Asia Pacific Business Review

Vol. 16, Nos. 1 2, January April 2010, 161181

A study of Thai employees preferred leadership style

Vimolwan Yukongdi*
University of Southern Queensland, School of Management and Marketing, Faculty of Business,
Toowoomba, Queensland, Australia
This study examined the perceived and preferred style of leadership among employees
in Thai organizations. Data were collected from a sample of employees in
manufacturing firms. Correlation analysis and analysis of variance techniques were
employed to examine the relationships between preferred leadership style, perceived
leadership style, influence in decision-making, satisfaction with participation and job
satisfaction. The results showed that the most preferred style of leader for employees
was the consultative manager, followed by participative, paternalistic, whilst the least
preferred leader was an autocratic manager. On the other hand, the largest proportion of
employees perceived their managers to be consultative, followed by paternalistic,
autocratic and participative. In addition, employees who perceived their managers to be
more democratic also reported a higher level of influence in decision-making, greater
satisfaction with participation and job satisfaction. Implications for theory and practice
are discussed.
Keywords: autocratic; consultative; cultural dimensions; leadership style; participative; paternalistic; Thai employees

Introduction
The impact of culture on leadership has continued to generate interest among scholars
worldwide. Cross-cultural comparative studies provide evidence to support a strong
relationship between culture and leadership styles. A review of the research literature
reveals divergent perspectives on the universality of leadership styles (see House et al.
2004). Some researchers argue that culture exerts a direct effect on leadership styles,
emphasizing the influence of unique cultural characteristics, such as language, religion,
values and social organization on the enactment of leadership behaviours (Ronen and
Shenkar 1985, Jackofsky et al. 1988, Hofstede 1993, Triandis 1993a). Successful chief
executive officers were found to exhibit leadership styles that were reflective of the
cultural values of their society (Jackofsky et al. 1988). Thus, according to this cultural
specific perspective, distinct cultural characteristics contribute to leadership styles that are
unique to a given culture, which is consistent with an emic approach (Hofstede 1980,
Smith and Peterson 1988, Adler 1991, Hofstede 1993, Triandis 1993b).
In contrast to the cultural specific position, the cultural universal perspective suggests
that certain components of leadership may be accepted universally, irrespective of cultural
boundaries (Wakabayashi and Graen 1984, Fahr et al. 1987, Dorfman and Ronen 1991,
Bass and Avolio 1993) due to common technological practices and global institutions
(House et al. 2004). For example, some studies found that task- and relationship-oriented

*Email: vimolwan@usq.edu.au
ISSN 1360-2381 print/ISSN 1743-792X online
q 2010 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 10.1080/13602380903168962
http://www.informaworld.com

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V. Yukongdi

leadership behaviours, notable in US leadership models, were effective in collectivist

societies (Smith and Peterson 1988). The cultural universal perspective, which is
consistent with the etic approach, supports the findings that commonalities of leadership
styles exist across widely different cultures. Thus, the available studies provide evidence
to support both cultural specific and cultural universal perspectives.
The current study will address whether a culturally endorsed leadership style exists
among Thai employees and whether such a leadership style will lead to positive attitudinal
outcomes in the Thai cultural context. If the leadership style that is found to be effective is
also consistent with cultural expectations, some support would be found for the cultural
specific position. This study will establish whether there is evidence to support the cultural
specific perspective.
Thailand has been selected for at least four reasons. First, according to Hofstedes
study of cultural dimensions (Hofstede 1980), Thailand is culturally different from western
countries. Hofstede identified four cultural dimensions: individualism collectivism;
uncertainty avoidance; masculinity femininity; and power distance. On the basis of these
cultural dimensions, Thailand is characterized as a collectivist, feminine society that is
high on uncertainty avoidance and power distance. A collectivist culture values close longterm commitment to the group, extended family or extended relationships. Underlying
these relationships is the importance of loyalty, which often takes precedence over societal
rules and regulations. A high uncertainty avoidance society is less tolerant of uncertainty,
which is minimized through the implementation of strict rules, regulations and laws. Such
societies are averse to risk and less accepting of deviant behaviour. Thailand is ranked low
on masculinity. Low masculinity (high femininity) manifests itself in less competitiveness
and assertiveness in society. In such society, quality of life is regarded as important. Of
particular interest to this study is power distance, which Hofstede has defined as the degree
of inequality in power between superiors and subordinates and the extent to which
members in the society accept that power is distributed unequally in organizations
(Hofstede 1984a). Thailand is designated a high power distance country. According to
Hofstede (1983), power tends to be distributed unequally because the situation satisfies the
psychological needs for dependence of people without power. The concept of power
distance can be applied to organizational setting, where power distance is related to the
degree of centralization and the degree of autocratic leadership (Hofstede 1983). High
power distance countries are characterized by considerable inequality between superiors
and subordinates and a high degree of centralization (e.g. Thailand), while the opposite
is the case for low power distance countries: e.g. Australia, Canada, Germany, US
(Hofstede 1980). Similarly, the more recent Global Leadership and Organizational
Behaviour Effectiveness (GLOBE) study characterizes Thailand as a high power distance
culture (Gupta et al. 2002). The present study will examine the preferred leadership style
among Thai employees and establish whether the style is consistent with a high power
distance culture, such as Thailand.
The second reason for focusing on Thailand is that most of the extant research
undertaken by Thai scholars (e.g. Kumbanaruk 1987, Komin 1990b) asserts that Thai
employees may feel uncomfortable working in a participative work setting, as employee
involvement in decision-making is incompatible with Thai cultural norms. Employees are
accustomed to receiving orders and not expressing their ideas and thoughts (Kumbanaruk
1987, Tansuvan 1993). In line with this cultural incompatibility argument, a question that
arises is whether employees who perceive their supervisors to be autocratic or paternalistic
would be more satisfied than those working with a more democratic manager. This
question will be addressed in this study.

