2.

0 Engineering Innovations
2.1 Problem Statement:
Automobile had been created for the foundation of human mobility. Cars that
operated by conventional combustion engines that burning fuel to generate power
are widely used nowadays. However, the issue of scarcity of fossil fuels has been
raised recently. The world may facing the lack of fossil fuels in the future and it
means that those owners of the cars which generate power through the combustion
of fossil fuels may face crisis of not only in the shortage of fossil fuels sources but
also the rising in the price of fossil fuels. Furthermore, after the issue of shortage
of fossil fuels, people around the world are now experiencing the change in
climate. According to United States Environmental Protection Agency (2012), the
field of transportation had contributed to 28% of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions in
2012. Greenhouse gas emissions from transportation are mainly come from
burning of fossil fuels. Thus, automobile sector are not only facing the scarcity of
fossil fuels but also the pressure from the consumers and government who
gradually focus on the awareness of saving the environment. Many efforts are
done by those cars manufacturer in order to solve these problems.
2.2 Code of ethics
BMW Group is committed to highest standards of integrity, ethical behavior
and conduct. They avoid risks which could destroy the trust of their customer,
shareholders, business partners and the general public place in the BMW group.
BMW Group also take responsibility for the environment because they believed
that long-term success can only be achieved by operating a business on
sustainable basis. BMW Group Environmental Protection Officer and his network
give support to those employees that responsible for facilities and activities that
can generate impact on the environment and are aware of their special
responsibility for complying with environment role (BMW Group, 2008).
2.3 Case study of BMW

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Knowledge in internal
combustion engines(ICE)

Knowledge in highly efficient combustion engines (ICE)

First
Experiences

with
hydrogen

long-term experiences with fuel cells (FC)

First

experiences

with hybrid power

trains
First experiences

BMW ACTIVITIES

with

battery

power trains
Carbon
Fibre
lightweight
materials

This paper will overview the development of BMW over the last 20 years from
1990 to 2012. BMW had involved in the innovation of hydrogen vehicle to
hybrid-electric vehicle. BMW is one of the major automotive car manufactures in
Germany that reach cars sold of more than 1.6 million, a profit of over 7 billion
but also employed more than 100000 employees (Mazur, C., Contestabile, M.,
Gregory, J., Brandon, N.P., 2013). BMW has gradually moving its step by making
the transition from hydrogen vehicle to electric vehicles. Before 1996, BMW was
focused on the knowledge in internal combustion engines. However, after the year
of 1996, BMW started its enrolment in hydrogen research activities which focused
on PEM fuel cells and later on SOFC fuel cells a well. In 1998, BMW 750hL
which with a hydrogen combustion engine and a 5kW PEM APU was introduced
by BMW. After that, more than 100 hydrogen combustion vehicles which proved
by a number of demonstrator programs in over more than 4000000 kilometers
driven (Mazur, C., Contestabile, M., Gregory, J., Brandon, N.P., 2013). In the
early stage of 2000s, a slow but steady decrease in average fleet emissions
resulted from the introduction of variety types of engine efficiency improvements
and higher use of diesel in the fleet. In 2005/06, BMW started focus on hybrid
vehicle technology after the success of Toyotas Prius and the rising in fuel prices
which causing the changes in the demand of customers on eco-vehicle. Besides,

BMW continued to intensify its hydrogen combustion vehicle activities through

leasing out of 100 vehicles. The year of 2007 was the successful year for BMW,
project i (under the Number ONE strategy) was initiated by BMW to reexamine
the future technology options which then lead to the stopped of combustion
hydrogen program of BMW and the launch of a Mini EV trial fleet, a battery
collaboration with SB LiMotive and the creation of a Joint Venture with PSA
(Peugeot/Citroen). In 2010, BMW planned to develop and produce a BEV for the
mass market. Moreover, there was a presentation drawing of a hydrogen and
petrol vehicle prototype which using a 5kW PEM fuel cell upon the experiences
available in house. In 2010, BMW has introduced its small lightweight BEV
vehicle, Megacity Vehicle (BMW i3) that expected to reach the mass market of
the end of 2013. BMW also acquires the lightweight materials for the i3 from
SGL Carbon. In 2012/2013, BMW and Toyota have meet the agreement on the
collaboration on fuel-cell systems, lithium-air batteries, lightweight technologies
and electric powertrains due to the scenario of limited amount HEVs/PHEVs in
BMWs portfolio.
2.4 Methods proposed in 21 century to improve the efficiency of hybrid-electric
vehicle
2.4.1 Convex optimization for the energy management of Hybrid-electric
vehicles with engine start and gearshift costs
Combination of deterministic dynamic (DP) and convex optimization are
believed able to solve the energy management problem for hybrid electric vehicles
considering engine start and gearshift costs (Nuesch, T., Elbert, P., Flankl, M.,
Onder, C., Guzzella, L., 2014). Normally, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) contain
an internal combustion engine, one or more electric but also battery which acts as
an energy buffer. Energy management is referred to the control of the flows of
power among these devices. This method is worked on a pre-transmission parallel
HEV passenger car of the executive class which the vehicle model has to be in
convex model. There are three decision variables in the energy management of the
vehicle which are the engine on/off, the torque split between the engine and the

