CHAPTER 7

ORE ESTIMATION

Estimation of ore tonnage involves two factors: weight of ore

and volume of ore. The weight of ore is found by a specific gravity-porosity
determination.
The volume is computed from plan section maps by the use of planimetered areas or
by arithmetical calculation.
BASIC FACTORS

Specific gravity and density are synonymous

terms used to express the weights of substances
relative to that of pure water at 4 C. The term
porosity refers to the voids or pore space within a material and is expressed as a
percentage of the total volume. These voids may be free from moisture, partially filled, or
saturated. Thus, the actual weight of a given volume of any substance is dependent upon
the densities of elements of which the substance is composed as corrected for porosity
and moisture.
Ore are composed of minerals, voids, and moisture. To clarify the terminology, density
of solid ore (no voids, no moisture) is spoken of as the mineral specific gravity in contrast
to the rock specific gravity-dried in which the pore space is included but not the
moisture, and in further contrast to the rock specific gravity-natural in which both the
voids and moisture are considered.
The relations of these three different densities, one to another, are readily stated by
equations, as follow:
SPECIFIC GRAVITY, POROSITY,
AND TONNAGE FACTOR

Let Gm = mineral specific gravity

Gd = rock specific gravity-dried
Gn = rock specific gravity-natural
P = porosityin terms of percentage of total volume occupied by the voids or pore
Space
M = moisturein terms of percentage loss in total weight upon drying at 100 C for
12 hrs. or until weight becomes constant.
Since the effect of porosity is to increase the volume without any addition in weight,
the mineral specific gravity and the rock specific gravity dried may each be
expressed in terms of the other as

Gd
Gm =
(1-P)
or

Gd = Gm (1-P)

Gd
From these equations, P = 1
Gm
Similarly, since the effect of moisture is to increase the weight of the ore with no
increase in volume (the moisture occupies the pore space), the rock specific gravities
dried and natural may be equated, each to the other, as follow:
or Gd = Gn(1-M)
Gn =

Gd
,
(1-M)

an, by substitution,
Gn =

Gm(1-P)

(1-M)

or
Gn(1-M)
Gm =
(1-P)
To illustrate with an example, assume a block of natural rock, one cubic foot in size, to
weigh 150 lb. When dried, the moisture loss is found to be 25 lb., or 16 2/3 % of original
weight. Upon immersion and complete saturation, the block absorbs 31.25 lb. or 0.5 cu. ft
of water, thus showing the porosity of the rock to be 50 per cent.
From the above data the following calculations may be made:
150
Rock specific gravity natural = Gn = 2.4
62.5
Gd = Gn(1-M)
= 2.4(1-0.162/3) = 2.0
or

150-25
Gd = = 2.0
62.5

Mineral specific gravity = Gm =

Gn(1-M)

(1-P)

Mineral specific gravity = Gm =

2.4(1-0.16 2/3 )

(1-0.5)

or

2.4(0.83 1/3)
= 4.0
0.5

150-25
Gm = = 4.0
62.50.5

Porosity as such is not ordinarily determined by laboratory methods because of the

