable
amplifiers with high gain. Therefore, there is trade off when selecting the IF for
a radio receiver between image frequency rejection and IF gain and stability.
Image Frequency Rejection Ratio (IFRR): The image frequency rejection
ratio (IFRR) is a numerical measure of the ability of a preselector to reject the
image frequency. For a single tuned preselector, the ratio of its gain at the
desired RF to the gain at the image frequency is the IFRR. Mathematically,
IFRR is,
2
IFRR = v (1 + Q )
Where,
= {fim/fRF} {fRF/fim}
If there is more than one tuned circuit in the front end of a receiver, the total
IFRR is simply the product of the two ratios. Once an image frequency has
been down converted to IF, it cannot be removed. Therefore to reject the
image frequency, it has to be blocked prior to the mixer/converter stage.
Image frequency rejection is the primary purpose for the RF preselector. If the
bandwidth is sufficiently low, the image frequency is prevented from entering
the receiver. The ratio of the RF to the IF is also an important consideration for
image frequency rejection. The closer the RF is to the IF, the closer the RF is to
the image frequency.
5.3.4 Advantages of the Superheterodyne Circuit
High R.F. amplification. The superheterodyne principle makes it
possible to produce an intermediate frequency (i.e. 455 kHz) which is
much less than the radio frequency. R.F. amplification at low
frequencies is more stable since feedback through stray and
inter-electrode capacitance is reduced.
Improved selectivity. Losses in the tuned circuits are lower at
intermediate frequency. Therefore, the quality factor Q of the tuned
circuits is increased. This makes the amplifier circuits to operate with
maximum selectivity.
Lower cost. In a superheterodyne circuit, a fixed intermediate
frequency is obtained regardless of the radio wave selected. This
permits the use of fixed R.F. amplifiers. The superheterodyne receiver
is thus cheaper than other radio receivers.
160
RF amplifier
First
mixer
First IF
Second
Mixer
IF amplifier
455 KHz
10.7 MHz
11.155 MHz
110.7 MHz
Tunable
Or
synthesized
Second IF
Second
LO
First
LO
Denodulator
Original
signal
Recovered
modulating
signal
XTAL
161
RF input
IF output
1st IF bandpass,
10.7 MHz
2nd IF bandpass,
455 MHz
2nd LO,
11.155 MHz
Tuned LO
RF input
0-400 MHZ
lowpass
filter
Image frequencies
are above 400 MHZ
and are eliminated by
the fixed lowpass filter
60-66 MHz,
CH 3
IF
bandpass,611
MHz
Tuned LO
665-1211 MHz
2nd LO fined
at 674 MHz
162
RF amplifiers preceding the mixer, and any audio amplifiers following the
mixer. AM and SSB can be demodulated, but not FM. There is usually
significant LO feed-through at the desired frequency which can cause
undesired beats in the audio output for AM signals
5.5 Direct-conversion (zero-IF) Receiver
A special version of the superheterodyne is known as the direct conversion
(DC) or zero IF (ZIF) receiver shown in figure 5.18. DC receivers convert the
incoming signal directly to baseband without converting to an IF. They perform
demodulation as part of the translation. The low-noise amplifier (LNA) boosts
the signal before the mixer. The local oscillator (LO) frequency is set to the
frequency of the incoming signal. Baseband output is passed via a low-pass
filter (LPF).
LNA
Mixer
LPF
fs
Demodulated
baseband output:
fLO
LO
fLO = fs
In transceivers that use half duplex and in which the transmitter and
receiver are on the same frequency, only one PLL frequency
synthesizer voltage- controlled oscillator is needed.
The ZIF receiver can be used only with CW, AM, SSB, or DSB. It cannot
recognize phase or frequency variations.
163
5.6 FM Receiver
The FM receiver is more complicated and, therefore, more expensive than the
normal AM receiver. An FM receiver also uses superheterodyne principle. The
FM broadcast signals lie in the frequency range between 88 MHz and 108
MHz. The IF (intermediate frequency) of an FM receiver is 10.7 MHz; much
higher than the IF value of 455 kHz in AM receivers. Figure5.19 shows the
block diagram of an FM receiver.
Speaker
AF
Amplifier
Antenna
2v
88 to 108 MHz
R.F
Amplifier
Mixer
200v
IF
Amplifier
Limiter
2V
FM
Detector
10.7MHz
Local
Oscillator
R.F Tuner
164
10.7 MHz and is fed to the IF amplifiers. Since IF amplifiers are tuned to IF (=
10.7 MHz), they render nice amplification. Note that bandwidth of IF an
amplifier is about 200 kHz or 0.2 MHzThe IF gain is very large (assumed
10,000 in this case) so that output is 2V.
Limiter Stage: The output from IF stage is fed to the limiter. This circuit is an IF
amplifier tuned to 10.7 MHz but its main function is to remove AM interference
from the FM signal. Figure5.20 shows how the limiter removes AM
interference from the FM signal.
INPUT
LIMITER
OUTPUT
165
Speaker
RF
Amplifier
Mixer
IF
Detector
amplifier
Audio and
power
amplifiers
AGC
Local
Gang tuned
Oscillator
166
455 kHz intermediate frequency (IF). At this point the IF is no longer needed,
so the output of the detector consists of only the audio signal.
Audio and Power Amplifiers: This circuit amplifies the detected audio signal
and drives the speaker to produce sound.
AGC: The automatic gain control (AGC) provides a dc level out of the detector
that is proportional to the strength of the received signal. This level is fed back
to the IF amplifier, and sometimes to the mixer and RF amplifier, to adjust the
gains so as to maintain constant signal levels throughout the system over a
wide range of incoming carrier signal strengths.
Figure 5.22 shows the signal flow through an AM superheterodyne receiver.
The receiver can be tuned to accept any frequency in the AM band. The RF
amplifier, mixer, and local oscillator are tuned simultaneously so that the LO
frequency is always 455 kHz above the incoming RF signal frequency. This is
called gang tuning.
amplifier
Mixer
455 kHz
modulated IF
amplifier
Amplified
audio
Audio and
power
Detector
amplifier
Audio
Sound
waves
Tuned to / c
Local
oscillator,
LO
/ c + 455 kHz
167
RF
amplifier
Mixer
IF
amplifier
Limiter
Disseminator
(Detector)
AGC
Dc-emphasis
network
Local
Gang tuned
Oscillator
168
Audio and Power Amplifiers: This circuit is the same as in the AM system and
can be shared when there is a dual AM/FM configuration.
Figure 5.24 depicts the signal flow through an FM receiver.
88 MHZ - 108 MHz
electromagnetic
waves
10.7 MHz FM
FM /c
RF
amplifier
Mixer
10.7 MHz
Amplified FM
IF
amplifier
10.7 MHZ
limited FM
Limiter
Discriminator
Audio
fc + 10.7 MHz
Local
oscillator
De-emphasis
network
Audio and
power
amplifiers
Compensated
audio
Amplified
audio
Sound
FM receivers are free from interference and this means that much
weaker signals can be successfully handled.
169
170
171
172
Number
P
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Phase modulation
Carrier ON only, no message (radio beacon)
Carrier ON/OFF, no message (Morse code, radar)
Carrier ON, keyed tone ON/OFF (code)
Telephony, message as voice or music
Fax, nonmoving graphics (slow-scan TV)
Vestigial sideband (commercial TV)
Four-frequency diplex telegraphy
Multiple sidebands each with different message
General (all others)
None
a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h
j
Subscripts
173
174
Self-test 5.0
1. Describe, by means of a block diagram, an AM radio receiver.
2. Label each block in the AM receiver in Figure below.
3.
4.
5.
6.
175
8.
980 KHz
amplifier
986.4 KHz
9.
(b)
10.
RF
amplifier
Demodulator
176
12.
13.
14.
15.
The given figure is the block diagram of the frequency multiplier and
heterodyne portion of an FM transmitter. Determine the carrier
frequency and frequency deviation at the following points
a)
b)
2, and
c)
3.
fC = 7.5MHz
8=5KHz
Multiplier
x3
Multiplier
x4
2
Heterodynes/
Mixer
Oscillator
f O =6MHz
177
CHAPTER SIX
Telecommunications System
6.0 Introduction
Telecommunications started in the nineteenth century with the telegraph, and
developed through the telephone and radio to TV to satellites and the Internet
etc. Every year, new technologies increase the services available and the
speed of delivery. In order to have a fairly good knowledge of the different
telecommunication system in use, it is important to examine the evolution of
individual streams of telecommunication systems and technology. One
technology is called third generation (3G) wireless access. With this
technology, wireless carriers plan to sell music, videos, and other exclusive
content that can be downloaded and played on phones designed for 3G
technologies. Wireless carriers are developing the next generation of
technologies that will surpass 3G with even faster data transmission. Another
technology is called fixed wireless service which involves connecting the
telephone and/or Internet wiring system in a home or business to an antenna,
instead of a telephone line.
Wireless telecommunications carriers, many of which are subsidiaries of the
wired carriers, transmit voice, graphics, data, and Internet access through the
transmission of signals over networks of radio towers. The signal is
transmitted through an antenna into the wire line network. Other wireless
services include beeper and paging services. The replacement of land lines
with cellular service should become increasingly common because advances
in wireless systems will provide data transmission speeds comparable to
broadband land line systems.
The data transmitted has advanced from signals (Morse code) through voice
to pictures and data and, with the development of convergence, to
combinations of these. While conventional phone networks use packet
switching to break up a call onto multiple shared lines between central offices,
VoIP extends this process to the phone. A VoIP phone will break the
conversation into digital packets and transmit those packets over a highspeed Internet connection.
One way wired carriers are expanding their bandwidth is by replacing copper
wires with fiber optic cable. Fiber optic cable, which transmits light signals
178
179
180
Source Encoder
Channel Encoder
Digital Modulator
Channel
output
Signal
Output
Transducer
Source Decoder
Channel Demodulator
Digital
Demodulator
181
182
183
Source
Destination System
Transmitter
Receiver
Destination
Transmission
System
184
Receiver: This receives the signals from the transmission system and
converts it into a form that is suitable to the destination device. For example, a
modem accepts analog signal from a transmission channel and transforms it
into digital bit stream which is acceptable by computer system.
Destination: It is simply a device for which source device sends the data.
6.4.1 Data Communication Network and Services
Communication Network is set of equipment or say facilities that provide a
communication services like to transfer of data between two or more nodes
located in any of its geographical point. Example of such networks includes
computer networks (LAN/WAN), intranet networks, telephone networks,
television broadcasting networks, cellular networks etc.
Radio and Television Networks: These networks are very common network
usage various stations to transmit an ensemble of signals simultaneously
over network of cables. Aside from selecting the station of interest, the role of
the user in these services is passive. Relatively high audio and video quality is
expected here but a significant amount of delay (fraction of second) can be
tolerated even in live broadcasting.
Telephone Networks: This service is real-time service provided by a network.
Two persons are able to communicate by transmitting their voice across the
network. These services are called connection-oriented service because to
establish such communication users must first interact with the network.
Cellular Networks: These networks extends the normal telephone service to
mobile users who are free to move within a regional area covered by an
interconnected array of smaller geographical areas called cells. Each cell has
a radio transmission system that allows it to communicate with users in its
area. Cellular provides also support a roaming service where a subscriber is
able to place calls while visiting regional area other than the home. There are
many other network services like Video on Demand, Streaming Audiovisual,
and Audio-Video Conferencing etc available.
6.4.2 Data Communication Protocols and Protocol Architecture
To transfer any file or say data between two or more computers there must be
a path either directly or any communication network known as computer
communication. Similarly when two or more computers are interconnected via
185
Protocols
Application
Presentation
Application Layer
Session
Transport
TCP, UDP
Network
or
Internet
Network Layer
Interface Layer
Datalink Layer
Physical Layer
Transport Layer
186
Application
Presentation
Session
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
187
188
to which it is attached. The transmitter computer provide the network path and
destination address.
3.
Internet Layer
Internet Protocol is used by this layer to provide the routing function across
multiple networks.
4.
Transport Layer
This layer ensures that data is sent and received successfully or not. If any
error occurred then it sends the re-transmission request.
5.
Application Layer
It provides user friendly interface between user and transmission devices. For
example, file transfer, electronic mail services etc.
6.4.3 Data Digitization
Before it can be sent across a data network, information must be converted
from its native human interpretable form into a format native to computers.
Humans operate in an analog world. Sounds have varying frequency and
loudness, pictures have varying colors and shapes, and each character of text
can be one of several options, depending on the language being used.
Computers operate in a digital world: the only values they understand are one
and zero. All data must be represented as a series of these two basic values.
Each one or zero in the data stream is known as bit. The digital data-bit stream
is usually broken into chunks of 8 bits, known as a byte or octet. The
significance of 8 bits to a byte is based on the number of bits required to
represent a single character in the most common encoding schemes
discussed later in this section.
