1776 Mnusamriti translated into English as A Code Of Gentoo Laws

1785 Wilkins translated Bhagvadgita into English

1789 Sir William Jones translated Abhijnanashakuntalam into English
1784 Asiatic Society of Bengal set up in Calcutta by Sir William Jones
1803 Bombay Asiatic Society set up
1823 Asiatic Society of Great Britain set up in London
-

German born F. Max Muller edited Sacred Books of the East series. It made generalizations
About the nature of ancient Indian History and Society :
1. Ancient Indians lacked a sense of history especially of the factor of time and chronology
2. Indians were accustomed to despotic rule
3. Natives were engrossed in the problems of spiritualism or of the next world, and least
bothered about the problems of this world
4. Caste System was the most vicious form of social discrimination
Western Scholars concluded Indians had neither experienced feelings of nationhood
nor any kind of self-government

1904 - 1st Systematic history of Ancient India by Vincent Arthur Smith in Early History of India
1. Gave primacy to political history
2. Approach to history Pro-imperialistic
3. Alexanders Invasion accounted for 1/3 rd of book
4. India presented as land of Despotism

British Interpretations of Indian History Indians incapable of governing themselves

1. Emphasis on Indian tradition of one man rule to justify the system of viceroy
2. Indians obsessed with problems of other world. They to look after for their present
3. No experience of Self-Rule in the past. They to manage their affairs
Western Writers believe that
1. religious ideal, rituals, caste, kinship, tradition main forces in Indian History
2. Underscored divisive features which made for stagnation
3. Believed that Indian society has not changed and cannot be changed
4. Underdevelopment is an integral part of Indian character
Nationalist Approach of Ancient Indian History
Rational View
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Rajendra Lal Mitra wrote book Indo-Aryans

Others contrasted caste system with class system based on Division of Labour found in preindustrial and ancient societies of Europe

Maharashtra Authors
1. Ramakrishna Gopal Bhandarkar
Reconstructed political history of Deccan of Satavahanas and History of Vaishnavism
Advocated widow marriages, castigated evils of caste system and child marriage
2. Vishwanath Kashinath Rajwade
Wrote History of Institution of Marriage in Marathi with its base in Vedic and other texts
3. Pandurang Vaman Kane
His History of the Dharmasastra is an Encyclopaedia of ancient social laws and
customs. Enables to study of social processes in Ancient India
Hemchandra Raychaudhuri
Reconstructed history from the Mahabharata war (10th C BC) to end of Gupta empire
His work reflect Militant Brahmanism when he criticizes Ashokas policy of peace
R.C.Majumdar
Reflects Hindu Revivalism. Edited History and Culture of Indian People
K.A. Nilakanta Sastri (South Indian Historian)
Emphasised culture supremacy of brahmanas
Highlighted harmony prevailed in Indian society
Many research monographs produced on Dynastic History of South India
K.P. Jayaswal Wrote Hindu Polity in 1924
Showed in Articles that Republics existed in ancient times and enjoyed a measure of self-govt
D.D Kosambi Wrote Civilisation of Ancient India in Historical Outline in 1965
Follows materialist interpretation of History (derived from Karl Marx)
Presents history of society, economy and culture as an integral part of development forces and
relations of production
His was 1st survey book to show the stages of social and economic development in terms of
tribal and class processes
Megalith A large stone that forms a prehistoric monument (e.g. a standing stone) or part of one (e.g.
a stone circle)

Archaeology the study of human history and pre history through the excavation of sites and the
analysis of artefacts and other physical remains
(or)
The science which enables us to dig the old mounds in a systematic manner, in successive layers, and to
form an idea of the material life of the people
Numismatics Study of coins
Epigraphy Study of Insriptions
Paleography the study of ancient writing systems and deciphering and dating of historical manuscript
Srautasutras (600 300 BC) Big public sacrifices meant for princes and men of substance belonging to
3 higher varnas. It provide several pompous royal coronation ceremonies
Grihyasutras (600 300 BC) Domestic rituals related to birth, naming, sacred thread investiture,
marriage, funeral
Sulvasutras prescribe various kinds of measurements for construction of sacrificial altars. They mark
the beginning of study of geometry and mathematics
Ancient India Coins
-