difficulty of obtaining complete evacuation and complete saturation of the pore space.
This is especially true of medium-to fine-grained rocks. The most satisfactory figures for
porosity are those compute from laboratory determinations of mineral gravity, natural
rock gravity, and moisture content of the sample or specimen of the ore.
Mineral Specific Gravity The densities of the elements, common minerals, certain of
the less common rocks are well known and are to be found in tabulated form1 in mining
and geology handbooks. The density of a complex ore, however, is usually an unknown
which must be determined before ore volumes can be translated into tonnage. The ore
body in question must be sampled for specific gravity in much the same manner as it
sampled for values. The number of samples required to attain an accurate figure for ore
density depend upon the character of the formation, but it is always advisable to test the
ore body at as many points as possible in order to assure the accuracy of the final tonnage
factor figure.
There are two common methods of determining the mineral specific gravity of an ore:
1. On certain less complex ores a mineralogical or chemical examination will give the
relative percentages of the various minerals which have combined to form the ore.
Inasmuch as the specific gravity of each mineral is known, a simple arithmetical
calculation will give the gravity of the combination.
2. An average crushed and dried sample of the ore may be tested with a narrow-neck
bottle by weighing the bottle when it has been filled to a definite mark with distilled
water at 4C, introducing into the bottle a weighed amount of sample, restoring the level
of the water to the mark, and finally weighing again. The specific gravity then equals the
weigh of the sample used divided by the difference between the combined weight of the
sample plus the original bottle of water and the final weight of the bottle with the sample
in it. The difficulty of picking an average sample of the ore is the most serious drawback
to use of this method.
In the practical application to an ore body of the mineral specific gravities determined
by either of the above-mentioned methods, it is most important to induce a proper factor

to cover porosity and moisture. This factor may be computed from test results or, if only
an approximation is desired, may be estimated by one familiar with the ore.
Rock specific Gravity Natural The rock specific gravity-natural of an ore may
be determined as follows:
1. A hole (1 to 2 cubic feet in size) is dug in the face of the ore body and all the
material so removed is caught and weighed. It is important that the ore shall not dry out
before weighing, because it would not then be in its natural condition. It is customary to
place the sample immediately in a moisture-proof can. The hole is then filled to the
original surface with shot (or some other material which does not readily pack, such as
beans, oats, or plaster of Paris). The shot have been previously measured in a rectangular
wooden box of known cross section so that the remaining volume of shot can be readily
computed, thus giving the volume which has been emptied in to the excavation in the ore
face. When the volume of ore removed and its weight are known, the specific gravity can
be found by dividing the weight of the ore by weight of the same volume of distilled
water at 4 C.
This method is highly practical for use o complex ores and on ores which vary in
character; an appreciable quantity of the ore is represented in each test and the body may
be tested at frequent intervals, just as in sampling. The average of a number of such tests
should give a reliable figure for the natural rock density. Of the several measuring
materials listed, plaster of Paris is the most accurate, because each of the other minerals
(shot, beans, oats, etc) is capable of being close packed, loose packed, or packed to
any intermediate degree, although with proper care this source of error can be reduced to
a minimum. When plaster of Paris is used, the cast, after removal from the hole, is coated
with paraffin and its volume determined by water displacement.
2. When weighing it separately is possible, the entire product of a stope or large room
may be used to determine natural specific gravity. This method requires accurate
measurement of the opening from which the ore is taken also requires care to see that
only the ore removed from the opening is weighed. A modification only slightly less
accurate is to weigh carefully the product from a drift or crosscut (preferably a crosscut
because it gives a better section of the ore) and later measure the volume of the opening.
Apparent disadvantages of this method are two: (a) a great amount of labour and care
is involved in its proper execution, and (b) the ore of the stope or drift used in the test
may not be representative of the entire ore body. However, if several such large openings,
in different parts of the ore body, can conveniently the tested, this method gives a high
degree of accuracy because of the large amounts of ore included.
PorosityPorosity may be determined by performing upon an average sample of the ore
or upon each of a group of ore specimens the following operations;
a. Determine the mineral specific gravity by either of the methods outline above.
b. Determine the natural specific gravity by either of the methods given
c. Determine the moisture by nothing the percentage loss of the weight of the wet ore
upon drying at 100 C for 12 hours or until weight becomes constant.
d. Calculated the rock specific gravity-dried.
e. Calculated the porosity on a dry-ore basis by dividing the difference between the
mineral and dried specific gravities by the mineral gravity according the formula given
above:

GmGd
Gd
P = = 1
Gm
Gm
The porosity of a uniform ore formation may be found by saturating one or more
completely dry hand specimens with water and nothing the weight absorbed. In drying,
the heat should not be so intense as to drive off any molecular moisture. In certain
instances both heat and pressure may be required to obtain complete absorption.
Laboratory technique for this determination has been published in a U.S. Bureau of
Mines Report.1
Tonnage Factor In estimating total values, the specific gravity figure for an ore is not
ordinarily used as such, but is converted into a figure representing cubic feet of ore per
ton, called the tonnage factor. In the calculation of tonnage factors the unit customarily
used for various ores is an item which must be considered. Iron ore is sold on a long ton
(2240 lb.) basis; coal, particularly anthracite, is estimated and sold on both the long and
the short ton (2000 lb.) basis; whereas the short ton is generally used as the unit for other
minerals. The foreign unit is the metric ton (2240 lb.) the tonnage factor of a given ore, of
course, varies for each of these units.
The diagram of Fig. 18, showing graphically the relative effects of density, porosity,
and moisture upon the cubic feet per ton,2 is given to facilitate the proper correlation of
the various items.
Construction and Use of the Diagram. The top and bottom lines of the diagram
proper, labelled respectively, specific gravity, and cubic feet per ton, and connected by
parallel vertical lines, constitute a transformation table by means of which the number of
cubic feet per ton of a material of a given density may be at once determined (or vice
versa) by moving vertically between the upper and lower edge of the diagram.
Immediately above the edge of the diagram proper is a scale of pound per cubic foot,
which may be used by moving vertically upward from any, point on the specific gravity
or cubic feet per ton scales.

Converting Volumes to Weights

Once grades have been estimated for individual blocks of material, the next step is
usually to calculate the tonnage in each block. Given the density of the material in
question, this is a simple mathematical exercise, but problems frequently arise in
determining the correct density to use. Recently, for example, a south western uranium
Deposit in a relatively advanced state of evaluation suddenly became uneconomic when
25 % of its reserves disappeared due to an error in estimating the density of the ore.
A separate density should be determined for every major rock type. In the exploration
stage, a good estimate of density can be obtained from drill core averaged over many
linear feet. On rare occasions, void in the rock may distort the results, but generally
discontinuities can be ignored. In an operating mine the best estimate of ore density is
obtained by relating surveying results to actual tonnages milled over a period of time. In
most mines this will differ from the value obtained by using truck counts or car counts
reported by operators, but these latter figures are usually subject to larger errors.
In porphyry copper deposits and other mines where the ore grade is low, density is
usually independent of ore grade. However, where ore grade are high and the ore
minerals have densities that differ significantly from the gangue, there is an important
correlation between density and grade. For example, a block of 15 % lead ore will contain
roughly 13 % more tons than the same sized block of un mineralized waste rock. Note
also that computing the weighted average density using weight percentages
of constituent minerals will give an erroneous result. The correct procedure is illustrated
in Table 2.
Table 2. Calculating Tonnage Factor For a Massive Sulfide Ore

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
Constituent Weight
Specific
Pct
Lbs per ton
(4:3)
%
gravity
ore
cu ft per ton
ore

Chalcopyrite 8
4.2
262
160
0.61
Sphalerite
10
4.0
250
200
0.80
Pyrite
18
5.0
312
360
1.15
Silica
48
2.7
168
960
5.71
Feldspar
16
2.6
162
320
1.98
Total
100
10.25
or
195 pcf

Note : incorrect result obtained by multiplying column 1 by column 3 and summing =