The process of converting analog human interpretable data into digital data
for use by computers is known as digitization. There are many different
techniques available to digitize data. For audio and video information,
specialized computer programs known as CODECS (COder/DECoder) are
used. Examples of data streams produced by CODECs include MP3, AAC,
and DIVX. In addition to simply providing a means of converting analog data to
a digital format, most CODECs provide a means of compressing the data.
This compression happens prior to the data entering the data communication
system and should not be confused with online data compression techniques.
For textual information, the process of transforming humanly readable
characters into machine-readable code is known as character encoding.
189
Using an encoding scheme, characters are turned into a series of ones and
zeroes. There are multiple protocols or standards that can be used to code
characters. The most commonly used standards include ASCII, EBCDIC, and
UNICODE.
6.4.4 Data compression
Data compression involves the sending device replacing large strings of
repeating character patterns with a special code that represents the pattern.
The code is then sent to the destination device. From that point forward, the
sending device replaces any instances of the original pattern with the code. As
the code is significantly smaller than the pattern it represents, the amount of
data sent between the two devices is reduced as compared to sending the raw
data. This reduction, up to 400 percent under optimal conditions, results in an
increased amount of data being sent between the sending device and the
receiving device (also known as throughput). One way to get additional data
throughput is to employ data compression. It is important to note that all data
compression technologies use a similar process.
Software vs Hardware Data Compression: The data compression techniques
above hardware based, implemented in the communication devices
themselves. If both software and hardware compression are available,
software compression is usually more effective because the software
packages are typically optimized for the type of data being sent. Hardware
compression must be generic as the device designers have no idea of the type
of data the might be transmitted. Regardless of whether hardware or software
compression is chosen, both hardware and software compression should
never both enabled at the same time
6.4.5 Data Transmission
Data transmission occurs between transmission and receiver over some
transmission medium. Successful transmission of data depends on two main
factors, quality of signal being transmitted and characteristics of transmission
medium. Data transmission always uses the form of electromagnetic waves
and they are classified into guided electromagnetic waves and unguided
electromagnetic waves. Examples of guided waves are twisted pair, coaxial
cable and optical fiber. Unguided waves means transmitting electromagnetic
waves but they are not guided as example propagation through air, vacuum
and seawater.
6.4.6 Transmission Configurations and Terminology
190
Transmitter
or
Receiver
Amplifier
or
Repeater
Medium
Transmitter
or
Receiver
Medium
Transmitter
or
Receiver
Transmitter
or
Receiver
Medium
Transmitter
or
Receiver
Amplifier
or
Repeater
Transmitter
or
Receiver
Medium
191
signal lines running in parallel tend to create interference with each other in an
electrical transmission environment. A common application for parallel
communication is communicating between subsystems within a computer.
Common examples of this type of parallel communication include the PCI bus
and IDE/ATA and SCSI hard drive connections.
Parallel
Serial
1 byte consisting of
8 serial bits
Sender
1 byte consisting of
8 parallel bits
10100101
Receiver
Circuit consists of
ONE copper wire
Sender
Receiver
0
1
0
Circuit consists of
EIGHT copper
wires
Asynchronous transmission
1000011
modem
1010101
Stop bit
1 010010
1 01 0100
Start bit
modem
Characteristics:
192
Synchronization byte
modem
Characteristics:
193
digital
analog
Local PC
Remote PC
1000001
1000001
PSTN
cable,
etc.
modem
modem
Input
Digital data
Processing
Transform digital data input
to analog data output
(modulation)
Output - Input
Analog
Processing
Transform analog data input
to digital data output
(demodulation)
Output
Digital data
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
Packets
Source
Address
Destination
Address
Sequence
Number
Source
Address
Error
Check
Destination
Address
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Sequence
Number
Source
Address
Error
Check
Destination
Address
1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
Sequence
Number
Error
Check
1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1
194
6.4.8 Switching
If a device wishes to communicate with another device to which it has a direct
connection, it is relatively simple to establish a connection and begin
transmitting data. Switching allows temporary connections to be established,
maintained and terminated between sources and destinations, sometimes
referred to as data sink. There are two primary switching techniques
employed in switching architectures:
195
Circuit switching
Packet switching
Voice or
data
Central Office
All data or voice travel from source to destination over the same physical path
Packet Switching
Packet
assembler/
disassembler
Packet
assembler/
disassembler
PAD
PAD
Packet-switched network
(Public data network)
Data enter the packet-switched network one packet at a time;
Packets may take different physical paths within packet-switched networks.
196
6.4.9
Message
A message in a data network corresponds roughly to the everyday English
usage of the word. For example, in an airline reservation system, we would
regard a request for a reservation, including date, flight number, passenger
names, and so on, as a message. In an electronic mail system, a message
would be a single document from one user to another. If that same document
is then forwarded to several other users, we would sometimes want to regard
this forwarding as several new messages and sometimes as forwarding of the
same message, depending on the context. In a file transfer system, a
message would usually be regarded as a file. In an image transmission
system (i.e., pictures, figures, diagrams, etc.), we would regard a message as
an image. In an application requiring interactive communication between two
or more users, a message would be one unit of communication from one user
to another.
6.4.10
Packets and Packet Assembly
Packets are specially structured groups of data that include control and
address information in addition to the data itself. These packets must be
assembled (control and address information added to data) somewhere
before entry into the packet switched network and must be subsequently
disassembled upon leaving the packet switched network before delivery to
their destination. This packet assembly and disassembly is done by devices
known as PADs or packet assembler/disassemblers. PADs may be
standalone devices or may be integrated into other data communication
devices such as modems or multiplexers. The PADs may be located directly at
an end-user location, or may be located further along the communication path
at the entry point to the packet-switched data network.
6.4.11
Error in Data Communication
Data transmission errors occur when received data are misinterpreted due to
noise or interference on the communication lines over which the data
message traveled. For a data communication session to be useful there must
be a means of handling any transmission problems to ensure the reliable
transmission of accurate data.
Error Detection: Once everything possible has been done to prevent errors,
the focus shifts to reliably detecting the errors that do occur. Remembering
that transmitted data, on the mostelementary level, is merely a stream of ones
and zeroes, the role of error detection can be defined as providing the
assurance that the receiving computer receives the same ones and zeros.
197
Parity bit
Face Value:
Odd
10000011
1+0+0+0+0+0+1+1
= 3 (odd)
Even
1000001 0
1 +0+0+0+0+0+1+0
= 2 (even)
198
Sensor-Based Applications
Combined Applications
6.5 Wireless Communication
Wireless communication involves the transmission of information over a
distance without help of wires, cables or any other forms of electrical
conductors. The transmitted distance can be anywhere between a few meters
(for example, a television's remote control) and thousands of kilometers (for
example, radio communication).Some of the devices used for wireless
communication are cordless telephones, mobiles, GPS units, wireless
computer parts, and satellite television etc. Following are some reasons
because of we are using wireless communication. There are different types of
wireless communication such as IR communications, broadcast
communication, satellite communication and cellular communication. Each of
these types of communications with its working are explained below in
detailed.
Infrared (IR) wireless communication: IR wireless communication
communicates data or information in devices or systems through infrared (IR)
radiation. Infrared is electromagnetic energy at a wavelength that is longer
than that of red light.
Broadcasts: Broadcasting is the dissemination of content or packet that will be
received by every device on the network over a wide geographical area.
Satellite Communications: Satellite communication is the communication in
which an array of orbiting satellites is used tocommunicate between two
distant sites on earth by bouncing signals of satellite.
Cellular Service: In this communication, area is subdivided into multiple cells
or zones with unique frequencies as signed to each cell.
6.5.1 Principles of Wireless Radio Communication
The simplest scheme of wireless communication would be to convert the
speech or music to be transmitted to electric signals using a microphone,
boost up the power of the signal using amplifiers and radiate the signal in
space with the air of an antenna. This would constitute the transmitter. At the
receiver end, one could have a pick-up antenna feeding the speech or music
signal to an amplifier and a loud speaker. (See figure 6.12)
199
Antenna
Antenna
Loud
speaker
Microphone
Amplifier
Amplifier
Transmitter
Receiver
Microphone
Modualator
Amplifier
Transmitter
Antenna
Amplifier
Amplifier
Demodualtor
Demodualator
Audio
amplifier
Loud
speaker
Receiver
200
Microwaves are radio waves with frequencies higher than television signals.
The wavelengths of microwaves are of the order of a few millimeters. We
know that sound waves spread and bend around the corner of an obstacle.
This is because the wavelength of sound wave is generally comparable to the
size of the obstacle. Unlike a sound wave, a light wave keeps itself along a
straight path. Moreover, the light waves bend by only a small amount at the
corners of the obstacles. This is because the wavelength of light waves is
smaller as compared to the wavelength of sound waves. Thus, lesser the
wavelength of a wave, smaller is it's bending at the corners of ordinary
obstacles and greater the ability of the wave to follow a straight path. The
wavelength of microwaves is very small as compared to the wavelength of
radio waves. So, microwaves are better suited to beam signals in a particular
direction.
6.5.2 Advantages of Wireless Communication
Increased efficiency - Improved communications leads to faster transfer of
information within businesses and between partners/customers.
Greater flexibility and mobility for users - Office-based wireless workers
can be networked without sitting at dedicated PCs.
Reduced costs - Relative to 'wired', wireless networks are, in most cases,
cheaper to install and maintain.
Anywhere, Anytime Work-Through wireless communication, working
professionals and mobile workers can work and access the Internet just
about anywhere, anytime without the hassles of wires and network
cables.
Enhanced Productivity- Wireless Internet connectivity options ensures
that work and assignments can be completed anywhere and enhance
overall productivity of all concerned.
Remote Area Connectivity-Workers, doctors and other professionals
working in remote location hospitals and medical centres can keep in touch
with anyone through wireless communication.
On-Demand Entertainment Bonanza- Wireless communication ensures
an entertainment bonanza on--demand and anytime. For those unable to
keep away from their daily soap operas, reality-programs, online TV shows
and Internet surfing or download activities.
Emergency Alerts-Through wireless communication, many emergency
situations and crisis situations can be addressed quickly. Help and other
assistance can reach affected areas quickly through early alerts and
warnings provided with the help of wireless communication.
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Neat and easy Installation-Since no cable running here and there, just start
up the wireless device and we are ready to rumble
More users supported - Cable device have limited slots whereas wireless
does not. So it is more supported for user.
6.6 Broadcast Communication
Broadcasting refers to a method of transferring a message to all recipients
simultaneously. See figure 6.14.Broadcasting can be performed as a high
level operation in a program, for example broadcasting Message Passing
Interface, or it may be a low level networking operation, for example
broadcasting on Ethernet. Broadcasting is the distribution of information to all
receivers. Information may be anything. It may be audio, video content to a
dispersed audience via any audio or visual mass communications medium,
but usually using electromagnetic radiation (radio waves). The receiving
parties may include the general public or a relatively large subset of public.
Broadcasting has been used for purposes of private recreation, noncommercial exchange of messages, experimentation, self-training, and
emergency communication in addition to commercial purposes like popular
radio or TV stations with advertisements.
Broadcast
Origen
Destino
Destino
Destino
202
Or it may broadcast through cable television or cable radio via the station or
directly from a network. The "broadcast network" is used to distinguish
networks that broadcast an over-the-air television signals and only via cable
television. Over the air television signal that can be received using a tuner
inside a television set with a television antenna and cable television
6.7 Satellite Communication
A satellite communications system uses satellites to relay radio transmissions
between earth's terminals. The two types of communications satellites are
ACTIVE and PASSIVE. A passive satellite only reflects received radio signals
back to earth. An active satellite acts as a REPEATER; it amplifies signals
received and then retransmits them back to earth. This increases signal
strength at the receiving terminal to a higher level than would be available
from a passive satellite. A typical operational link involves an active satellite
and two or more earth terminals. One station transmits to the satellite on a
frequency called the UP-LINK frequency. The satellite then amplifies the
signal, converts it to the DOWN-LINK frequency, and transmits it back to
earth. The signal is next picked up by the receiving terminal. Figure6.15
shows a satellite communications. Satellite
Uplink
Antenna
Downlink
Antenna
Earth station
Earth station
Terrestrial
system
Terrestrial
system
User
User
203
204
Noise
level
205
Input
Message
Modulator
Channel
decoder
Demodulator
Spreading
generator
Output
Message
Spreading
generator
B5
Bc
t
Tc
T5
206
systems since the 1950s "spread" a radio signal over a wide frequency range
several magnitudes higher than minimum requirement. The core principle of
spread spectrum is the use of noise-like carrier waves, and, as the name
implies, bandwidths much wider than that required for simple point-to-point
communication at the same data rate.
Resistance to jamming (interference): DS (direct sequence) is better at
resisting continuous-time narrowband jamming, while FH (frequency
hopping) is better at resisting pulse jamming. In DS systems, narrowband
jamming affects detection performance about as much as if the amount of
jamming power is spread over the whole signal bandwidth, when it will often
not be much stronger than background noise. By contrast, in narrowband
systems where the signal bandwidth is low, the received signal quality will be
severely lowered if the jamming power happens to be concentrated on the
signal bandwidth.