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Third, Thailand has never been colonized by any other Asian or western nation
(Niffenegger et al. 2006). The country has been a constitutional monarchy since 1932.
King Bhumibol Adulyadej, who acceded to the throne in 1946, is the longest-reigning
monarch in the world (BBC 2009). Over 90% of the population are professed Buddhists
(UNESCAP 2000). The influence of religion and culture promotes less social activism
among the Thais. According to Buddhist doctrine (Theravada Buddhism), individuals
accept their current situation, which is believed to be a consequence of what they have
done in a past life (Lawler and Suttawet 2000). This belief promotes more passive
behaviour and a greater acceptance of the status quo. This cultural characteristic is not
compatible with the concept of participative decision-making or activities that strive to
reduce inequality, such as workers participation in decision-making, which will be
examined in this study. Finally, Thailand is selected because, as a Thai who has resided
and worked in Thailand, the author has the advantage of speaking the language and of
understanding the Thai culture more than any other culture.
In sum, the intent of the present study is to examine the preferred leadership style
among Thai employees. The study will also examine the effectiveness of perceived styles
of leadership by assessing their impact on employees reported level of influence in
decision-making, satisfaction with the opportunity to participate in decisions and overall
job satisfaction.
The rest of this contribution takes the following structure. The study presents a review
of the research literature and observations made by researchers regarding culturally
endorsed leadership styles. Relevant theories that provide a theoretical framework for
the study are discussed. This is followed by the formulation of the hypotheses, the
development of the questionnaire, data collection and data analysis. The study concludes
with a discussion of the key findings and implications for theory and managerial practice.
Literature review
An extensive review of the research literature reveals that there is a paucity of literature on
Thai management. Prior studies on Thai management have examined various themes, such
as work values and Thai culture, trade unions, the relationships between expatriate
managers and local staff (Kamoche 2000). Studies on leadership styles in the Thai cultural
context are scarce, and some of these date back to the 1970s. In relation to managerial
behaviour, a few studies have been undertaken to investigate managerial behaviour and
Thai culture (Deyo 1978, Runglertkrengkrai and Engkaninan 1987). More recent studies
have investigated leadership skills (Cuong and Swierczek 2008), leadership styles and
subordinate commitment (Limsila and Ogunlana 2007), leadership styles and emotional
intelligence (Sunindijo et al. 2007) and upward influence and life stage (Ralston et al.
2005). Some of the previous studies, as well as other studies by Thai scholars who studied
Thai work values and leadership styles, Thai culture and quality circles (e.g. Kumbarnaruk
1987, Komin 1990a, 1990b), appear to take the cultural specific approach.
The GLOBE study defined leadership as the ability of an individual to influence,
motivate, and enable others to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the
organizations of which they are members (House et al. 2002, p. 5). The study found
Thailand as the most future- and rule-oriented nation in comparison to the other Southern
Asian cluster of countries, including Iran, India, Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines.
Thailand also had the least assertive societal values and the highest score on power
distance practices. These findings were somewhat consistent with those from an earlier
study (Schwartz 1999), which found Thailand high on hierarchy (i.e. authority, unequal

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distribution of power) and conservatism (i.e. respect for tradition, social order). Consistent
findings were also found for Thailand on similar cultural dimensions (Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner 1998). Interestingly, contrary to observations put forth by Thai scholars
in earlier studies, the GLOBE study found charismatic, team-oriented and participative
leadership among the top three most effective models for Thailand (Gupta et al. 2002).
One of the earlier studies on leadership styles found that Thai workers favoured close
supervision rather than general supervision (Deyo 1978). Another study using Fiedlers
constructs conducted a survey of Thai senior managers, and found that the leadership style
of 69% of the managers was somewhere between the relationship- and task-oriented
extremes, whilst 31% were task-oriented (Runglertkrengkrai and Engkaninan 1987). They
argued that the mixed leadership style was consistent with traditional Thai values, while
the task-oriented style represented the new values of Thai culture which emphasized
hard work. Traditional values would stress such adjectives as helpful, close, warm,
cooperative and supportive on the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) scale. The new
urban values would stress adjectives such as, friendly, interesting, self-assured,
cheerful and open. The researchers argued that due to changes in the economic and
social context, there was a shift from traditional values to more western values, which
emphasized discipline, saving for investment and diligence. They concluded that the
results provided partial support for the expected leadership style among managers in the
Thai cultural context and called for further research.
Studies conducted in more recent years provided some evidence to suggest that
managers in Thailand appeared to be adopting more democratic styles of leadership.
A recent study found that transformational leadership style was the style adopted most
frequently by project managers in the construction industry in Thailand, followed by
transactional style which was utilized quite often, whilst laissez-faire was rarely adopted.
Transformational leadership style also yielded the most positive outcomes (Limsila and
Ogunlana 2007). In another study, Thai project managers and engineers who had higher
emotional intelligence scores tended to delegate work to others, were more proactive in
their attitudes and used more open communication (Sunindijo et al. 2007). In a study of
upward influence strategies, younger Thai managers were more accepting of
organizationally beneficial behaviours than were older managers (Ralston et al. 2005),
indicating generational differences.
Some interesting findings have emerged from research studies on Thai work-related
values (Komin 1990a, 1990b), Thai culture and quality circles (Kumbanaruk 1987, Tansuvan
1993). There is some suggestion from the research literature on Thai work-related values
and quality circles that the characteristics of Thai culture may impede the successful
implementation of quality management programmes in which employee participation in
decision-making is an integral component.
Komin (1990a, 1990b) conducted a study of Thai work-related values and identified
nine value clusters on a continuum of psychological importance from high to low, as
follows:
(1) Ego orientation face-saving, criticism-avoidance, Kreng Chai;
(2) Grateful relationship orientation Bunkhun relationships, psychological bond
between two persons, reciprocating kindness;
(3) Smooth interpersonal relationship orientation preference for non-assertiveness,
polite and humble personality, conflict-free interpersonal interactions;
(4) Flexibility and adjustment orientation emphasis on person over principles,
being flexible rather than truly honest;