209 pct
Source : Donald W. Gentry, 1984, Mine Investment Analysis

Tonnage factors. The factor by which the volume in cu ft should be divided to reduce
it to tons is determined by dividing 2000 lb (or 2240 lb for long ton) by 62.5 lb (wt per cu
ft of water) x sp gr of the mineral mass (see 1, Art 3).
To determine sp gr take the aver of a number of sp gr bottle-tests on aver crushed
samples. Fill a narrow-neck bottle to a mark with distilled water at 60 F and weigh (a).
Introduce a weighed amount (b) of sample, restore water level to the mark after insuring
removal of air accompanying the sample (done by boiling, if ore is sufficiently insoluble)
and take final wt (c). then, sp gr of the mineral = b [( a+b ) - c]. (see sec 1, Art 3.) After
estimating aver ore composition, the aver tonnage factor may be computed from Table 3
(1).
Example. A ton of ore in place, composed of 70 % pyrrhotite, 7 % chalcopyrite, and
23 % schist, will occupy a volume = (70 % of 7)+(7 % of 7.6)+(23 % of 11.9) = 8.2 cu ft;
or, in practice, call tonnage factor 9 cu ft.
Source : Robert Peel, Mining Engineering, p., 25-20
Table 3. Weights of Minerals and Rocks
Metal

Mineral

Antimony Native
Stibnite
Arsenite
Orpiment
Realger
Barium
Barite
Witherite
Bitumen
Carbon
Calcium
Calcite
Aragonite
Gypsum
Fluorspar
Apatite
Coal
Anthracite
Bituminous
Cobalt
Linnecite
Smaltite
Cobaltite
Erythrite
Copper
Native
Chalcosite
Chalcopyrite
Bornite
Enargite
Tetrahedrite
Atacamite

Wt,
Lb per
Cu ft
417.8
286.8
218.2
218.2
280.5
268.1
93.5
168.4
187.1
143.4
199.4
199.4
93.5
81.0
305.5
405.3
386.6
187.1
554.9
355.4
262.0
311.8
274.4
305.5
236.9

Cu ft
Per
Ton
(2000
lb)
4.8
7.0
9.2
9.2
7.1
7.4
21.4
11.9
10.7
13.9
10.0
10.0
21.4
24.6
6.5
4.9
5.2
10.7
3.6
5.6
7.6
6.4
7.3
6.5
8.4

Metal

Mineral

Tungsten Wolframite
Scheelite
Zinc
Blende
Zincite
Goslarite
Smithsonite
Calamine
Rocks
Quartz
Andesite
Basalt
Diabase
Diorite
Granite
Limestone
Porphyry
Rhyolite
Sandstone
Schist
Shale

Wt,
Lb per
Cu ft
455.1
374.2
249.4
355.4
124.7
274.3
212.0

Cu ft
Per
Ton
(2000
lb)
4.4
5.3
8.0
5.6
16.0
7.3
9.4

162.1
181.0
181.0
187.0
187.0
168.0
168.0
162.1
149.6
149.6
168.0
162.1

12.3
11.1
11.1
10.6
10.6
11.9
11.9
12.3
13.4
13.4
11.9
12.3

Gold
Iron

Lead

Manganese

Mercury
Molybdenum
Nickel
Platinum
Silver

Sulphur
Tin

Cuprite
Chalcanthite
Malachite
Azurite
Chrysocolls
Dioptase
Native
Pyrite
Marcasite
Pyrrothite
Arsenopyrite
Hematite
Menaccanite
Magnetite
Limonite
Siderite
Galena
Cerussite
Anglesite
Crocoite
Pyromorphite
Pyrolusite
Psilomelane
Wad
Rhodochrosite
Rhodonite
Native (aver)
Cinabar
Molybdenite
Millerite
Niccolite
Native(aver)
Native (aver)
Argentite
Hessite
Petzite
Sylvanite
Pyrrargyrite
Stepahnite
Proustite
Cerargyrite
Native (aver)
Casseterite
Stannite

374.1
137.2
243.1
230.7
137.2
205.7
1184.7
318.0
299.3
286.8
374.1
311.8
299.3
311.8
236.9
236.9
467.6
405.3
393.0
374.1
436.4
299.3
262.0
218.2
224.4
224.4
897.9
505.1
293.0
349.2
467.6
1091.2
654.7
455.1
530.0
561.1
498.8
361.6
392.8
342.9
336.7
130.9
424.0
280.5

