ME 557

METAL CUTTING

TOOL LFE & TOOL WEAR

CHAPTER 4

Process planning & cutting process

Inputs:
- Material
- Energy
- Others

Settings:

Materials:

Equipment:

- Speed
- Tool orientation
- Feed/depth

- Tool
- Coating
- Lubricant

- Tool geometry
- Machine tool
- Fixture

Cutting
Process

Outputs:
- Parts
- Chips
- Energy
- Others

The basic wear mechanisms

involved in tool wear:

1. Adhesive wear
2. Abrasive wear

3. Diffusion wear
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 Adhesion Wear
The action of one material sliding over another with surface interaction and
welding (adhesion) at localised contact areas.

 Abrasive wear

Two body abrasive wear occurs when one surface (usually harder than the second) cuts
material away from the second, although this mechanism very often changes to three
body abrasion as the wear debris then acts as an abrasive between the two surfaces.
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FORMS OF WEAR IN METAL

CUTTING

Tool life ends due to:

1. Gradual wear
Creater wear

Flank wear
2. Catostrophic wear
Breaking, chipping
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Face
Creater Wear
Chip

Flank
Tool

Workpiece

Flank wear

Fig. Regions of tool wear in metal cutting

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 CREATER WEAR

Under very high speed cutting conditions, creater wear is often the
factor which determines the life of cutting tool : the cratering becomes
so severe that the tool edge is weakened and eventually fractures.
However, when tools are used under econimical conditions, the wear
of the tool on its flank, known as flank wear, is usually controlling
factor.
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 FLANK WEAR

Wear on the flank of the cutting tool is caused by friction

between the newly machined workpiece surface and the contact
area on the tool flank. Clearly in practice, it would be advisable
to regrind the tool before the flank wear enters the last region(in
next figure)where rapid breakdown occurs.

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The curve can be divided into three regions:

1.

The region AB where the sharp cutting edge is quickly broken down

2.

The region BC where sear progresses at a uniform rate

3.

The region CD where wear occurs at a gradually increasing rate

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TOOL LIFE CRITERIA

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Figure 4.3 shows that KT is measured at the deepest point of the

creater depth. In zone B, the average wear land width is designated
with VB, and the max. Wear land width is designated Vbmax.
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Common Criteria For HSS and CERAMIC tools:

1. VB = 0.3 mm
2. VBmax = 0.6 mm (if flank wear is not regularly
distributed)

Common Criteria For SINTERED CARBIDE tools:

1. VB = 0.3 mm
2. VBmax = 0.6 mm (if the flank is

irregularly

worn)

3. KT = 0.06 + 0.3f

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TOOL LIFE
Tool life: Time of cutting during two successive grinding or indexing
of the tool.

TAYLOR' s equation:

V1 t 2

V2 t1

V : Cutting speed
t : Tool life
n: Constant
if V2 & t2 are reference cutting speed & tool life,

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If V2 & Vr are reference cutting sped & tool life,

i.e.:

V2 Vr

t2 tr

then :

V tr

Vr t
tr :

1 (min) or 60 (sec)

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Vt Vr (1 min)
n

Vt C
C Vr

Cutting spped which results a tool

life of 1 min

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Generalized tool life equation:

V t f aw K
n

V : cutting speed
f : feed rate,ac
a w : depth of cut
K:

constant

For uncoated carbide tool:

n : 0.30
m : 0.31
p : 0.13
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Log t
Tool life

Cutting speed
Log V
Fig. Typical relationship between tool life and cutting
speeed
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Chip
Tool

Workpiece
Built-up edge
Fig. Built-up edge protecting tool face
With an unstable built-up edge can increase the tool wear rate by abrading the tool faces.
A stable built-up edge protects the tool surface from wear and performs the cutting action
itself.
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The Effects of Rake Angle On Tool Life :

Cutting efficiency is relatively larger when rake angle is relatively
larger.
In an efficient cutting operation the heat generation will be
relatively low, therfore tool life will be relatively higher due to lower
temperature.
On the other hand, large rake angle reduces the tool strength. So
there must be an optimum value for rake angle.
When the tool material is brittle, the rake angle must be set to small
values, even to negative values.
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A typical relatisionship between rake angle and tool life is shown in figure
where optimum rake is approximately 14. Experience shown that the optimum
rake is roughly constant for given work and tool materials.
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Recommended normal rake for roughing operations

Work
material

High-Speed
Steel,deg

Carbide,deg

Cast iron,cast brass

0.0

Brass and Bronze

3.5

Soft brass and

high-tensile steel

14

3.5

Mild Steel

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3.5

Light Alloys

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13.0

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The Effects of Clearance Angle On Tool Life :

Experience has shown that the width of
the flank wear land is usually the limiting
factor determining the life of the cutting
tool.