Not in the form of paper, but as metal coins

Coins made of copper, silver, gold , lead
Earliest coins contain a few symbols, but later coins mention the name of kings, gods or dates
Used for donations, mode of payment and medium of exchange
Coins also issued by guilds of merchants and goldsmiths with permission of rulers
Largest number of coins in Post-Mauryan times made of copper, silver, gold, lead, bronze, potin
Guptas issued largest number of gold coins
trade flourished in post-maurya and a good part of gupta times
only a few coins in post-gupta indicate decline of trade and commerce in that period

Ancient India Inscriptions

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carved on seals, stone pillars, rocks, copper plates, temple walls, bricks or images
convey royal orders and decisions regarding social, religious and administrative matters to
officials and people in general : Ashoka Inscriptions belong to it
other are votive records of followers of Buddhism, Jainism, Vaishnavism, Shaivism who put up
pillars, tablets, temples, images as marks of devotion
many inscription are donative records which refer to gifts of money, cattle, land, etc mainly for
religious purposes made by kings, artisans, merchants
some other eulogize attributes and achievements of kings, conquerors and never speak defeat
(e.g. Allahabad inscription of Samudragupta)

earliest inscriptions recorded on stone

in early centuries of Christian era, copper plates began to be used
earliest inscriptions written in prakrit language in 3rd C BC
Sanskrit used as Epigraphic medium in 2nd C AD and used widespread in 4th and 5th centuries
Inscriptions composed in regional languages in 9th and 10th centuries
Corpus Insciptionum Indicarum : Inscriptions on history of Maurya, post-maurya and gupta time
Earliest Inscriptions found on seals of Harappa related to 2500 BC (not deciphered)
Oldest deciphered Script belong to Ashoka in 3rd C BC : 1st deciphered in 1837 by James Pricsep

Harappan Insriptions
-

Await decipherment
Written in pictographic script

Ashoka Inscriptions
-

Ashoka Inscriptions in Brahmi script (written from left to right)

Some ashoka inscripts in Kharoshthi script (written from right to left)
Greek and Aramian scripts used in Ashokas inscriptions in Pak and Afghanistan
Brahmi script prevailed in whole country except north-western part. It was main script till the
end of Gupta times (7th C AD)

Ancient India Literary Sources

-

Most ancient manuscripts not older than 4th C AD found in Central Asia
Religious culture of Hindus include Vedas, Ramayana, Mahabharata, Purana : tell social and
cultural conditions of ancient times
Purana : eighteen in number. Encylopaedic in content, they provide dynastic history up to the
beginning of Gupta rule.
Purana speak of 4 ages : Krita, Treta, Dvapara, Kali
Rig Veda : 1500-1000 BC . mainly contain Prayers
Atharva Veda, Yajur Veda, Brahamanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads : 1000 500 BC
later vedic texts comprise prayers, rituals, magic and mythological stories
Upanishads contain philosophical speculations

Vedangs or Limbs of the Veda

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Shiksha (phonetics)
Kalpa (ritual)
Vyakarna (grammer)
Nirukta (etymology)
Chhanda (metrics)
Jyotisha (astronomy)

Mahabharata

Attributed to Vyas
Reflect state of affairs from 10th C BC to 10th C AD
Final compilation has 1,00,000 verses known as Mahabharata or Satasahasri Samhita
Contain narrative (belong to later vedic), descriptive (belong to post-vedic), didactic (belong to
post-maurya and gupta times)

Ramayana
-

Attributed to Valmiki
Has 24,000 verses
More unified/composed than Mahabharata
Composition started from 5th C BC and ended in 12th C AD in 5 stages

Buddhist Text
-

Earliest text in pali language spoken in South Bihar or Magadha

Finally compiled in 2nd C BC in Sri Lanka
Jataka : Stories of previous birth of Gautama Buddha. Tell social and economic conditions from
5th to 2nd C BC

Jaina Text
-

Earliest text in Prakrit

Finally compiled in 6th C AD in Vallabhi in Gujarat
Tell about political history of East UP and Bihar in age of Mahavira
Text repeatedly refer to trade and traders

Dharmashastras
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Composed of Dharmasutras (Compiled in 500-200 BC) and Smrirtis (composed in 1st 6 centuries)
Lay down duties for different varnas as well as for kings and their officials
Provide rules for marriage together with laws according to which property is to be held, sold and
inherited
Also prescribe punishments for persons guilty of theft, assault, murder and adultery