5.3
14.6
8.2
8.7
14.6
9.1
1.7
6.3
6.7
7.0
5.3
6.4
6.7
6.4
8.4
8.4
4.3
4.9
5.1
5.3
4.6
6.7
7.6
9.1
8.9
8.9
2.2
4.0
7.0
5.7
4.3
1.8
3.5
4.4
3.8
3.6
4.0
5.5
5.1
5.8
6.0
15.3
4.7
7.1

The effect of porosity is to decrease the density of a substance, hence rock specific
gravity is less than mineral specific gravity. To introduce the factor of porosity in the
diagram, the upper line extends to the right to the point indicating a specific gravity of
zero. Hence, on moving vertically down ward from any point on the specific gravity line
a succession of equally spaced lines are crossed indicating percentages of pore space. To
show the change in specific gravity resulting from a given porosity of a substance of
known mineral specific gravity, a set of parallel lines connect points on the porosity and
specific gravity lines. These lines are of steeper inclination than the porosity lines and
are all parallel to the line connecting 100 per cent porosity with zero specific gravity.
The diagram thus automatically shows the relation between mineral specific gravity,
porosity, and cubic feet per ton.
So far, the diagram takes no account of moisture, and hence is applicable only to
perfectly dry material. Moisture, when present in an ore or similar substance, occupies
the pore-space. When the pore-space is filled with moisture, the material is said to be
saturated. As the moisture occupies the natural openings in the ore, it presence affects the
weight of the ore and not its volume, hence its effect is to increase the density and
decrease the number of cubic feet per ton.
Gd = density as affected by porosity
2240
Cu. ft. per ton =
Gd 62.5
When moisture (M) is present, the above equation becomes
2240(1-M)
Cu. ft. per ton =
Gd 62.5
The lower part of the diagram is crossed by a set of parallel horizontal lines indicating
percentages of moisture, as shown at the righthand edge of the diagram. Following the
above equation, a set of inclined lines connect points on the moisture and cubic feet per
ton lines. Given the number of cubic feet occupied by a ton of any porous material when
dry, the effect of any percentage of moisture is indicated automatically by the diagram.
Mineral specific gravity and porosity determine the percentage of moisture which it is
possible for an ore to hold. This maximum, or moisture of saturation, may be calculated
as follow:
Let Ms = moisture of saturation
The moisture of saturation percentage is the weight of the water which will fully occupy
the pore-space divided by the total weight of the rock with the pores completely filled
with water. Omitting the actual weight in pounds or grams, this resolves into:

Ms =
Gm(1-P) + P

and, substituting for P its value

Gd
1 , gives
Gm

Gd

Gm
Ms =
Gd
Gd + 1
Gm
By substitution of value for Gd and Gm in the preceding equations, the moisture-ofsaturation curves are obtained. The curves enable one determine at once the moisture of
saturation of any material, given the specific gravity and porosity. Each curve
corresponds to a certain mineral specific gravity, and the moisture of saturation is found
by moving vertically from the point indicating the number of cubic feet per ton of the dry
material to the proper moisture-of-saturation curve.1
1

The use of the diagram is most readily explained by an example. Assume an ore with
mineral specific gravity of 4.8, porosity of 35 per cent, and moisture 8 per cent. Starting
from the given specific gravity (4.8) the upper line of the diagram, move vertically
downward to the flatly inclined line representing the given porosity (35 per cent) ; thence
upward to the right, parallel to the steeply inclined set of lines to the top edge of the
diagram, where the rock specific gravity of the dry material (mineral density corrected for
porosity) is found to be approximately 3.1 ; thence directly downward to the lower edge
of the diagram, where the cubic feet per long ton corresponding to this dry, porous
density is given as 11.5. Since the water occupies the pore-space, the effect of moisture is
to increase the weight of the material without changing the volume. To correct the cubic
feet per ton for moisture, move directly upward from this last point to the horizontal line
representing the given moisture content (8 percent); thence down the steeply inclined line
to the left to the bottom of the diagram, where the final tonnage factor figure is shown to
be 10.6. From the moisture-of-saturation curve it is apparent that an ore of 4.8 mineral
density and 35 per cent porosity is capable of holding approximately 10.1 per cent
moisture. Thus the ore, as assumed, has approximately 79 per cent of the pore space filled
with moisture.
Below the diagram proper is conversion chart which compares, at sight, tonnage
factors for the two common units, the long and the short ton. For example, 10.6 cubic feet
per long ton is equivalent to 9.45 cubic feet per short ton.
It is easy to see how a large error can be introduced into tonnage calculations if a
factor of 12 cu. ft. per ton is used in a place where 11 or 13 cubic feet of ore are required
to make a ton. This figure should never be taken for granted by an engineer is ore
estimations. He should at least check the figure that is being used at the mine under
investigation.