Resistance to eavesdropping: The spreading code (in DS systems) or the
frequency-hopping pattern (in FH systems) is often unknown by anyone for
whom the signal is unintended, in which case it "encrypts" the signal and
reduces the chance of an adversary's making sense of it. Moreover, for a
given noise power spectral density (PSD), spread-spectrum systems require
the same amount of energy per bit before spreading as narrowband systems
and therefore the same amount of power if the bitrate before spreading is the
same, but since the signal power is spread over a large bandwidth, the signal
PSD is much lower often significantly lower than the noise PSD so that
the adversary may be unable to determine whether the signal exists at all.
However, for mission-critical applications, particularly those employing
commercially available radios, spread-spectrum radios do not intrinsically
provide adequate security; "...just using spread-spectrum radio itself is not
sufficient for communications security".
Resistance to fading: The high bandwidth occupied by spread-spectrum
signals offer some frequency diversity, i.e. it is unlikely that the signal will
encounter severe multipath fading over its whole bandwidth, and in other
cases the signal can be detected using e.g. a Rake receiver.
Multiple access capability: Multiple users can transmit simultaneously on the
same frequency (range) as long as they use different spreading codes. See
CDMA.
207
208
209
Scan Control Channels: Our cell phone needs to use the "closest" base
station because that's the one with the strongest signal and the one that
will give the best connection. To find the closest base station, our phone
checks all 21 control channels and determines which has the strongest
signal.
Choose Strongest: Our cell phone chooses the strongest signal and
210
Send Origination Message: Our cell phone now transmits a very short
message that contains the MIN (Mobile Identification Number, aka our
cell phone number), its ESN (Electronic Serial Number), and the
number we just dialed.
Get Channel Assignment: After the cellular service provider verifies that
we are a valid, paying customer (based on the MIN and ESN our phone
sent), the base station sends a Channel Assignment message to our
phone. This message tells our phone where (that is, on which channel)
the conversation will take place.
Begin Conversation: Our cell phone tunes to the assigned channel and
begins the call. The spurts we hear that indicate the phone is ringing at
the other end (which is called "ring back") or the busy signal that we
hear do not begin until we get to this step. Both of these are transmitted
by the base station as an audio signal just like the voice of the person
we are calling.
211
rd
rwa
Lin
Fo
nk
e Li
ers
Rev
Mobile
Base Station
Mobile
Base Station
Mobile
Control Equipment
PSTN
Mobile Operator
Network
Interface
Equipment
212
Base stations
Mobile
Switch
Cells
Subscriber
database
Radio access network
Core network
213
214
adjacent areas proved that all channels could not be reused in every cell.
Areas had to be skipped before the same channel could be reused. Even
though this affected the efficiency of the original concept, frequency reuse
was still a viable solution to the problems of mobile telephony systems.
Engineers discovered that the interference effects were not due to the
distance between areas, but to the ratio of the distance between areas to the
transmitter power (radius) of the areas. By reducing the radius of an area by
fifty percent, service providers could increase the number of potential
customers in an area fourfold. Systems based on areas with a one-kilometer
radius would have one hundred times more channels than systems with areas
ten kilometers in radius. Speculation led to the conclusion that by reducing the
radius of areas to a few hundred meters, millions of calls could be served.
The cellular concept employs variable low-power levels, which allows cells to
be sized according to the subscriber density and demand of a given area. As
the population grows, cells can be added to accommodate that growth.
Frequencies used in one cell cluster can be reused in other cells.
Conversations can be handed off from cell to cell to maintain constant phone
service as the user moves between cells (see Figure 6.23).
215
Cell 2
Cell 7
Cell 1
Cell 6
Cell 3
Cell 4
Cell 5
216
Cell 3
Cell 1
Cell 4
Cell 6
Cell 5
Cell 2
Cell 7
Cell 2
Cell 3
Cell 1
Cell 6
Cell 1
Cell 4
Cell 5
Cell 3
Cell 7
Cell 4
Cell 6
Cell 5
217
RSmall Cell
RLarge Cell
218
C=
Atotal
Acell
S
N
in a given area,
increasing the overall
capacity.
o
60 Cell Sectoring
219
1
1
(a)
1 2
54 3
6 1 2
54 3
(b)
220
which directly increases the network capacity. See figure 6.30.As seen in the
figures 6.31, for the case of cluster size of N = 4 , only 2 of the 6 co-channel
cells cause interference to the middle cell for the sector labeled S2 in the case
of 120 cell sectoring (the cells with radiation sectors colored red and green).
The other 4 cells, although they are radiating at the same frequencies cause
no interference because the middle cell is not in their radiation angles. For the
case of 60 cell sectoring, only one cell causes interference (the cell with
radiation sectors colored green).
o
60 cell sectoring
120 cell sectoring
Figure 6.31 Cluster size of N = 4
S3
S1
S2
S3
S1
S2
S3
No
Sectoring
Figure 6.32
221
Cellular Switch:
DMS-MTX
Trunk Routes
222
6.9.8.1
Types of handover / handoff
Hand offs are broadly classified into two categories hard and soft handoffs, the
hard handoff can be further divided into two different types; intra-and inter-cell
handoffs. The soft handoff can also be divided into two different types; multi
way soft handoff and softer handoff. In this chapter, we focus primarily on the
hard handoff. With the advent of CDMA systems where the same channels
can be used by several mobiles and where it is possible to adjacent cells or
cell sectors to use the same frequency channel there are a number of different
types of handover that can be performed:
Hard handover (hard handoff)
Soft handover (soft handoff)
Softer handover (softer handoff)
Although all of these forms of handover or handoff enable the cellular phone to
be connected to a different cell or different cell sector, they are performed in
slightly different ways and are available under different conditions.
Hard handover: The definition of a hard handover or handoff is one where an
existing connection must be broken before the new one is established. One
example of hard handover is when frequencies are changed. As the mobile
will normally only be able to transmit on one frequency at a time, the
connection must be broken before it can move to the new channel where the
connection is re-established. This is often termed and inter-frequency hard
handover. While this is the most common form of hard handoff, it is not the only
one. It is also possible to have intra-frequency hard handovers where the
frequency channel remains the same.
A hard handoff is essentially a break before make connection. Under the
control of the MSC, the BS hands off the MS's call to another cell and then drop
the call. In a hard handoff, the link to the prior BS is terminated before or as the
user is transferred to the new cell's BS; the MS is linked to no more than one
BS at any given time. Hard handoff is primarily used in FDMA (frequency
division multiple access) and TDMA (time division multiple access), where
different frequency ranges are used in adjacent channels in order to minimize
channel interference. So when the MS moves from one BS to another BS, it
becomes impossible for it to communicate with both BSs (since different
frequencies are used). Figure 6.34 illustrates hard handoff between the MS
and the BSs.
223
BS1
MS
BS2
BS1
a. Before handoff
MS
BS2
b. After handoff
224
to arrange the network to operate in the most efficient manner, while still
providing the most reliable service.
6.9.8.2 Line of Sight (LOS) and Non-Line of Sight (NLOS) Handoff
Mobiles moving around in microcells will face line of sight (LOS) handoffs and
non-line of sight (NLOS) handoff. In the case of NLOS, completely reliable
handoff are difficult to achieve. A problem with microcells is the so called
corner effect. When a mobile station moves around a corner such as at a
street intersection (see figure 6.35), there can be a sudden drop in the
received signal level. It loses its LOS component with the serving base station.
Now if the mobile user does not link up with this new base station B fast
enough, the call gets dropped. Furthermore, the mobile can cause
interference to the new base station. The base station is unable to regulate the
power of the mobile and users within this cell are blocked.
Cell A
Cell B
225
226
parameters (ex: MsTxPwrMax). The mobile also has to read the 6 strongest
BCCH every 5 minutes to receive its cell parameters (ex: MsTxPwrMax). The
6 strongest can be seen from the BA list which has the updated measurement
of the 32 BCCH carrier. The neighboring list for the best 6 neighbors is
updated every 60 seconds, which means the mobile has to measure each
neighbor by 10 seconds. The mobile also has to read the BSIC of the 6
strongest BCCH every 30 seconds to confirm that it is still monitoring the same
cells. If a new BSIC is detected, then the BCCH of this BSIC will be read to
receive the cell parameters.
BSIC
Serving cell
Six neighbors
BCCH
Every 30 secs
Every 30 secs
Every 5 minute
Cell reselection Criteria: The mobile will reselect and camp on another cell if
any of the following criteria is satisfied:
1.
The serving cell is barred.
2.
C1 value in the current cell is below 0 for 5 seconds which indicates that
the path loss is high and the mobile needs to change cell.
3.
The Mobile has unsuccessfully tried to access the network as defined
by the MAXRET parameter or Max Number Retrans missions.
MAXRET is the maximum number of retransmission a mobile can do when it is
accessing the system It is defined per cell.
Assuming that one of the criteria above was satisfied then the mobile will
select a cell with a better C1. However if the cell belongs to a different location
area then the C1 for that cell has to exceed a reselection hysteresis
parameter called CRH or Cell Reselect Hysteresis for the reselection to
happen.
If the mobile is moving in a border area between location areas, it might
repeatedly change between location areas. Each change requires location
updating and cause heavy signaling load and risk paging message being lost.
To prevent this, a cell reselect hysteresis parameter CRH is used. See figure
6.36.
227
LA 1
C1 = 1
CRH = 4
Serving cell
LA 2
C1 = 6
Target cell
228
Self-Test Questions 1
Wireless communication
1
What is GSM?
2
What is the maximum data rate supported by a GSM system?
3
Explain the following techniques in GSM:
a. Sectorization of a cell
b. Frequency Re-use
c. Transmitted Power Control
d. Discontinuous Transmission
4
Which uplink/ downlink spectrum is allocated to following;
a. GSM 900
b. DCS 1800
5
Explain the following:
a. Equalization,
b. Interleaving,
c. Speech coding,
d. Channel coding
6
What are the interfaces between the following?
a. BTS and MS
b. BTS and BSC
c. BSS and MSC
d. TRAU and BSC
e. BSC and PCU
6.
What do following mean? Why do we need them? a. Location Area
b. Location Update
7
Give the meaning of the following; IMSI, TMSI, IMEI, MS-IDN, and
ARFCN.
8
Differentiate between FDD and TDD
9
What do you mean by Extended Cell? Does it have any impact on
the system?
10
What is Ethernet and write the use of Ethernet?
11
Differentiate Wired LANS and wireless LAN
Self-Test Questions 2
Introduction to Data Communication
1
What is Data Communications?
2
Explain Communications Channels?
3
Explain Asynchronous vs. Synchronous Transmission?
4
Explain Parity and Checksums?
5
What is Data Compression?
6
Explain Data Encryption?
229
7
8
9
10
11
12
13a.
230
19
20
Self-Test Questions 4
Mobile Cellular Communications 1
1a. Compare the common wireless communication systems.
1b
Explain the cell splitting process for improving the capacity of cellular
systems.
2a
Describe the various types of hybrid spread spectrum multiple access
techniques.
3a
Describe a cellular system with the help of a block diagram.
3b
Differentiate between circuit switching and packet switching.
4a
Describe the cellular digital packet data service.
5
Explain in detail 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G generation systems and their
standards
6a. Explain the concept of frequency reuse and channel assignment
b.
Explain the different handoff strategies used in wireless
communication
7.
Give the meaning of TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, and SDMA.
8.
Discuss how the following aspects are interrelated in cellular wireless
networks: reuse factor/cluster size, co-channel interference, basestation antenna height, network capacity and network coverage
9.
Define the following concepts in the context of cellular communications:
a.
hard handover, b. Soft handover, c. softer handover.
10. Describe the difference between circuit-switched and packet-switched
networks. Give an example of commercial system for each.
Self-Test Questions 5
Satellite Communication 1
1.
What is the difference between active and passive satellites?
2.
List some advantages of satellite communication
3
List some of the important parameter used to specify a particular earth's
Station.
4
What are very small aperture terminals (V SATs)?
5
What is meant by tracking satellite communications?
6.
Why the uplink frequency is different from downlink frequency'.
7.
What do you mean by orbitals spacing? Why it is required?
8.
Define TDMA frame efficiency
9.
Explain briefly how satellites can be helpful in forecasting weather.
10. How many types of transmission media are used in
telecommunications?
231
11.
12.
13.
What are the advantages of twisted pair cable over parallel wire cable?
What are step index fibre and graded index fibre?
Write down the differences between in channel and common channel
signaling.
14a. Name and define three modes of multiple access.
b.
Why uplink frequency is kept higher than downlink frequency in
satellite communication systems?
15a What is BER? What is its optimum acceptable value for digital satellite
communication?
b.
Differentiate between system noise temperature and carrier-tothermal noise temperature?
16. What is the difference between multiplexing and multiple accesses?
17. Explain the difference between the active and passive satellite
systems.
Discuss their merits and demerits.
18. Explain, why time division multiplexing is the only option for digital
satellite link and also, why the inter modulation effects are not prevalent
in TDM?
