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HMS/Office of Postdoctoral Fellows

I = Introduction
M = Methods
R = Results
a(nd)
D = Discussion
+Abstract

Handouts and Resources


by
Kathy L. Brenner

Introduction
Provide a context or background for the study (that is, the nature of the problem and its
significance). State the specific purpose or research objective of, or hypothesis tested by, the
study or observation; the research objective is often more sharply focused when stated as a
question. Both the main and secondary objectives should be clear, and any pre-specified
subgroup analyses should be described. Provide only directly pertinent references, and do not
include data or conclusions from the work being reported (ICMJE).

Components:
Study background
Importance of nature and context of the problem
Concise review of the literature
Summarized rationale for the study
Purpose of the article/research

The writer:
establishes the importance of the research topic
provides general background information
adds more specific details supporting background information
describes the general problem area or the current research focus of the field, paying attention to
the terminology in the title and key words
provides a transition between the general problem area and the literature review
provides a brief overview of key research projects in this area
describes a gap in the research
describes the paper itself
gives details about the methodology reported in the paper
concludes with a statement of study objective or hypothesis and why the research is significant

Kathy Brenner 2013

Methods
The Methods section should include only information that was available at the time the plan or
protocol for the study was being written; all information obtained during the study belongs in the
Results section.
Selection and Description of Participants
Describe your selection of the observational or experimental participants (patients or laboratory
animals, including controls) clearly, including eligibility and exclusion criteria and a description
of the source population. Because the relevance of such variables as age and sex to the object of
research is not always clear, authors should explain their use when they are included in a study
reportfor example, authors should explain why only participants of certain ages were included
or why women were excluded. The guiding principle should be clarity about how and why a
study was done in a particular way. When authors use such variables as race or ethnicity, they
should define how they measured these variables and justify their relevance.
Technical Information
Identify the methods, apparatus (give the manufacturers name and address in parentheses), and
procedures in sufficient detail to allow others to reproduce the results. Give references to
established methods, including statistical methods (see below); provide references and brief
descriptions for methods that have been published but are not well-known; describe new or
substantially modified methods, give the reasons for using them, and evaluate their limitations.
Identify precisely all drugs and chemicals used, including generic name(s), dose(s), and route(s)
of administration.
Authors submitting review manuscripts should include a section describing the methods used for
locating, selecting, extracting, and synthesizing data. These methods should also be summarized
in the abstract.
Statistics
Describe statistical methods with enough detail to enable a knowledgeable reader with access to
the original data to verify the reported results. When possible, quantify findings and present
them with appropriate indicators of measurement error or uncertainty (such as confidence
intervals). Avoid relying solely on statistical hypothesis testing, such as P values, which fail to
convey important information about effect size. References for the design of the study and
statistical methods should be to standard works when possible (with pages stated). Define
statistical terms, abbreviations, and most symbols. Specify the computer software used (ICMJE).

Components:
General introduction and overview of the materials and methods / how the research was carried
out
Subheadings: population analysis, plan for analysis, exposure, outcome, statistical analysis, etc.
Sources of materials and equipment used
Essential background information
Subject selection strategy (inclusions, exclusions, samplings)
Subject characteristics (eligibility criteria, final number of participants, etc.)
Specific and precise details about materials and methods (quantities, temperatures, duration,
sequence, conditions, locations, sizes, drugs, dosages, chemicals, interventions, etc.)
Decisions on statistical software used, measures of variables (SD, 95%CI, etc.), statistical tests
Indication that appropriate care was taken (human subject approvals)
Sufficient detail to allow others to reproduce and verify results
Indication of where problems occurred
Approval by institutional review board

The writer:
offers a general overview of the subsection
provides background information and justification
provides an overview of the procedure(s) / method(s)
provides details about what was done and what was used showing appropriate choice
provides protocols for collecting data; how data was analyzed
describes what was done by referring to existing methods in the literature
mentions a possible difficulty in the methodology