DESIGNATION OF ORE PROBABILTYIn

estimating the value of a mineral deposit and in

forecasting its future development and prospects, the terms ore in sight, proven ore,
probable ore, and possible ore have often been used rather loosely, especially in
prospectuses distributed in connection with the unregulated financing of new properties.
In the literal sense of these terms, there is no such thing as ore in sight or proven ore
because in sides is more certain than a large block showing ore on four sides and, of two
sides a mine the ore values beyond the rock walls cannot actually be seen. The whole
interpretation of these terms hinges on the question: When ore values can be seen on a
rock exposure or are known in drill holes, how far into the rock mass can the values be
safely assumed to extend? Much, of course, depends upon the type of deposit
whether rich and spotty, or uniform in content; also the number of visible sides of the
block and upon the size of the block relative to the openings from which it is viewed. It is
evident that a small block showing ore on four sides is more certain than a small block
showing ore on four sides is more certain than a large block showing ore on four sides
and, of two blocks of like size, one blocked out on four sides is more sure than one
visible from only three or two sides or one side. The extent to which invisible material
may be classed as ore is a matter of judgment based on geologic and other evidence.
In every case where terms such as the above are used to describe conditional ore, a full
explanation of each term should be included in the report submitted by the examiner.
C.K. Leith,1 in preparing estimates of iron ore reserves, has defined terms used to
designate respective classes of ore as follow:
Assured ore is defined to cover principally the ore blocked out in three dimensions by
actual underground mining operations and drill holes, where the geological factors which
limit the ore body are definitely known and where the chance of failure of the ore to reach
these limits is mine operations.
Prospective ore covers further extensions near at hand, where the conditions are such
that ore will almost certainly be found but where the extent and limiting conditions
cannot be so precisely defined.
ore is classed as possible where the relation of the land to adjacent ore bodies and to
geological structures warrants the presumption that ore will be found but where the lack
of exploration and development data precludes anything like certainty of its actual
location or extent,
The U.S. Bureau of Mines and the U.S. Geological Survey, in recent estimates of
mineral reserves, have agreed upon and defined2 the following terms to signify relative
dependability of information:
Measured ore is ore for which tonnage is computed from dimensions revealed in
outcrops, trenches, workings, and drill holes and for which the grade is computed from
the results of detailed sampling. The sites for inspection, sampling, and measurement are
so closely space and the geological character is so well defined that the size, shape, and
mineral content are well established. The computed tonnage and grade are judged to be
accurate within limits which are stated, and no such limit is judged to differ from the
computed tonnage or grade by more than 20 percent.