19. Discuss the advantages of CDMA over TDMA and FDMA.
20. Write note on any two of the following; (i) VSAT and (ii) Satellite voice
services.
Self-Test Questions 6
Digital Communication 1
1.
What is meant by PCM?
2.
What is the need for speech coding at low bit rates?
3.
Define modulation rate.
4.
State NRZ unipolar format
5.
State Manchester format.
6.
What is Inter symbol interference?
7.
Which criterion makes ISI Zero?
8
What is matched filter receiver?
8.
What is maximum likelihood detector
10
Define antipodal signals.
11. What are the three broad types of synchronization?
12
Define code efficiency
13
Define pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.
14
Define a random binary sequence.
15
Give the correlation property of random binary sequence.
16
What is called processing gain?
232
17
19
20.
Self-Test Questions 7
Digital Communication 2
1
What is called frequency hop spread spectrum
2
What is meant by PCM?
3
Define quantizing process.
4
What is meant by idle channel noise?
5
Define delta modulation
6
Name the types of uniform quantizer
7
What is the need for speech coding at low bit rates?
8
What is PAM?
9
Define modulation rate.
10
State NRZ unipolar format
11
State Manchester format.
12
What is Inter symbol interference?
13
Which criterion makes ISI Zero?
14
What is matched filter receiver?
15
What is maximum likelihood detector?
16
Define antipodal signals.
17
Give the two basic operation of DPSK transmitter
18
Define deviation ratio in MSK
19
What are the three broad types of synchronization?
20
What are the disadvantages of closed loop bit synchronization?
Self-Test Questions 8
Digital Communication 3
1
Define code efficiency
2
Define pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.
3
What does the term catastrophic cyclic code represent?
4
Define a random binary sequence.
5
Give the correlation property of random binary sequence.
6
What is called processing gain?
7
What is called jamming effect?
8.
What is Anti jamming?
9.
What are the three codes used for the anti-jamming application?
10
What is called frequency hop spread spectrum?
11. What are the two function of fast frequency hopping?
12
What are the features of code Division multiple Accesses?
233
13
15
16
17
18
19
20
Self-Test Questions 9
Digital Communication 4
1 Which modulation technique has best utilization of bandwidth?
2 In which modulation scheme probability is maximum
3 In which modulation scheme probability is minimum
4 What is Nyquist rate?
5 What is advantage of digital communication over analog communication?
6 Which are the channels used for digital communication?
7 Which kind of multiplexing used in digital communication?
8 Define Aperture effect. How it can be avoided
9 Why is Sample & Hold circuit used?
10 What is requirement for Transmission Bandwidth?
11 Difference between Coherent and Non-coherent detection
12 Signal constellation diagram of all modulation schemes
13 Properties of Matched filter?
14 Difference between CDMA & TDMA
15 What is Pulse code modulation (PCM)?
16 How the performance of a PCM is corrupted?
17 What are the two types of Spread spectrum technique?
18 What is a Constellation Diagram?
19 Which modulation is a combination of other 2 schemes?
20 Name two principles by which spread spectrum achieves its goal
Self-Test Questions 10
Digital Communication 5
1 Which of the 3 multiplexing techniques is common for fibre optic links?
2 What are the two function of fast frequency hopping?
3 What are the features of code Division multiple Accesses?
4. What is called multipath Interference?
5 What is the advantage of a spread spectrum technique?
6 What is called frequency hop spread spectrum?
7 What is inter-symbol interference?
234
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Self-Test Questions 11
Digital Communication 6
1
What are GPRS services?
2
What are the advantages of CDMA?
3
What are the advantages of spread spectrum?
4
Explain the steps involved in demodulating a signal.
5
How can a Pseudo Random Noise Code be usable?
6.
What are the drawbacks of walsh codes?
7
What are the various types of numbers for network identity?
8
Which of the 3 multiplexing techniques is common for fibre optic links?
235
CHAPTER SEVEN
Communication Technology and Applications
7.0 Introduction
Telecommunications are devices and techniques used for transmission of
information over long distances via wire, radio/satellite without damaging/loss
due to noise and interference. The major trend in telecommunications at
present is a fundamental shift from mechanical to electrical furthermore,
electronic , and within electronic, analogue to digital modes of transmission
involving all types of communications voice, facsimile, computer
transmission, TV communicators, microwave and satellite communications,
and radio links. On the other hand, certain applications of microcomputers
(PCs) have opened new vistas for the transfer of information by
telecommunications. The development of microelectronics has led to home
minicomputers and TV based information terminals. Recently, there have
been considerable activities in evaluating the potential for DDS on satellite
communications. Applications in the information field include remote
browsing, using TV, searching of automated catalogues (OPAC), searching of
bibliographic and numeric data, etc. Electronic communication consists of
telecommunication and data communications. Telecommunication involves
use of telephone, tele-printer, telegraph, radio or TV and satellite facilities to
transmit information, either directly or via computer. Data communication is
the transfer of data/information between computer devices, and is a common
that each of us has probably seen it in action everyday life without thinking
about it. The other major current developments in CT are: E mail, electronic
imaging, electronic publishing and DTP, tele-text, teleconferencing, video-text
technology, fax, voice mail, satellite, telemedicine, etc. The advent of
telecommunication technology and the tremendous speed, with which it is
changing, require adaptability to change in present information society.
7.1 Communication Technology System Categorization
Communication system may be categorized based on their physical
infrastructure and the specifications of the signals they transmit. The physical
infrastructure pertains to the type of the channel used and the hardware
design of the transmitting and receiving equipment. The signal specifications
signify the nature and type of the transmitted signal. The types of
communication systems based on their infrastructure and signal
specifications are discussed;
236
237
238
239
Wireline
Cluster
Switch
TDMA
micro-cell
microcell
Landline
micro-cell
240
241
message is sent to a paging user. This type of service however have potential
draw backs since it uses up much system air time, receiver audio quality can
be poor in some coverage areas making the message difficult to hear or it can
be difficult to hear if received in a high noise environment. Display paging
refers to the user receiving either numeric or alpha numeric information on an
LCD display. Numeric display is the most popular because it is easy to access
from any touch tone phone system and air time usage is lower.Paging
systems are commonly referred to as being one of two types, either Simulcast
or Non-Simulcast.
Non-Simulcast systems: are primarily for single transmitter systems or
systems where coverage is not required to be continuous over a geographic
coverage area, i.e. the transmitters are so far apart that they cannot interfere
with each other. Non-Simulcast systems allow for lower transmitter costs
since system alignment and maintenance for overlapping transmitter
coverage is not an issue by definition.
A Simulcast Paging system: refers to a system where coverage is continuous
over a geographic area serviced by more than one paging transmitter. In this
type of system the pager can be receiving signals from two or more paging
transmitters when in the overlap area of the two or more paging transmitter.
The overlaps are of two or more paging transmitters are referred to as the noncapture is since a pager not locked or captured by a single transmitter.
Sector Paging: A paging system, either simulcast or non-simulcast, can be
operated in either an, all transmitters key or a subset of all transmitters key,
depending on the pager being paged. When all transmitters do not key for
paging in the system this is referred to as sector paging. Sector paging allows
the system operator to partition his system and charge various monthly
service fees depending on the user's desired area of coverage.
Multiple Frequency Paging: Multiple frequencies paging on a system is
possible however it provides no benefit to service. When the multiple
frequency transmitters are keyed on a channel the other channel is forced to
be idle by definition. The objective of a paging system operator is to build a
single frequency channel and load the channel to capacity such the system
users receive acceptable paging throughput at a reasonable cost. If the
system loading is excessive then throughput during peak paging hours may
become unacceptable by users and service may be sought by the user from
the competition. Typically multiple frequency paging is used when the user
242
desires to hold a paging frequency they have been granted however they do
not have the capitol to build a complete second system.
7.4.1 Paging System Block Diagram and Components
A paging system is composed of the following 6 basic elements (see Figure
7.2 below).
1
Paging Terminal
2
Controller
3
Outbound control and paging information channel
4
Transmitter network
5
Communications link from transmitter network to controller
6
End user pagers
1
PAGING
TERMINAL
AUDIO AND
CONTROL
INTERFACE
5
COMMUNICATIONS
LINK
2
CONTROLLER
4
TRANSMITTER
NETWORK
6
PAGERS
3
OUT BOUND CONTROL AND
PAGING INFORMATION
243
244
245
general areas.
Signaling
Voice
Voice
Packet
Module
Telephony
Signaling
Module
Network
Management
Module
Network
Protocol
Module
DSP
MICROPROCESSOR
Voice &
Signaling
Packets
246
to the specific voice packet protocol that is called for by the application, such
as real-time protocol (RTP), voice over frame relay (VoFR), and voice
telephony over ATM (VToA). The microprocessor also processes signaling
information and converts it from supported telephony-signaling protocols to
the packet network signaling protocol [e.g. H.323 IP, frame relay, or ATM
signaling]. This partitioning provides a clean interface between the generic
voice-processing functions, such as compression, echo cancellation, and
voice-activity detection, and the application-specific signaling and voice
protocol processing.
Signaling, Protocol and Management Modules: The VoIP software performs
telephony signaling to detect the presence of a new call and to collect address
(dial digit) information, which is used by the system to route a call to a
destination port. It supports a wide variety of telephony-signaling protocols
and can be adaptable to many environments. The software and configuration
data for the voice card can be downloaded from a network
7.5.2 VoIP Applications
A wide variety of applications are enabled by the transmission of VoIP
networks. In Figure 7.4a, is a network configuration of an organization with
many branches that wants to reduce costs and combine traffic to provide
voice and data access to the main office. This is accomplished by using a
packet network to provide standard data transmission while at the same time
enhancing it to carry voice traffic along with the data. Voice over packet
provides the inter working function (IWF), which is the physical
implementation of the hardware and software that allows the transmission of
combined voice and data over the packet network.
Branch 1
Home Office
IWF
Telephone
Mainframe
IWF
Packet
Network
Branch N
Telephone
Telephone
PBX
IWF
Telephone
PSTN
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Office 1
IWF
Telephone
Telephone
IWF
Packet
Network
Telephone
Pax
Telephone
Pax
Base Transceiver
Station (BTS)
Base Station
Base Transceiver Controller
(BSC)
Station (BTS)
PSTN
ATM
Transcoding
Gateway
Base Transceiver
Station (BTS)
Base Station
Controller
Base Transceiver
(BSC)
Station (BTS)
Mobil
Switching
Center
(MSC)
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Fox
Modem
Unit
Fox
Protocol
Unit
Fox
Network
Driver
Unit
Real-Time
Operating
Environment
packet
Protocol
To
packet
Network
Message
Processing
Unit
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HDLC flags. If, after a time out, the response from the remote fax machine is
not received, it also sends a command repeat (CRP) frame to resend the
frame. This unit monitors the facsimile transaction timing, the direction of
current transmission, and the proper modem configuration.
Fax network driver unit (FND): This assembles and disassembles fax packets
to be transmitted over the network and is the interface unit between the FP
and network modules. The control information packets consist of header and
time stamp information. In the direction of the PCM to the packet network, the
FND collects the specified number of bytes and transmits the packet to the
network. In the receive direction, the FND provides data with the proper timing
(as generated on the transmit side and reproduced through the received time
stamp information) to the rest of the FIU. The FND formats the network
packets for transmission to the network based on the specific network
protocol. The FND delays the data to remove timing jitter from the packet
arrival times
7.5.4.2 Operation
FAX was designed for analog networks, and cannot travel over a digital VoIP
network. The reason for this is that FAX communication uses the analog
signal in a different way to regular voice communication. When VoIP
technologies digitize and compress analog voice communication it is
optimized for voice and not FAX signaling. Subsequently, there are a number
of things you need to take note of when you move to a VoIP Phone System. If
you want to continue using your old fax machine and you want to connect it to
your VoIP phone system, its best to use a VoIP Gateway and an ATA (Analog
Telephony Adapter) that supports T38. T38 is a protocol designed to allow fax
to travel over a VoIP network. It is also possible to convert to computer based
fax and choose a VoIP phone system that supports fax. 3CX Phone System
for Windows includes a full featured fax server that is able to receive faxes and
forward them in PDF format to e-mail. Another way to deal with fax when you
switch to a VoIP phone system is to connect the fax machine directly to the
existing analog phone line and bypass your VoIP system. Fax over IP works
via T38 and requires a T38 capable VoIP Gateway as well as a T38 capable
fax machine, fax card or fax software. Fax Server software that can talk 'T38
allows the great Unified Communications feature, Fax to Email, which sends
faxes directly via a VoIP gateway and converts the fax message into an email.
The plus side is that no additional fax hardware is needed for the Fax to Email
feature to work seamlessly
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Analog line /
ISDN
T38
T38 capable
VOIP Gateway
Analog G3
FAX machine
T38 capable
FAX machine
14.4 <<<<
Full Dulex
Fax Over
Packet
IWF
ATM
Frame Relay
Internet Protocol
Fax Over
Packet
IWF
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IWF
FAX
FAX
Packet Network
IWF
FAX
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a tried and true solution that has been used heavily on the internet for years.