Kathy Brenner 2013

Results
Present your results in logical sequence in the text, tables, and illustrations, giving the main or
most important findings first. Do not repeat all the data in the tables or illustrations in the text;
emphasize or summarize only the most important observations. Extra or supplementary
materials and technical detail can be placed in an appendix where they will be accessible but
will not interrupt the flow of the text, or they can be published solely in the electronic version of
the journal.
When data are summarized in the Results section, give numeric results not only as derivatives
(for example, percentages) but also as the absolute numbers from which the derivatives were
calculated, and specify the statistical methods used to analyze them. Restrict tables and figures
to those needed to explain the argument of the paper and to assess supporting data. Use graphs
as an alternative to tables with many entries; do not duplicate data in graphs and tables. Avoid
nontechnical uses of technical terms in statistics, such as random (which implies a
randomizing device), normal, significant, correlations, and sample.
Where scientifically appropriate, analyses of the data by such variables as age and sex should be
included (ICMJE).

Components:
Interpretation of information, evaluation of findings, and summary of all data and statistical
tests used for analysis (expanding methodology)
General overview of results
Reader reviews results in tables, figures, graphs, illustrations, etc.
Specific/key results in detail, with or without explanations
Comparisons with results in other research
Comparison(s) with model predictions
Possible implications of results
Problems with results

The writer:
refers to own findings and adds more information
refers to the findings and conclusions obtained by other researchers
shares findings with the reader from tables, figures, graphs, etc.

includes relative risk (RR), confidence intervals (CIs), odd ratios (ORs) and the attention to
differences with covariates, confounders, continuous variables
offers general statements about results to begin new paragraphs
states stratified analyses (subgroup findings), then sensitivity analyses
refers to specific results and compares them with those obtained from another study, using
evaluative language
refers to specific results and compares them to those obtained from another study, using
language that compares and comments on the result(s)
selects specific results to describe in more detail, using language that comments and describes
the results
refers to the method used to analyze the results
mentions a problem in the results and uses quantity language to minimize its significance
makes reference to the implications and applications of the work done

Kathy Brenner 2013

Discussion
Emphasize the new and important aspects of the study and the conclusions that follow from them
in the context of the totality of the best available evidence. Do not repeat in detail data or other
information given in the Introduction or the Results section. For experimental studies, it is useful
to begin the discussion by briefly summarizing the main findings, then explore possible
mechanisms or explanations for these findings, compare and contrast the results with other
relevant studies, state the limitations of the study, and explore the implications of the findings for
future research and for clinical practice.
Link the conclusions with the goals of the study but avoid unqualified statements and conclusions
not adequately supported by the data. In particular, avoid making statements on economic
benefits and costs unless the manuscript includes the appropriate economic data and analyses.
Avoid claiming priority or alluding to work that has not been completed. State new hypotheses
when warranted, but label them clearly as such.

Components:
Reviewing previous sections for possible summarizing of general or key results
Summarizing existing literature (do not summarize sequentially)
Presenting findings as they fit into previous research
Interpreting results and putting them into perspective
Relationships to existing research
Achievement/contribution (emphasis on new findings and important aspects of study) to the
greater scientific community
Refining the implications
Mechanisms, associations if found / look for consistencies, but explain inconsistencies (if
possible)
Explanations for data that contradict published work
Strengths, weaknesses, limitations, current and future work, applications

The writer:
synthesizes the material, not merely enumerates previous findings

puts a personal stamp on the research, and places the findings into the where and how of the
greater scientific context
focuses on overall findings and interpretation of the present study
revisits previous research
revisits the Introduction to recall specific weakness in the methodology used in previous studies
revisits the methodology used in the present study (not repeating data from the Methods
section)
revisits and summarizes the results (not repeating data from the Results section)
recalls an aspect(s) of the results that represents a positive achievement or contribution of this
work
focuses on the meaning and implications of the achievements in this work
shows validity of findings before showing how these fit into the context of previous studies
notes that one (or more) of the achievements or contributions of this work is its novelty
refines the implications of the results, including possible applications
states reasons for inconsistencies (if possible)
describes weaknesses and/or limitations which should direct future research
suggests a specific area to be addressed in future work