Arthashastra
-

Earliest portion reflect the state of society and economy in Mauryan times
Rich material for study of ancient Indian polity and economy

Sangam Literature
-

Do not constitute Religious literature. Secular in nature

Very major source of social, economic and political life of people living in deltaic TN in early
Christian centuries

Produced over a period of three to four centuries by poets who assembled in colleges
patronized by chiefs and kings
Compilation is attributed to 1st four Christian centuries
Final compilation completed by 6th century
Comprises 30,000 lines of Poetry, arranged in 8 Anthologies called Ettuttokai
Short and long poems composed by numerous poets in praise of numerous heroes, heroines
not primitive songs but a high quality of literature

Foreign Accounts of Ancient Indian Literature

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Alexanders invasion find no mention in Indian sources

Indika of Megasthenes tells
o About system of Maurya Administration and social classes and economic activities
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea (80-115 AD) : Roman trade in Red Sea, Persian Gulf, Indian Ocean
Ptolemys Geography (150 AD)
Plinys Naturalis Historia (1st C AD) : tells about trade between India and Italy
FaHsien (5th C AD) describe social, religious and economic conditions of India in Gupta times
Hsuan Tsang (7th C AD) describe account of India in Harsha times

Best example of earliest historical writing is given by Rajatarangini or The Stream of Kings written
by Kalhana in 12th century. It is a string of biographies of Kings of Kashmir and is the 1st work possessing
several traits of history
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Earliest Agricultural settlements and states founded in foothills of Himalaya in 6th C BC and trade
routes followed the Terai route
Harrappan culture originated and flourished in Indus Valley
Vedic culture originated in NWFP and Punjab and flourished in western Gangetic basin
Post-Vedic culture, mainly based on the use of Iron, thrived in middle gangetic basin
Lower gangetic valley and north Bengal came into limelight in the age of Guptas
Brahmaputra Valley gained importance in early medieval times
Ganga-Yamuna Doab was the most coveted and contested area
Almost all over the country Sanskrit came to be cultivated and understood
Vindhaya mountaians cut right across country from west to east and form boundary b/w
north and south india
Earliest human settlement are found in India in hilly areas and in those river valleys which are
situated between hills
Richest Copper mines found in Chotanagpur plateau, in the dist of Singhbhum
Copper belt is abt 130 km long
Cu was 1st metal to be used, it is invested with great purity by Hindus, and Cu utensils are used
in religious rituals
Major portion of India had no proper Bronze Age
India has been rich in Iron Ores, found in South Bihar, East MP and Karnataka. 1st empire in
Magadh (6-4th C BC) owed much to availability of iron just south of this region.

Large scale use of Iron made Avanti, with its capital at Ujjain an imp kingdom in 6th and 5th C BC
Satavahanas and other powers which arose south of Vindhayas may have exploited iron ores of
Andhara and Karnataka
Andhara possesses resources in Lead, which explains large number of lead coins in kingdom of
Satavahanas, who ruled over Andhra and Mah in 1st two centuries of Christian era
Earliest Coins called Punch-marked coins made largely of silver, although silver is rarely found.
Silver mines existed in early times in Kharagpur hills in dist of Monghyr
Gold
o Found in kolar fields of Karnataka. Kolar is considered to be the earliest capital of
Gangas of South Karnataka

Stone Age
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In earliest Paleolithic phase man lived on hunting and food gathering

Old stone age or Paleolithic culture of India developed in Pleistocene period of Ice Age
Paleolithic Age in India is divided into 3 phases
o Early or Lower Paleolithic : 5,00,000 BC 50,000 BC
o Middle Paleolithic : 50,000 BC 40,000 BC
o Upper Paleolithic : 40,000 BC 1500 BC
Between 40,000 BC and 1500 BC tools belonging to both Middle and Upper Paleolithic
ages are found in Deccan Plateau
Sites are found in many hilly slopes and river valleys of country; they are absent in alluvial plains
of Indus and Ganga