Most commonly this protocol is employed by online stores and online banking.
When you see https: in your browser URL bar, you know immediately that you
are being protected by SSL.
The reduction in complication offered by SSL VPNs comes when you consider
that the client no longer requires client software to be installed and running.
This single fact lessens the burden of the protocol as well as reduces the
overhead needed to maintain and troubleshoot it in a working environment.
The absence of client software means that a user needs to rely on a secure
portal. A secure portal is a graphical interface served up to a web browser that
provides tools and access to applications running on the network. Today one
of the most common applications served up in this fashion are email and thin
clients tools like RDP. SSL can also approximate the way IPSec works with
additional lightweight software that can be installed with very little effort via the
browser. This fact can simplify the processes involved in securely accessing
the corporate network.
SSL VPNS can literally support thousands of end users that need access to
the headquarters network without requiring the support of an administrator or
even a single hour of configuring or troubleshooting unlike IPSec protocol.
7.7 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a digital air interface standard,
claiming eight to fifteen times the capacity of analog. It employs a commercial
adaptation of military spread-spectrum single-sideband technology. Based on
spread spectrum theory, it is essentially the same as wireline service; the
primary difference is that access to the local exchange carrier (LEC) is
provided via wireless phone. Because users are isolated by code, they can
share the same carrier frequency, eliminating the frequency reuse problem
encountered in AMPS and DAMPS. Every CDMA cell site can use the same
1.25 MHz band, so with respect to clusters, n = 1. This greatly simplifies
frequency planning in a fully CDMA environment. CDMA is an interference
limited system. Unlike AMPS/TDMA, CDMA has a soft capacity limit; however,
each user is a noise source on the shared channel and the noise contributed
by users accumulates. This creates a practical limit to how many users a
system will sustain. Mobiles that transmit excessive power increase
interference to other mobiles. For CDMA, precise power control of mobiles is
critical in maximizing the system's capacity and increasing battery life of the
mobiles. The goal is to keep each mobile at the absolute minimum power level
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FDMA
frequency
frequency
frequency
time
TDMA
time
time
CDMA
USER 2
DATA
POWER
USER 3
DATA
TIME
FREQUENCY
POWER
FREQUENCY
TIME
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Cch,3.0 = (1.1.1.1.1.1.1.1)
Cch,3.1 = (1.1.1.1.-1.-1.-1.-1)
Cch,2.0 = (1.1)
Cch,4.1 = (1.1.-1.-1)
Cch,3.2 = (1.1.-1.-1.1.1.-1.-1)
Cch,3.3 = (1.1.-1.-1.-1.-1.1.1)
Cch,1.0 = (1)
Cch,4.2 = (1.-1.1.-1)
Cch,3.4 = (1.-1.1.-1.1.-1.1.-1)
Cch,3.5 = (1.-1.1.-1.-1.1.-1.1)
Cch,2.1 = (1.-1)
Cch,4.3 = (1.-1.-1.1)
Cch,3.6 = (1.-1.-1.1.1.-1.-1.1)
Cch,3.7 = (1.-1.-1.1.-1.1.1.-1)
SF = 1
SF = 2
SF = 4
SF = 8
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Chip rate
Data rate
30kbit/s channel
QPSK
15k symbols/s
3840k
=
15k
Spreading
Factor 256
W/Hz
Non-Spread Signal
Spread Signal
F
Figure 7.12 CDMA spreading
7.7.2 Power Control
CDMA is interference limited multiple access system. Because all users
transmit on the same frequency, internal interference generated by the
system is the most significant factor in determining system capacity and call
quality. The transmit power for each user must be reduced to limit
interference, however, the power should be enough to maintain the required
Eb/No (signal to noise ratio) for a satisfactory call quality. Maximum capacity
is achieved when Eb/No of every user is at the minimum level needed for the
acceptable channel performance. As the MS moves around, the RF
environment continuously changes due to fast and slow fading, external
interference, shadowing, and other factors. The aim of the dynamic power
control is to limit transmitted power on both the links while maintaining link
quality under all conditions. Additional advantages are longer mobile battery
life and longer life span of BTS power amplifiers
7.7.3 Handover
Handover occurs when a call has to be passed from one cell to another as the
user moves between cells. In a traditional "hard" handover, the connection to
the current cell is broken, and then the connection to the new cell is made. This
is known as a "break-before-make" handover. Since all cells in CDMA use the
same frequency, it is possible to make the connection to the new cell before
leaving the current cell. This is known as a "make-before-break" or "soft"
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handover. Soft handovers require less power, which reduces interference and
increases capacity. Mobile can be connected to more than two
A
C
B
C
B
A
C
3 Way Soft
Figure 7.13CDMA soft handover
BTS the handover. "Softer" handover is a special case of soft handover where
the radio links that are added and removed belong to the same Node B. See
figure 7.13.
7.7.4 Multipath and Rake Receivers
One of the main advantages of CDMA systems is the capability of using
signals that arrive in the receivers with different time delays. This
phenomenon is called multipath. FDMA and TDMA, which are narrow band
systems, cannot discriminate between the multipath arrivals, and resort to
equalization to mitigate the negative effects of multipath. Due to its wide
bandwidth and rake receivers, CDMA uses the multipath signals and
combines them to make an even stronger signal at the receivers. CDMA
subscriber units use rake receivers. This is essentially a set of several
receivers. One of the receivers (fingers) constantly searches for different
multipath and feeds the information to the other three fingers. Each finger then
demodulates the signal corresponding to a strong multipath. The results are
then combined together to make the signal stronger.
7.8 Wide Band Code Division Multiple Access (WCDMA)
WCDMA of 3G potentially will offer the user significantly increased data
throughput rates. Speeds of up to 2mbit/s and higher are being predicted but it
will be sometime before these are achieved. New techniques such as voice
over IP are being developed for use on the Transport Infrastructure and will
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263
are used. The 4G migration, while holding great promise for high data rate
services and a broad range of multimedia applications, will require additional
radio spectrum. However, use of this band for mobile wireless services is
years away due to the complexities of reallocating existing broadcast
licenses. Moreover, there is little chance of establishing a common 4G
spectrum plan on global basis.
7.11 Satellites, Broadband and Internet Services
7.11.1 Satellite Broadband
Satellite broadband is Internet connectivity shown in figure 7.14 provided by
satellite, rather than dial-up, DSL (digital subscriber line) or cable service.
Satellite broadband is linked to a dish network subscriber service and
provides speeds similar to other broadband technologies.
Satelite
Modem
Dish
Gateway
Fibre Cable
264
to the internet, data is exchanged, and is then sent 22,300 miles back to the
satellite. Once the satellite receives the information, the page data must travel
the final 22,300 miles back to the user. The subscriber pays for that 89,200
mile (143,553 km) round trip for each request in delayed milliseconds. Some
sources indicate the average latency is 500-700ms. This unavoidable 'delay'
makes satellite broadband a poor choice for activities like multiplayer online
gaming. While satellite broadband is far faster than dial-up, it is still one of the
slower broadband technologies. The slowest DSL service is equivalent to
satellite broadband, minus the high latency, and faster DSL can reach speeds
far greater. Cable is also a faster technology, though cable speeds can be
affected by local traffic loads.
7.11.2 Satellite Internet
Satellite internet services have come a long way, providing speeds
comparable to some cable services and far better than dial-up. Satellite
internet depends on geostationary satellites, which orbit at the same speed as
the Earth's rotation and thus remain stationary relative to a location on the
Earth's surface. The satellites send and receive internet signals. To receive
satellite internet at home, you need a special satellite dish or receiver and a
service contract with an internet satellite provider. Satellite internet is ideal for
homes and businesses in rural areas where cable, fiber or even DSL internet
is not available. Satellite is a vast improvement over conventional dial-up
because it delivers a high-speed internet connection without tying up a
telephone line
7.11.3 Ultra-FastBroadband
Broadband is defined by the International Telecommunications Union as a
service which provides transmission capacity in excess of 2.0 Megabits per
second (Mbps). Ultra-Fast Broadband is generally defined as services which
deliver much faster speeds, in excess of 25 Mbps. Having access to UltraFast Broadband is taken to mean the availability of broadband services at a
minimum speed of 100 Mbps Downstream (from the Internet to the user) and a
minimum of 50 Mbps Upstream (from user to the Internet). Uptake of faster
broadband speeds has been increasing rapidly worldwide in recent years.
Optical fibre technology is the most commonly preferred means of delivering
Ultra-Fast Broadband services worldwide. FTTP or Fibre-To-The-Premise
services connect households and businesses to the Internet via optic fibres,
which transmit data using pulses of light. Fibre services allow transmission
over longer distances and at higher bandwidths (data speeds) than other
forms of communications. Specifications for Ultra-Fast Broadband also have
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Fibre Cable
Fibre Cable
266
congested copper network outside the building. The building also has a
wireless network as a backup, so it is safer
7.12 Multimedia
Multimedia is a combination of some or all forms such as text, data images,
photographs, animation, audio and video, which are converted from different
formats into a uniform at digital media and is delivered by computers. Unlike
the analogue media, the digital media, which allow users to manipulate
according to the needs, use at their pace, and interact at any point of the
program when a multimedia program is developed in a hypertext
environment, the resulting product is called 'hypermedia', so multimedia
would then be a part of the hypermedia products but not vice-versa. The basic
difference between these two is in the organization and linkage of the
information fragments. The information fragments in multimedia are
organized linearly whereas in hypermedia, these are non-linearly organized
with links to each other. The main elements of the multimedia are:
Text: Information about an object or event, etc. notes, captions, subtitles,
contents, indexes, dictionaries and help facilities.
Data: Tables, charts, graphs, spreadsheets, statistics and row data.
Graphics: Both traditional and computer generated such as drawings, points,
maps, etc.
Photographic Images: Negatives, slides, prints, video cameras, etc.
Animation: Including both computers generated video, etc.
Audio: Includes speech and music digitized form cassettes, tapes, CD's, etc.
Video: Either converted from analogue film of entirely created within a
computer.
7.13 Telecommunication Tools
The important telecommunication tools are as follows:
Telegram: A written message supplied to the department of
telecommunication, which in turns sends, the message by telegram.
Telegraph: A system of sending message by telegraph using both wires and
electricity or radio.
Telegraphy: With reference to telecommunication, telegraphy is the process
of sending message by telegraph. Telegraph wire by which telegraph
messages are sent.
Telepathy: A quite different style of communication of ideas, though directly
from one's mind without the use of audio or visual.
Telephone Directory: Directory is a specially prepared type of book containing
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7.13.2
Telephone
The telephone has gradually supplemented the telegraph as the principle
system of telecommunications. Not only does the telephone service as an
instrument for reproducing articulate speech and other sounds at a distance
through the medium of electric waves but its circuits carry telegraph telephoto
and television signals and data in a form that can be fed directly into
processing devices. In effect telephone circuits enable computers at remote
points to communicate with each other. As a consequence telephone systems
have become an integral part of modern telecommunication system, intern
telecommunication systems have become an integral part of IT.
Operating Principles: In telephone, the voice vibrates the air, which in turn
vibrates a diaphragm. The motion of the diaphragm produces a
corresponding vibration in an electric current. The basic components of a
typical long distance telecommunications system capable of transmitting
voice, teletypewriter, facsimile, data or television signals. If digital
transmission is employed, signals are first processed in a coder that
completely transforms their character. Typically the coder includes filtering
and coding circuits that convert the signals into digital form; in data
transmission that step is bypassed because the signals are already in digital
form. A telecommunication network, at its simplest, may be regarded as
compressing a transmission network, an arrangement of transmission paths
and switching centers through which signals are conveyed by a physical
transmission medium. Information coming from a source, or to a receiver, is
converted via a terminal into signals appropriate to the characteristics of the
particular network. Although there are specialized networks for digital data, if
conventional voice telecommunication lines are used for part of the
transmission, the signals must be converted by the transmitting system into
analogue form. The analogue signals are converted back into digital form at
the receiving end. Modulator and demodulator (Modem) carry out this
process. The transmission media used in telecommunication networks vary
both physically and in their carrying capacity. The most usually quoted
performance measurement of a telecommunications link is its 'bandwidth'.
This gives an indication of the range of frequencies, which can be transmitted
by the channel and is expressed in frequency units like hertz, kilohertz,
megahertz, etc. The greater the bandwidth is, the greater the rate at which
data can be transmitted.
7.13.3 Media Used on Telecommunication Networks
Some important types of media used on telecommunication networks are;
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Twisted Pairs of cable: Twisted pairs cables are used to transmit signals and
are commonly used in telecommunication (for conventional voice Telephone
and Telex). They are two color-coded, insulated copper wires that are twisted
around each other. A twisted pair cable consists of one or more twisted pairs in
a common jacket.
Coaxial Cables: coaxial cable is the most common type on networking cable.