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(5) Religio-psychical orientation religious beliefs, fatalistic attitudes, supernatural

behaviour;
(6) Education and competence orientation emphasis on education as means of
improving social status rather than as an end-value;
(7) Interdependence orientation co-existence;
(8) Fun pleasure orientation (Sanuk) easy-going, fun-loving interactions;
(9) Achievement task orientation preference for social relations over work;
The study concluded that the Thai social system is a society where interpersonal
relationships are critical. Thai culture values ego and face-saving, criticism-avoidance,
and Kreng Chai (to be considerate, to take another persons feelings and ego into account).
In work situations, this implies that direct negative performance feedback, strong
criticisms, and face-to-face confrontation should be avoided and, when required, indirect
means should be used. Komin (1990b) suggested that as a means of saving face, Thais
have often used compromise to maintain surface harmony, sometimes at the expense of
task or organizational progress. Characteristics among others that epitomize Thai culture
include Mai pen rai (never mind, take it easy), Chai yen (stay cool, keep your temper) and
Kiet (dignity, honour). The first two concepts tend to promote the maintenance of
harmonious relationships, while the third encourages avoidance of open criticism and is
related to the face-saving concept. Thus, Thais are often perceived to be friendly, less
assertive and more accepting of the status quo.
Kumbanaruk (1987) conducted a study of employees in public and private
organizations in Thailand that implemented quality circles. He contrasted the Japanese
and Thai cultures, and concluded that cultural differences between the two countries may
generate great difficulties in applying QCC (quality control circles) in Thai industries
(Kumbanaruk 1987, p. 95). According to the Kreng Chai concept, there is a tendency
in Thai culture for differences in opinions between individuals to be met rather than
confronted as long as harmony is maintained (although the problem may remain
unresolved), which could be either enhancing or obstructive to the success of quality circles
in Thailand. In his study, problems associated with quality circles were identified. Among
the problems frequently cited were issues with being Kreng Chai, which would lead
employees to avoid direct confrontation in order to maintain harmonious relationships.
This characteristic was not considered to be compatible with the quality circle concept, in
which individuals would be encouraged to express their ideas to solve problems. Another
problem was a lack of self-confidence to express opinions in quality circle meetings, which
was due partly to the Kreng Chai principle and to a tradition of a top-down approach of
employees receiving orders rather than thinking for themselves and expressing their own
ideas (Tansuvan 1993). Other problems included a lack of creative thinking and enthusiasm
at group meetings, and preference for solving problems spontaneously.
Consistent with Kumbanaruk (1987), Thianthai (1991), who conducted a study on
Japanese management in Thailand, identified Thai employees reluctance to express ideas
and a lack of enthusiasm in getting involved in decision-making as factors that make
teamwork difficult among Thai employees. Summapan et al. (1990), who surveyed
Japanese and Thai managers in Japanese-affiliated companies in Thailand, identified
similar factors to those found by Kumbanaruk (1987) and Thianthai (1991) as barriers to
group/teamwork.
It should be noted that some of the Thai social traits (e.g. superiors accustomed to
giving orders and subordinates comfortable with following orders, seniority, Kreng Chai
concept) described by Kumbanaruk (1987), Komin (1990a, 1990b) and Tansuvan (1993)

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corresponded closely to the characterization of high power distance cultures and

collectivist societies e.g. nepotism (e.g. Hofstede 1980, Schwartz 1999). In line with
this, the GLOBE study also found a strong preference to avoid confrontation which may
contribute to less assertive social values in Thai culture (Gupta et al. 2002).
Overall, the research literature on Thai work-related values, quality circles and
employee participation in decision-making takes a pessimistic view on the prospects of
quality circles and participative management in Thai organizations. These studies suggest
that, due to cultural incompatibility, employee participation in decision-making would be
difficult in the Thai cultural context. However, recent studies provide some evidence
to suggest more positive outcomes as a result of transformational leadership, open
communication and delegation of work.
Theories
The theoretical framework which forms the basis for the present study is based on the
value/belief theory of culture (Hofstede 1980, Triandis 1995) and the implicit theory of
leadership (Lord and Maher 1991). The value/belief theory of culture proposes that the
values and beliefs of members in a society influence how members, groups and institutions
in that society behave and the degree to which the enacted behaviours are deemed to be
acceptable, effective and legitimate (Hofstede 1980, Triandis 1995). The value/belief
theory of culture is based on Hofstedes four cultural dimensions of individualism
collectivism, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity femininity, and power distance, which
distinguish a given culture from other cultures.
According to the implicit theory of leadership (Lord and Maher 1991), leadership qualities
are attributed to individuals. Implicit leadership theory influences the attribution of status and
privileges to the leader by individuals (Hanges et al. 1997, Sipe and Hanges 1997). Individuals
are accepted as leaders based on the degree of congruence between the leaders behaviours
and the beliefs and assumptions people hold and draw on to distinguish leaders from others,
and effective from ineffective leaders. The implicit theory of leadership influences the
exercise of leadership, the acceptance of leaders and the perception of leaders as effective.
This study adopts an integration of the value/belief theory of culture and implicit
leadership theory to explain the enactment of leadership behaviours, and proposes that
there is an interaction between leader attributes and behaviours, organizational practices
and culture. Hence, leadership attributes and behaviours are influenced by organizational
practices, which are in turn affected by societal culture (Kopelman et al. 1990). Both
culture and organizational practices in turn influence and shape leader behaviours and
attributes that are considered to be most acceptable and effective in a given culture.
Hypotheses
Hofstede conducted a 50-country study of IBM employees (Hofstede 1980, 1983) and
found differences between countries on employees preference for an autocratic (tells),
paternalistic/persuasive (sells), consultative (consults) or participative (consensus)
manager. (A detailed description of each type of manager is given in the methodology
section.) Hofstede (1980) found that in countries in which few employees were afraid to
disagree with their managers (e.g. low power distance countries), a larger proportion of
employees preferred a consultative manager. In countries in which many employees were
afraid to disagree with their managers (e.g. high power distance countries), subordinates
preference for managers was spread across the autocratic, paternalistic or a majority vote