Lower Paleolithic
-

Use of Hand-Axes, Cleavers, Choppers

Used for chopping, digging, skinning
Sites
o Valley of river soan or sohan in Punjab (now in Pak)
o Kashmir and Thar desert (e.g. Didwana)
o Belan Valley in Mirzapur Dist in UP
o Narmada Valley
o Caves and Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka near Bhopal

Middle Paleolithic
-

Industries mainly based on flakes

Principal Tools : Varieties of Blades, Points, Borers, Scrapers made of flakes

Upper Paleolithic
-

Marks the appearance of new flint Industries and of men of modern type (Homo Sapiens)
In India, use of Blades and Burins was noticed

Found in AP, Karnataka, Mah, Central MP, Southern UP, South Bihar plateau and adjoining areas
Caves and Rockshelters at Bhimbetka (45 km south of Bhopal) discovered
Large flakes, blades, burins, scrapers also found in upper levels of Gujarat dunes

Mesolithic Age : Hunters and Herders

-

Upper Paleolithic ended with end of Ice Age around 9000 BC and climate became warm and dry
Mesolithic culture continued to be imp from 9000 BC 4000 BC
Mesolithic people lived on hunting, fishing and food gathering (Paleolithic practice)
At a later stage, they also domesticated animals (interrelated with Neolithic culture)
Characteristic Tools
o Microliths
Sites : Raj, South UP, central and eastern India and South of Krishna
Bagor in Rajasthan is very well excavated. It had a distinctive microlith industry and its
inhabitants insisted on hunting and pastoralism
Bagor in Raj and Adamgarh in MP provide earliest evidence for Domestication of animals

Note : on the northern spurs of Vindhyas in Belan Valley and middle part of Narmada Valley all 3
phases of Paleolithic followed by Mesolithic and then by Neolithic have been found in Sequence
Neolithic Age : Food Producers
-

In world context it began in 9000 BC

In Indian sub-continent the Neolithic age began around 6th millennium BC
Only Neolithic settlement in Indian Subcontinent attributed to 7000 BC lies in Mehrgarh situated
in Baluchistan of Pakistan. Before 5000 BC people of this place didnt use pottery
Rice, Wheat, Barley came to be cultivated in this period and a few villages appeared in this part
of world
Some sites on northern spurs of vindhyas considered as old as 5000 BC
Neolithic settlements in South India are not older than 2500 BC
In some parts of S.india and E.india, settlements are as late as 1000 BC
People used tools and implements of polished stone. Particularly used stone axes
North-Western Settlement
o Represent Rectangular Axes with curved cutting edge
o Kashmir culture distinguished by its Dwelling Pits, Range of Ceramics, variety of stone
and bone tools and complete absence of microliths
o Burzahom (Place of Birch), 16 km north-west of Srinagar. Neolithic lived there on a lakeside in pits, and probably had a hunting and fishing economy. They knew agriculture.
People used Coarse Grey Pottery.
o Burzahom domestic dogs buried with their masters in their graves : Unique here
o People of Gufkral, 41 km South-west of Srinagar practiced both agriculture and
domestication of animals

o
o

Neolithic settlements in parts of MP and tracts of upper deccan are few because of lack
of types of stone which lend themselves to grinding and polishing
Neolithic people in Kashmir used both Polished tools of stone and bone

Note : Only other place with considerable bone implements in india is chirand, 40 km west of patna.
Tools made of Antler (horns of deer). At this ganga, sone, gandak, ghaghra join together. Stone tools are
rare here
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Southern Settlement (2000-1000 BC)

o Used Axes with oval sides and pointed butt
o Settled on the tops of Granite hills or on plateaus near the river banks
o People used Stone Axes and some kind of Stone Blades
o Possessed cattle, sheep and goats
o Used Rubbing Stone Querns shows they knew the art of producing cereals
North-East Settlement (Hills of Assam Settlement)
o Shows polished stone axes with rectangular butt and has occasional shouldered hoes
o Tools found in Garo hills in Meghalaya on north-east frontier
On north spurs of Vindhyas in Mirzapur and Allhabad dist of UP, number of Neolithic
settlement found. Sites in Allahabad dist noted for cultivation of rice in 6th millennium BC

Imp Neolithic Sites

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Maski, Brahmagiri, Hallur, Kodekal, Sanganakallu, T. Narsipur, Piklihal, Takkalakota in