 Indicated ore is ore for which tonnage and grade are computed partly from specific
measurements, samples, or production data partly from projection for a reasonable
distance on geologic evidence. The sites available for inspection, measurement, and
sampling are too widely or otherwise inappropriately space to out line the ore completely
or to establish its grade throughout.
Inferred ore is ore for which quantitative estimates are based largely on broad
knowledge of the geologic character of the deposit and for which there are few, if any,
samples or measurements. The estimates are based on an assumed continuity or repetition
for which there is geologic evidence; this evidence may include comparison with deposits
of similar type, bodies that are completely concealed may be included if there is specific
geologic evidence of their presence. Estimates of inferred ore should include a statement
of the special limits within which the inferred ore may lie.
These definitions of parallel terms are useful to the engineer and geologist in helping
to clarify the overlapping terminology in this field. Terms used in regional estimates will
necessarily be defined somewhat, less definitely than those used for a particular ore body.
METOD OF ESTIMATING In

a broad way, the basic factors of mine valuation are

reserve, unit profit, and life. These items are used in estimating and with appropriate
interest rates, in discounting future earnings to present worth. It is obvious that these
factors are not susceptible to rigorous determination. In the usual ease, each of these
factors has an interdependent range of values affected by economic conditions.
Tonnage of ore in the deposit, apparently a rigid problem in measurement so much
volume, therefore, so may tons depends on determining what grade is ore at the time
and hence on the costprice relationship for the projected method of mining and rate of
output under economic conditions are as forecast. This cost-price relationship, that is, the
cost of production vs. market price per unit, establishes the grade of material above which
profit can be realized. Material of a grade above this dividing line, or assay cut off, may
be classed as ore; material below the line is not ore, since it is not profitable to mine it
under the conditions as estimated and forecast.
In estimating ore, three related tonnage figures will be under consideration; total tons
of mineral bearing material in the deposit, total tons that can be classed as ore, and tons
of ore that can be covered, or produced. Part of the job of estimating is done in the
laboratory, determining tonnage factors; part in the drafting room, measuring block
volumes from the maps and converting them to tonnage of such grade as the assays give;
part is the consideration of the other factors entering into the cost-price relationship and
the decision as to method, rates, costs, and prices that will distinguish ore from rock.
In addition, there are uncertainties in the measurement problem that must be
evaluated. These will be related to the degree to which the deposit is developed at the
time of examination. These uncertainties have been mentioned in the discussion of ore
terminology and, in general, are the reason for classifying of tentative ore into group
defined by degree of observation and strength of geologic evidence.
The porphyry coppers, for instance, use a cut off grade some what below 1 % copper
content, a drop in grade of about the order of one magnitude from previously mined vein
and complex ore deposits. This brought about by the development of block-caving, a lowcost, large-scale method of mining, the successful application of which brought these
massive deposits in as ore whereas by other methods of underground mining they would

have been unprofitable. Large-scale open-cut mining of the deposits has a similar
influence.
Experience has shown that the tonnage of ore that is very likely present in a mining
district is probably greater than that which is shown up by the exploration and
development, but because of incomplete geologic data, or some other cause, it cannot be
allocated definitely to the individual property.
Such deposit as undisturbed coal beds and gold-bearing placer gravel, when of
uniform thickness and broad extent, are susceptible to much more accurate forecasts of
reserve tonnage than ore deformed deposits of complex ores.
Estimators handle these problems in different ways but with the same objective,
namely, to arrive at a figure for total recoverable ore. Fitzhugh1, in referring to specific
deposits, speaks of the appraisal of ore expectancies; Lasky2 , on the broader aspects, of
the concept of ore reserves; others in similar terms in outlining the variables in the
problem. In any case, the estimator will apply certain discounts to some of the
measurements.
Some engineers make their estimates by computing the tonnage of assured ore, or ore
blocked out, the probable ore, or that which may reasonable by expected to be present,
and the possible ore, or that which may be present but is so doubtful as to carry little
weight, and make discounts on each item for instance, a small amount on the
developed ore, and larger discounts on the probable and prospective ores. Some estimate
the tonnage of developed, probable, and possible ore in full, add them together, and
discount the total result by some percentage. This discount expresses the judgment of the
engineer on the possibility of recovering these tonnages.
It is reasonable to make these deductions when measuring the tonnage in ore body that
is fairly well blocked out, but to do so in cases where much of the computation is based
on estimates does not appear to be well-founded. In the case of prospective ore
possible tonnage. Where even the existence of the ore is doubtful, the making of an
estimate followed by detailed deductions for various hazards would appear to be similar
to assuming the length of a base line to be so many feet and then proceeding to measure
the angles to seconds of arc.
In this connection it is well to remember that ore bodies are usually not free from
barren stretches. Some clue to this condition can be given by the exploration of the ore
body, but no development can be made extensive enough to locate all the unproductive
areas. Most engineers make some allowance for this possible lack of uniformity in the ore
by subtracting a percentage of the final computed tonnage figure.
Certain other considerations may be related to ore estimation. One of these is the
choice between including a large quantity of sub grade material to increase the overall
tonnage and sealing down the volume to make the product more valuable per ton.
Another consideration is the question of subsidence and ultimate cost of destroying the
ground surface.
MINING LOSS Except