motor and the gear. Due to the reason that engine on/off and gearshift decision are
inherently discrete, thus they are evaluated by DP while convex optimization is
applied to determine the optimal power split strategy. Convex optimization is able
to find a charge-sustaining equivalence factor and to manage the state constraints.
Through this combination method, battery state of charge (SOC) state can be
eliminated from the DP which then optimizes the equivalent fuel consumption. In
short, this method leads to higher precision than DP (0.1 % to 0.2% lower fuel
consumption) while bringing less computational effort (75%-98% less) because of
the reason that convex optimization does not need a discretization of the
continuous control and state variables which in turns prevent interpolation errors.
(Nuesch, T., Elbert, P., Flankl, M., Onder, C., Guzzella, L., 2014).
2.4.2 Fractional slot PM brushless
Permanent magnet (PM) brushless machine have been widely used for
EV/HEV (electric vehicle/hybrid electric vehicle) applications due to its efficiency.
There are two types of PM which are brushless DC (BLDC) in which the current
waveform is controlled to be rectangular or brushless and brushless AC (BLAC)
in which the current waveform is controlled to be sinusoidal. However, due to the
benefits of high torque density, high efficiency and controllability, BLAC is
usually chosen to drive in EV/HEV application (Zi, Q.Z., 2011). For the factor of
high torque density, low torque ripple, high efficiency, good flux weakening and
fault tolerance performance, fractional slot PM brushless machines which have
concentrated non-overlapping windings are preferred to employ in applications of
EV/HEV. There are various structural and designs features for these fractional slot
PM brushless machines, for instance, areas involved are slot and pole number
combinations, equal and unequal tooth structure, all and alternate tooth wound
(double-and single-layer windings), modular stator but also machine parameters
and control performance like flux-weakening, winding inductances and
fault-tolerant performance as well as unfavorable effects such as imbalance in
magnetic force, rotor eddy current loss and acoustic noise and vibration. Slot and

pole numbers which are related by 2p = Ns2 (Ns-slots number, 2p-pole number)
is the most appropriate choice in practice. Besides, typical Ns/2p combinations
which are 6/4, 6/8, 12/10, 12/14, 18/16, 18/20, 24/22 and so on are applied for a
balanced three-phase machine (Zi, Q.Z., 2011). As pole number increases, the
feasible slot numbers lead to high winding factor which then result in the increase
in high flux-linkage. The number of stator slots must be even for alternate teeth
wound topology that single layer winding is applied. Although SPM machines
have limited flux-weakening capability, the phase windings reach effective
isolation, both magnetically and physically, and a high per-unit self-inductance
can be obtained to realize an infinite flux-weakening capability and to limit the
prospective short-circuit current through utilization of large slot leakage flux
when SPM machines have a fractional number of slots per pole and alternate teeth
are wound.
2.4.3 Traction Slip Control Algorithm for parallel hybrid cars
Drive

slip

control

algorithm

for

HEVs

which

using

proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller to control the drive shaft speed is

suggested (Liang, C., Li, B.C., Zhan, W., Tong, B.W., 2011). The driving wheel
speed difference can be controlled by PI controller. Drive torque strategy for
HEVs traction slip control system is designed based on the torque distribution
strategy for hybrid cars. For conventional vehicles, the target driving torque is
obtained from slip control algorithm through the controlling of the engine output
torque. For the parallel hybrid car, there are seven operating modes for the engine,
motor, and braking systems, in which four modes that consists of driving by
engine only, driving by motor only, driving by engine with motor charging and
power assisted are related to acceleration. It is preferable to use motor as the
actuator in traction slip drive system whenever motor brake torque is available. In
order to validate traction slip control strategy, eight degrees of freedom model of
hybrid cars instead of conventional two degrees of freedom is constructed under
Matlab/Simulink environment and the final results prove the effectiveness of
algorithm and traction slip control strategy in which the vehicle speed is increased