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type of manager (Hofstede replaced this type of manager with a participative manager in a
later survey in 1971 1973), but not the consultative style.
Drawing on the existing research evidence, it is predicted that a larger proportion of
Thai employees will prefer either an autocratic, a paternalistic or participative manager,
while fewer employees would prefer a consultative manager.
Hypothesis 1: A larger proportion of employees will prefer either an autocratic, a
paternalistic or participative manager, while few employees will favour a
consultative manager.
Thai culture is characterized by a tight hierarchical social system, accepted existential
inequality, and a strong value of relationships, and as such Komin (1990b) reasoned that
Thai employees will be devoted to work for a leader they like and respect. A benevolent,
paternalistic leadership style will be more effective than an impersonal, cut-and-dry
managerial style. She further added that straight-forward, ambitious and aggressive
personalities similar to the West, although highly capable, will not be acceptable and
would be unlikely to succeed in Thai organizations. She argued that management theories
developed in the US that advocate participative management reflect American culture, in
which there is a low power distance between superiors and subordinates and, thus, a higher
degree of equality among its people. Therefore, American management theories will work
with American subordinates and subordinates from low power distance cultures, such as
Canada, Germany or Australia, more than with subordinates from high power distance
cultures such as Thailand (Komin 1990a, p. 218). Furthermore, Thai employees are
accustomed to a tradition of a top-down approach of employees receiving orders
(Kumbanaruk 1987, Tansuvan 1993) rather than thinking for themselves and expressing
their own views, which would be incompatible with participative decision-making.
Based on the existing research evidence, the culturally endorsed leadership style would
appear to be the paternalistic style. While it is tempting to hypothesize that Thai employees
would experience greater satisfaction working for a paternalistic manager based on this
cultural compatibility argument, there is still little empirical evidence to support this
assertion. However, recent empirical evidence from the GLOBE study found that the most
effective leadership models for Thailand were the charismatic, team-oriented and
participative styles of leadership (Gupta et al. 2002). Furthermore, it may be argued that
due to cultural incompatibility Thai employees may, in fact, welcome and highly value the
opportunity to participate in decisions, which is a less common phenomenon in Thai culture.
Hence, participative decision-making would have positive effects on employee attitudes.
A review of the available research evidence suggests that, in relation to satisfaction,
employees who perceived their managers to be more democratic were more satisfied than
employees who perceived their managers to be autocratic (Gouldner 1954, Harnquist
1956, Baumgartel 1957, Ziller 1957). The research literature on participative management
concluded that participative decision-making appeared to have a clear positive effect on
satisfaction and a small, but not inconsequential, effect on performance/productivity
(Locke and Schweiger 1979, Locke et al. 1980, Schweiger and Leana 1986, Locke et al.
1986, Miller and Monge 1986, Wagner and Gooding 1987, Cotton et al. 1988, Wagner
1994, Sagie 1994).
Thus, it is hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 2: Employees who perceive their managers to be consultative or participative
will report a greater degree of satisfaction with participation than those
who perceive their managers to be either autocratic or paternalistic.

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Hypothesis 3: Employees who perceive their managers to be consultative or participative

will report a greater degree of job satisfaction than those who perceive
their managers to be either autocratic or paternalistic.
In terms of influence in the decision-making process, employees will have more
opportunities to be involved in making decisions if they worked with consultative or
participative managers; therefore, it is hypothesized that:
Hypothesis 4: Employees who perceive their managers to be consultative or participative
will report a higher degree of perceived influence in decision-making than
those working with autocratic or paternalistic managers.

Methodology
Data were collected using stratified random sampling. Stratified sampling was used because
occupational level differences in the relationship between participation and outcomes
were examined in the study. The rationale for using stratified sampling is also to ensure that
an adequate number of respondents of the specified kind or type are included in the sample.
The workforce sample in each company was divided into two strata based on two job levels
operators and professional staff. With the agreement of the responsible managers of each
organization, a random sample of employees in each job level was surveyed.
Survey instrument
Perceived influence in decision making
This was measured based on the decision list from the industrial democracy in Europe
12-country study (IDE 1981). These decisions included those dealing with personnel
functions (e.g. appointment of an immediate supervisor), the work itself (e.g. workgroup
expenditures), working conditions (e.g. improvement in work conditions), and company
policies (e.g. whether the company should make a new product). The degree of influence
was measured on a six-point scale, from no information is made available to me (coded 1),
to I/group make(s) the final decision (coded 6). High scores represented high levels of
perceived influence. Reliability analysis of the scores on the 13 items showed an acceptable
Cronbachs alpha coefficient of .89.
Satisfaction with participation
The measure for satisfaction with opportunity for participation was based on five items,
which asked the respondents about their level of satisfaction with opportunities to give
advice, to participate in work-related decisions, and to take on responsibility. This measure
was used in a study conducted in the Netherlands (Zanders et al. 1977). The responses to
the questions ranged from strongly disagree (coded 1), disagree (2), neither disagree or
agree (3), agree (4) to strongly agree (5). High scores represented high levels of
satisfaction with participation. The scale reliability was found to be acceptable (a .78).
Job satisfaction
Job satisfaction was measured by seven items. The questions asked about different aspects
of work satisfaction, such as satisfaction with the supervisor, job, organization, progress,

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pay and promotional opportunities. Heller et al. (1988) adapted the scale from an inventory
developed by Taylor and Bowers (1972). The responses to the questions ranged from
strongly disagree (coded 1), disagree (2), neither disagree or agree (3), agree (4) to
strongly agree (5). High scores indicated high levels of satisfaction with the organization
and work performed. The reliability coefficient (a .83) was found to be satisfactory.
Preferred and perceived styles of leaders
A description of four different types of leaders or managers was given in the questionnaire.
Hofstede (1980, p. 406) defined an autocratic manager (coded 1) as someone who usually
makes his/her decisions promptly and communicates them to his/her subordinates clearly
and firmly. A paternalistic or persuasive manager (coded 2) usually makes his/her decisions
promptly, but, before going ahead, tries to explain them fully to his/her subordinates.
A consultative manager (coded 3) usually consults with his/her subordinates before he/she
reaches his/her decisions. A participative manager (coded 4) usually calls a meeting of
his/her subordinates when there is an important decision to be made and puts the problem
before the group and tries to obtain consensus. The first item asked respondents about their
preferred type of manager, while the second item about their perceptions of their own
supervisors style. The third item asked employees the extent to which they perceived
employees were afraid to disagree with their managers. The question was answered on a
five-point Likert scale, ranging from strongly disagree (coded 5) to strongly agree
(coded 1). This item was reverse scored to be consistent with Hofstedes method of scoring.
For exploratory purposes, the power distance index (PDI) was also computed using the
following formula (Hofstede 1980):
PDI 135 2 25mean score of the five 2 point scale question
% perceived manager 1 2
2 % preferred manager 3
The power distance index can range from 0 (small power distance) to 100 (large power
distance). The theoretical range of the index is from 2 90 (no one afraid, no manager
1 2, everyone prefers 3) to 210 (everyone afraid, all managers 1 2, no one prefers 3)
(Hofstede 1980, p. 103).
Data were collected using a questionnaire survey of a sample of employees in three
manufacturing firms in Bangkok. In each organization, employees participated in different
forms of formal participation programmes, such as quality circles and quality improvement
teams. A total of 546 usable questionnaires were returned. The sample was further divided
into two occupational groups: operators (n 221) and professional staff (n 325).
The sample was a predominantly professional staff group (59%), who had achieved a
higher level of education, 42% of whom held a bachelors and masters degree. Only 7%
of the operators had attained a bachelors degree, while the majority (74%) completed
either high school or a vocational qualification. Data were analysed using cross-tabulation,
correlation analysis and analysis of variance techniques.
Data analysis
Employees were asked about their preferred and actual (perceived) type of manager
(viz. Autocratic 1, paternalistic/persuasive 2, consultative 3, participative 4) and