Karnataka, Paiyampalli in TN
Utnur is imp Neolithic site in AP
Settlers of Piklihal (AP) were cattle-herders. Domesticated cattle, sheep, goats etc. Both ash
mounds and habitation sites are found here. People here set up seasonal camps surrounded by
cowpens made with posts and stakes. In these enclosures they accumulated dung. Then entire
camping ground was put to fire and cleared for camping in next session

Neolithic Settlers were Earliest Farming Communities

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They broke ground with stone hoes and digging sticks at the end of which ring stones weighing
one to half a kg were fixed
Besides polished tools of stone, they used microlith blades
Lived in Circular or Rectangular houses made of mud and reed
People lived in circular houses owned property in common
Neolithic people led a settled life
They produced ragi and horsegram (kulathi)
Neolithic people of Mehrgarh produced Wheat, Cotton, and lived in mud-brick houses

Pottery 1st appears in this phase

-

Hand-made pottery is found in early stage

Later people used footwheels to turn up pots

Pottery included Black-burnished ware, grey ware and mat-impressed ware

Tools
-

Celts, axes, adzes, chisels etc found in Orissa and Chotanagpur hill areas

Chalcolithic (stone-copper phase) Farming Cultures

-

People mostly used stone and copper objects, but occasionally low-grade bronze
They used Microliths and other stone tools supplemented by some use of copper tools
Almost all chalcolithic communities used wheel turned Black-and-red pots. They were 1st to
use painted pottery
People didnt knew about burnt bricks. Houses made of Mud Bricks
Most of them knew the art of copper smelting
Houses made with Wattle and Daub, looked like Thatched houses
Primarily rural communities spread over hilly land and rivers areas
Founded 1st large villages in peninsular india and cultivated far more cereals than neolithic
People domesticated animals (not knowing about horse though) and practiced agriculture
People produced wheat, rice, bajra, pulses (masur, black gram, green gram, grass pea)
East and South India produced Rice; west India produced Barley and Wheat
All foodgrains found in Navdatoli (unique of it). They also produced Ber and Linseed
Cotton produced in Black Cotton soil of Deccan
Ragi, Bajra, other millets cultivated in lower Deccan
Settlements
o Except for alluvial plains and thickly forested areas, traces found all over country
o South-Western Rajasthan : Ahar and Gilund in the dry zones of Banas Valley (copper
objects are found in good numbers here)
Unlike other sites Ahar didnt use Microlithic tools; stone axes or blades are almost
absent here
Ahar (2100- 1500 BC)
Old name : Tambavati (a place containing copper)
Objects include flat axes, bangles, sheets all made of copper
Copper was locally available
People practiced smelting and metallurgy from very beginning
People lived in Stone-Built houses
Gilund
A regional centre of Ahar culture
Only fragments of copper appear
A stone-blade industry is found here
o Western Part of MP : Malwa, Kayatha, Eran
Malwa culture (1700-1200 BC) in Navdatoli, Eran, Nagda are Non-harappans
o Western Maharashtra : Jorwe, Nevasa, Daimabad in Ahmadnagar Dist,

Chandoli, Songaon, Inamgaon in Pune Dist

Prakash and Nasik
Navdatoli on Narmada
All belong to Jorwe culture (1400-700 BC covered modern Mah except parts of
Vidarbha and coastal region of Konkan
Largest Jorwe site is Daimabad in Godavari Valley. Famous for recovery of a large
Number of bronze goods. Fortified with mud wall having stone, rubble bastions
At Inamgaon, large mud houses with ovens and circular pit houses found. It is fortified
And surrounded by a moat
All Mah sites located in semi-arid areas mostly on brown-black soil which had Ber and
Babul vegetation but fell in riverine tracts
Flat rectangular copper axes are found in Jorwe and Chandoli in Mah
Copper chisels appear at Chandoli
Southern and Eastern India : developed independent of Harappan culture
Settlement in Vindhya region, WB, bihar are not related to Harappan culture
Many sites in Vindhyan region of Allhabad dist
In East India : Chirand on River Ganga
Pandu Rajar Dhibi in Burdwan dist in WB
Mahishdal in Birbhum dist in WB
Senuar, Sonpur, Taradih in Bihar
Khairadih and Narhan in East UP
In South India : Stone-Blade industry flourished and stone axes continued to be used