from 4.74 m/s to 6.49 m/s and the acceleration performance is improved
effectively (Liang, C., Li, B.C., Zhan, W., Tong, B.W., 2011). This eight degree of
freedom model makes up of three parts which are driving system model (torque
management strategy model and drive system dynamics model), vehicle dynamics
and the braking system. Control algorithm model is employed in Matlab/Simulink
besides the main control logic is also employed under Stateflow realization,
control cycle of control algorithms is set to 20ms (Liang, C., Li, B.C., Zhan, W.,
Tong, B.W., 2011).
2.5 Wow factors
2.5.1 Emissions of greenhouse gases
Compared to conventional vehicles that using internal combustion engines,
hybrid-electric vehicle (HEV) reduced emissions of conventional air pollutants
substantially. HEV combines both non-CO2 and CO2 reductions.
2.5.2 Energy
In contrast to compressed natural gas (CNG) and new generation of
cleaner diesel vehicles, HEVs have the high potential in reduction of fuel
consumption. Statistic have shown that over the average HEV useful life time,
fuel savings can reach up to 6,000 litre with an expected life time of 200,000km
(United Nations Environment Programme, 2009).
2.5.3 Life Cycle Cost
When HEVs come across people mind, mostly they will think that its
more expensive than conventional vehicles. However, the fuel savings are
recouped based on mileage and driving conditions. HEV has the advantage over
conventional vehicle in terms of driving conditions. The advantages of
recuperating braking energy and reducing losses during idling are obtained during
stop-and-go traffic which happened mostly in cities. It will also improve the
optimal speed operation of the combustion engine during low speed where the
efficiency of a normal combustion engine is very low. Studies has shown that the
life cycle cost of the HEV which includes the purchase cost, fuel and maintenance

costs, in most cases, is less than owning a conventional vehicle while these
calculations are depend on fuel prices, taxes and rebates.
2.5.4 Strategic Stepping Stone Technology
There is a basic technology like electric motors, batteries and power
electronics share between HEVs, plug-in hybrids, full electric vehicle and fuel cell
vehicles. Hence, HEVs and plug-in hybrids act as stepping stone technologies to
large scale electrification of fleets that needed for a long-term reduction in the
emissions of carbon dioxide from road transport and a low carbon transport sector

Reference:
Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Overview of Greenhouse Gases.
Retrieved from
http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/gases/co2.htm
BMW Group. 2008. Compliance. Acting Responsibly and Lawfully. Retrieved
from
http://www.bmw-werk
berlin.de/files/en/2_EN_BMWGroup_Legal_Compliance_Code.pdf
Mazur, C., Contestabile, M., Gregory, J., Brandon, N.P. 2013. Exploring strategic
responses of the automotive industrt during the transition to electric mobility: a
system synamic approach. Retrieved from
http://www.systemdynamics.org/conferences/2013/proceed/papers/P1259.pdf
Nuesch, T., Elbert, P., Flankl, M., Onder, C., Guzzella, L. 2014. Convex
Optimization for the Energy Management of Hybrid Electric Vehicles Considering
Engine Start and Gearshift Costs. Retrieved from
http://www.mdpi.com/1996-1073/7/2/834
Zi, Q.Z. 2011. Fractional slot permanent magnet brushless machines and drive for
electric and hybrid propulsion systems. Retrieved from
http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/emerald-publishing/fractional-slot-permanent-magn
et-brushless-machines-and-drives-for-d07zg7jIAY/1
United Nations Environment Programme. 2009. Hybrid Electric Vehicles.
Retrieved from
http://www.unep.org/transport/pcfv/pdf/hev_report.pdf
Liang, C., Li, B.C., Zhan, W., Tong, B.W. 2011. Research on traction slip control
algorithm for parallel hybrid cars. Retrieved from
http://www.deepdyve.com/lp/institute-of-electrical-and-electronics-engineers/rese
arch-on-traction-slip-control-algorithm-for-parallel-hybrid-cars-IHgukYyQRo/1