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whether employees were afraid to express disagreement with their managers/supervisors.

The frequencies for preferred and actual types of managers are given in Table 1.
The most preferred type of manager was a consultative manager (47%), followed by
participative (42%), paternalistic (10%) and autocratic manager (1%). There were some
differences between operators and professional staff in preferred type of manager.
The most preferred type of manager for operators was a participative manager (45%), a
similar proportion preferred a consultative manager (43%), but only 10% preferred a
paternalistic manager, and very few preferred an autocratic manager (2%). Half of the
professional staff preferred to work under a consultative manager, 40% preferred a
participative manager, fewer than 10% preferred a paternalistic manager (9%), while very
few preferred an autocratic manager (0.3%).
According to Hofstede (1980), the subjective description of a manager (perceived type
of manager) is more relevant than an objective description of a manager in understanding
the effect of the managers/supervisors on employee behaviour. In relation to perceived
managers, the largest proportion of employees perceived their own manager/supervisor to
be consultative (44%), while 27% perceived their manager to be paternalistic, 17%
autocratic and 13% participative. There was a similar pattern for perceived type of
manager for operators and professional staff. A substantial proportion of operators (40%)
and professional staff (47%) thought their managers/supervisors were consultative.
A slightly larger proportion of operators (30%) than professional staff (25%) perceived
their managers to be paternalistic, autocratic (20% versus 14%), while a lower proportion
of operators (10%) than professional staff (14%) perceived their managers to be
participative.
For the third item employees afraid to disagree, 67% agreed that employees were
afraid to express disagreement, only 19% disagreed, while 14% were neutral. The mean
score was 2.33. A breakdown by job level indicated that a slightly larger proportion of
operators (71%) than professional staff (64%) reported that they were afraid to disagree
with their managers/supervisors, while a slightly lower proportion of operators (16%) than
professional staff (21%) reported not being afraid to express disagreement. The mean
score also indicated that operators (2.20) were significantly (F1,544 4.28, p , .05) more
afraid to disagree with their managers/supervisors than professional staff (2.41).
In summary, employees most preferred type was a consultative manager (47%), and
many employees perceived their managers to be consultative (44%), while a lower
proportion of employees (17%) perceived their managers to be autocratic. Crosstabulation analysis revealed that of the 17% who perceived their managers to be autocratic,
51% preferred a participative manager, 33% a consultative manager, 11% a paternalistic
manager and only 5% an autocratic manager. In addition, of the 44% who perceived their
managers to be consultative, 58% preferred to work under a consultative manager, 35%
preferred a participative manager, 6% a paternalistic manager and only 0.4% an autocratic
manager. Therefore, about half (51%) of those employees who perceived their
managers/supervisors to be autocratic, preferred to work under a participative manager.
The question arises how preferred and reported types of managers might be related to
perceived influence in decision-making, and in particular to satisfaction with participation
and job satisfaction. The correlations for the variables are presented in Table 2 and the
mean scores for each variable in Table 3.
First, the zero-order correlations revealed that there were modest but significant
relationships between preferred manager and perceived manager (r .16, p , .01) and
employees afraid and perceived manager (r .23, p , .01). The preferred type of
manager tended to overlap with perceived manager, which supported the preliminary

5 (2%)
1 (1%)
6 (1%)

43 (20%)
47 (14%)
90 (17%)

Perceived
22 (10%)
30 (9%)
52 (10%)

Preferred
66 (30%)
81 (25%)
147 (27%)

Perceived

Paternalistic

95 (43%)
164 (50%)
259 (47%)

Preferred

88 (40%)
151 (47%)
239 (44%)

Perceived

Consultative

99 (45%)
130 (40%)
229 (42%)

Preferred

24 (10%)
44 (14%)
68 (13%)

Perceived

Participative

Notes: Operators: n 221; professional staff: n 325 (preferred manager); n 323 (perceived manager). It should be noted that the number of cases removed from the sample
because of missing data can be attributed to the pairwise subcommand in SPSS, which is a stringent criterion because it retains only cases which have valid responses for every variable
used in the analysis.

Operator
Professional
Total

Preferred

Autocratic

Table 1. Percentage responses for preferred and perceived leadership style.

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V. Yukongdi

Table 2. Correlations among power distance items and associated variables.