The rate of flank wear-land width is

dependent on the flank clearance.
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(VB ) ( NB )Cot ne
o
VB VB

o Cot ne
NB NB

VB : rate of increase of flank wear-land length

o

NB

ne

: rate of removal of tool material normal to

the cutting direction

:the working normal clearance

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For small ne values, increase in ne reduces the wear rate; VB and consequently
increases tool life

In practice the normal clearance cannot be made too large without running the risk of
weakening the tool edge. Experience show that,
Tool Material
Clearance Angle(deg)
HSS

Carbides

5
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Tool Wear Mechanism Machining Various Hardened Steels

(122 m/min., 0.12 mm/rev.)

Top view- 6 min machining

Side view - 6 min machining

4340 Steel(58HRc)

Top view- 12 min machining

Side view 12 min machining

Top view- 21 min machining

Side view 21 min machining

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52100 Steel(60-62HRc)

Top view- 6 minutes

machining time

Side view- 6 minutes

machining time

Top view- 12 minutes

machining time

Side view 12 minutes

machining time
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MACHINABILITY
The term machinability is often applied to work
materials to describe their machining properties.
Clearly with finishing processes, tool wear and
surface finish are the most important considerations;
with roughing operations, tool wear and power
consumption are important.
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Machinability may be described in terms of:

1. Tool life

creater wear

flank wear

2. Ease of metal removal

power required

Specific cutting energy

Discontinuous chip

Cutting forces

3. Workpiece quality

Surface quality

Dimensional accuracy
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Tool life : Metals which can be cut without rapid tool wear
are generally thought of as being quite machinable.

Tool forces and power consumption: Tool forces are

important because the concept of machinability as the ease
with which the metal is cut. Cost per part depends on
power consumption.

Chip form: There have been machinability ratings based

on the type of chip that is formed during the machining
operation.
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Ideal chips devoloped from a variety of common materials.

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Factors affecting the machinability of metals:

1. Tensile strength : Increased yield strength implied higher
cutting forces during machining operations.
2. Strain hardening exponent: Less strain hardness.
machining.

Easy

3. Ductility
4. Hardness: The lower the hardness, the higher the speed.
5. Tougness

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6. Abrasive inclusions in the material

7. Thermal conductivity: Metals which exhibit low
thermal conductivities will not dissipate heat
freely,therefore the tool and workpiece become
extremely hot. This excess heat accelarates wear.
8. Heat capacity
9. Density

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CONCET OF MACHINIBILITY

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CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

Desired properties for cutting tool materials:

1. High strength(or hardness) at high temperatures

2. High toughness (large resistance against impact
forces)
3. Low adhesion (to prevent wear and diffusion)

4. Low coefficient of friction

5. Low cost
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PRINCIPLE CUTTING TOOL MATERIAL TOOLS

1. High Carbon Steel:

heat treatable

used in hardened state

looses its hardnes over 350 C

suitable for machining soft materials;like, wood, plastic,

etc
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2. High Speed Steel; HSS.

carbon steel with alloying elements;like tungsten(W),

chromium(Cr), vandium(Va), molibdenum(Mo), cobalt(Co),
etc.
heat treatable
retains its sharpnes up to 650 C
tough material

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3. Cast Non-Ferrous Alloys:

non,-ferrous alloys containing, mainly, chronium, cobalt,
tungsten and small amounts of tantalum, molibdenum and
boron.
can only be produced by casting then ground for final
shape
can work at 950 C without loosing its hardness
hard and non-heat treatable materials

good resistance to cratering

can resist to shock loads better than carbides

Rank midway between HSS and carbides

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4. Carbides:
Main material is tungsten carbide(WC)

Manufactured by powder metallurgy techniques

hard

Extremely high compressive strength

Retain cutting edge up to 1100 C

Rake angle must be small or negative

Main work horse of machining industry
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5. Ceramic Tools:
Aluminum oxide powder along with titanium, magnesium or
oxide

chromium

Manufactured by powder metallurgy techniques

Hard
Brittle
Extremely high compressive strength
Softening point is above 1100 C
Lack of affinity against work material
High resistance to ctratering
Requires rigid and new machine tools

Use of coolant may cause thermal cracking

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6. Diamonds
Hardest material
Extremely brittle
Can not take shock loads
Extremely long tool life
Used to machine either very hard materials, like tool steels, etc., or soft
materials like, aluminum, plastics, etc.
Cutting speeds may be as high as 25 m/sec
Used as dressing of grinding wheels
Expensive

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TRENDS
CNC machines are being tooled up approximately 60% coated carbides. Other 40%
will be divided among ceramics and cermets.
Two types of coated cutting tool are used:
1- TiN over TiC (two layer)
2- Al2O3 coating with an underlayer of TiC
For steel machining approximately 80% TiN coating and 20% Al2O3 coating are
used. For cast iron machining 90% Al2O3 coating and 10% TiN coating are used.

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MECHANICAL TOOL HOLDERS

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