It consists of an inner wire surrounded by a layer of insulating material, a
conducting layer of woven wire, another layer of insulation and a plastic
covering. It is used also for data networks and in local area networks due to its
wider bandwidth, interface resistance, high conductivity and longer distance
coverage.
Optical Fibers: This type of cable consists of thin glass or plastic filament,
protected by thick plastic padding and an external plastic sheath. Optical
fibers gradually replaced twisted pairs in the voice network as well as being
installed in data network. These fibers carry signals in the form of laser light
instead of an electronic frequency, and hence can carry large volumes of data
at high speed and are resistant to interface.
Radio/Mobile Communication: Radio/mobile communication is the rapidly
growing area of telecommunication. Cordless phone, cellular phones, new
personal communication network (PCN) systems, etc. are the examples of
this category.
Satellite: Satellites are used extensively for general telecommunications, as
well as for television. Originally contemplated only for long distance, transworld links but increasingly employed for high speed, high volume transfers.
7.13.4 Telecommunication Standards and Protocols
Standards are crucial in the telecommunications field if data is to be
transmitted successfully between different manufacturers equipment. The
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and its attached organization
Consultative Committee for International Telephone and Telegraph (CCITT)
have been concerned with standardization of Telecommunication equipment
and facilities for data communications. Broadly speaking the approach of ITU
(International Telecommunication Union) is to consider the problems of both
advanced and developing countries. According to CCITT, standardization
avoids many problems in the process of data communications, such as:
The use of the existing telegraph and telex, network for data
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communications.
The use of the Public switched telephone network.
The use of the separate network dedicated to 'data services' (public
data network)
The use of an integrated service digital network.
7.13.5 Telecom Services to Subscribers
The Telecom policy envisages many value-added services to subscribers
such as:
Paging Service: Paging has emerged as an integral part of business and
personal communication worldwide due to its speed, mobility and low cost. A
pager is a handheld, any-way wireless communication device that receives
numeric or alphanumeric messages. Three categories of people are essential
in paging services, the sender who sends the message, the paging operator
who beams the message, the paging operator, who beams the message and
the receiver who is the target of it. There is also auto-paging facility, which
bypasses the operator. Each pager will have identification number
(Subscriber number). In order to send the message, the sender has to dial a
four-digit number (Paging Access Number) in his or her telephone and tell the
identification number and message to the service operator. The message is
entered into a computer and immediately transmitted throughout the
operating area. The receivers' pager vibrates or beeps and displays the
message. The messages can be also be stored in the memory of the pager
depending on its storage capacity. All this takes one minute or so. There is no
direct application of pagers in libraries or Information centers. However, in
rare cases this can be used to provide information to be delivered through
telephone
Cellular Service: Cellular Service is a Terrestrial Radio based service
providing two way communications by dividing the servicing area into a
regular pattern of Sub-Areas or Cells. Each cell will have a base station with a
low power transmitter or receiver. The base station receives, transmits, and
routes the call to from the users in its service area. All base stations are
connected to a unit called the Mobile Services Switching Centre (MSSC). The
MSSC carries our several complex functions like locating the mobile user,
establishing connection and traffic management. It also shifts the calls as
users move, say in a car, from one cell to another, while the call is going on.
MSSC serves as an interface between the cellular network and Public
Telephone System so that cellular service users can make or receive Local,
STD and international calls (ISD). Telephone linked with the computer is
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connect their telephones, data and text and low speed video terminals to the
same link and removes the need of separate accessing links for each type of
service, as it is the practice today. Another important characteristic of ISDN is
the separation of information from signaling and management functions. Thus
one could implement ISDN as a single all-encompassing digital network with
one integrated transport and switching fabric
7.14 Optical Communication system
Optical communication system can be categorized on the basic of
transmission medium, wavelength and signal used to transmit the
information.
Free Space Optical Communications: is a free-space optical channel exists,
between orbiting satellites. A free space channel between satellites is in some
sense, ideal it does not distort or attenuate the light beam. For this application,
the laser is the best source because, it is spatially coherent radiation can be
confined to a much smaller angle of divergence than can the inherent
radiation from other sources.
Atmospheric Optical Communications: an atmospheric optical channel exists
between satellite to earth communication and Terrestrial communications.
The Earth's atmosphere strongly influences the transmission. Transmission
losses are low in clear weather. However, minute temperature gradients along
the path of the light beam cause beam to broaden and bend so that even in
clear air the degradation can be served over longer paths.
Optical Fiber Communication: optical fiber cables are the important medium
of information flow, used in telecommunication system optical fiber has a very
large information capacity in germs of bandwidth. The frequencies
encompassing light wave transmission are very high in the electromagnetic
spectrum. The reader recalls that bandwidth is largely dependent on the
frequency range. Optical bandwidths in the range of 500 MHz are common
today.
As communication technology grows and changes the boundary lines that
separated media in the past become increasingly difficult to sustain, and the
need for new policies becomes more apparent. At the same time a
communication system that is easier and simpler for users to operate requires
a more complex and costly technology. This problem has recently been
brought into sharp focus by the huge investment required to replace existing
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are polarized, and are "glued" together. One of the layers is coated with a
special polymer that holds the individual liquid crystals. Current is then passed
through individual crystals, which allow the crystals to pass or block light to
create images. LCD crystals do not produce their own light, so an external
light source, such as florescent (CCFL/HCFL) or LEDs are needed for the
image created by the LCD to become visible to the viewer.Unlike standard
CRT and Plasma televisions, since there are no phosphors that light up, less
power is needed for operation and the light source in an LCD TV generates
less heat than a Plasma or traditional television. Also, because of the nature of
LCD technology, there is no radiation emitted from the screen itself.
LED TV: Despite having a different acronym, an LED TV is just a different type
of LCD TV. The proper name would actually be LED-backlit LCD TV, but
that's too much of a mouthful for everyday conversation, so people generally
just refer to them as LED TV's, which can cause confusion. Both types of TV
make use of a liquid crystal display (LCD) panel to control where light is
displayed on your screen. These panels are typically composed of two sheets
of polarizing material with a liquid crystal solution between them, so when an
electric current passes through the liquid, it causes the crystals to align so that
light can (or can't) pass through. Ordinary LCD TV's use cold cathode
fluorescent lamps (CCFL's) to provide backlighting, whereas LED TV's use an
array of smaller, more efficient light emitting diodes (LED's) to illuminate the
screen, which gives them a few advantages.
LED TV's carry a number of advantages over regular LCD TV's with CCFL
backlighting. First of all, LED's are considerably smaller than CCFL tubes,
which means LED TV's can be made much thinner. These days, most TV's
that measure under an inch thick are made with LED because they add very
little depth to the display profile.
LED's also consume less power than their CCFL counterparts, but the most
important difference between the two is a feature called local dimming a
selective lighting technique that allows for deeper blacks and better overall
picture
LCD vs. Plasma: There are many different types of televisions, but for most
people the decision comes down to LCD or Plasma. LCD & Plasma each had
their advantages: plasma had better contrast but also had burn-in issues;
LCDs last much longer but also cost more. LED backlit LCD screens are
gaining popularity. These screens are even thinner than normal fluorescent
backlit LCD panels and when done properly they allow for better contrast than
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broadcast.
278
multiplexing
demultiplexing
Transmission
elementary
streams, private
sections, or PES
Modulator
Transport
Stream
Clock
Decoders
Application
Presentation
Receiver
elementary
streams, private
sections, or PES
with error
signaling
Clock
Format
Transport
packetization and
Transport
depacketization and
Encoders
Application
Transmitter
Demodulator
Transport
Stream with
error
signaling
clock
control
279
private section sources. In the second layer, one or more single Program
transport streams are combined to form a service multiplex of Programs (also
known as a multi-program transport stream in the MPEG-2 Systems standard,
and a Digital Television Standard multiplexed bit stream in this ATSC
standard). Program Specific Information (PSI), carried within Transport
Stream packets, relates to the identification of Programs and the components
of each Program.
CABLE TV: Cable Television or Community Antenna Television (CATV) is a
system for distribution of audiovisual content for television, FM radio and other
services to consumers through fixed coaxial cables, avoiding the traditional
system of radio broadcasting antennas (broadcast television) and have
widespread use, mainly through the pay-TV services. Technically, the cable
TV involves the distribution of a number of television channels received and
processed in a central location (known as head-end) to subscribers within a
community through a network of optical fibre and/or coaxial cables and
broadband amplifiers. The use of different frequencies allows many channels
to be distributed through the same cable, without separate wires for each, and
the tuner of the TV or Radio selects the desired channel from among all
transmitted.Cable television brings you more channels and generally better
reception than off-air reception of broadcast television since TV signals travel
to your home through a combination of fiber optics and cable - rather than
through the air. Cable television brings television stations from your local area,
across the country and around the world into your home through miles of hightechnology fiber optics and cable, uninterrupted by trees, buildings and other
surface obstacles. Cable television lets you receive many additional channels
from communications satellites.
Individual television programs are produced in many locations around the
world. These programs are transmitted to communications satellites that orbit
the earth. These satellites stay in a fixed position 22,300 miles above the
earth, allowing them to transmit to your community. Our local receiving dishes
pick up these signals. The cable television "head-end" - the control center processes these satellite signals - along with the signals from your local TV
stations and other sources - so they can be transmitted over our cable system
(consisting of state of the art fiber optic and coaxial cable) to your home.
These quality television programs are brought to your home via hundreds of
miles fiber optics and cable, either strung on the same poles that carry your
telephone or electric service or buried underground. Today, cable TV
companies, generally referred to as multiple (cable) systems operators
(MSOs) collect signals and programs from many sources, multiplex them, and
280
distribute them to subscribers (see figure 7.19). The main building or facility is
called the headend.
Distribution
amplifiers
TV signals
Amplifiers
Headend
cable station
Amplifier
Trunk
cable
Combiner
(multiplexer)
Cable box
Mixer
Drops
to homes
Channel
3 or 4
(Coaxial
75
TV
set
281
used. This service eliminates the need for antennas. And because of the
direct connection of amplified signals, there is no such thing as poor, weak,
noisy, or snowy signals. In addition, many TV programs are available only via
cable, e.g., the specialized content and premium movie channels. The only
downside to cable TV is that it is more expensive than connecting a TV to a
standard antenna.
DIGITAL TERRESTRIAL TV: Digital Terrestrial Television (DTTV or DTT) is an
implementation of digital television technology to provide a greater number of
channels and/or better quality of picture and sound using aerial broadcasts to
a conventional antenna (or aerial) instead of a satellite dish or cable
connection. DTTV is transmitted on radio frequencies through the airwaves
that are similar to standard analogue television, with the primary difference
being the use of multiplex transmitters to allow reception of multiple channels
on a single frequency range (such as a UHF or VHF channel).The amount of
data that can be transmitted (and therefore the number of channels) is directly
affected by the modulation method of the channel. The modulation method in
DVB-T is COFDM with either 64 or 16 state Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM). In general a 64QAM channel is capable of transmitting a greater bit
rate, but is more susceptible to interference. 16 and 64QAM can be combined
in a single multiplex, providing a controllable degradation for more important
programme streams. This is called hierarchical modulation. New
developments in compression have resulted in the MPEG-4/AVC standard
which will enable two high definition services to be coded into a 24 Mbit/s
European terrestrial transmission channel. DTTV is received via a digital settop box, or integrated receiving device, that decodes the signal received via a
standard aerial antenna, however, due to frequency planning issues, an aerial
with a different group (usually a wideband) may be required if the DTTV
multiplexes lie outside the bandwidth of the originally installed aerial.
HDTV: The high-definition television, also known as HDTV (High Definition
Television) is a television system with a resolution significantly higher than in
the traditional formats (NTSC, SECAM, PAL).The HDTV is transmitted
digitally and therefore its implementation generally coincides with the
introduction of digital television (DTV), technology that was launched during
the 1990s.Although several patterns of high-definition television have been
proposed or implemented, the current HDTV standards are defined by ITU-R
BT.709 as 1080i (interlaced), 1080p (progressive) or 720p using the 16:9
screen format. The term "high definition" can refer to the specification of the
resolution itself or, more generally, the mdia capable of such a definition as
282
the video mdia support or the television set. What will be of interest in the near
future is high definition video, through the successors of the DVD, HD DVD
and Blu-Ray (is expected that the last one will be adopted as a standard) and,
consequently, the projectors and LCD and plasma televisions sets as well as
retro projectors and video recorders with 1080p resolution/definition.Highdefinition television (HDTV) yields a better-quality image than standard
television does, because it has a greater number of line resolution. The visual
information is some 2 to 5 times sharper because the gaps between the scan
lines are narrower or invisible to the naked eye.
The larger the size of the television the HD picture is viewed on, the greater the
improvement in picture quality. On smaller televisions there may be no
noticeable improvement in picture quality. The lower-case "i" appended to the
numbers denotes interlaced; the lower-case "p" denotes progressive: With
the interlaced scanning method, the 1,080 lines of resolution are divided into
pairs, the first 540 alternate lines are painted on a frame and then the second
540 lines are painted on a second frame; the progressive scanning method
simultaneously displays all 1,080 lines on every frame, requiring a greater
bandwidth.