Note : Malwa ware typical of Malwa chalcolithic culture of central and western india is the richest
among chalcolithic ceramics
People used different pottery
-

One is Black and Red; widely used from 2000 BC

Black and Red ware pottery from Mah, MP, Raj was painted
But painted pots were very few in western India

Chalcolithic Arts and Crafts

-

Expert coppersmiths and good workers in stone

Tools, weapons, bangles of copper are found
People knew Spinning and Weaving as spindle whorls found in Malwa
Cotton, flax, Silk threads made of cotton silk of semal/silk found in Mah. It shows people knew
to manufacture cloth
Potters, Smiths, Ivory Carvers, Lime makers, Terracotta artisans at Inamgaon are found

Chalcolithic Burial and religious cults

In Mah, people buried their dead in urns under house floor in N-S position. Didnt use separate
cemetery for it, as used by Harappan
In Mah, dead body placed in N-S position, in South India in E-W direction
Complete extended burial obtained in West India, fractional burial prevailed in East India
In Malwa and Raj, stylized bull terracottas show that Bull was symbol of a religious cult
Beginning of social inequalities in chalcolithic society. Social distance b/w inhabitants

Ganeshwar site (located near to khetri copper belt in Raj) 2800-2200 BC

-

Predate mature harappan culture. It supplied copper objects to Harappa

People lived largely on hunting and partly on agriculture
Objects include arrowheads, spearheads, fish hooks, colts, bangles, chisels etc
OCP, a red-slipped ware often painted in black and mainly shown in Vase form was found

Pre-Harappan Sites : kalibangan (Raj), Banawali (Haryana), Kot Diji in sindh in pak are chalcolithic
Decline of Chalcolithic culture
-

Central and western india it disappeared by 1200 BC. In WB and on mid-ganga zone it continued
In west india and west MP, decline in rainfall led to eclipse
In west india it could not continue long with digging stick in black clayey soil which is difficult to
break in dry season
In red soil areas and in mid-ganga plains chalolithic immediately followed by Iron phase

Limitations on Chalcolithic culture

-

People living in Black Cotton soil area of central and west india didnt practice cultivation on any
intensive or extensive scale because of absence of Iron Implements
Could not make full use of animals. Animals slaughtered for food and not milked
Neither plough now hoe found at chalcolithic sites
Only perforated stone-discs tied as weights to digging sticks could be used in slash-burn/jhum
cultivation
Inspite a food-producing economy, rate of Infant Mortality was very high
Chalcolithic social and economic pattern didnt promote longevity
People didnt know art of writing; nor they live in cities as people of Bronze age did

Copper Hoards and Ochre-coloured Pottery Phase (2000-1500 BC)

-

Largest hoard from Gungeria in MP

Nearly half of copper hoards are in Ganga-Yamuna doab

Indus or Harappan Culture : Bronze Age Civilisation

Older than chalcolithic culture
Arose in N-W part of Indian Subcontinent

Called Harappan as civilization 1st discovered in 1921 at modern site of Harappa situated on
province of West Punjab in Pakistan
Many sites in Sindh formed central zone of pre-harappan culture
Sindh and Punjab are central zone of mature harappan culture
Harappan culture covered parts of Punjab, Haryana, Sindh, Baluchistan, Gujrat, Rajasthan and
fringes of Western UP
Extended from Jammu in north to Narmada estuary in south,
From Makran coast of Baluchistan in west to Merrut in north-east
No other culture zone in 3rd and 2nd millennium BC in world was as large as Harappan
Sites belonging to Mature Phase
o Harappa in Punjab
o Mohenjo-daro in Sindh
o Chanhu-daro about 130 km south of Mohenjo-daro in Sindh
o Lothal in Gujrat at head of Gulf of Cambay
o Kalibangan in north rajasthan
o Banawali in Hissar dist in Haryana
o Coastal cities of Sutkagendor and Surkotada, each is marked by Citadel
Later harappan phase is found in Rangpur and Rojdi in Kathiawar peninsula in Gujrat
Dholavira in kutch area of Gujrat shows Harappan fortification and all 3 phases
These phases also appear in Rakhigarhi, situated on Ghaggar in Haryana and is much bigger
than Dholavira