Preferred
manager
Preferred manager
Perceived manager
Employees afraid

.16**
2.01

Perceived
manager

Perceived
influence

Job
satisfaction

Satisfaction with
participation

.23**

2.01
.24**
.11**

.02
.21**
.09*

.12**
.19**
.15**

Notes: n 544, * significant at .05 level (two-tailed), ** significant at .01 level (two-tailed).

analysis. In addition, employees who perceived their managers to be autocratic or

paternalistic reported feeling more afraid to express disagreement than those working
under a participative or consultative manager.
Preferred manager
As would be expected, employees who preferred democratic managers (i.e. consultative
and participative) tended to be more satisfied with participation (r .12, p , .01).
The preferred manager variable was not significantly related to any other variables.
Perceived manager
Perceived manager was significantly related to perceived influence in decision making
(r .24, p , .01), satisfaction with participation (r .19, p , .01) and job satisfaction
(r .21, p , .01). Employees who perceived their managers/supervisors to be more
democratic (i.e. participative or consultative) reported a higher level of influence in
decision-making, a greater degree of satisfaction with participation and job satisfaction.
Employees afraid
Significant correlations were found between employees afraid and perceived influence in
decision making (r .11, p , .01), satisfaction with participation (r .15, p , .01) and
job satisfaction (r .09, p , .05). Employees who were less afraid to disagree, reported a
higher level of influence, satisfaction with participation and job satisfaction.
In general, the results of the correlation analysis indicated that employees who
perceived their managers to be more democratic were more satisfied than those working
under an autocratic manager. Further tests were conducted to determine differences in the
mean scores for each of these variables under each type of manager. The results are
discussed in the following section.
Analysis of variance was conducted to test for differences between the mean scores on
perceived influence in decision-making (F3,542 10.768, p , .0005), satisfaction with
Table 3. Mean scores on participation and associated variables for employees with (perceived)
autocratic, paternalistic, consultative and participative managers.

Satisfaction with participation

Job satisfaction
Influence in decision-making

Autocratic
(n 90)

Paternalistic
(n 146)

Consultative
(n 239)

Participative
(n 68)

19.08
24.58
23.46

19.75
25.38
23.65

20.26
26.60
26.75

20.74
27.39
30.01

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participation (F3,543 7.009, p , .0005) and job satisfaction (F3,541 8.039, p , .0005)
for the four perceived leadership styles. The results found overall significant differences in
the mean scores for all the associated variables across the four perceived leadership styles.
Therefore, post hoc tests using Tukey HSD were conducted to identify which of the
mean scores on the associated variables differed significantly from the others for
employees who perceived their managers to be autocratic, paternalistic, consultative and
participative. The results are discussed below:
(1) The results from the post hoc test found that employees who perceived their
managers to be participative reported a significantly higher score on satisfaction
with participation than employees whose manager was perceived to be either
autocratic (p , .001) or paternalistic (p , .05), but the mean score was not
significantly different from those who perceived their managers to be consultative.
(2) Employees who perceived their managers to be participative reported a significantly
higher degree of job satisfaction than those whose manager was perceived to be
either autocratic (p , .001) or paternalistic (p , .05), but the mean score was not
significantly different from those whose perceived manager was consultative.
(3) The results indicated that employees who perceived their managers to be
participative reported a significantly higher level of perceived influence in decisionmaking than employees whose managers were perceived to be consultative
(p , .05), paternalistic (p , .005) or autocratic (p , .005). While there were no
significant differences in the mean scores for employees whose manager was
perceived to be either autocratic or paternalistic, employees whose manager was
consultative perceived a significantly higher degree of influence in decisions than
those reported by employees in the less democratic groups (i.e. autocratic and
paternalistic).
As noted previously, for exploratory analysis, the power distance index (PDI) for the Thai
sample in the study was computed. In Hofstedes study of IBM employees (Hofstede 1980,
1983), the Thai score based on a sample of 80 (1971 1973) defined it a high power
distance country (PDI 64). Using Hofstedes (1980) formula, the power distance indices
for the total sample, operators and professional staff were computed as follows:
PDItotal sample 135 2 252:33 17 27 2 47 73:75
PDIoperator 135 2 252:20 20 30 2 43 87:00
PDIprofessional 135 2 252:41 14 25 2 50 63:75
In the present study, the power distance index for operators (87.00) was higher than for
professional staff (63.75), indicating that operators perceived a higher degree of inequality
between superiors and subordinates than professional staff. Hofstede (1980) also found
lower power distance values for managers than for non-managers. The average score for the
total sample was 73.75. The power distance index will be further discussed in the following
section, together with the results for the four hypotheses that were tested in this study.
Discussion
The aims of the study were to (a) identify the preferred type of leader or manager;
(b) examine the relationship between perceived style of leadership and the impact that

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V. Yukongdi

each style has on employees level of influence in decision-making, satisfaction with the
opportunities to be involved in decision-making and job satisfaction.
The first hypothesis predicted that a larger proportion of Thai employees will prefer
either an autocratic, paternalistic or a participative manager, but not a consultative
manager. The results indicated that nearly half of the employees preferred a consultative
manager (47%), followed by a participative manager (42%). A smaller number of
employees preferred a paternalistic manager (10%), while an even smaller proportion
preferred an autocratic manager (1%). Thus, the results failed to support hypothesis 1.
Contrary to Hofstedes (1980) findings, the most preferred style of leadership was a
consultative manager. Further analysis by job level confirmed the initial results that,
regardless of occupational level, the most preferred style of leader was not the paternalistic
or autocratic manager. For professional staff the most favoured manager was a
consultative manager (43%), followed by a participative manager (40%), whilst for most
operators the preferred manager was a participative manager (45%), followed by a
consultative manager (43%). This finding is inconsistent with Deyo (1978), who found
that Thai workers preferred close supervision rather than general supervision, and Komin
(1990a), who suggested a strong cultural preference for a paternalistic manager.
The finding is also inconsistent with Redding and Casey (1975), who found that Thai
managers favoured an autocratic rather than a democratic style of leadership. However,
the findings lend some support to the GLOBE study, which found team-oriented and
participative leadership styles to be the most effective models for Thailand (Gupta et al.
2002) and transformational leadership style as the most frequently adopted style of
leadership (Limsila and Ogunlana 2007).
A possible explanation may be related to the type of organizations that participated in
the study. The three indigenous organizations, which are not ethnic Chinese firms, are
reputable firms that are also well-known for their strong commitment towards promoting
employee participation in decision-making. As noted earlier, these organizations
implement different team types which provide avenues to influence decision-making
not only for professional staff but also lower level employees, including shop floor
workers who would normally have fewer opportunities to become involved in issues that
affect their work area. Therefore, it is possible that employees positive experience with
quality circles and quality improvement teams may lead to a stronger preference toward
relatively more democratic styles of management. The results are consistent with those
of more recent studies that showed transformational style of leadership was adopted more
frequently than transactional style of leadership among Thai managers (Limsila and
Ogunlana 2007). Emotionally intelligent project managers in Thailand were also found to
be more proactive and delegating in their behaviours (Sunindijo et al. 2007).
Another plausible explanation for the lack of support for hypothesis 1 may be related
to generational differences with regard to the acceptance of more democratic styles of
leadership. Younger Thai managers were found to be more accepting of organizationally
beneficial behaviours than were their older counterparts in a study examining upward
influence strategies (Ralston et al. 2005). It is possible that Thai managers in modern Thai
society are more accepting and comfortable with consultative or participative styles of
leadership than managers in the past as a result of a crossvergence effect and the influence
of globalization and modernization (Inglehart 1997). There is some evidence that new
generations of workers are increasingly absorbing western values, including the western
values of materialism. These emerging values of materialism are regarded as a reflection
of success and achievement among the new generation (Niffenegger et al. 2006).