Kathy Brenner 2013

Abstract
Structured abstracts are preferred for original research and systematic reviews. The abstract should
provide the context or background for the study and should state the studys purpose, basic procedures
(selection of study subjects or laboratory animals, observational and analytical methods), main findings
(giving specific effect sizes and their statistical significance, if possible), principal conclusions, and
funding sources. It should emphasize new and important aspects of the study or observations. Articles on
clinical trials should contain abstracts that include the items that the CONSORT group has identified as
essential (http://www.consort-statement.org/? =1190).
Because abstracts are the only substantive portion of the article indexed in many electronic databases,
and the only portion many readers read, authors need to be careful that they accurately reflect the
content of the article. Unfortunately, the information contained in many abstracts differs from that in the
text. The format required for structured abstracts differs from journal to journal, and some journals use
more than one format; authors need to prepare their abstracts in the format specified by the journal they
have chosen (ICMJE).

Components:
Background, purpose, problem, what the research does
Methodology and/or materials, study population, analysis
Results, achievement and/or contribution, implications
Conclusions, outcome, associations, applications

Abstract 1: The four subheadings


(Background, Methods, Results, Conclusions)
VERY BRIEFLY with LIMITED word count (varies), the writer states as follows:
Background: provides background factual information; states the general and/or specific
purpose of the study in one sentence; limitations
Methods: summarizes the methodology, study population, and analysis
Results: provides details on results and associations
Conclusions: presents implications of the research; indicates achievement of the study

Abstract 2: The one paragraph


SUMMARIZED with LIMITED word count (varies), the writer states as follows:
A compilation of all sections from Abstract 1 enhanced by additional details from each section
to fulfill the word count
Kathy Brenner2013

Writing Resources from Harvard School of Public Health


Writing in the Health Sciences
University of Toronto

Grammar and Academic Writing


Capitol Community College:
http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/
Purdue Online Writing Lab:
http://owl.english.purdue.edu/

Scientific Writing
Writing in Scientific Journal Style:
http://abacus.bates.edu/~ganderso/biology/resources/writing/HTWtoc.html
Instructions to the Author for over 6,000 Health and Life-Science Journals:
http://mulford.meduohio.edu/instr/
Office of Research Integrity, US Department of Health and Human Services:
http://ori.dhhs.gov/
Journal Impact Factors, ISI Web of Knowledge:
Impact Factors_ISI Web of Knowledge

Ethical Writing, Avoiding Plagiarism, Citations and Referencing


Sources and Citations, Dartmouth College:
http://www.dartmouth.edu/~writing/sources/
Plagiarism Resource Site, Colby, Bates and Bowdoin Colleges:
http://abacus.bates.edu/cbb/index.html
Recognizing and Avoiding Plagiarism Exercises, Cornell:
http://plagiarism.arts.cornell.edu/tutorial/index.cfm
Using EndNote, RefWorks and Other Citation Tools at Harvard:
http://isites.harvard.edu/icb/icb.do?keyword=citationtools

Books for Bio-Medical Science Writing


The Craft of Scientific Writing by Michael Alley
Essentials of Writing Biomedical Research Papers by Mimi Zieger
Mayfield Handbook of Technical and Scientific Writing by Perelman, Paradis, Barrett
The Common Sense of Writing: Teaching Writing from the Readers Perspective by
George D. Gopen
10 Lessons in Clarity and Grace by Joseph William
Writing in the Sciences: Exploring Conventions of Scientific Discourse by Penrose, Katz
From Research to Manuscript: A guide to Scientific Writing by Michael Jay Katz
Science Research Writing: A Guide for Non-Native Speakers of English by Hilary
Glasman-Deal
A Writers Reference by Diane Hacker
The Elements of Style by Strunk and White
English in Todays Research World by John M. Swales and Christine B. Feak

Suggested Readings/Coursera/Stanford/Sainani
On Writing Well, William Zinsser; Sin and Syntax, Constance Hale
http://www.aacc.org/publications/clin_chem/ccgsw/Pages/default.aspx#

Web Sites for Writing


http://owl.english.purdue.edu/
http://www.cws.illinois.edu/

Web Sites for Vocabulary


www.visuwords.com
www.visualthesaurus.com

Web Site for Writing with Non-Native Speakers of English


www.youtube.com (Writing across Borders Parts 1 and 2)

Web Site for Journal Publishing


www.cell.com (Guide to Publishing with Cell Press- four great videos)

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