PAY-PER-VIEW: Pay-per-view (often abbreviated PPV) offers a system by
which a television audience can purchase events to view on TV-monitors via
private telecast of that event to their homes. The broadcaster shows the event
at the same time to everyone ordering it (as opposed to video-on-demand
systems, which allow viewers to see the event at any time) and can be
purchased using an on-screen guide, an automated telephone system, or
through a live customer service representative. Events often include feature
films, sporting events, adult content movies and "special" events.
VIDEO-ON-DEMAND: Video-on-Demand (VoD) or Audio-Video-on-Demand
(AVoD) systems allow users to select and watch/listen to video or audio
content on demand. VoD systems either stream content through a set-topbox, allowing viewing in real time, or download it to a device such as a
computer, digital video recorder, personal video recorder or portable media
player for viewing at any time. Download and streaming video-on-demand
systems provide the user with a large subset of VCR functionality including
pause, fast forward, fast rewind, slow forward, slow rewind, jump to
previous/future frame etc., these functions are called trick modes.
For disk-based streaming systems which store and stream programs from
hard disk drive, trick modes require additional processing and storage on the
part of the server, because separate files for fast forward and rewind must be
283
stored. Memory - based VoD streaming systems have the advantage of being
able to perform trick modes directly from RAM, which requires no additional
storage or CPU cycles on the part of the processor. It is possible to put video
servers on LANs, in which case they can provide very rapid response to users.
Streaming video servers can also serve a wider community via a WAN, in
which case the responsiveness may be reduced. Download VoD services are
practical to homes equipped with cable modems or DSL connections.
WEB TV: Web TV, TVIP, or TV on the Internet is the transmission of a
programming grid through the Internet. It can be known "normal" TV channels
or channels specifically designed for the Internet. Web TV, in a simplified form,
is nothing more than the provision of video and audio over the Internet; and the
way to assist the transmission varies from the monitor of a computer through
the use of an iPod or a mobile phone to the TV set if one have the decoder.
IPTV (TV over Internet Protocol): The recent introduction of Television over
Internet Protocol technology, commonly known as IPTV, made a revolution on
the distribution networks for TV signals, allowing eliminate many of the
problems associated with a distribution network based on coaxial cables, in
particular those related with the degradation of signal, interference, signal
levels, and capacity of the transmission of the channel's band. With IP
(Internet Protocol), it will be possible the combination of several interfaces in a
multi-service unit and the broadcast and distribution of diverse and varied
services on the same network, which previously required differentiated
infrastructure, including: TV signals, telephone service and broadband
Internet access, setting a platform we know today as Triple Play. In essence,
the triple play concept is not entirely new because, in terms of services, there
are some years ago that are available some solutions combining a mix of TV
services, telephony and Internet access.
Studies show that the churn rate (voluntary abandonment of service) of the
offer triple play subscribers is substantially lower than that observed when the
voice, data and TV are sold on a non-convergent way. Another factor is the
progress in access technologies and platforms for packet telephony and
video. A variant of ADSL (asymmetrical digital subscriber line), known as
ADSL2+, represents a change in the effective performance of Internet
connection on the original format, not to mention the more recent
developments, such as VDSL (very-high-bit-rate DSL). The access over
optical fibre in its more popular form, known as PON (passive optical network),
reflects an even more daring way, resulted in significant investments in that
technology, seeking for high-speed Internet access, voice and multi-channel
284
of high-definition TV union.
Satellite TV: Simultaneously broadcasts a few hundred channels. Some of
the channels can be dynamically assigned for on demand programs and
addressable ads. Satellite systems must use a different data channel for the
return direction to allowing for interactive ads.
Broadcast TV: Simultaneously broadcasts tens of channels. A few channels
can be dynamically assigned for on demand programs and addressable ads.
Some broadcast TV systems have a radio transmission system for the return
channel allowing for interactive ads.
Mobile TV: Simultaneously broadcasts a few channels, usually in resolution
formats that are less than standard definition. Mobile TV programs may be
sent on different frequencies than mobile telephone calls. Mobile TV systems
may use a mobile telephone channel (packet data) to transfer ads and to
provide interactive ads.
7.16 LCD Projector Principles
LCD projectors are rapidly becoming popular as useful presentation tools for
business and entertainment at home on large screens as home theaters.
LCD (liquid crystal display) projectors shown in figure 7.20 contain three
separate LCD glass panels, one for red, green, and blue components of the
image signal being transferred to the projector. As the light passes through the
LCD panels, individual pixels can be opened to allow light to pass or closed to
block the light. This activity modulates the light and produces the image that is
projected onto the screen.
Lens
Mirror
Red Dichroic
Mirror
LCD
LCD
Blue Dichroic
Dichroic Mirror
Mirror
Wavelength Selector
Light Source
285
The lamp provides white light that passes through a polarizing filter. Polarizing
works by accepting light that is traveling on the same plane. All other light will
be blocked. From the polarizing filter the light is then passed through a series
of dichroic mirrors. Dichroic mirrors work by only allowing certain colors in the
light spectrum to be reflected, while others pass through. The dichroic mirrors
in LCD projectors separate the light into the three primary colors: green, red
and blue. These three colors are then sent to a separate LCD panel:
remember there are three of them. From there the LCD panels send the light
through the dichroic prism which recombines the light and sends it out the
main lens in the LCD projector to the surface against which it is projected.
Each LCD is only capable of controlling one color. So if you were to see a
picture of a red plane against a blue sky, the green LCD would block the light
from passing to the dichroic prism and out the lens. LCD panels in LCD
projectors work by allowing the polarized light to travel through a pane of glass
into the liquid crystal inside the display. The liquid crystals bend the light, and it
is traveling on a different plane then when it entered through the polarizing
filter. If you apply an electrical current to the liquid crystal they will align,
allowing the light to pass through on the same plane as when it entered. If you
add a second polarizing filter at the other end of the liquid crystal you can then
effectively block all light from passing through. Each LCD panel has a
separate system to control the electrical current that passes through the liquid
crystal, allowing each to be controlled individually. The resolution, or how
sharp the image is, of each LCD is determined by the number of cells which
are called pixels, with the higher the number of pixels meaning more clarity to
the image. Each LCD panel also has the ability to control what color each pixel
will be in that particular panel so that when all the light is recombined at the
dichroic prism, it will be the right color. Think of it working the same way that
the old dot matrix printers used to work. They would combine dots of the three
main colors to provide the desired color.
7.17 Closed Circuit Television
As the name implies, Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) is a system in which
the circuit is closed and all the elements are directly connected. This is unlike
broadcast television where any receiver that is correctly tuned can pick up the
signal from the airwaves. Directly connected in this context includes systems
linked by microwave, infrared beams, etc. This article introduces the main
components that can go to make up CCTV systems of varying complexity.
The Applications for CCTV: Probably the most widely known use of CCTV is in
security systems and such applications as retail shops, banks, government
286
establishments, etc. The true scope for applications is almost unlimited. Some
examples are listed below.
Monitoring traffic on a bridge.
Recording the inside of a baking oven to find the cause of problems.
A temporary system to carry out a traffic survey in a town centre.
Time lapse recording for the animation of plasticine puppets.
Used by the stage manager of a show to see obscured parts of a set.
The well-publicised use at football stadiums.
Hidden in buses to control vandalism.
Recording the birth of a gorilla at a zoo.
Making a wildlife program using a large model helicopter.
Reproducing the infrared vision of a goldfish!
Aerial photography from a hot air balloon.
Production control in a factory.
The Camera: The starting point for any CCTV system must be the camera.
The camera creates the picture that will be transmitted to the control position.
Apart from special designs CCTV cameras are not fitted with a lens. The lens
must be provided separately and screwed onto the front of the camera. There
is a standard screw thread for CCTV cameras, although there are different
types of lens mounts. See figure 7.21.
Focus adjustment
Iris adjustment
Lens
Camera
Mains lead
(if required)
BNC plug
287
Mains cable
Brightness
and contrast
controls
On off switch
COAXIAL
CABLE
CAMERA
&
BRACKET
MONITOR
COAXIAL CABLES
MONITOR
OUT
VIDEO
IN
VIDEO
OUT
1235
VIDEO SWITCHER
VIDEO RECORDER
288
With this arrangement the pictures shown during play back will be according
to the way in which the switcher was set up when recording. That is, if it was
set to sequence then the same views will be displayed on the monitor. There is
no control over what can be displayed.
Movable and Fixed Cameras: In many applications the area to be covered
would need many fixed cameras. The solution to this is to use cameras fixed to
a movable platform. This platform can then be controlled from a remote
location. The platform may simply rotate in a horizontal plane and is generally
known as a scanner. Alternatively the platform may be controllable in both
horizontal and vertical planes and is generally known as a pan, tilt unit. A basic
system is illustrated in figure 7.25
Monitor
Movable
camera
Controller
++
+ +
+
+
+
movable
cameras
Switcher/controller
289
Self-Test 1
3G UMTS
1
Explain the following; 2G, 3G and 4G.
2
What is International Telecommunication Union?
3
What is Universal Mobile Telecommunications System?
4
Explain CDMA2000?
5
Explain Digital Enhanced Cordless Telecommunications?
6
Explain WiMAX?
7
Explain Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution?
8
Explain High Speed Packet Access?
9
What is 3GPP Long Term Evolution?
10
What is Evolution-Data Optimized?
11
Explain HSDPA in WCDMA.
Self-Test 2
VOIP IP Telephony
1
Explain the IPV4 and IPv6 address bit?
2
What is an IP address range A, B, C, D, and E?
3
Explain URL?
4
In VoIP telephone witch part will convert data analog to digital, digital
to analog?
5
Explain how does VOIP work?
6
What do internet telephony, packet telephony, IP telephony and
converged network means?
7
Explain VOIP?
8
Explain what are the advantages to VoIP?
9
What equipment is needed for VoIP?
Self-Test 3
Telecom Switches Routers
1
Which is a type of hub that forwards packets to an appropriate port
based on the packets address?
2
Which is a type of hub that forwards packets to an appropriate port
based on the packets address?
3
Which devices discriminate between multicast and unicast packets?
4
What is the Difference between Routers, Switches and Hubs?
5
Explain Bridging?
6
What is the Difference between Router and Switch?
7
What is causing Location Update (LU) delay when a roamer tries to
latch to a visited network?
290
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Self-Test 4
GPRS
1
What is GPRS (General Packet Radio Service)?
2
What is Packet switching?
3
What is Mobile phone?
4
What is GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications)?
5
Explain Time division multiple access?
6
What is Cellular digital packet data?
Post Your Answer
7
Explain i-mode?
8
What is Dual Transfer Mode?
9
What is Access Point Name?
10
What is GPRS Core Network?
11
What is Base transceiver station (BTS)?
Self-Test 5
DIGITAL TRANSMISSION
1.
Is PCM is in the modem?
2.
What is FDM?
3.
Define noise source and give some example of it because it is
outside the wire.
4.
What is male connector and what is female connector?
5.
Explain the difference between Hub, Modem, Router, and Switches.
291
6.
7.
8
9
10.
11
12.
13.
14
15
16.
17.
18
19
20
Self-Test 6
Virtual Private Network (VPN)
1
What is a Virtual Private Network (VPN)?
2
Is VPN a long-term solution or a short-term stop gap kind of thing?
3
What security vulnerabilities are addressed by VPN?
4
What security vulnerabilities are unique to or heightened by VPN?
5
Mention the performance issues VPN raise?
6
What crypto issues are relevant in the VPN context?
7
Mention specific kinds of applications or environments VPN be
used?
8
why are VPNs deployed in an environment?
9
What is the relationship between VPN and fire walls?
10
What firewall issues are relevant to VPN selection and deployment?
11
What kind of resources is required for VPN deployment, usage,
maintenance?
12
What are reasonable expectations for a VPN?
292
13
14
Self-Test 7
Broadband, telecommunication standards and optical communication
system
1
Explain Satellites, Broadband and Internet Services under the following
headings;
(i)
Satellite Broadband
(ii)
Satellite Internet
(iii) Ultra-Fast Broadband Ultra-Fast Broadband
2
Explain (i) Wireless over Fibre (ii) Cable over Fibre
3
Name and explain briefly the important telecommunication tools.
4
Name and explain briefly important types of media used on
telecommunication networks
5
Name and explain briefly Telecommunication Standards and
Protocols
6
Name and explain briefly Optical communication systems.
Self-Test 8
Television Technology
1
Name and explain 3 main television standards used throughout the
world
2
Explain briefly the following television systems; cable TV,HDTV,
satellite TV, broadcast TV, mobile TV, IPTV, and Internet TV.
3
What are the Advantages of DTV over analog TV?
4
What is a Closed Circuit Television?
5
Explain the following in relation to the CCTV; (i) Camera (ii) monitor
(iii) Simple CCTV System
6
Explain briefly the Movable and Fixed Camera system in the CCTV
system
7
What is LCD Projector? Describe the LCD Projector Principles.