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Additionally, the demographic characteristics of the sample may also affect the responses
to the questionnaire. This point will be discussed in more detail later.
Hypotheses 2 4 predicted that employees who perceived their managers to be
consultative or participative will report a greater degree of satisfaction with participation
and job satisfaction than those who perceived their managers style of leadership to be
either autocratic or paternalistic. The results showed that there were positive relationships
between more democratic styles of leaders (i.e. consultative and participative) and
satisfaction with participation, job satisfaction, perceived influence in decision-making.
Analysis of variance and post hoc tests further provided evidence to support the
predictions for all three hypotheses. Employees whose managers were perceived to be
participative and consultative experienced a greater degree of satisfaction with
opportunities to participate in decision-making, job satisfaction and a higher level of
influence in decision-making. The findings are consistent with evidence from prior studies
(Gouldner 1954, Harnquist 1956, Baumgartel 1957, Ziller 1957) which showed that
employees who perceived their managers to be more democratic were more satisfied than
employees who perceived their managers to be autocratic. The results are also supportive
of findings from major reviews of participative management studies which found positive
effect of participative decision making on employee satisfaction (Locke and Schweiger
1979, Locke et al. 1980, Schweiger and Leana 1986, Locke et al. 1986, Miller and Monge
1986, Wagner and Gooding 1987, Cotton et al. 1988, Wagner 1994, Sagie 1994).
However, the findings failed to support the cultural incompatibility argument asserted
by Thai scholars (Kumbanaruk 1987, Komin 1990a, 1990b, Tansuvan 1993) that
participative management would be incompatible with Thai culture. In fact, the results
found positive effects among employees whose manager was perceived to be participative
or consultative. In addition to the possibility of generational differences and the influence
of globalization and western values as noted earlier, it is possible that consultative
decision-making, as defined in the present study, leads to greater satisfaction because in
high power distance cultures the act of asking for employees opinions by a manager is a
show of courtesy, and is appreciated even though the final decision is made by the manager
and not the employees (Sagie and Aycan 2003).
With regard to the third power distance item, Thai operators were more afraid to
express disagreement with their managers than professional staff. This was consistent with
Kumbanaruk (1987) and Tansuvan (1993), who claimed that Thai employees were used to
following directions, while superiors were more accustomed to giving orders. The finding
was supportive of the cultural characteristic of avoiding confrontation which contributed
to a lower degree of assertiveness in interpersonal relations in Thai society (Gupta et al.
2002, Schwartz 1999).
The average power distance index score obtained from this study (73.75) was similar
in direction but was not of the same value as Hofstedes (1980) score of 64 (although the
PDI score for professional staff of 63.75 was not very different). Nevertheless, the scores
from this study still provided evidence indicating that Thailand is a high power distance
culture based on Hofstedes indices. Hofstede noted that the PDI scores may be influenced
heavily by demographic factors, such as educational level, occupation, age, gender, type of
work organization, social class, as well as environmental factors (Hofstede 1984b, 1991).
Some of these demographic variables may have contributed to the rather different PDI
value for operators in this study. The Thai sample was a predominantly professional staff
group (59%) who had achieved a higher level of education (42% completed a bachelors
and masters degree) than operators (only 7% having obtained a bachelors degree, while
74% completed either high school or a vocational qualification). Hofstede (1980) found

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V. Yukongdi

PDI values to be influenced by occupational and educational level, the latter being the
most important factor in his study. He found that lower level of education and lower
occupational level tended to be associated with higher PDI values, as was the case for the
operators (PDI score 87 versus 63.75 for professional staff) in the present study.
Differences due to the type of business department and organization included in the
study may also have contributed to differences in PDI indices from those obtained by
Hofstede. Hofstedes sample came largely from marketing and service units of IBM
(Singh 1990), while the Thai sample was drawn from manufacturing, engineering,
marketing, accounting and personnel departments of three separate manufacturing
organizations. It should be pointed out that the study was based on three manufacturing
organizations. The results may not be generalizable to organizations in other settings, such
as organizations in the service sector, which employ different technology. In addition,
the Thai organizations that agreed to participate were exceptional companies. Thus, the
sample may not be representative of the majority of Thai organizations.
In summary, the study set out to test four hypotheses, three of which were supported.
The preferred leadership styles among Thai employees were consultative and participative
managers regardless of job level. The results also confirmed a positive relationship
between more democratic leadership styles (i.e. consultative and participative) and
satisfaction with participation, job satisfaction and influence in decision-making.
Employees whose managers were perceived to be more democratic also reported a higher
degree of satisfaction with participation, with their job and perceived influence in
decision-making. The findings from the study provide some important implications for
future research and management practice. These implications are discussed in the next
section.
Implications for theory and practice
Implications for future research from this study include how leadership is defined, the
measurement of leadership effectiveness, the influence of demographic variables, and
the type of organization in the study. The way in which each leadership style is defined
must be reviewed and considered carefully when comparing research results across
different studies. The same label used by a researcher may not necessarily be referring
to the same leadership style by another researcher. For example, the description of
paternalistic leadership as defined by Hofstede (1980) and used in the questionnaire
appears to be somewhat different from the definition used by Thai scholars (e.g. Komin
1990a). Hence, the interpretation of key findings will need to take differences in
definitions into account.
Leadership effectiveness and how it is measured varies considerably from one study to
another. Some studies measured effectiveness by surveying the subordinates perception
of the leader, other studies used performance evaluations for the specific leader to assess
the effectiveness of that leader. Thus, the different criteria that are used to evaluate
leadership effectiveness may yield different outcomes depending on how leadership style
and effectiveness are defined and assessed.
The demographic characteristics of the respondents in the sample may influence their
responses to surveys and contribute to differences in research findings. Some of these
variables include occupational level, educational background, gender, age, social class and
environmental factors during the period of research (Hofstede 1991), which need to be
taken into account when interpreting results. For instance, the sample in the current study
comprised lower level employees (i.e. shop floor workers) as well as professional staff and