under unusual circumstances and in relatively small areas, there

is bound to be some loss under any mining system. This loss may be pillars left in place
to support the ground; pillars crushed before they can be recovered; pockets or extensions
of ore made inaccessible for some reason; or a continuing, daily loss through ore
becoming mixed with waste for one reason or another. As in the case of barren areas in
the deposit, permanent pillars may be deducted by specific measurement. Other losses,
continuing and unpredictable in nature, are accounted for better by discounting the

overall tonnage figure than by attempting detailed deduction or by the use of a higher
cubic foot per ton factor.
Dilution, the additional tonnage mined in winning a previously estimated quantity of
metal, is common to all caving methods of mining with the possible exception of topslicing under most favourable conditions. This term dilution is to be distinguished from
recovery, the percentage of previously estimated economic metal content in the ore
body actually extracted by mining operations. When the limits within a mineral deposit
are defined by an economic assay boundary, it is entirely possible, in mining, to recover
75%, 90%, 100%; or 110% of the previously estimated, depending upon the dilution
incurred. Dilution, in this case, merely brings in added tonnage of material of less than
estimated cut off grade but, nevertheless, tonnage containing metal. Thus the metal
recovered may not all be the identical metal on which the estimates were made.
In some cases, an apparent recovery of 100 % may be attained but at a lower grade. A
recovery of 100% with zero dilution represents maximum efficiency of operations.
Dilution affects not only the mining cost, but also the selling price of the ore. This effect
is most evident when barren waste comes in during mining to dilute the product. Dilution
is a factor that should be considered carefully in estimating the value of an not or body
Adaptable to a caving system of mining.1
Dilution means the ore reserves recovered with waste material, so the tonnage of ore
reserve is increasing, and the grade is decreasing.

Geological reserves, tonne 120.0

11.7 % Pb 12.7 % Zn
124 gpt Ag
Mine recovery @ 90 %
108.0
11.7% Pb 12.7 % Zn
124 gpt Ag
Dilution @ 10 %
10.8

Recoverable Ore Reserves 118.8

10.7 % Pb
11.5 % Zn
113 gpt Ag

Source: Brian W. Mackanzie, Economic Evaluation Techniques for Investment Decisions.

In situ tons
In situ grade
Avg. grade of waste
Dilution
Total tons recovered

: 9500
: 7.7 oz Ag per ton
: 2.9 oz Ag per ton
: 20 %
: 9500 (1.2) = 11,400

Mill-head grade

9500 (7.7) + 1900 (2.9)

: = 6.9 oz Ag pt
11,400

Estimated in situ ore tons

: 1,300,000
Estimated in situ ore grade : 0.74 % Cu
Ore recovery
: 104 %
Dilution
: 15 %
Copper content of block
: 1,300,000 x 0,74 % = 9620 tons
Total metal recovery
: 9620 x 104 % = 10,005 tons

Total ore mined

Grade of mine ore

: 1,300,000 x 1.15 = 1,495,000 ton

10,005
= = 0.67 % Cu.
1,495,500

Source : Donald W. Gentry, 1984, Mine Investment Analysis.