8
Define the Following terms; LCD and LED.
9
Explain the principles of Plasma TV.
10
Explain the LED and LCD TV principles
11
Differentiate between LED and LCD TV system.
12
Differentiate between LCD and plasma television.
293
Index
A
AC, 55, 89, 103
acoustic, 63, 65-67, 73, 181
actuator, 52
addressable, 284
ADSL, 283
aerial, 28-29, 75, 78, 127, 281
AF, 163
AGC, 151-152, 165-167, 174
alignment, 241
AM, 12, 21-24, 35, 76-77, 79, 81-89, 92, 94,
96, 100, 103-104, 106-109, 115-117,
119-122, 127-129, 131-134, 136-141, 144,
147, 152, 160, 162-169, 171, 174-176
antipodal, 231-232
Aperture, 233, 272
APRANET, 3
array, 63, 184, 198, 274-275
B
Backplate, 51
baffle, 66-67
bandpass, 111-112, 124, 161, 254
bandwidth, 12, 20-23, 31-36, 38, 82,
84-85, 87-89, 93-95, 98, 100-101,
104-105, 108-109, 117-118, 121-124, 128,
132, 146-148, 157, 159-160, 164, 168,
171, 175, 177, 179, 182, 194, 203-207,
233-234, 247-248, 250, 257-259, 268-269,
273, 276-277, 281-282
Index
Baud, 193
BCCH, 225-226
beacon, 24, 172
beam, 30, 200, 273-274
BER, 12, 181, 231
BFSK, 233
binary, 15, 114, 180-182, 231-232, 242-243,
255
BIOS, 208
bitrate, 206
BNC, 51, 286
bobbin, 46, 54
BPFSK, 233
bps, 31-33, 193
BPSK, 181
broadband, 34-35, 177, 207, 239-240, 244,
259, 261, 263-265, 274, 279, 283, 290
C
cable, 7, 9-10, 12-13, 31, 33-35, 49, 54,
114, 177, 189, 193, 201-202, 231, 238,
263-265, 269, 271, 276, 279-281, 283,
286-287, 290, 292
cabling, 183
calibration, 52-53, 73
Camera, 13, 286-288, 292
cancellation, 245-246
cancellations, 57
capacitance, 41-43, 51, 101, 159
Carrier, 11, 23, 77-79, 81-82, 86, 94, 103,
127, 129, 131, 137, 172, 237, 258, 262
Casing, 51
Cathode, 47
CATV, 7, 161, 279
CB, 11, 14, 171
CCFL, 275
CCIR, 6
CCITT, 6-7, 269, 272
CCSA, 262
CCTV, 285-287, 292
CDMA, 205-206, 209, 222-223, 230-231,
233-234, 238-239, 253-260, 262, 289
CEPT, 6
channel, 2, 8-13, 29, 33, 35-36, 78, 94,
107, 110-115, 128, 157, 173-174,
180-182, 184, 192-194, 197, 210,
213-215, 217, 219-222, 225, 230-232,
235-236, 241-243, 247, 253-256, 258,
260-261, 268, 273, 277, 279-281, 283-284
Channelization, 255
chirp, 203
choke, 66
cluster, 214-215, 219-220, 230
clusters, 215, 253
ii
Index
CODECS, 188
COFDM, 281
coherent, 132, 136, 233-234, 273
coil, 42-47, 49-50, 53-56, 58-60, 65-68, 127
communication, 1-2, 4-6, 8-15, 20-21,
23-26, 32-33, 37, 64, 75, 109, 114, 129,
132, 142, 146-147, 161, 178-201,
203-206, 208-210, 221, 225, 228-231,
233-240, 249, 258, 261, 266-267,
269-274, 292
CPE, 265
CPU, 283
CRC, 291
crest, 82
CRH, 226-227
crosstalk, 229
CRP, 249
CRT, 275
cryptographic, 8
CSS, 203
CTIA, 239
CW, 15, 76, 162
D
Dash, 15
Data, 14, 38, 173, 180, 183-184, 186,
188-189, 191-193, 195-197, 228-229, 235,
256, 262, 266, 271, 289
decomposition, 21
Defferentiator, 141
degradation, 11, 52, 107, 243, 273, 281,
283
depacketization, 278
Destination, 183-184, 193
detection, 3, 122, 131-133, 138, 143-144,
182, 192, 196-197, 206, 233-234,
245-246, 291
iii
Index
70-72, 268
dielectric, 4, 43
differentiator, 138, 142
digital, 3, 6-7, 9, 12-15, 21-22, 31, 33,
35-37, 40, 42, 89, 102, 108, 113-114,
172-173, 177, 179-184, 186, 188,
192-193, 207-208, 229-231, 233-235,
237-240, 244-245, 247-250, 253, 261,
263, 266, 268, 270, 272-273, 277-278,
281-283, 289-290
Digitization, 188
diode, 3, 101, 127, 131-137, 144, 147, 152
diplex, 172
discrete, 14-15, 21, 91, 194, 258
discriminator, 111-112, 138, 144, 164,
166-168
DLP, 274
dot, 2, 285
downlink, 179, 213, 228, 230-231, 259, 262
download, 32, 34, 200, 260-261, 282
DPSK, 232
DSB, 81, 162, 171
DSL, 263-264, 283
DSP, 245
DSSS, 203-205
DTH, 277
DTP, 235
DTT, 281
DTTV, 281
DTV, 277, 281, 292
duplex, 13-14, 162, 192, 229, 236, 238, 250
DVB, 281
EBCDIC, 189
EDCH, 260
efficiency, 46, 75, 84, 86, 100-101, 120,
200, 209, 214, 230-233, 259
EHF, 30
EIA, 7
electroacoustic, 63
Electrodynamic, 65
electroluminescence, 42
electromagnetic, 2, 8, 22-23, 26, 28, 32,
50, 55, 59, 78, 90, 129, 166, 168, 189,
198, 201, 207, 267, 273
ELF, 30
EMC, 207
EMI, 207-208
emissions, 172, 207-208
emphasis, 4, 112-113, 121, 166-168
encapsulation, 194
encoder, 180-181, 205, 278
encoding, 179-181, 188-189, 278
encryption, 22, 182, 252, 258
ENIAC, 3
envelope, 79, 87, 98, 103-104, 119,
132-135, 137, 139, 144
equalization, 3, 257
ETACS, 208
ETSI, 6, 259, 262
eV, 24-26, 28
Evolution, 1, 262, 289
iv
Index
267-268, 272
289-290
273-274, 279-280
FRR, 169
FSK, 102, 172, 233
FTP, 185
FTTP, 264
FWA, 238
FXO, 245
FXS, 245
H
handoff, 219, 221-225, 230
handover, 213, 221-223, 230, 256-257
handshakes, 242
hardware, 185-186, 189, 235, 246, 249, 251
harmonics, 58, 117, 207
HCFL, 275
HD, 282
HDLC, 192, 249
HDTV, 237, 281-282, 292
Headphones, 148
headsets, 63
Hertz, 2, 17, 30, 33, 75, 107
heterodyne, 149, 156-157, 176
heterodyning, 129-130, 150, 156, 165
HF, 29-30
HFC, 280
HSDPA, 259-260, 289
HSPA, 260
HTTP, 185
hysteresis, 70-72, 226
HZ, 121
v
Index
I
ICLs, 271
ICMP, 185
ICP, 51
IDE, 191
IDN, 228
IDU, 272
IEC, 278
IEEE, 7, 35, 204, 265
IFRR, 159, 169-171, 176
ILF, 30
IMEI, 228
impedance, 42, 49-51, 65-66
IMSI, 228
IMT, 259
Inductance, 40, 43-44
induction, 41, 50, 65
infrared, 22, 26, 198, 285-286
insulation, 34, 269
Insulator, 51
Interface, 185, 201, 211-212, 248, 261
interference, 35, 75, 84, 90, 100, 103,
107-108, 115, 129-130, 149, 155-156,
164, 168, 180, 191, 196, 203, 206-208,
213-214, 216-217, 219-220, 222, 224-225,
230-233, 235, 253-254, 256-257, 281, 283
IPSec, 252-253
IPTV, 276, 283, 292
IPV, 289
IR, 198
ISD, 270
ISDN, 245, 250, 272-273
ISI, 187, 231-232
ISO, 6-7, 187, 278
J
jamming, 206, 232
K
Kbps, 34
keyboard, 8, 267, 271
L
landline, 236-238
LANS, 228-229
Layer, 185-188, 252
LCD, 207, 241, 274-276, 282, 284-285, 292
LED, 274-275, 292
limiter, 144, 164, 166-168
LLC, 186
LNA, 151, 162
LNB, 272
LOS, 224
LPF, 142, 155, 162
LPI, 203
LSB, 81-83, 85, 87, 110, 169
LSF, 169
LTE, 262
vi
Index
M
MAC, 186, 290
magnetostriction, 65
Magnetostrictive, 44
magnetrons, 25
Mbps, 34, 247, 259, 262, 264-265
Mcps, 255
MDS, 147
media, 4, 10-11, 185-186, 230, 266, 268,
273-274, 276, 282, 292
N
nanofilm, 50
narrowband, 92, 95, 101, 160, 203-204,
206-207, 239-240
NBFM, 101
NLOS, 224
NMR, 24
NMT, 225
NRZ, 231-232
NTSC, 104-105, 276, 281
NTT, 208
Nyquist, 3, 205, 233
175, 280
O
OFDMA, 262
OOK, 171
OPAC, 235
optical, 33, 78, 114, 181, 183, 189, 195,
271, 273, 279, 283, 292
Orthogonal, 255
oscillator, 75, 94, 101, 103, 111, 121,
129-130, 137, 149-151, 154-158, 162-166,
168-170, 174-176
vii
Index
QoS, 261
QPSK, 256
quadrature, 141-142, 152
R
radar, 25, 172
Radiators, 66
Radio, 29
Rake, 206, 257
Receivers, 11, 63, 67, 146, 164, 168, 257
recorder, 282, 287
redundancy, 180-181, 197, 291
reflection, 29
Regulations, 6
relay, 114, 202, 245-246
repeater, 190, 243
repeaters, 182, 197
resistance, 41-43, 47-48, 64, 66, 83-84, 269
resonance, 24-25, 49, 56-58, 64, 72
ribbon, 46-47, 50-51
RNC, 260
router, 35, 252, 290
routing, 186, 188, 260
RTP, 246
S
Satellite, 1, 3, 25, 28-29, 198, 202,
230-231, 263-264, 269, 284, 292
viii
Index
Scatter, 28-29
SDMA, 230
SECAM, 276, 281
Sectorization, 228
selectivity, 146-152, 155, 157, 159-161, 174
sensitivity, 45-46, 48-50, 64-65, 122, 138,
146-148, 150, 174, 207
sensors, 42
SMTP, 185, 248
SND, 209
SNR, 12, 115, 147, 262
Spreading, 205, 207, 255-256
SRA, 161
SSB, 152, 162, 171-172
SSCG, 207
SSL, 252-253
standardization, 6, 259, 262, 269
STDM, 194
STP, 35
subcarrier, 109-112, 128
subwoofers, 62
superheterodyne, 2, 146, 149-151, 156,
158-164, 166, 168-170, 174-176
swing, 94-95
synthesizer, 151, 154-155, 162, 280
T
TACS, 225
TCP, 183, 185, 187, 229, 291
TDD, 228, 260
TDM, 231, 291
TDMA, 209, 222, 230-231, 233-234,
238-239, 253-254, 257
Teleconferencing, 271
Telegram, 266
Telegraph, 1-2, 4, 6, 15, 266-267, 269
Telegraphy, 114, 173, 266-267
telemedicine, 235
Telemetry, 26, 114, 203, 272
telephony, 29, 113, 181, 214-215, 236-238,
244-246, 259, 261, 283, 289
Teleprinter, 267
teleservices, 261
teletex, 272
teletypewriter, 268
THSS, 203
transceivers, 113, 162
Transducer, 9-10, 13, 40-41, 43-44,
180-181
TRAU, 228
TRF, 148
troposphere, 29
tuner, 127-128, 163, 202, 279-280
TV, 13-15, 24, 33, 104-105, 109, 123, 128,
171-173, 177, 200-201, 203, 235-238,
263, 271, 274-277, 279-284, 292
TVIP, 283
U
UDP, 185
UHF, 24, 29-30, 115, 276, 281
UL, 213
UMTS, 205, 213, 223, 256, 259-262, 289
uplink, 213, 228, 230-231, 243, 260, 262,
290
Index
ZIF, 162
VLF, 30
VoD, 282-283
VoFR, 246
VoIP, 34, 177, 244-246, 248-250, 289
VPN, 251-252, 291-292
VSAT, 231, 272
VToA, 246
W
WBFM, 101
WCDMA, 255, 257-259, 289
WDM, 194
WEB, 283
wideband, 95, 98, 101, 104, 203-204, 259,
281