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177

managers. The GLOBE study (House et al. 2002) was a survey of middle managers.
Incorporating lower level employees in a study may reveal differences among
occupational levels within the organization, as was the case for the present study.
The type of organization in which the research is undertaken should be considered.
Some studies draw samples of respondents from indigenous firms, whilst others are
derived from multinational corporations and, in many cases, firms that are spread across
different industries. Organizational practices within multinational firms may differ from
those prevalent in indigenous firms, and specific management practices may affect the
effectiveness of certain leadership behaviours.
The findings from the study present research evidence to suggest that what some
researchers (e.g. Komin 1990b, Kumbanaruk 1987) argue to be a culturally endorsed
leadership style may not necessarily result in the highest degree of satisfaction with
participation or job satisfaction compared to other leadership behaviours. This may be
partly due to the fact that times have changed, as have societal values and attitudes
of workers. A culturally endorsed leadership style in the past may no longer be the
same style that is favoured today due to the effect of modernization and globalization
(Inglehart 1997) as well as generational differences (Ralston et al. 2005). Future research
should explore generational differences and leadership style.
Finally, the results suggest that more democratic styles of leadership, such as
participative and consultative styles found in this study may be well received and can yield
positive attitudinal outcomes among Thai employees if enacted in a culturally appropriate
manner. Consideration must be given to the unique Thai cultural characteristics, such
as Kreng Chai, Bunkhun relationships (an obligation to return favours), fun-loving
interactions (Sanuk), preference for non-assertiveness and face-saving (Komin 1990a,
1990b), which form the foundation of interpersonal relationships in Thailand. In such a
society, the basis of a business relationship is personal trust, which needs to be developed
over time. An aggressive, short-term approach employed in western cultures will not be
effective (Niffenegger et al. 2006). There is a strong hierarchical sense of knowing ones
place in society and in interpersonal relationships and a respect for elders. In social
relationships, Thais tend to address one another depending on whether they are older
or younger than the other person using specific personal pronouns reflective of age
differences (such as Pi for someone older or Nong for someone younger). The same terms
are used among brothers and sisters. These terms reflect the practice of treating colleagues
or workers as a family member. This can complicate a supervisor subordinate
relationship, particularly when the supervisor is the younger person. There is a social
expectation that the younger supervisor would show respect to the older subordinate. Also
important is the face-saving concept that is critical in interpersonal relationships, and care
should be taken to avoid situations that will cause someone to lose face. These Thai
characteristics are as critical in business relationships as they are in social relationships.
Hence, successful global managers need to adapt universal leadership styles to the
unique characteristics of a given culture.
Conclusion
The intent of the study was to establish which leadership style is the culturally endorsed
leadership style among Thai employees. Evidence was found to support participative
and consultative leadership styles as culturally preferred styles, both having stronger
positive effects on employees perceived level of influence in decision-making,
satisfaction with participation and job satisfaction than either the autocratic

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V. Yukongdi

or paternalistic leadership styles. In this study, support was not found for the
paternalistic leadership style as the most culturally endorsed leadership style among
Thai employees as was suggested by some researchers. The results, however, are
consistent with more recent research studies that provide evidence indicating that Thai
managers utilized transformational style of leadership more frequently than transactional
style of leadership (Limsila and Ogunlana 2007) as well as open communication and
delegation (Sunindijo et al. 2007). Hence, the present study offers some evidence to
support the cultural universal perspective.
The enactment of leadership behaviour is influenced by organizational practices,
which are in turn affected by societal culture (Kopelman et al. 1990). Both culture and
organizational practices in turn influence and shape leader behaviour and attributes that
are perceived to be most acceptable and effective in a given culture. Research findings
reflect the social values and environment of that period. Thailand experienced great
economic change over the past two decades, and was one of the fastest growing
economies in the world during the period 1985 1995 (Phongpaichit 2000). The
workforce of modern Thailand is becoming more educated, and societal values have
undergone shifts which may have contributed to changes in cultural values towards the
acceptance of more democratic styles of leadership. The new generation of Thais may be
more comfortable with and receptive to democratic styles of leadership than earlier
generations. Emerging western values of materialism and achievement have been noted
among the new generation (Niffenegger et al. 2006). Thus, the influence of external
variables may contribute to differences in research findings, and these factors need to be
considered.
Finally, the results from this study provide preliminary evidence to indicate that there
are certain leadership behaviours that may be effective and transferable across different
cultures. Future cross-national studies will need to be undertaken to confirm which
specific leadership styles are culturally universal and effective in the Thai cultural
setting.

Notes on contributor
Vimolwan Yukongdi is a Senior Lecturer in Management in the School of Management &
Marketing at the University of Southern Queensland, Australia. She holds a PhD degree from the
University of Melbourne, MBA from the University of Pittsburgh, and BBA (Magna Cum Laude)
from Assumption University. She has lived in nine countries, including Malaysia, Thailand,
Denmark, Japan, Kenya, Pakistan, USA, Australia and New Zealand. Vimolwan has worked at Esso
(ExxonMobil) and in the consulting industry. She has held academic appointments at universities in
Australia, New Zealand, and Thailand, including the University of Melbourne, University of
Newcastle, Central Queensland University, Massey University, Assumption University and
Bangkok University. Her research interests are in leadership, participative decision-making, and
women managers in Asia. Her research has appeared in books, journals, and conference proceedings.
She is the co-editor of The Changing Face of Women Managers in Asia (2009) and Women in Asian
Management (2006).

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